Дудель Е.В. Рабочая тетрадь по дисциплине «Английский язык» для специальности 2103 «Автоматика и телемеханика на железнодорожном транспорте»

Настоящее пособие предназначено для студентов, имеющих базовые знания английского языка и обучающихся по специальности 2103 «Автоматика и телемеханика на железнодорожном транспорте». Данное пособие ставит своей задачей - обучение специальной лексике и работе с текстами технического содержания. Пособие состоит из семи разделов, отражающих тематику специальности 2103. Каждый раздел содержит несколько оригинальных текстов и упражнений к ним. Так же пособие содержит ряд текстов для дополнительного чтения. Пособие предназначено для студентов дневного отделения 3-4 курсов, обучающихся по специальности 2103 «Автоматика и телемеханика на железнодорожном транспорте» и для преподавателей, работающих на данной специальности.

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Рабочая тетрадь по дисциплине «Английский язык» для специальности 2103 «Автоматика и телемеханика на железнодорожном транспорте»

Студента группы

Ф.И.О. студента

Преподаватель Дудель Е.В.

Учебный год 200__/200__

3 Введение

Данная рабочая тетрадь адресована студентам 3-4 курса, обучающимся по специальности 2103 «Автоматика и телемеханика на железнодорожном транспорте» и направлена на систематизацию и углубление специализированных языковых знаний студента, как в рамках аудиторного занятия, так и для внеаудиторной самостоятельной работы Рабочая тетрадь состоит из 6 основных уроков (Unit 1-6) и раздела с дополнительными текстами для чтения. В основе каждого урока лежит определенная тема: 1. История и развитие железной дороги в мире 2. Сигнализация 3. Автоматический контроль 4. Централизация 5. Техника безопасности на железной дороге 6. Связь Каждый урок содержит один или несколько текстов тематики специальности 2103, упражнения к ним и домашнее задание для самостоятельной внеаудиторной работы студента над языком. Упражнения рекомендуется выполнять в предложенной последовательности. Тексты для дополнительного чтения прорабатываются студентами в зависимости от желания студента и/или задания преподавателя. Источником оригинальных текстов, отобранных для данной рабочей тетради, служит «свободная мировая энциклопедия» (www.wikipedia.org). Для работы с текстами рабочей тетради студентам понадобится специализированный англо-русский и русско-английский словарь, рекомендуется электронный англо-русский и русско-английский словарь ABBY Lingvo 1.0 Англо-русская версия (www.lingwo.ru) или его многоязычная версия.

4 Содержание

Введение 4 Unit 1 From the history of the Russian railroad 6 History and Development of the How Transsib was built 7 railroad in the world Russian Railroad Introduction 10 The Beginnings of American Railroads 19 Important milestones in English and American railway 20 development Unit 2 Signal and signaling 24 Signalling The history of the railway signaling in the USA 24 Railway signaling 26 Signaling 34 Signal Aspects – PRR / Pennsylvania Railroad 36 Absolute Permissive Block 38 Railway Signaling In the years BC (Before Computers) 43 Unit 3 Standards for Safe and Secure Railway 44 Automatic Control Control New technology helps improve railroad safety measures 49 Unit 4 A New Concept for Solutions Using Standard PC Interlocking Technology 49 Introducing High Performance Electronic to North America 51 Interlocking Turnout Control 54 Unit 5 Built-in Safety: Changes Brought by European Railway Safety measures on the railroad Signaling 55 Safety in Railway Technology 55 European Standardization: Current Position 57 Safety: Railroad and Railroad Equipment. 61 Railways plans to install device to prevent collisions 62 Unit 6 History Series 63 Connection Early Telephone Development 64 The Inventors: Gray and Bell 67 The Telephone Evolves 70 The speaking telegraph 86 Supplementary reading Text 1 About cellular communication and mobile 91 Text 2 Superconductivity and superfluidity 91 Text 3 The New York subway 92 Text 4 Signaling equipment at the tower bridge, london 96 Text 5 Why is there no "Q" or "Z" on many ? 97 Text 6 Wither the busy signal? 97 Text 7 Did help dispel the ether 98 theory? Text 8 Integrated Maintenance of the Madrid-Seville High Speed Line 98 Text 9 Rail Automation 101 Text 10 Buckeye Yard, Columbus, Ohio 103

5 Unit 1 History and Development of the railroad in the world

From the history of the Russian railroad Our country, , stretches across two continents, from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The first railway in Russia using steam traction was an industrial line at Nizhni Tagil in the Urals, built in 1834, for which the first two steam locomotives in the country were constructed by father and son. named Cherepanov. The first public railway was the Peterburg — Pavlovsk railway. At first it was opened from Pavlovsk to Tsarskoye Selo with horse traction in October, 1836. Locomotives were introduced in 1837. The first important railway construction from Petersburg to was begun in 1843 and opened to public traffic in 1851. That was a first-class double- railway line, which linked two large industrial and cultural centers. It had 644 km in length, 185 bridges and 19 viaducts were erected to make the line as straight and level as possible. Since 1890 to 1900 more than 11,000 miles of railway were built. By the end of 1925 the railway system had grown to 46,300 miles! The Baikal-Amur Line, more than 3,000 km long, was built in the Far East of our country, and the process of building new railway lines is going on. Today railway transport is quite different than that in old times. There are many thousands of locomotives, hundreds of thousands of cars and oil-cisterns. The trains today go much faster. The whole wagon fleet was fitted with continuous brakes, and hundreds of thousands of wagons were equipped with automatic couplings. Many old lines were improved and electrified and the use of diesel traction was be- gun. Heavy rails were laid extensively and a substantial mileage was equipped with automatic block signaling. Railway transport is still one of the cheapest ways of hauling freight over long distances. Communications are important to the national economy of a country. Without good roads and railways a country cannot develop its resources and industry. Without roads it is impossible to market agricultural produce. Modern run a transcontinental passenger service. It rushes the traveler across two continents — Europe and Asia — in most convenient all — metal carriages. The dining-car will cater for all appetites. Luggage can be registered through to one's destination. These services are available on all overnight and long-distance trains.

Упражнения 1. Прочитайте текст From the history of the Russian railroad, дополните ассоциограмму к тексту, при помощи ассоциограммы перескажите текст. 2. Письменно ответьте на вопросы к тексту

When was the railway construction begun in Russia? By whom was the first constructed in Russia? Where was the first public railway constructed?

How was the railway system changed in the 20th century? What was the whole wagon fleet equipped with?

What can you say about the first-class double- track rail way line which linked two capitals? Why is railway transport so important for the country and people? Is railway transport the best one? Why?

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3. разгадайте кроссворд, используя лексику текста

S L O T R B R I E C O U H T O C L A F F D G G N P A E M O E T H I C U C I L U A I T N G V I A D T E L L M V E C O N S T D I S M I R A I L W A Y R E E L I N T R A C I T C U K A G E G N O I T O N B R A S I G N T E G A I A C U M M O C A R A L C R R N N T R N I L A T N E N I O I C O G A R N S C O N T I T A P S N T

How Transsib was built Historical background (1857 - 1891). In 1857 N.N. Murav'yov-Amurskiy was a general-governor of the Eastern Siberia. He set up a question of railway construction on the Siberian outlets of Russia. This job was given to the military engineer D. Romanov. He had to make some research and create a project of building a railway that would lie from the Amur River to the De-Kastri Bay. During the second half of the XIX century Russian specialists developed several new projects of railways' building in Siberia. However, all of them found no support from the side of the Russian government. Only in the middle 80's Russian government started working on this question. There were many suggestions from foreign entrepreneurs. But Russian government was afraid of strengthening foreign influence on Siberia and the Far East of Russia by letting foreign industrial companies and capitalists build railway there. Therefore, it decided to use its own money. The first real impulse to start construction works on the new railway was given by the Emperor of the Russian Empire Alexander III. In 1886 he wrote a resolution on the report of general-governor from Irkutsk. In this resolution he wrote: "I have read so many reports from the Siberian governors that now I can admit with sadness that government did almost nothing to satisfy the needs of this rich, but neglected region. It is time to correct this mistake". Shortly after that he asked A.N. Korf about his opinion on importance of railway for the Far Eastern regions. He also ordered to "present ideas" on preparing for railway construction. In 1887 three expeditions were send to find paths for Zabaikalskaya, Middle-Siberian, and South- Ussuriyskaya railways. This expeditions were led by engineers N.P. Mezheninov, O.P. Vyazemskiy, A.I. Ursati. Almost all of them completed their mission till 90's. In 1891, Siberian railway construction Committee was formed. It declared that "Siberian railway construction is a great national event; it should be built by Russian people with Russian materials". In February 1891, minister's Committee found it possible to start Great Siberian Way construction from two directions: Vladivostok and Chelyabinsk. Railway foundation: Vladivostok, 1891. Alexander the Third praised the beginning of construction works on the Ussiriyski distance of the Siberian railway and thought it was one of the most important events in the history of Russian Empire. That is what he wrote in his rescript to the heir of the Russian throne: "I order to start building the continuous railway across all the Siberia; I want it to connect Siberian regions rich in nature resources with the rest of the Russian railway . I want you to declare this as my will after my return from the countries of East. I also want you to start building in Vladivostok the Ussuriysk distance of Great Siberian Rail Way using the funds from Russian treasury". Nikolai Alexandrovich followed the will of his parent. On May 7 19 (May 31 - new style) 1891, at 10:00 o'clock in the morning a public prayer was held in the special pavilion not far from the city was held. Cesarevitch also participated in ceremony of laying the first stone and a silver plate in the railway station construction. That's how the great and complicated railway building began. Great construction works (1891-1903). Trans-Siberian railway construction was held in difficult climate conditions. Most of the road was build through low populated or not populated areas with tense forests. The road goes across many strong Siberian rivers, meets many lakes, swampy and permafrost areas on its way (from Kuenga to Bochkarevo, now Belogorsk). The most difficult for builders was the section around the Baikal (Baikal station - Mysovaya station). Here they had to blast rocks, to make tunnels, to build additional structures on the rivers that go into Baikal. Trans-Siberian railway building required big capital expenditures. According to the Railway Construction Committee calculations estimated costs of road building were 350 millions of gold rubles. Therefore, to lower the costs and to build the road faster Committee established special simplified technical conditions base for the Ussuriysk and Western Siberia sections of the road. For example, according to the Committee's recommendation the width of the earth bed in such places as mounds and excavations was decreased, ballast layer was made thinner, lighter rails were used, the number of sleepers for 1 km was decreased, etc. Major construction works were planed only for the big bridges. Smaller bridges were built of wood. 50-verst distance between stations was allowed. The sharpest problem was the problem of attracting labor for the building of Trans-Siberian railway. The need for qualified workers was satisfied by hiring workers in the center and by transporting them to Siberia. According to V.F. Borzunov in different years in construction of different sections of the railway were involved the following number of people. Western Siberian - from 3600 to 15000 workers form European Russia, Zabaylalskaya section - from 2500 to 4500, Middle Siberian - from 3000 to 11000. Most of the builders were convicts and soldiers. Peasants from Siberia, people from Siberian towns and also peasants and low middle class people from European part of Russia were involved in construction of Trans-Siberian railway as well. At the beginning of construction in 1891 total number of workers on Trans-Siberian railway was 9600. In 1895 - 1896 it went up to 84000 - 89000 workers. On the final stage of construction in 1904, there were only 5300 workers. In the Amurskaya section construction works in 1910 was involved about 20000 workers. In terms of construction speed (12 years), length (7500 km), volume of work completed, and difficult building conditions Trans-Siberian railway construction was the largest in the world. All the materials for construction except for lumber had to be provided for the railway construction. That was very difficult and expensive to do since there were almost no roads. For example for the construction of the bridge across the Irtysh river and station in Omsk raw materials were brought from versts away. Builders had to transport stone 740 versts by railway from Chelyabinsk and 580 verst from the banks of the Ob River and also 900 versts by Irtysh River from the quarry. Metal constructions for the bridge across Amur river (left photo) were made in Warsaw. First, they were transported by the railway to Odessa, then to the Vladivostok by sea. Only after that they were transported to Khabarovsk by the railway. In autumn 1914, German cruiser destroyed the Belgian transport in the Indian Ocean. This transport was caring metal parts for the last two bridge fragments. As the result the bridge construction works continued for two more years. Almost all the works were fulfilled by hands. Instruments were very simple and primitive: an axe, a saw, a shovel, a miner's hack, and a wheelbarrow. However about 600 km of railway were built daily. This was a new record of that time. The results of construction works for the year 1903 are provided below. Earth-moving works completed - 100 millions cubic meters; sleepers made and laid - more than 12 millions items; rails laid - more than 1 million tons; bridges and tunnels built - up to 100 km. During the construction of Circum-Baikal line (230 km) about 50 protection galleries against landslides were built, 39 tunnels were made, 14 km

8 of support walls were build (most of them with concrete and hydraulic mixture). The cost of all the tunnels with support walls equaled more than 10 million rubles. Total construction costs were more than one milliard of gold rubles Many Russian talented and experienced in railway building engineers participated in the Trans- Siberian railway building. Southern section of the Ussuriysk line was started in 1891 and finished in 1894. Three years later its northern section was completed. On October 26, 1897 temporary traffic was opened on its section from Vladivostok to Khabarovsk. Its length was 772 km. O.P. Vyazemskiy, Russian engineer, was a construction manager of the Ussuriysk line. On of the line stations were named after him (Vyazemskaya station). In 1896, 's section Chelyabinsk - Novosibirsk was put into operation. Its length was 1422 km. A writer and an engineer N.G.Garin-Michalovskii was the manager of expedition and construction of the section near the Ob River and of the bridge over the Ob River. Middle Siberian railway that goes from Ob River to Irkutsk was completed in 1899. Its length is 1839 km. The manager of this railway's construction was N.P. Mezheninov, an engineer. Railway bridge across Ob river was planned by well known Russian engineer and bridge builder N.A. Belelubskii. Later on he became a scientist in the sphere of construction mechanics and bridge building. A big role in organizing construction works on the Circum-Baikal line was played by A.V. Liverovskiy. He took part in the construction of the eastern section of the Amur line and also in the construction of the unique bridge across Amur river. On the 12th of September 1904 the first experimental train went on this section of the railway. In 1905 regular traffic was opened. A well known talented engineer and scientist L. D. Proskuryakov planned a bridge across Enisey river near Krasnoyarsk. Amur River bridge was also his project.. In spring 1901 Zabaikalskaya section of Trans-Siberian railway was completed. 2 thousand kilometres of railway had to be built from Sretensk to Khabarovsk in order to join the European part of Russia with the pacific coast. Because of certain political reasons and difficult climate conditions Czar's government decided no to build the Amur section of the railway. It was planned to build it from Transbaikalia to Vladivostok through Mandjuria. That's how Eastern Chinese line was built. It was put into operations in 1903. It goes through Mandjuria to Harbin and to Pogranichnaya station (now Grodekovo station). In 1903 Grodekovo - Ussuriysk section was built and put into operations, too. Now Vladivostok was connected with the center of Russia. With putting Eastern Chinese line into operation Far East of Russia was joined with the rest of the country by the Great Trans-Siberian railway. Europe got an access to the Pacific Ocean. After the Russian-Japanese war: new way again (1905-1916). During the first period of exploitation the Trans-Siberian railway proved its efficiency and importance to the economy's development, encouraged rapid growth of goods turnover. But its traffic capacity happened to be insufficient. Traffic became especially tense during the days of the Russian- Japanese war, when the need to transport troops and freights for them appeared. Railway was capable to handle only 13 trains a day. Therefore, government ordered to decrease the number of civilian Railway services. Transferring troops was also difficult because a section of Circum-Baikal line was not completed. So in order to connect the west and east coasts of the Baikal lake ferry was used. It was an ice-breaker- ferry called "Baikal", a ship of 3470 tons displacement. It was able to carry 25 loaded cars at one time. During winter period a railway from Baikal station to Tanhoy station was laid on ice. There were days when people were able to transport 220 cars across the lake. After Russian-Japanese war Russian government took some actions to increase the capacity of the Trans-Siberian railway. In order to look through all questions of this problem a special Committee was created. It declared that the speed of the trains had to be increased. The following actions were planned to do that: increasing the number of sleepers per 1 km, widening the earth bed, substituting light rails with heavier rails, laying rails on metal plates instead of wood, building concrete and metal bridges instead of bridges from wood, increasing a number of cars and locomotives on the line.

9 On July 3 1907, the Board of Ministers approved the suggestions of the Rauilway Ministry concerning building the second track on the Siberian railway and reconstructing the road in some places. Under the direct leadership of A.V. Liverovskiy the work on the Achinsk - Irkutsk and Chelyabinsk - Irkutsk sections of the railway began. The goal was to lower the gradient of the railway in some rocky regions and to build the second track. In 1909, the Siberian road on the distance of 3274 km became a two-way railway. In 1913 a second track was built to Baikal and from Baikal to Karymskaya station. During the process of increasing the railway's capacity many new brunches and new sections were built. The results of the Russian-Japanese war showed that having the railway on the alien territory causes some problems and does not comply with the interests of the country. Therefore Czar's government was forced to build a new railway section on the territory of Russia to Vladivostok. On May 31 1908 Government's Committee decided to build an Amurskaya section of the Trans- Siberian railway. In 1908 construction works on the Kuenga - Khabarovsk distance (1998 km long) began. It was put into operation in 1915. At the same time construction works on the Minusinsk-Achinsk section began (to Abakan). Conclusion (1916-1925). Direct railway connection between Chelyabinsk and the pacific coast was established only in October 1916, after putting into operation Amurskaya line and the bridge across the Amur River. In terms of administration Trans-Siberian railway was divided into four sections: Sibirskaya, Zabaykalskaya, Amurskaya, and Ussuriyskaya. Passenger service grew rapidly. In 1897 609 thousand of passengers were transported, in 1900 - 1.25 million passengers, in 1905 - 1.85 million, in 1912 - 3.2 million. During the years of the First World War technical conditions of the Trans-Siberian railway became worse. However, during the civil war the road suffered a lot more. Many cars and locomotives were destroyed, many bridges were burnt (Irtysh and Amur bridges), and passenger stations suffered a lot. In many places, water supply systems were destroyed. But after the civil war road construction works were immediately organized. During the winter of 1924 - 1925, the damaged fragments of the Amur bridge were rebuilt. Beginning from March 1925 traffic on the railway was opened again, and was never interrupted since then.

4. прочитайте текст и заполните таблицу, ответив на вопрос В свзя с чем в тексту упоминаются данные фамилии.

A.I. Ursati. A.N. Korf A.V. Liverovskiy. Alexander III. D. Romanov. L. D. Proskuryakov N.A. Belelubskii. N.G.Garin-Michalovskii N.N. Murav'yov-Amurskiy N.P. Mezheninov, O.P. Vyazemskiy, V.F. Borzunov

Russian Railroad Introduction First bricks in the foundation of Russia‘s railway were laid in 1834, when Demidovs‘ metallurgic works in Nizhny Tagil designed and built Russia‘s first steam-engine and a 3.5-km railway. They were created by Cherepanovs, father and son, who were serfs, mechanics and inventors at the same time. After working at Moscow and Saint-Petersburg factories and a few European enterprises, they had a lot of experience. 10 Using it, they built about 20 steam machines for production and transportation purposes. But creation of a steam-engine undoubtedly was to become their greatest triumph. It‘s worth mentioning that first cast- iron tracks appeared in Russia as far back as in the 18th century. But they were used only in mineral resource and metallurgical industries. Top state officials quite often expressed their doubts about economic cost-effectiveness of building railways in the country. But advantages of transport of this kind, as well as considerable profits it was yielding in Europe‘s developed countries (e.g., in England), made an impression on the Russian Emperor. On April 15, 1836, Nikolai I issued a decree about building a railway from Petersburg to Tsarskoye Selo. 18 months later, on October 30, 1837, the siren by the steam-engine hailed the launch of Russia‘s first public railway. A little later the line was extended to Pavlovsk. Its terminus was turned into a ―voksal‖ – one of the country‘s most famous pleasure houses. Wealthy people from Saint-Petersburg made special arrangements to come there. It was only much later that it turned into a railway station in its proper sense – station-wide premises for passengers. Thus began the history of Russia‘s railways. Far East Railway The Far East Railway, prior to 1936 was known as Ussuriysk Railway, it was the final stage in the construction of the Great Siberian Way. The first rail was laid on 19 May 1891 on the stretch between Vladivostok and Iman (later - Dalnerechensk station). More than five and a half years later in November 1897 a regular train connection was established between Vladivostok and Khabarovsk, the capital of the Ussuriysk Territory. The railway was laid along the right bank of the Ussuri River and crossed numerous tributaries, dense forests and high mountains. As this Territory was sparsely populated, the lack of a labor force became a major issue. Farmers refused to leave the lands they had worked so hard to cultivate, whereas transporting workers from the country‘s central regions could lead to massive extra costs. Vast amounts of money were required to build railways with rolling-stock and infrastructure. Considerable funds were also required to build many iron bridges. So it was decided to use the labor of prisoners brought from Sakhalin, soldiers of Ussuriysk Railway Battalion, as well as hired hands from China, Korea and Japan. At first, the railway was intended for trains a day. But later, because of the looming war with Japan its capacity was considerably extended and the technology upgraded. The years prior to the Second World War witnessed the expansion of the mainline at a phenomenal rate: six new lines were set in operation during 1941 alone, (which in Russia was the first year of the war). The railway stretch between the Khani Lake and Soviet Haven is part of the renowned Baikal-Amur Line. The staggering number and complexity of structures make this stretch unique. For example, there are 2,563 bridges of different sizes (a railway crossing over the Amur river near Komsomolsk-on-Amur is the best known), 11 tunnels with an overall length of 34,5 km (including Russia‘s longest – the North-Muysk Tunnel, 15,343 m.). At present the operational length of Far East Railway is 4,415 km. It runs through the Khabarovsk and the Primorsk Territories and is a major trade connection with other countries in this region. In 1847 a decision was made to build a line between Moscow and . It would become known as the Gorky Railway (the name of Nizhny Novgorod in the Soviet time was Gorky). The advantages of building a link between the capital and ―Russia‘s pocket‖ were obvious. But the project didn‘t commence until 10 years later, in 1858. Construction work involved two stretches: Moscow – Vladimir and Vladimir – N. Novgorod. Construction of the second section began a year later. In August 1862 marked the launch of the Moscow – N. Novgorod service. But the celebrations were overshadowed by a tragedy – the train crashed near the town of Kovrov. 1867 saw another catastrophe – the bridge over the Kalama River, which had been built by foreign engineers, collapsed when the swollen river burst its banks. The builders had not allowed for the climatic peculiarities of this region. After the Moscow – N. Novgorod railway was put into service, freight turnover began to pick up quickly – by 1875 it was 4,813 tons. The range of goods transported included iron, timber, bricks, leather, sailcloth, oil and many other items. In 1961 the Gorky and Kazan railways were integrated into the main line within its present-day sphere of operations. Besides the Moscow – N. Novgorod line, this railway includes other old stretches – including Moscow – Kazan and Vyatka – Dvina lines built in the second half of the 19th century and 1906 saw the opening of Vologda – Kotelnich – Vyatka line. It directly linked central and north-western regions of the country and the industrialized Urals.

11 Now the line (overall length – 5,692 km) crosses mainly the territory of the Nizhny Novgorod, Vladimir, Kirov, Ryazan, Perm, Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg) Regions and six republics – Tataria, Bashkiria, , , and Mariy El. In 2001 the freight turnover of Gorky Railway exceeded the combined railway turnover of England, , the , and . It transfers about 200 million passengers and 300 million tons of goods every year. It is among the busiest mainlines in the country. There are a few first-rate tourist centers located along the train routes which are of particular interest. They include ancient Russian cities such as Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and Vyatka. Railway runs through the territory of the Russian enclave – Kaliningrad Region. During the Potsdam Conference of 1945, States that won the Second World War resolved to annex this region (the city of Koenigsberg and neighboring areas of Eastern Prussia) to the Soviet Union. After the USSR incorporated new republics in 1940, the country‘s railway network gained three other roads – Lithuanian, Latvian and Estonian. Economic ties between the Baltic States and the Kaliningrad Region were noticeably strengthened. And as a result, the united Baltic mainline was created in 1953 (later known as the Baltic Railway). Then In 1992 Kaliningrad Railway was separated from it along with Kaliningrad and Cherniakhovsk as its major traffic centers. In 1990 Kaliningrad Region became Russia‘s only enclave. 1993 hailed the opening of a branch between Kaliningrad and Berlin. It became one of Russia‘s main routes into to Western Europe. The Krasnoyarsk Railway runs across The Southern Krasnoyarsk Territory and is the main thoroughfare connecting Western Siberia and Kuzbass with the Far East. In early 20th century Transsib consisted of eight railways including the Middle-Siberian Way, the Krasnoyarsk Railway mainline, and the Mariinsk – Taishet, was built as one of its components. In 1893 construction of a route from the Ob River to Irkutsk was approved. Three years later plans were introduced to build the Ob – Krasnoyarsk stretch (760 km) and, soon, the Krasnoyarsk – Irkutsk line. Completion was due in autumn 1900. But soon railway construction ran up against grave difficulties. Permafrost, bitter cold, lack of reliable data about numerous rivers – all this substantially slowed down the pace of building. The Middle-Siberian way crossed sparsely populated areas. As a result, there was a constant lack of labor force. Qualified workmen (carpenters, masons, joiners, blacksmiths, and surface- men) came from central Russia. Building materials also had to be brought from far away because this region‘s industry was extremely under-developed. In December 1895 preliminary operation of the stretch between Ob station and Krasnoyarsk began. The 28th of March 1899 marked the launch of a railway bridge over the Yenisei River; this would become one of the largest bridges in Asia. Its construction was supervised by E.K.Knorre. The year 1900 brought the ―Tsar‘s‖ Bridge the Grand Prix of the first International Technical Exhibition in Paris. In 1897 Ob – Krasnoyarsk line was put into service and in1899 the Krasnoyarsk – Irkutsk line took its turn. Some of the bridges had not been completed on schedule, so during the first years of railway operation many rivers had to be crossed by ferry and in the winter months rails were laid across the ice. Finally in December 1899 the Western-Siberian and Middle-Siberian routes were combined into the Siberian Railway. It was soon evident that the railway‘s capacity didn‘t meet the rising needs of either passenger or goods transfer. In an attempt to bring the route capacity up to the required level a special commission chaired by engineer K.A.Mikhalovsky was set up. As a result of this commission, In 1904 construction of a second route began. It involved changing rails and building stone bridges in place of light wooden ones. On 1 January 1915 the Siberian Railway was split into Omsk, Tomsk, Trans-Baikal, Amur and Ussuriysk railways. At that time main stretches of the contemporary Krasnoyarsk Railway were part of Tomsk Railway. In 1979 the Krasnoyarsk Railway finally became an independent transport unit governed by the Krasnoyarsk authorities. Kuibyshev Railway The Kuibyshev Railway is among the country‘s largest steel mainlines. It links European Russia with the economically vital regions of the Urals and Middle Asia. It runs across three republics (Tataria, Bashkiria and Mordovia) and seven Regions (Ryazan, Penza, Tambov, Chelyabinsk, Ulyanovsk and Samara). At present its length is 7,385 km. Service began in 1874 on the Kuibyshev Railway when the line between

12 Morshansk and Syzran was opened. The issue of constructing a 464-km stretch was brought up by the Tambov businesspeople and landlords with S.Bashmakov at the head. This line operated 42 steam engines and used 52 passenger and 520 freight cars. These factors lead us to believe that operation of the railway was very thorough and efficient at that time. In late 1877 the railway was expanded to the Volga River and in 1880 a bridge joined the banks of the river. It was designed by an eminent scientist and engineer N.A.Belelyubsky. This bridge became Europe‘s largest as well as one of the most technically most advanced river crossings. In 1885 construction works began on the Samara – Ufa line. They were supervised by K.Ya.Mikhailovsky, one of Transsib‘s leading designers. The railway was built in unbelievably severe conditions. Its main part lies in desert-like, sparsely populated areas with rocky dense soil. No wonder, lack of manpower and irregular shipments of building materials had a dramatic effect on railway construction. Despite these difficulties, September 1890 marked the opening of the 320-km Ufa – Zlatoust stretch. Since this time the line has been referred to as the Samara – Zlatoust Railway. The route ran across the Ural Mountains and on further into Western Siberia to eventually connect them with Moscow and Saint-Petersburg. The economic significance of this railway became obvious immediately it began operations. In the 1950s the railway was named after Kuibyshev, a public official who led the fight for Soviet authority in Samara (Kuibyshev was also the name of Samara in soviet times). Major milestones of the Kuibyshev Railway are towns which are inseparable from its history - Samara, Ufa and Syzran, an ancient fortress. Toliatti, the center of Russian car industry, has also found its home here. In the 19th century railway construction fell into two periods when construction was most active – the 1860-70s and the 1890s. During those periods major lines were built which would become part of the Moscow Railway. The Tsar‘s approval to build lines from Moscow to Nizhny Novgorod was granted as early as 1847. But on the first stretch works started 10 years later and on the second stretch (Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod) – in spring 1859. There were a few reasons for such a long delay. One of them was that all equipment and rolling-stock was ordered through foreign contractors. A through service on the line began on August 1, 1861. This event had an important effect on the country‘s economic life; the Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod line was the first to connect Russia‘s European part with its eastern regions. The capital received vast amounts of goods from Moscow provinces, but the animal-driven transportation was too costly and took up a lot of time. For example, 5-6 days were required for goods from Kolomna (about 80 km. from Moscow) to reach the capital. The need to set up a railway connection was apparent. Works began on June 1860. Over 4,000 workers were hired to lay the line. Most of the difficulties for the builders of the line were caused by the bridge over the Oka River. Its construction was supervised by A.E.Struve, a famous Russian military engineer. This bridge was the first to be used for both animal- driven and railway transport. Transferring about 420,000 passengers a year, the Moscow – Kolomna – Ryazan line became one of Russia‘s most profitable railways. The Moscow – Yaroslavl Railway was the first route to be built without foreign investments. I.F.Mamontov (father of Savva Mamontov, a famous Russian donor) made a great contribution toward its construction. In May 1860 the first steps to build the Moscow – Sergiev Posad line were taken. About 6,000 workers were engaged in its construction. August of the same year saw the launch of this stretch of line. Cars for transporting passengers were bought from German companies ―Pflug‖ and ―Lauenstein‖. Later, however, it turned out that they were not adjusted to Russian climate and were replaced with cars made in Russia. In spite of some financial difficulties in 1868 they started to lay the line from Sergiev Posad to Yaroslavl. It was completed in 1870. The Moscow – Yaroslavl route linked the capital with the Volga region, and this considerably boosted industry in that area. Construction of the Moscow – Smolensk line started in spring 1869. First only the railway station was erected (now known as Belorusskaya). Days grew warmer to allow station tracks to be laid, and foundations of the steam-engine depot and car workshops to be built. Construction of all buildings on the line was supervised by vice-counselor Nemchinov, the owner of brick factories. Rolling-stock was

13 ordered from Western Europe. The railway was opened for service on September 19, 1870. the Smolensk – Brest line was laid in 1870-1871. This line has been known as the Moscow – Brest Railway ever since. At first railways connecting the capital with the regions had the status of independent units. But by early 20th century Moscow was turned into a major traffic center. The need to connect all existing railways with a circular main line was obvious. This line was completed in 1908 and called the Moscow Circular Railway. Oktyabrskaya Railway The second largest and most economically vital project (after Tsarskoye Selo Railway) was to build a Moscow – Saint-Petersburg main line. A double-track 650-km railway was to join Russia‘s two largest cities as the crow flies. It was built by the Northern Department with P.P.Melnikov at its head (St. Petersburg – Bologoye stretch) by the Southern Department with N.O.Kraft at its head (Bologoye – Moscow stretch). Melnikov insisted that gauge of railway should be 1524 mm. This was to become Russia‘s national standard for all railways. Encountering natural obstacles, builders had to erect a total of 190 bridges and work out quite a few innovative technical solutions. 8 years of construction works (1843- 1851) produced a railway that in many respects excelled lines operating in Germany and the USA. 34 stations were built along the route and many deserve special attention. They all have the same style and even the same color scheme. Railway stations in both capitals (Moskovsky in St. Petersburg and Leningradsky in Moscow) were designed by K.A.Ton and represent the magnificence of classical architecture. November 1, 1895 marked the opening of Europe‘s longest railway. The worlds press covered it in great detail the departure of the 11.15 train from Petersburg to Moscow (tickets had been sold out 4 months before). Its trip took 21 hours 45 minutes and the following morning it pulled in safe and sound at its destination. After Nikolai II died in 1855, the St. Petersburg – Moscow Railway was named Nikolayevskaya, and in 1923 – Oktyabrskaya. This line has worked without a hitch for over 150 years. At present Oktyabrskaya Railway incorporates lines which are over 10,000 km long and run across North- Western Russia. Volga Region Railway In the 19th century Russia badly needed to set up a regular transport network between its regions. The lack of an integrated railway network and the inadequate condition of the earth roads made the country economically backward. The Volga regions produced vast amounts of goods (foodstuffs as a major group). So, delivery time was especially important. During various natural disasters the delivery of foodstuffs to Moscow and St. Petersburg was delayed. This drove the population to the brink of famine. In the 19th century there were two stages of railway construction. In 1860-70s we built lines between Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod (1862), Moscow – Ryazan (1864), Moscow – Yaroslavl (1870) and Tambov – Saratov (1871). In 1890s these lines were extended to the Urals and the Volga‘s delta. Goods were carried across the Volga by Russia‘s first ferry service. In the 1890s the English company ―Armstrong‖ built the first ferry-boat and the first ice-breaker. When the Volga froze and crossing became impossible, the ice-breaker cleared the way for the ferry-boat. But very soon the ferry could not cope with the rising freight turnover. So, another boat was commissioned and in 1908 the two ferries transferred over 130,000 passenger and freight cars in both directions every year. In winter of 1914 rails were laid on ice and cars were drawn by horses. This helped increase the railway‘s carrying capacity. Stations on the banks were adapted to facilitate transfer of oil brought from the Baku oilfields through to Saratov. In 1953 the line was given its present-day name. The Volga Region Railway (4,097 km) it runs mainly through the Saratov, Volgograd and Astrakhan Regions. It is an important transport link connecting Russia‘s regions with Ukraine, Middle Asia and with Siberia. Northern Railway In 1859 F.V.Chizhov, a Moscow University professor, organized a Society concerned with building a railway between Moscow and Sergiev Posad. There were no foreign investments. Funds (15,000 rubles in silver) were contributed by Russian donors only. We must give credit for this to I.F. Mamontov, a well-known Russian businessman, the founder of a merchant dynasty. In 1862 the 70-km Troitsk-Sergiev Railway was put into

14 use. In 1868-1870 this branch was extended to Yaroslavl. It‘s worth mentioning that it was being built at a very high pace for those times - over 200 km of tracks were laid within two years. In 1870-1872 Aleksandrov-Vologda stretch was built through Danilov and Yaroslavl, and 25 years later a narrow-gauge branch joined Vologda and Arkhangelsk port, which played a major commercial role at that time. The direction of Moscow-Yaroslavl-Arkhangelsk Railway followed an ancient route which had joined Moscow and Yaroslavl as far back as in the time of Ivan the Terrible and remained intact until the 19th century. Nevertheless, it was on this stretch that builders came up against the greatest difficulties while laying the rails. The tracks were being laid in impassable forests and tundra, in harshest conditions. Several times entire sections of the laid railway sank in bog. On November 17, 1897 this happened for the last time - during the inauguration of the railway a large stretch of the embankment with rails and sleepers sank in bog. After this accident the railway was closed for several months so that soil could be further stabilized. After construction works were over, the railway consisted of three main stretches - Moscow-Yaroslavl, Yaroslavl-Vologda, Vologda-Arkhangelsk. All lines that were part of it became known as Northern Railways. In 1936 Northern Railways were divided into Northern and Yaroslavl Railways. In 1959 they were integrated with Pechora line. As a result, Northern Railway took on its present-day boundaries. A 6,050-km main line runs mainly through Russia‘s Northern and North-Eastern European part. It borders on Moscow, Gorky and Oktyabrskaya Railways, which are the oldest within Russia‘s territory. It is home to ancient Russian cities that attract hundreds of tourists every year. The Cherepanovs, father and son who were Demidov‘s serfs, created Russia‘s first steam-engine. This brought about the development of the country‘s railway network. Things started in Ural because the rapidly developing economy of the region required a regular transport communication both within Ural and elsewhere. First projects for Ural Railway were put forward in the second half of the 19th century. In 1868 a Russian businessman I.Lyubimov came up the Railway Committee with a proposal to build Perm- Ekaterinburg line. After all necessary topographic studies were made in 1869-1872, construction works on the main line took off. There were many obstacles in the guise of a great number of rivers, streamlets and ravines. Pipes were thrown and wooden bridges were put up across them. More sizeable difficulties came up later – forests to be felled, embankments and slope protection to be built, hollows in rock to be tackled. All these factors considerably slowed down the laying of the route. After the main track was completed another branch was laid to join it with Luniev coal mines. One of Europe‘s first tunnels was built here (only 130 m. long). In September 1879 Ural-Gornozavodsk Railway was opened for train operation. It was Russia‘s first main line to be laid in mountainous areas. The number of enterprises this railway catered for was rising. As a result, the route steadily improved, too. In 1885 Ekaterinburg-Tyumen line was linked to Gornozavodsk Railway. The entire main line became known as Ural Railway. In 1896 Ekaterinburg-Chelyabinsk line connected it with the Trans- Siberian Main Line. The main line has been known as Sverdlovsk Railway (by the old name of present-day Ekaterinburg) since 1943. Now one of TransSib‘s largest lines, it caters for dozens of enterprises in the industries of mineral resources, wood-working and metallurgy. Russia‘s largest industrial cities (such as Ekaterinburg) are located here along with oil extraction and refining centers (Surgut, Nizhnevartovsk, Novy Urengoy). South-Eastern Railway The South-Eastern Railway includes lines built mainly in the second half of the 19th century. By that time Russia was growing into an empire. This led to an active accumulation of private capital which was to become a major source of funds for railway construction. Its first swallow was Ryazan-Kozlovsk line opened in 1866. Two years later it was extended to Voronezh, three more years took it as far as Rostov. Now there was access to Voronezh and Tambov Regions reasonably called ―Russia‘s Granaries‖. Besides, it allowed to export agricultural products through ports on the Azov Sea. In late 19th century the total of about ten new stretches was opened. In 1893 they were integrated into a Joint-Stock Company of South- Eastern Railways.

15 By early 20th century technical equipment of the railway remained inadequate. Low carrying capacity, low capacity of rolling-stock, frequent breakdowns and accidents caused severe difficulties during a thorough operation of the railway. After the Civil war, the South-Eastern Main Line was practically wiped out - 70% of all steam-engines were destroyed, 78 large bridges blown up, thousands of kilometers of tracks out of working condition. Total damage was estimated at 170 mln. rubles. Nevertheless, soon after recovery work started the railway reached the pre-war level of cargo transportation. Before World War II it was among Russia‘s highest-capacity lines. In times of war, traffic on the route was especially heavy. The railway catered for 7 front-lines. At present SER (3,650 km) runs through Russia‘s Southern and South-Eastern parts connecting these regions with the center, the Volga Region and Ural. It provides services mainly for enterprises of coal, metallurgic and chemical industries, developed agricultural regions. The line‘s major railway junctions are represented by its historical milestones, Russia‘s oldest cities - Voronezh, Tambov, Rostov, Saratov. South-Ural Railway Talks about building a railway from the Volga to South Ural started as early as in 1870s. Merchants and largest manufacturers were interested in Siberia‘s unclaimed-for riches and new markets located in the east. In 1874-1877 a line was built to join the Volga‘s right bank with Orenburg. This route became the basis for South-Ural Railway. The main line could not develop further because numerous railway construction projects had to be studied by a special commission within the Ministry of Communications. In 1884 it was decided to build the Great Siberian Way. In 1885 construction works began on South- Ural Main Line, which later was to become part of TransSib. Works were supervised by K.Ya. Mikhailovsky, a talented Russian engineer. Construction of South-Ural Railway was among the most difficult projects of the 19th century. Most tasks had to be completed by hand - in mountainous areas horse-driven carts could be used only occasionally. On Ufa-Zlatoust line, the total of about 300 artificial structures was built including bridges, dams, stone protection walls. Several Ural rivers had to be channeled off to new beds. Banks of the Yuruzan and Sim rivers were joined by iron bridge crossings designed by professor A. Belelyubsky. In both cases one of their ends rests on an artificial abutment, the other – on a rock. Construction of these bridges is an indicator of Russian builders‘ thorough professionalism and mastership. After surveying the railway upon its completion, the governmental commission within the Ministry of Communications also acknowledged this. Although works were complex and the completion schedule very tight, Ufa- Chelyabinsk stretch was made without a single technical fault. The route became known as Samara- Zlatoust line. In 1893 the line integrated a branch to Orenburg increasing the overall length of the main line to 1,504 km. Present-day boundaries of SUR date back to 1981. This railway runs across the territory of Kazakhstan, Bashkiria, Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Orenburg Regions as well as parts of Russia‘s Kuibyshev and Sverdlovsk Regions. Sakhalin Railway Runs through the territory of Sakhalin Island. Set up on April 15, 1992. Railway Department is in Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. The railway‘s operational length (1992) – 1,072 km. The line connects the north of the island with ports of Korsakov and Kholmsk, which communicate with the mainland by railway ferry all the year round. Sakhalin Railway does the bulk of cargo transportation within the island. East-Siberian Railway In 1884 Ekaterinburg-Tyumen stretch of Ural railway was completed. Now this created the need to link Siberia‘s economically backward regions with Ural, the industrial center of the Russian Empire. The starting point for building East-Siberian Main Line was Krasnoyarsk, at which the Great Siberian Way arrived in 1895. The railway was built at an increased pace because it would play a significant role in the looming war with Japan. The area the line was crossing was poorly developed. So, its construction was coupled with high risks. It is history that while testing a wooden bridge over the Irkut river, V.Popov, an engineer supervising the works, stepped inside the cabin of the test engine with a revolver in his hand. After tests were over he said he would have shot himself if the bridge had collapsed. Fortunately, all went well, and the bridge over the Irkut was there for another 10 years. The first train arrived in Irkutsk in August 1898.

16 In December the city welcomed the first train from a new Baikal station – 10 flat wagons with Chinese tea. Irkutsk-Baikal branch had to be linked to another stretch operating in Trans-Baikal Region. A ferry crossing of Lake Baikal was established in 1900. For this purpose two large ice-breaker ferry-boats were ordered from England. The larger of the two could transfer 25-27 loaded cars at one time. Circular Baikal Railway to Lake Baikal was being built between 1899-1905. During its construction builders came up against great difficulties as the main part of the way lay on Baikal‘s rocky southern bank. ―Baikal Circular‖ became a real technical wonder. 39 tunnels (overall length – 7 km) were built along with many other technical structures. On average one kilometer of the line required one car of explosives. The railway was built under the supervision of B.U. Savrimovich, I.V. Mushketov, A.V. Liverovskoy and L.B. Krasin, Russia‘s eminent engineers. Though ―Baikal Circular‖ stretch was not complete, its operation began in 1904 to transport troops and equipment for the war with Japan. The railway was inaugurated in 1905. In 1956, when Irkutsk hydroelectric power station was being built Irkutsk-Baikal stretch of the main line went under water. The branch became a dead end, and its operation was stopped. Now we are witnessing a rebirth of Baikal Circular route. ―Baikal Circular‖ became the final stage of building East-Siberian Main Line. ESR gained in significance when the second track was finished in 1917. In 1936 Krasnoyarsk Railway was separated from ESR. In its operation East-Siberian Railway has always used various technical innovations. In 1970s it became a testing area for the Ministry of Communications. At present the length of ESR is 3,820 km. It runs across the area of Irkutsk Region and Buryatia. This line is a reliable connecting link that underpins East Siberia‘s entire economy. West-Siberian Railway Built in 1892-1896, West-Siberian Railway is a stretch within the Trans-Siberian Main Line. The line construction was supervised by N.G. Garin-Mikhailovsky, one of Russia‘s most gifted engineers. After many explorations between Ural and Lake Baikal, in May 1892 the Cabinet of Ministers finally decided to build a railway linking Chelyabinsk, Kurgan, Omsk and Kainsk. Bridges had to be cast over the Ob and Irtysh rivers (later bridge crossings were built over the Ishim and Tobol rivers). In July 1892, there were celebrations after construction works began on the main stretch of West-Siberian Railway. In 1893 construction works started on the bridge over the Ob. It was designed by professor N.A. Belelyubsky. Construction involved over 300 workers. The coating of bridge pillars was done by Italian craftsmen. In April 1897, after successful tests, the bridge was put into use. It enabled regular operation of the entire line (earlier, during warm seasons, a ferry crossing of the Ob had to be arranged). Chelyabinsk-Omsk route lay across the country‘s most developed black-earth regions. Only in the east it ran through boggy Barabinsk steppes. Their cultivation started only after he railway was built. The appearance of the railway boosted the development of wood-working and mineral resource industries of South Ural because they required regular shipments of building materials. The further the builders reached the more difficulties they faced because they had to cover the distance of 50-60 km. That‘s why stone-bed bridge crossings were built only over major rivers such as the Irtysh, the Ob, the Tobol and the Ishim. Other bridges were made of wood. It was during the construction of the railway that its carrying capacity proved too low and, as a result, inadequate for industrial purposes. In 1904 works to increase the line‘s capacity started. They involved building of a second track, replacement of rails, as well as replacement of wooden bridges with stone ones. By 1920 the railway‘s carrying capacity had grown from 3.5 to 20 couples of trains a day. By that time separate stretches of the line (1,064 km long altogether) were integrated into a single Siberian Main Line regulated by Tomsk authorities. It crossed Orenburg and Tobolsk Provinces, Akmolinsk Region, Tomsk and Irkutsk Provinces. In 1915 the line was divided into Omsk and Tomsk railways only to be reunited in 1961. As a result, West-Siberian Railway came into existence. At present, it links the Far East with all regions of the country and is TransSib‘s largest thoroughfare. Trans-Baikal Railway Regular railway connection was necessary to link vast remote areas of West Siberia and the Far East with the country‘s central part. Siberia had been using animal-driven transport for a long time, whereas the Amur‘s waterway could not meet the area‘s rising needs. Roads were in bad condition and became

17 impassable in the rainy season. As a result, shipping goods from Moscow to Vladivistok took up to 11 months. Being just a stretch of the Great Siberian Way, Trans-Baikal Railway was built in 1895-1905. Explorations of the route were started in 1892 and were supervised by Vyazemsky and Ursati, Russia‘s famous engineers. Construction took off very quickly, and in 1900 Irkutsk-Baikal line was officially put into operation. In 1897 the flood damaged 360 km of the railway altogether, took down 15 bridges and destroyed many engineering structures. This disaster led to staggering material damage related to shifting the tracks 100 m up, to rocky slopes. In 1908 the Council of Ministers decided to build the Amur stretch of the Trans-Siberian Main Line. It was wholly in line with merchants and manufacturers of West Siberia. Earthwork was hampered by mountainous areas, a great number of bogs and impassable Taiga forests. The railway was split into three stretches - western, middle, and eastern. The western stretch between Kuenga and Uryum was being built in 1907-1913. About 54,000 people were involved. A temporary road for soil delivery had to be built in the boggiest middle part of the stretch. Very often entire sections of the laid railway sank into the marsh. In 1914 the middle stretch was ready for train operation. In 1912 construction of the eastern stretch from Malinovka to Khabarovsk was headed by a talented engineer A.V. Liverovsky. For the first time in railway construction, earthwork was mechanized. 10 excavators were used along with concrete mixers and stone-breaking machines. Saw-mills were built to speed up delivery of sleepers and beams necessary for construction. In 1914 a through operation of the Amur line was opened. To transfer cars across the Amur, ferry-boats were used in summer, and horses – in winter. Construction of the bridge over the Amur began in 1913. In 1916 it was consecrated and opened for a regular train operation. It became known as Alekseyevsky in honor of the heir to the throne. This bridge crossing represented a solid structure of metal and concrete almost 2,600 m long and 64 m high. Soon it was called the ―Amur‘s wonder‖. In 1959 Trans-Baikal and Amur lines were combined into Trans-Baikal Railway. North-Caucasus Railway The history of railways in Northern Caucasus dates back to 1860, when Mikhail Khomutov, ataman of Don‘s Army, addressed the military minister with a report. It was about the need to link coal mines discovered in the area of the Grushevka river with a quay near the Cossack village of Malekhovskaya. Thick coal-beds were found, and construction of a railway was to speed up the region‘s economic development. The Emperor granted his permission to build it. In 1863 the railway was set into operation. Soon they built Aksai-Rostov line (1875), in 1872-1875 – a route, linking Rostov and Vladikavkaz (to be called Vladikavkaz line in 1923). After Vladikavkaz line reached Kislovodsk, the development of the resort area took off. Near Kislovodsk railway station, a magnificent concert hall was built together with a summer theater and a restaurant. Many stars of Russian theater and opera went on stage here. Their names include Shalyapin, Parosov, Plyevitskaya. In early 20th century, in spite of great damage caused by the war between Russia and Japan, the railway went to include 10 new lines. By 1917, its total length was over 5,000 km (now – 6,504 km). During the Civil war the main line was severely damaged, some of its stretches destroyed. But by 1925 it had restored the pre-war transit levels. Construction of new branches started in 1929. At present, the railway that joins Northern Caucasus and the country‘s European part is among Russia‘s technically most advanced main lines.

5. прочитайте текст Russian Railroad Introduction и заполните таблицу.

Name Place Buildings Purpose Cities Length Bridges Tunnels dates Far East Railway Gorky Railway Kaliningrad Railway Krasnoyarsk Railway Kuibyshev Railway Moscow Railway Oktyabrskaya Railway Volga Region Railway 18 Northern Railway Sverdlovsk Railway South-Eastern Railway South-Ural Railway Sakhalin Railway East-Siberian Railway West-Siberian Railway Trans-Baikal Railway North-Caucasus Railway

6. прочитайте текст Russian Railroad Introduction и ответьте на вопросы. 1) When began the history of Russian Railroad? 2) How long was the first Russian railroad? 3) What do you know about Cherepanows? 4) What purpose did Nikolai I served for the history of railroad? 5) When and where was opened the first Russian public railroad? 6) What railroad was known as Ussuriysk Railway? Why? 7) Why was the Far East railway so important? 8) What make the Second World War for the Far East railway? 9) What do you know about the line between Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod? 10) What territory does the Gorky railway cross today? 11) Whay it was necessary to build the Kaliningrad Railway? 12) What railroad connected Western Siberia with Far East? 13) Why the building of the Kuibyshev railway was difficult? 14) Speak about the Moscow railway history. 15) What was the first double-track railway in Russia? 16) Why need Russia to set up a regulary transport network between regions? 17) Who gave money for the Nothern railway building? 18) What is the Sverdlovsk railway famous for? 19) What is “Baikal Circular”? 20) What railway is Russia’s technically advanced main line?

7. прочитайте текст Russian Railroad Introduction и ответьте на вопросы.

The Beginnings of American Railroads Railways were introduced in England in the seventeenth century as a way to reduce friction in moving heavily loaded wheeled vehicles. The first North American "gravity road," as it was called, was erected in 1764 for military purposes at the Niagara portage in Lewiston, New York. The builder was Capt. John Montressor, a British engineer known to students of historical cartography as a mapmaker. These early uses of railways gave little hint that a revolution in methods of transportation was underway. James Watt's improvements in the steam engine were adapted by John Fitch in 1787 to propel a ship on the Delaware River, and by James Rumsey in the same year on the Potomac River. Fitch, an American inventor and surveyor, had published his "Map of the Northwest" two years earlier to finance the building of a commercial steamboat. With Robert Fulton's Clermont and a boat built by John Stevens, the use of steam power for vessels became firmly established. Railroads and steam propulsion developed separately, and it was not until the one system adopted the technology of the other that railroads began to flourish. John Stevens is considered to be the father of American railroads. In 1826 Stevens demonstrated the feasibility of steam locomotion on a circular experimental track constructed on his estate in Hoboken, New Jersey, three years before George Stephenson perfected a practical steam locomotive in England. The first railroad charter in North America was granted to Stevens in 1815. Grants to others followed, and work soon began on the first operational railroads. Construction started on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1830, and fourteen miles of track were opened before the year ended. This roadbed was extended in 1831 to Frederick, Maryland, and, in 1832, to Point of Rocks. Until 1831, when a locomotive of American manufacture was placed in service, the B & O relied upon horsepower.

19 Soon joining the B & O as operating lines were the Mohawk and Hudson, opened in September 1830, the Saratoga, opened in July 1832, and the South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company, whose 136 miles of track, completed to , constituted, in 1833, the longest steam railroad in the world. The Columbia Railroad of Pennsylvania, completed in 1834, and the and Providence, completed in June 1835, were other early lines. Planning and construction of railroads in the United States progressed rapidly and haphazardly, without direction or supervision from the states that granted charters to construct them. Before 1840 most surveys were made for short passenger lines which proved to be financially unprofitable. Because steam-powered railroads had stiff competition from canal companies, many partially completed lines were abandoned. It was not until the Boston and Lowell Railroad diverted traffic from the Middlesex Canal that the success of the new mode of transportation was assured. The industrial and commercial depression and the panic of 1837 slowed railroad construction. Interest was revived, however, with completion of the Western Railroad of Massachusetts in 1843. This line conclusively demonstrated the feasibility of transporting agricultural products and other commodities by rail for long distances at low cost. Early railroad surveys and construction were financed by private investors. Before the 1850 land grant to the Central Railroad, indirect federal subsidies were provided by the federal government in the form of route surveys made by army engineers. In the 1824 General Survey Bill to establish works of internal improvements, railroads were not specifically mentioned. Part of the appropriation under this act for the succeeding year, however, was used for "Examinations and surveys to ascertain the practicability of uniting the head-waters of the Kanawha with the James river and the Roanoke river, by Canals or Rail-Roads."

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Important milestones in English and American railway development "The time will come when people will travel in stages moved by steam engines from one city to another, almost as fast as birds can fly, 15 or 20 miles an hour.... A carriage will start from Washington in the morning, the passengers will breakfast at Baltimore, dine at Philadelphia, and sup in New York the same day.... Engines will drive boats 10 or 12 miles an hour, and there will be hundreds of steamers running on the Mississippi, as predicted years ago." --Oliver Evans, 1800 1630 Beaumont designs and builds wagon roads for English coal mines using heavy planks on which horses pulled carts and wagons. 1753 First steam engine arrives in the colonies from England. 1755 First steam engine in America is installed to pump water from a mine. 1758 An Act of Parliament establishes the Middleton Railway in Leeds. Thus the Middleton claims to be the oldest Railway in the world. 1769 Frenchman Nicholas Cugnot builds a steam carriage. 1774 Scotsman James Watt builds first "modern" stationary steam engine. 1776 English tram road is laid down with cast iron angle bars on timber ties. 1784 Murdoch (Watt associate) steam engine model runs 6 to 8 mph. 1789 Englishman William Jessup designs first wagons with flanged wheels. 1800 Oliver Evans, an American, creates the earliest successful non-condensing high pressure stationary steam-engine. 1804 Oliver Evans builds his first steam-powered boat, weight: 4,000 lbs. 1804 Matthew Murray of Leeds, England invents a steam locomotive which runs on timber rails. This is probably the FIRST RAILROAD ENGINE. Seen by Richard Trevithick before he builds his loco. 1804 Richard Trevithick of Cornwall builds 40 psi steam locomotive for the Welsh Penydarran Railroad. 1807 The very first passenger train ran from Swansea to Mumbles on March 25th. 1808 Trevithick builds a circular railway in London's Torrington Square. Steam carriage Catch Me Who Can weighes 10 tons and makes 15 mph.

20 1812 The first commercially successful steam locomotives, using the Blenkinsop rack and pinion drive, commenced operation on the Middleton Railway. This was the world's first regular revenue-earning use of steam traction, as distinct from experimental operation. 1812 American Colonel John Stevens publishes a pamphlet containing: "Documents tending to prove the superior advantages of Railways and Steam Carriages over Canal Navigation." He also states, "I can see nothing to hinder a steam carriage moving on its ways with a velocity of 100 miles an hour." 1813 Englishman William Hedley builds and patents 50 psi railroad loco which could haul 10 coal wagons at 5 mph, equal to 10 horses. 1814 Englishman George Stephenson builds Blucher, his first railway engine. Pulls 30 tons at 4 mph, but is not efficient. 1815 Stephenson's second engine: 6 wheels and a multitubular boiler. 1821 Englishman Julius Griffiths patents a passenger road locomotive. 1824 Construction begins on the 1st locomotive workshop in New Castle, England. 1824 Englishman David Gordon patents a steam-driven machine with legs which imitates the action of a horse's legs and feet. Not successful. 1825 Stephenson's 8-ton LOCOMOTION No. 1 built for the Stockton & Darlington Railroad. Capable of pulling 90 tons of coal at 15 mph. Stephenson plans all details of the line, and even designs the bridges, machinery, engines, turntables, switches, and crossings, and is responsible for every part of the work of their construction. (The passenger coaches of this time were all drawn by horses.) 1825 Colonel John Stevens builds a steam waggon which he placed on a circular railway before his house- now Hudson Terraceat Hoboken, New Jersey. 1826 The first line of rails in the New England States is said to have been laid down at Quincy, Mass., 3 miles in length and pulled by horses. 1827 The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is chartered to run from Baltimore to the Ohio River in Virginia. It was the first westward bound railroad in America. Wind power (sail on carriage) was tried, followed by horse power, with the horse walking on a treadmill which drove the carriage wheels! 1828 Delaware & Hudson Canal Co. builds a railroad from their mines to the termination of the canal at Honesdale. Also pulled by horses. 1829 The first steam locomotive used in America, the English-built Stourbridge Lion, is put to work on the Delaware & Hudson. It is too heavy for the track (twice as heavy as had been promised by the builders), and is laid up next to the tracks as a stationary boiler. 1829 Peter Cooper of New York in 6 weeks time builds the Tom Thumb, a vertical boiler 1.4 HP locomotive, for the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. It hauled 36 passengers at 18 mph in August 1830. It had a revolving fan for draught, used gun barrels for boiler tubes, and weighed less than one ton. 1829 James Wright of Columbia, PA. invents the cone "tread" of the wheel, which prevents wear of flanges and reduces resistance. 1829 Stephenson's Rocket wins a competition for locomotive power at the Rainhill Trials on the Manchester & Liverpool Railway. Capable of 30 mph with 30 passengers. 1830 The Best Friend is built at the West Point Foundery at New York for the Charlston & Hamburg Railroad. It was the first completely American-built steam engine to go into scheduled passenger service. It did excellent work until 1831 when the boiler exploded due to a reckless fireman, unexpectedly ending its, and his career. 1831 The 3.5 ton De Witt Clinton hauls 5 stage coach bodies on railroad wheels at 25 mph on the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad between Albany and Schenectady. This engine was lightly built, and was retired less than two years after going into service. 1831 The South Carolina was the first eight-wheeled engine. 1831Robert Stevens, son of Colonel John Stevens, went to England and shipped back (unassembled) the John Bull for the Camden & Amboy Railroad in New Jersey. It was erected by mechanic Isaac Dripps, who had never seen a steam locomotive. There was no assembly manual. He made this the first locomotive fitted with a bell, headlight and cowcatcher, and it remained in service until 1866. Dripps went on to become superintendent of motive power for the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona.

21 1832 The Brother Jonathon was the first locomotive in the world to have a four-wheel leading truck. Designed by John B. Jervis for the Mohawk & Hudson Railroad. 1832 The American No. 1 was the first 4-4-0, the first of its class. It was capable of regular speeds of 60 mph with its 9.5" by 16" cylinders. Designed by John B. Jervis, Chief Engineer for the Mohawk & Hudson. 1832 The Atlantic on the B&O hauls 50 tons from Baltimore over a distance of 40 miles at 12 to 15 mph. This engine weighed 6.5 tons, carried 50 pounds of steam and burned a ton of anthracite coal on the round trip. The round trip cost $16, doing the work of 42 horses, which had cost $33 per trip. The engine cost $4,500, and was designed by Phineas Davis, assisted by Ross Winans. English locomotives burned bituminous coal. 1833 George Stephenson applies a small steam brake cylinder to operate brake shoes on driving wheels of locomotives. 1855 The first land grant railroad in the U. S. is completed. The Illinois Central arrives in Dunleith, Illinois (now East Dubuque). 1856 The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River is completed between Rock Island, Illinois and Davenport, Iowa. 1860 Nehemiah Hodge, a Connecticut railway mechanic, patents a locomotive vacuum brake. Pressure is limited to atmospheric (14.7 psi), but practical considerations limit pressure to 7 to 8 psi. Thus, available braking power is low, especially above 3,000 feet altitude. 1862 President Abraham Lincoln signs the Pacific Railway Act, which authorizes the construction of the first transcontinental railroad. Theodore Judah had the vision to build a railroad across the Sierra Nevada mountains in California, and then to continue the railroad across the United States. The Central Pacific Railroad was financed by The Big Four: Collis Huntington, Leland Stanford, Charles Crocker and Mark Hopkins. 1868 Major Eli Janney, a confederate veteran of the civil war, invents the knuckle coupler. This semi- automatic device locks upon the cars closing together without the rail worker getting between the cars. This replaces the "link and pin" coupler, which was a major cause of injuries to railroad workers. A "cut" lever at the corner of the car releases the coupler knuckle making uncoupling safer. 1869 George Westinghouse, an inventive Civil War veteran, develops the straight air brake. A Pennsy 4- 4-0 and a couple of passenger cars are fitted with the system and successfully demonstrated on April 13th. 1869 The Central Pacific and Union Pacific meet at Promontory Summit, Utah for the driving of the golden spike on May 10th. 1872George Westinghouse patents the first automatic air brake. This is basically the same system as is used by today's railroads. 1876 All Southern Pacific and Central Pacific passenger cars converted to air brakes. 1883 The Northern Pacific is completed at Gold Creek, Montana. 1883 The Southern Pacific is completed. 1885 The Santa Fe is completed. 1893 The Great Northern is completed in the Cascade Mountains of Washington. 1893 Federal Railway Safety Appliances Act instituted mandatory requirements for automatic air brake systems and automatic couplers, and required standardization of the location and specifications for appliances such as handholds and grab irons necessary for employees' use. This applied only to interstate rail traffic. 1893 On May 10th locomotive #999 of the New York Central & Hudson River RR hauled four heavy Wagner cars of the Empire State Express down a 0.28% grade at record-braking speed. Although unverified, the conductor timed the speed at 112.5 mph over 1 mile, and at 102.8 mph over 5 miles. This 4-4-0 had 86" drivers for this run, and was later fitted with more normal 78" wheels as it now has on museum display. 1893 The first mainline electrification was in Baltimore, MD. A rigid overhead conductor supplied 675 VDC via one-sided tilted pantograph to the 96 ton 4-axle, 4-motor locomotives. These were very successful, hauling 1,800 ton trains up the 0.8% grade in the 1.25 mile Howard Street tunnel, where steam was not allowed to operate. 1900 Casey Jones rode the "Cannonball" into history on April 30th.

22 1903 New York state enacts legislation prohibiting the operation of steam locomotives on Manhattan Island in New York City south of the Harlem River after June 30, 1908. This spurred the electrification of New York City's trackage. 1907 Ground is broken on Sept. 7th by San Diego mayor John F. Forward dedicating the start of John D. Spreckels' San Diego & Arizona Railway. 1913 The first commercially successful internal combustion engine locomotive in the U.S. was built by General Electric for the Dan Patch Line in Minnesota. Locomotive #100 had two Model GM16 gasoline- electric 8" x 10" V8's rated at 175 HP @ 550 rpm each. It weighed 57 tons and rode on two four-wheel trucks (B-B). 1915 The Santa Fe Depot is dedicated in San Diego on March 7th. 1917 The first Diesel-electric locomotive in the U.S. was a prototype built by G.E. Number 4 had one model GM50 air injection two-stroke V8 rated at 225 HP @ 550 rpm powering one of two trucks. The cylinders had the same 8" x 10" dimensions as the GM16. It was never sold, serving only as a laboratory model at the Erie Works. 1918 The first Diesel-electric locomotive to be built and sold commercially was Jay Street Connecting RR #4. G.E. slightly revised its standard steeple cab straight electric locomotive car body and installed a single GM50. This unit was not successful, and after 6 months was returned to G.E. where it was used as a laboratory unit in developing improved control and propulsion systems. 1919 The golden spike is driven in the Carrizo Gorge, marking the completion of the San Diego & Arizona Railway. 1923 The Electro-Motive Engineering Corporation, headed by H.L. Hamilton begins building gas-electric railcars in Cleveland, Ohio. 1923Ingersoll Rand and G.E. combine to build 60-ton boxcab #8835. It used a model PR 6-cylinder in- line 10" x 12" solid injection engine rated 300HP @ 550 rpm. The excitation control system designed by Dr. Hermann Lemp was used, and was demonstrated on 13 different railroads over a 13 month period. Its performance in terms of reliability and economy of operation did much to advance the acceptance of the as a replacement for the steam locomotive. It was never sold. 1925 The American Locomotive Company (ALCO), along with G.E. and IR, builds its first Diesel electric loco. It was delivered under its own power to the Central Railroad of New Jersey and assigned as CNJ #1000. It was basically the same as #8835, with the same wheel arrangement and engine, but with many improvements. It operated as a in the Bronx until 1957, and is now in the B&O museum in Baltimore, Md. 1926 Hamilton of EMC hires Richard Dilworth as chief engineer. Dilworth was a self-taught mechanical and electrical engineer who had helped put together G.E.'s early rail cars back in 1910. 1928 The first Diesel-electric passenger locomotive built in North America was a two-unit 2-D-1-1-D-2. It represented a joint effort between Westinghouse, Canadian Locomotive Co., Baldwin and Commonwealth Steel Co. It was numbered Canadian National #9000, and each unit had a Scottish-built Beardmore V12 12" x 12" engine rated 1,330HP @ 800 rpm. Max. safe speed was 63 mph. 1930 General Motors acquires the Winton Company on June 20th, and Electro-Motive on December 31st. 1934 The Union Pacific M-10000 is dedicated in February. This Pullman-built 3-car all-aluminum articulated train was the first streamliner in the US. It was powered by a Winton V12 600 HP distillate engine, and was capable of 110 mph. It made a 12,625 mile coast-to-coast exhibition trip, and was seen by almost 1.2 million people at various stops. Went into service as the City of Salina on Jan. 31, 1935. The power car was designed by Richard Dilworth. 1934 The Burlington Zephyr is dedicated on April 18th. On May 26 this Budd-built 3-car articulated train of stainless steel made a record breaking dawn to dusk run from Denver to , 1016 miles, at an average speed of 77.6 mph and a top speed of 112.5 mph. It was the first Diesel-electric streamliner in the US, employing a Winton inline 8-cyl. 600 HP 201A two-stroke engine. The power car was designed by Richard Dilworth. 1934 Construction of the first streamlined electric locomotives begins. These were the Pennsy GG-1's, which pulled high-speed passenger trains between NYC and Washington, DC. They developed 8,500 HP

23 and cost $250,000. Production continued until 1943 and they were used into the early 1980's by AMTRAK. 1935EMC builds #511 and #512, the first self-contained Diesel passenger locomotives in the US. The boxcar-like bodies housed two Winton V12 900 HP 201A engines, and were designed by Dick Dilworth and two draftsmen. The first unit sold went to the B & O as #50 to pull the Royal Blue. Retired in 1956, then saved at the National Museum of Transportation in St. Louis. 1970 Congress passes the Rail Passenger Service Act creating Amtrak, which today serves more than 20 million customers annually on its national network of intercity trains and employs 23,000 people. 1986 The San Diego Railroad Museum operates its first Golden State Limited excursion train between Campo, CA and Miller Creek, CA on the SD&A. Here is the first crew on 4 January.

9. прочитайте текст Important milestones in English and American railway development, назовите основные имена и открытия связанныес резвитем железной дороги в Великобритании и Америке 10. как вы можете интерпритировать слова Олиера Эванса, сказанные им в 1800 году (10-15 предложений) 11. с чем на Ваш взгляд связано неравномерное по времени развитие железной дороги в Америке и Великобритании

Домашнее задание 1. Письменно переведите часть текста Russian Railroad Introduction под названием «Trans-Baikal Railway» 2. составьте сравнительную хронологическую таблицу развития железной дороги в России и за рубежом (Америка, Великобритания), сделайте свои выводы 3. подготовьте сообщение на 5 минут (20-30 предложений) о истории развития железной дороги в любой стране мира. В качестве источника используйте дополнительную литературу или Internet. Unit 2 Signalling SIGNAL AND SIGNALING Safe operation of freight and passenger trains requires a system of signaling. To inform the locomotive and train crew of the position of other trains in relation to their own, signals installed at frequent intervals give indications which are visible both by day and by night. Wayside signals in- stalled along railroad tracks are called fixed signals. We know that the used to be the most common type of the signal. The relative position of the semaphore arm constituted the signal. To indicate "stop" a horizontal arm was used. "Proceed" was indicated by a vertical arm. To give restrictive (i.e. cautionary) indications the arm was inclined up or down. Colored lights give the indications at night. The semaphore mechanism is equipped with lenses illuminated by a lamp, so that a red light shows when the semaphore is in the "stop" position, a green light — when the semaphore is in the "proceed" position, and a yellow light — when the semaphore is in the restrictive position. The color-light signal sometimes used is known to have semaphore arm and give both day and night indications be means of red, green and yellow lights. We know some signals to be operated by hand, others to be automatic. Locomotives on some railroads are known to be equipped with apparatus located in the cab, which gives a continuous indication to the engineman identical with that shown by wayside signals. By cab signals the engine crew is supposed to be always informed of conditions ahead regardless of the weather that affects the man's ability to see wayside signals. Locomotive cab signals are equipped to give audible warnings whenever the aspect changes to one more restrictive. A protective device is installed on some railroads to apply the brakes automatically and bring a train to a stop if, for any reason, a "stop" signal should be passed. It is called automatic train control. The first signals installed are known to have been hand-operated, usually by station employees.

Упражнения 24 1. прочитайте текст Signal and Signalling 2. письменно переведите текст 3. ответьте на вопросы к тексту Why is a system of signaling necessary?

What are fixed signals? Where are they installed? What is the most common type of the signal?.

What does a horizontal arm indicate?

What does a vertical arm indicate?

How does the arm give restrictive (cautionary) indications? When are colored lights used?

How do colored lights indicate the positions?

Why are cab signals so important?

What for is a protective device installed on some railroads?

The history of the railway signaling in the USA In the early 1800's, the earliest rail signaling systems employed signalmen standing along the track at intervals within sight of each other, signaling with flags or hands to communicate train location and movement. The 1800's saw a succession of advances, from fixed signal posts to telegraphed train orders and signaling information. Until the 1870's, however, all signaling was controlled manually and therefore subject to human error. The patented invention of the electric closed track circuit by Dr. William Robinson in 1872 gave the railroad industry its first means of automatic vital signaling. The track circuit is used to detect the presence of a train or a broken rail within a block of track. When an electric current traveling through the rails in a block of track is shorted by the presence of a train or interrupted by a break in the rail, a red signal indicates danger to approaching trains. When the track is clear, the closed circuit activates a green signal to indicate that approaching trains can enter the block. In 1878, Dr. William Robinson founded the Union Electric Signal Co. to hold his patents, to produce track circuits, and to install them. This technology continues to be a foundation of rail signaling and communications today. As the rail system grew in the 1800's, tracks began to cross, giving rise to junctions, at which coordination between switches and signals was needed for safe and efficient operation. The first step in this coordination was concentrating the control of switches and signals in one location, first implemented in England. In the late 1850's, the separate switch and signal controls were interlocked so that their movements would succeed each other in a predetermined order. This technology was imported to the United States in the early 1870's, and in the mid-1870's, the first U.S. company was formed to manufacture interlockings. It was upon these two innovations - the closed track circuit and the interlocking - that Union Switch & Signal was founded. George Westinghouse formed US&S by consolidating the Union Electric Signal Company - holder of closed track circuit patents - and the Interlocking Switch & Signal Company - holder of interlocking patent rights. From this dynamic start, US&S has pioneered countless incremental advancements and milestones of lasting significance to the rail signaling industry. 1903: first AC track circuit & vane relay

25 1923: first inductive train control (continuous cab signaling system) 1923: first industrial application of vacuum tubes 1924: first remote controlled gravity hump yard 1926: invention of copper oxide rectifier 1934: first coded track circuit 1942: first coded carrier centralized traffic control (CTC) system 1966: first computer aided dispatching system 1970: first digital classification yard control system 1985: first microprocessor-based vital interlocking 1986: first video-projection railroad territory display 1987: first consolidation of control of all rail territory in one location 1995: first driverless-capable light rail transit (LRT) system in North America 1998: first fully consolidated transit operations control center 2000: first advanced speed enforcement system 2002: first completely driverless metro system Over the past century, US&S has developed solutions for a variety of conditions faced by train operators. The need for failsafe (or vital) signaling. The need to control train speeds automatically. The need to manage and monitor rail traffic patterns. The need for efficient train assembly in yards. The need for signaling and control in high-speed environments. We have improved and refined our solutions by applying ever-more-sophisticated technology: electricity in the 1800's, electronics in the 1920's, coded track circuits in the 1930's, transistors and computers in the 1960's, microprocessors in the 1980's, and control in the 1990's. We continue to live up to our legendary record of pioneering advancements in signaling and control technologies for railroad and transit systems in North America and worldwide. We're applying automation and information technologies to a future of "smart" trains run by our computerized control systems, providing automated and fully integrated operations control.

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RAILWAY SIGNALLING Welcome to the signal box, do come in. OK, so you've come in. This article is all about . Its primary purpose is to describe the principles behind railway signalling in Great Britain, but some coverage of signalling around the world will also be found. The emphasis is on the older, mechanical signalling - that worked by mechanical levers and with semaphore signals. More detailed information on modern and foreign signalling will often be found elsewhere on the web. You will find here descriptions and illustrations of signals, explanations of the rules and regulations, photographs, historic articles, reminiscences, museum and book lists, a monthly quiz, classified advertisements, sources of software (including downloads), links to other sites with signalling interest, and much more. Have a stroll around. Whether you have a deep interest in signalling or just a passing interest, there is lots here to look through. Enjoy! John Hinson British signalling follows well established principles that were not echoed to any significant extent in other European countries. Perhaps this is because the Board of Trade created tight standards from an early 26 date, an expensive option that most railways would have preferred to avoid. However, British-style signalling could (and often still can) be found in various parts of the former British Commonwealth and also South America. Although the individual railways in Britain intially developed their own ideas, harmonisation of signalling principles soon took place, and semaphore signalling as we know it today was well established by the . Power operation of points and signals had arrived by the turn of the century, although initially only for small signalling schemes. It wasn't until the 1950s that large-scale power signalling came along. The earliest applications of power signalling simply saw motorisation of existing types of semaphore signal, but it wasn't long before colour-light signals appeared. Although colour-light signalling covers most British main lines today, there are still many pockets of semaphore signalling to be found. At present, colour light signalling is not covered in detail on this site, but this will be added when time permits. SEMAPHORE SIGNALS The principles of semaphore signalling as can be seen around the United Kingdom today go back to the 1850s but at that time there was no standardisation amongst signals for each railway company had its own ideas. It wasn't until the 1920s that national policies were applied, and the formation of the "big four" railway companies in 1923 is a convenient place to regard as the point at which the signals in use today became universally adopted. Of course, older signals were not wiped out overnight and many survived (perhaps in modified or repainted form) until recent years and a few can still be found around the railway system. The earliest semaphore signals were known as lower quadrant signals, because the arm was lowered from horizontal to an inclined position when cleared. The first type lowered the arm to a vertical position, concealed inside the signal post, but this was abandoned in early years as the lack of a visible signal isn't the best way to indicate "clear" - a problem that can be illustrated by the behaviour of motorists when they find traffic lights unlit. The other three members of the "big four" were quick to adopt upper quadrant signals, so that gravity could be used to return signals to danger. This kind of signal is now almost universal in semaphore areas outside Network Rail outside the Great Western Zone.

Lower quadrant Somersault Upper quadrant signal signal signal

Colour Light signalling is now the accepted standard on Britain's railways and newly erected semaphore signals are now rare. Sometimes colour light signals are directly substituted for (and often mixed with) semaphore signals and the equivalent indications are also shown on these pages. Although the indications are similar, this use of colour light signalling is quite different to true Multiple-Aspect Signalling which will be dealt with separately. All signals are defined as on when showing a danger (horizontal) indication, and off when showing a proceed (angled at 35 to 85 degrees from the horizontal) indication. Signal posts may be of wood (painted white or creosoted), steel (usually painted white or silver) or concrete. Signal arms are painted wood or steel, or made of enamelled steel. Signals are most commonly found on the left-hand side of the line they apply to, although there are exceptions. 27 Stop and Distant signals Stop signals Lower quadrant Somersault Upper quadrant Colour Light A stop signal has a red arm with vertical white stripe towards the left- hand end. It shows a red light when on and a green light when off. Trains must not pass stop signals when on except under specially authorised conditions - this is one of the most contentious issues of modern-day railway operation. Note - in certain circumstances, the Colour Light equivalent may show red, yellow and green indications. At any signal box, there may be several stop signals serving each line. Most commonly there are two, with the first to be reached by a train (known as the home signal) protecting any points, level crossings etc., and the second (the starting signal) ahead of any points and guarding the entrance to the block section ahead. More complex layouts can have many stop signals per line, perhaps named Outer Home, Intermediate Home, Inner Home, Starting, Advanced Starting, Outer Advanced Starting) whilst in smaller circumstances just a single home signal may suffice. Whichever of the signals allows entry into the block section ahead is also termed the section signal, but this is more of a technical term and is not normally used from an operating point of view. The colour light equivalent can be in two forms. It will show red or green if there are no other stop signals ahead worked from the same signal box (and as long as it isn't also acting as a distant signal - explained later) but if there is another stop signal ahead it will show yellow until all such signals are cleared. A small word about Rule 39 is appropriate here. This requires a signalman, if not in a position to clear all signals for a train (perhaps the section ahead is still occupied by the previous train) to bring the train nearly to a stand at each of his signals before allowing it to draw forward to his next stop signal. Distant signals Lower quadrant Somersault Upper quadrant Colour Light A distant signal has a yellow arm with a vee-notch at the left end of the arm. A black vee-stripe is painted towards the left end. Distant signals show a yellow light when on and a green light when off. A distant signal is the first signal a driver sees when approaching a signal box, and when off it indicates that ALL stop signals controlled from the box ahead are off. If on, a driver must expect to stop at the first stop signal. By definition, therefore, a distant signal has to be located a full braking distance from that stop signal, taking into account gradients and maximum permitted speeds. 28 Taking account of the description of Rule 39 above, it can be seen that if a driver passes a distant signal at on, he will be prepared to find the stop signal ahead on, but if that signal is off (without his brought nearly to a stand) he can expect all stop signals ahead (worked by that box) to be off. Subsidiary signals Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Where it is necessary to give a driver special information about the section ahead, a subsidiary signal may be mounted below a stop arm. These consist of a small red arm with horizontal white stripe. When off, a letter C, S or W will be displayed, which indicate which of three functions apply: C - Calling-on signal. This indicates that the section ahead is occupied, and only applies on permissive block lines, station areas and other special locations. S - Shunt-ahead signal This indicates that the signal may be passed only for shunting purposes, only by the necessary distance to achieve such a shunt. Only provided on section signals W - Warning signal. This indicates Section Clear but Station or Blocked, an old-fashioned term found in Regulation 5. Under normal block working conditions, an additional ¼ mile safety margin is allowed when a train is accepted into a block section, but at specially defined locations this requirement is waived. This signal instructs the driver to proceed through the block section with caution. Shunting signals Signals used for shunting purposes are distinct from stop signals as their function is different. They do not indicate that the line ahead is clear, but that movements may proceed as far as the line is clear. Shunting signals are in the form of a miniature semaphore arm, mounted at ground level or on a signal post. Many of those at ground level have the arm superimposed on a white or black disc to aid visibility. This type is generally called a disc signal. Semaphore shunting signals Lower quadrant Somersault Upper quadrant Colour Light Sometimes, the view of a signal can be improved by bracketing it out from the signal post. This method is often used where the line is curved, and also where there isn't room to position the signal alongside the line to which it applies. Signals such as these are sometimes used in place of Stop signals on low- speed goods lines. This gives the same authority to enter the section as a calling-on signal would. Ground disc signals

29 Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Ground signals are mounted at ground level - you'd never have guessed! Their meaning is exactly the same as the miniature-arm signals above. Yellow shunting signals Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Shunting signals with yellow arms (with, sometimes, a black band) are usually found at the outlet of sidings where there is also a . Signals of this type should not be confused with Distant signals, as their purpose is quite different.

The function is similar to that of the red arm shunting signal, with one additional feature. It may be passed when on for shunting movements along the headshunt. This saves frequent operation of the signal when shunting is taking place.

Combined Home and Distant signals Lower quadrant Somersault Upper quadrant Colour Light Where signal boxes are close together, the necessary position of a Distant signal sometimes falls within the area of the adjacent box's signals. The Distant signal can be mounted beneath the Section signal of the box in rear, and it will be interlocked or slotted so as to ensure it is only cleared if the Stop signal has been cleared.

Outer Distant signals If the above arrangement does not provide adequate braking distance, an additional Distant arm can be placed on the previous Stop signal too. This would be called an Outer Distant whilst the other signal would be called the Inner Distant signal. Such signals require additional slotting to ensure that the Distant arm does not clear until the Stop signal ahead (aswell as the arm on the same post) is off. The two signals in these illustrations represent the home and starting signals carrying the distant arms for the box in advance.

30 In extreme situations, the Distant signal of the previous box can be shared by both boxes, slotted so that it doesn't show off until both signalmen have operated the signal lever. This arrangement isn't totally satisfactory as drivers cannot tell (when the signal is on) whether to brake for the first or second box's home signal. This is the only circumstance in the principles of semaphore signalling where greater information can be given to a driver by a Colour Light signal. The signals in these illustrations represent the distant, home and starter of one box. The distant arms below the home and starter are controlled from the next box, but the distant in the foreground is controlled by both boxes. Junction signals At junctions, individual arms are generally provided to indicate which route a train is to take. The arms are usually mounted on separate posts (dolls) on a bracket or gantry, alongside each other. Combinations of the various types of signal illustrated in the preceding sections are used, according to the circumstances. The arms are generally arranged so that the higher arms apply to the higher speed routes, but occasionally the arrangement will indicate the importance of a route. What is a junction? In railway terms, a junction can be anywhere where facing points allow trains to take different routes. Thus, as far as junction signals are concerned, there is no difference between the principles for signals provided at a junction with a branch line than those provided for connections between Fast and Slow lines on a multiple track route. A typical signal serving a simple junction has two arms. Here, the right-hand arm applies to the main line (fastest route) and the left-hand arm serves a branch or loop line.

If the both routes have the same speed limit, the arms are placed level with each other. The design of the bracket structure, whether it be balanced, or left-handed/right-handed is of no relevance to the signals' meaning.

This is a three-way junction signal, for routes of three different speeds or importance. An example of route importance would be where this signal was provided as a Slow Line home signal. Possible meanings might be: Slow Line to Goods Line home Along Slow Line home

Slow Line to Fast Line home. A three-way junction signal where one of the routes leads into a or loop. In this example, the miniature arm for the siding is mounted low on the post on its own bracket but it could also be mounted on the same bracket as the other arms.

31 Sometimes, a route into a siding or loop is controlled by a ground signal mounted at the foot of the main post.

Occasionally, junction signals will be found with the arms mounted above each other. In this instance, the top arm always applies to the left-hand route and the bottom arm to the right. If there are more than two arms, they read left-to- right. This type of signal is relatively rare, and is used only on goods lines and low-speed areas.

Another way to indicate large numbers of routes, or overcome space limitations, is to provide a Route Indicator to accompany a single arm. As the signal is not as distinct as a multiple-arm junction signal, route indicators are only used in low speed areas.

Semaphore Colour light Shunting signals for multiple routes A single shunting signal can apply to more than one route but sometimes it is necessary for such signals to make it clear which route has been set. An example might be at a yard outlet, where it is important to show whether the signal is cleared for a short dead-end neck or the main line. Indication of route can be critical at places where shunting movements are being propelled. In most cases, the various types of shunting signal simply mirror their full-sized counterparts in their mode of operation. Siding signals can be faithful reproductions of their full-sized counterparts. This example shows a bracket signal where the left-hand of the choice of routes is of lesser importance.

Ground disc signals can be mounted alongside each other to define separate routes. It is possible to have several discs alongside each other (four was not

uncommon) but this is often limited by space constraints. To save space (and economise on cost), siding signals can be stacked above each other. The top-most arm always applies to the left-hand route, and the bottom to the right. This arrangement is quite common with siding signals, unlike the equivalent signal with full-sized arms.

Multiple ground discs can also be stacked vertically. This arrangement is more common than placing them alongside each other, owing the the limited space between lines.

The maximum number of stacked disc signals known to have existed is five, although only one such is known of. Those with four discs were common.

32 Another way to indicate large numbers of routes, or overcome space limitations, is to provide a Route Indicator to accompany a single arm.

Route indicators can also be provided with shunting discs, allowing large numbers of different routes to be indicated without the need for a complex signal.

Semaphore Colour light Improving the view Conditions are not always perfect, so it isn't always practical to install text-book signals. Curves in the line, bridges, buildings and station awnings can all have an effect on how good the view of a signal is to a driver. A number of adaptions to standard signalling can be applied to achieve improved sighting. The simplest means (and the most common) is to simply make the signal taller or shorter, whilst another is to reposition the signal on the opposite side of the line. Colour light signals do not present the same issues as semaphore signals as the signals themselves are far more compact and are thus easier to place in an appropriate position. In most cases, a standard colour light signal can be used as a replacement for the special types of signal described here. Bracket signals Colour Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Light Sometimes, the view of a signal can be improved by bracketing it out from the signal post. This method is often used where the line is curved, and also where there isn't room to position the signal alongside the line to which it applies. Co-acting signals Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Another method of improving the view of signals is to provide duplicate, or co-acting, arms on a tall post.

This method is often employed near bridges, and also at stations where the awning obstructs the view. The upper arm(s) will be visible from a distance, but only the lower arm can be seen when close. Co-acting colour light signals are rare. Restricted space signals Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Where clearance is limited, special arms may be provided. The left-hand example has the signal arms modified so that the the arms pivot near their centre - these are known as centre-pivot signals. The right-hand example has shortened arms. As this makes the signal less easily viewed, this type of signal was always provided with powerful electric lamps, known as intensified lighting. Such

33 lighting could also be found in conventional signals where visibility at night was poor, perhaps against a background of street lights. Any signal with intensified lighting that had both stop and distant arms was arranged so that the lights in the distant signals were not illuminated unless the stop arm was off. There is no direct equivalent of these signals in colour light form. Repeater signals Lower quadrant Upper quadrant Colour Light Another way to give a driver sufficient information about the signals ahead is to use a Repeater signal, which will be positioned approximately 200 yards before the signal. The signals consist of a black bar (with fish-tail

end in the case of a repeater for a distant signal) on a white translucent disc, lit from behind. It is electrically operated, working directly with the signal to which it applies. This type of signal is often referred to as a Banner signal, but this term refers to the type of signal rather than its function. It can be correctly described as a Banner Repeater signal. The modern equivalent is achieved using light generated through fibre-optic cable - giving the same indications without moving parts. Fibre-optic repeaters for distant signals are feasible, but none are known. Regional Variety Although most signalling installed in Britain after the "Grouping" of the railway companies in 1923 conformed to the standards described in the other pages, many older signals remained in use for many years. Some of these features continued to be used in certain areas for new signals, too, so the theoretical standardisation did include regional variety. Even with the formation of the unified British Railways in 1948, individuality can still be seen today. A few examples are illustrated here, but this page is not intended to be an exhaustive study of regional variety.

Many pre-grouping railways used rings and other shapes attached to the signal arms to identify special functions. The example shown here is a Great Western for outlets from sidings and goods loops to running lines.

The Great Western Railway also used a special signal for backing movements, if not catered for by shunting discs. Two holes were cut out of the signal arm to distinguish it from other signals.

5. прочитайте текст Railway signaling и заполните таблицу, дав характеристику каждому типу сигналов 34 bracket signals co-acting signals distant signals ground disc signals home signal junction signals lower quadrant signal outer distant signals repeater signals restricted space signals section signal shunting signals shunting signals for multiple routes somersault signal starting signal stop signals subsidiary signals upper quadrant signal yellow shunting signals

6. проделайте сравнительный анализ, заполнив следующую таблицу Colour light signals Semaphore signals

Signaling The following description is for British Railway Signaling. American and European signaling follow similar principles but with differences in some of the signal displays. Semaphore and 2 aspect signaling Semaphore and 2 aspect signaling color signals both indicate the same thing, either stop (red) or block ahead is clear (green). As a safety fail safe these signals generally use the rule that the signal is at stop unless it needs to be set to clear. In the other words as a train passes a signal that signal returns to red and the signal the train is approaching changes the green. However the signal the train is approaching will not change to green if there is a train in the block section ahead of it or the train is to stop at a station or a point is wrongly set. Our units operate the signals automatically following there rules. It takes a long distance for a train to stop. If the engine driver rounded a corner and saw a signal at stop he would overrun the signal unless traveling slowly. To show the engine driver the aspect of the next signal a distant signal is used. For 2 aspect color light signals the distant signal will be green or yellow instead of green or red. (Semaphore signals have a yellow instead of red arm.) 3 and 4 aspect signaling Color light signaling has several advantages over semaphore signaling. It is more easily seen against obstructed backgrounds or in bad weather and is more easily controlled from a long distance away. Semaphore signals rely on mechanical rodding from a signal box being pulled by a lever and there is a limit on distance due to friction. for this reason large stations often had two or more signal boxes. 4 aspect signaling has been in use since 1935 when the London North Eastern Railway had problems with the braking distance when running the (Silver Jubilee) at fast speed. If the line is very busy the signaling blocks need to be closer together so more trains can be on the line. The problem now arises that a fast train has insufficient distance to slow from seeing the yellow signal before it reaches the red. To overcome this a warning of a yellow ahead is given by using a double yellow signal. Unlike 2 aspect and semaphore signaling 3 and 4 aspect signals are set at clear (green) when no trains are approaching. So 4 aspect signals would be appropriate for model of a busy mainline, for a secondary line 3 aspect signaling and a branch line would have 2 aspect signaling. 35 Signaling glossary Block section. This is the length of track between 2 signals. To prevent collisions only one train can occupy this block section of track. As well as making signaling realistic the block section idea is helpful for wiring model railways to operate automatically when several trains are to run together on an oval. Interlocking on full size railways this means that the signal cannot change from danger whilst points are set in such a way as to trains or whilst another route is signaled in such a way as to risk a collision. This can be accomplished with our units using a terminal provided to set the signal to red.

7. прочитайте текст Signaling и подберите к каждому слову перевод

1. 2 aspect signaling a. безопасность 2. block section b. блок -участок 3. braking distance c. второстепенный путь 4. branch line d. главный путь 5. collision e. движение транспортного средства со скоростью, превышающей ту, которая предусмотрена мощностью двигателя (описывает движение по инерции после нажатия на тормоза ) 6. color light f. двухзначная сигнализация 7. derail g. дистанционный 8. distant h. жел езнодорожная ветка 9. friction i. загражденный 10. mainline j. маршрут 11. obstructed k. показание светофора 12. overrun l. пост централизации 13. prevent m. предотвращать 14. rodding n. прокладка электрических проводов 15. route o. сила трения 16. safety p. столкновение 17. secondary line q. стыкование 18. signal box r. сходить с рельсов 19. signal display s. тормозной путь 20. wiring t. цветовой огонь

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Signal Aspects – PRR / Pennsylvania Railroad Notes 1. Semaphore signal aspects are not (yet) included as drawings; the astute reader may be able to make out my meaning from the abbreviated versions. 2. Signals in the 1956 version were black and white drawings; earlier rulebooks contained color drawings. Color is used here for clarity. 3. The 1956 rules showed only new-style dwarves (curved side on left). However, old-style (curved side on right) dwarves survived into Amtrak and Conrail, and both forms were shown in AMTK, CR, and later NORAC rules. 4. Signal face shapes Usage varied quite widely. The following rules apply to signals out in the open, where clearance is not an issue; they are also general rules only, and are based on personal observation. The upper arm always had a round face. This is true even when only in those cases where only 2 "red-eye" lights were used (unlike, e.g., N&W). Unused hole positions were covered. The lower arm had one of 4 possibilities, depending on location. When the lower arm was a single marker lamp, there was no face. (There may have been exceptions where there had been a lower arm of 3 or more lamps and where all but the middle marker were removed.) When the lower arm was a single vertical row of 3, as at a distant signal (= last signal before the outermost home signal), generally a narrow face (as shown on the Approach- slow signal) was used. No face was rare, as was a full face. 36 When the lower arm was complete, generally a round face with straight sides was used. When the lower arm was not complete, all bets are off. The flat-sided-round face could be used, or the narrow face placed vertically and no face for the other positions, or no face at all. There were multitudinous exceptions to the above rules for lower arms. Round faces for lower arms were placed on some signals by Conrail. Autumn 1997 Keystone, lower photo back cover, shows a round lower face in 1970 (Penn Central) but apparently not changed since PRR. In cramped quarters, all bets for both signal and signal face were off. The author has seen upper arm signals with closely spaced lights (less than the standard 18") at the Delair bridge (N.J. side) and at Pennsylvania Station, Newark. The signals at Newark also have upper arms with no faces. Rule Aspect Name Aspect(s) # Indication Clear-Block Proceed; for passenger trains, manual block clear; for trains other than 280 passenger trains, manual block clear outside yard limits. [Revised 10/1964; previously: Proceed; manual block clear.]

Clear 281 Proceed.

Approach-medium Proceed approaching next signal at Medium Speed. 282 NOTE - Trains may proceed approaching next signal at not exceeding 45 miles per hour at signals displaying a yellow triangle outlined in black. Medium-clear Proceed; Medium Speed through interlocking limits. NOTE 1 - Trains may at not exceeding 45 miles per hour within interlocking limits, at signals displaying a yellow triangle outlined in 283 black. NOTE 2 - In cab signal territory with fixed automatic block signals, trains with cab signals not in operative condition or not equipped with cab signals, must not exceed Medium Speed.

Medium-approach 283A Proceed at Medium Speed prepared to stop at next signal. Train exceeding Medium speed must at once reduce to that speed.

Approach-slow 284 Proceed approaching next signal at Slow speed. Train exceeding Medium speed must at once reduce to that speed.

Approach 285 Proceed prepared to stop at next signal. Train exceeding Medium speed must at once reduce to that speed. Caution Train exceeding Medium speed must at once reduce to that speed. 285A Where a facing switch is connected with the signal, approach that switch prepared to stop. Approach next signal prepared to stop.

37 Slow-clear 287 Proceed; Slow speed within interlocking limits.

Slow-approach 288 Proceed prepared to stop at next signal. Slow speed within interlocking limits.

Permissive-Block Block occupied; for passenger trains, stop; for trains other than 289 passenger trains, proceed prepared to stop short of obstruction, but not exceeding 15 miles per hour.

Restricting 290 Proceed at Restricted speed.

Stop-and-proceed Stop, then proceed at Restricted speed. NOTE - Freight trains of 90 or more cars or having tonnage of 80 per cent or more of the prescribed engine rating may proceed at Restricted 291 speed without stopping at signals displaying a yellow disc on which is shown the letter "G" in black. The engineman must be notified as to tonnage and number of cars in train before leaving terminals and when consist is changed enroute.

Stop-signal 292 Stop.

[lantern on post, red in middle, yellow to Block-limit 293 left, station name Limit of the block. vertically on post] Approach block-limit [yellow sign, black Proceed prepared to stop at next Block-limit signal. Train exceeding 293A letters vertically: A B Medium speed must at once reduce to that speed. L] NOTE - Will not apply to trains authorized to pass the Block-limit station as though Clear-block signal were displayed. [flashing illuminated Train-order letter "O" on left Orders. side of signal mast] NOTE - By day the yellow lamp not displayed. 294 [lantern hung in When displayed in the direction of an approaching train or trains, must front of yellow fish- not be passed by any such train on any track except as provided by Rule tail flag hanging 221. down] [Color light signal, Clear distant switch signal 295 green lamp on top Switch closed, proceed. lit] [Color light signal, Caution distant switch signal 296 yellow lamp on Switch open. Approach all switches connected with the signal prepared bottom lit] to stop short of the switches.

8. прочитайте текст Signal Aspects – PRR / Pennsylvania Railroad и составьте короткий рассказ о значениях показаний светофоров 38

Absolute Permissive Block This document explains the Absolute Permissive Block (APB) systems in use on single track lines across much of the USA. The APB described in this document is a typical installation, some variations may be found on various railroads. APB is a special type of Automatic Block Signaling (ABS) for single track. It is special in that it provides full signal protection for opposing trains, in addition to the protection for following trains that ABS always provides. Other single track ABS systems only provide full signal protection for trains following each other while opposing trains must be protected by some other system, often a track occupation authority system (Timetable/Train Orders, Track Warrant Control, Direct Traffic Control, Occupancy Control System etc.). While most single track ABS systems do provide some protection against opposing trains, the protection is not complete, thus the need for track possession authority as well. Though the APB provides full safety by itself, trains still need to be dispatched. The safety of the APB system allows for an informal way of dispatching but most railroads prefer to use a system like Track Warrant Control for dispatching, probably because the railroads already uses this system extensively on unsignaled lines or lines with plain ABS. An Absolute Permissive Block line: The Absolute Permissive Block system protects a single track line including any sidings along it. The sidings are used to meet or overtake trains. All signals are automatic and there is no interlocking or CTC control of an APB line. Switches are thrown by the train crew as needed. APB lines may span hundreds of miles without any controlled signals. An APB line typically looks like this, shown in its normal state without any trains present. Note that all signals show "Clear":

Each block is divided into two track circuits to allow the APB system to detect the direction of a train entering a block, by sensing which track circuit becomes occupied first. The use of the direction sensing is described below. The APB only responds to conditions on the main track and the sidings are thus not track circuited. Signals on lines like this may be approach-lit. This means that when no train is approaching a signal the lamps are switched off to increase their lifetime. A signal is switched on only when a train enters the block leading to the signal. In this document, however, all relevant signals are shown as if they were constantly lit to illustrate the block functions. In some examples, irrelevant/unimportant signals are shown shaded. In the examples in this document BNSF signaling aspects and indications are used as APB is/was used on some former BN lines. Except for the rule numbers these signal aspects and indications are universal across the United States: Signal BNSF Name Indication Aspect Rule

9.50 Clear Proceed

Proceed prepared to stop at next 9.54 Approach signal, trains exceeding 40 MPH immediately reduce to that speed

9.56 Stop and Proceed Stop, then proceed at restricted speed

39 9.61 Stop Stop

APB protection of trains On a single track line trains are generally dispatched between locations where sidings can be used to let the trains meet or overtake. The APB system has three main protection tasks to perform: Protection of opposing trains between sidings, protection of opposing trains when approaching sidings for a meet and protection of trains following each other. Protection of opposing trains between sidings The prime task of dispatching trains on a single track line is to set up meets. To provide full safety for opposing trains means that even if two trains for some reason enter the same single track in opposing direction, this situation must be handled by the APB system in a safe way. The safest way to handle the protection of trains would be to keep all signals at "Stop" as the normal state, and to clear them only when a train needs it and the track is free of conflicting trains. This is what an interlocking or a CTC system does on the command of the tower operator/dispatcher. An ABS or APB system, on the other hand, is fully automatic and has no way of telling where a train is going; it must instead create safety for the trains as it detects their movement. As shown above the APB has intermediate block signals between sidings. These signals serve both to separate trains following each other and as a means of stopping opposing trains. At the ends of the sidings are the signals termed headblock signals. These signals indicate whether it is safe to proceed to the next siding. The headblock signals are absolute signals; i.e., their most restrictive aspect is "Stop" (and stay). Their absolute nature is indicated in some way, typically either by the absence of a number plate, or by the addition of an "A" ("absolute") plate. The signals between sidings are permissive signals whose most restrictive aspect is "Stop and Proceed". In their normal state all intermediate signals (i.e. signals between sidings), and headblock signals show "Clear" as shown above. When a train passes the headblock signal and enters the track between two sidings, the APB sets all opposing signals down to the next (opposing) headblock signal to red, the so called tumble down:

This gives protection even for the worst possible situation: Two trains simultaneously passing the headblock signals for the same section of line:

The trains will both face signals displaying "Stop (then Proceed)" and have plenty of stopping distance. When they finally meet they will be going at restricted speed and thus the situation is not dangerous, though of course quite impractical. If block lengths are less than twice the stopping distance of a train, a minimum of 4 blocks between sidings are necessary to ensure safety (as shown). If block lengths are at least twice the stopping distance long, only 3 blocks are necessary. Protection of opposing trains when approaching sidings When trains are approaching sidings for a meet they must know which train is to go in the siding and which train is to stay on the main track. Determining the usage of tracks is part of setting up a meet and this information is communicated to the trains when they are informed about the meet. As the APB is required to ensure safety for the opposing trains also when approaching a siding for a meet, some special measures must be taken. 40 When trains are approaching the meet from each end of a siding, the headblock signals at the ends of the siding will be displaying "Stop". If the APB was to perform like a simple block occupancy system around sidings this would introduce hazards to the trains as the signals protecting the siding will be displaying "Approach". If the trains were arriving at the same time they would both be allowed to enter the block at speed:

To avoid this situation the signals protecting the siding will not only supervise the block they're protecting but also the next track circuit, i.e. first half of the next block. The extra stretch of line being supervised is called an overlap, as it extends into the next block:

This way at least only one of the trains can be signaled into the block hosting the siding at speed, the other train will see a "Stop and Proceed" aspect on its signal. Displaying "Stop and Proceed" for the second train (the train on the left of the illustration) is of little use if the train has passed a signal showing "Clear" shortly before the next signal drops from "Approach" to "Stop and Proceed":

Therefore the circuitry is designed to always provide two signals displaying "Approach" before a headblock signal displaying "Stop". This is often referred to as double yellow.

A train may still see the signal protecting the siding change from "Approach" to "Stop and Proceed" but with double yellow the train will be approaching the signal as if it already was showing "Stop and Proceed". The signals protecting the siding also supervise the siding switches. The signals drop to "Stop and Proceed" whenever a siding switch is opened (i.e. not lined for the main track):

Protection of following trains Trains following each other on the single track only needs to be separated by a block signal showing "Stop (and Proceed)". As mentioned earlier the APB system contains a direction sensing circuitry that enables it to detect the direction of a train in a block. This direction detection is used to determine whether an occupied track circuit should tumble down the signals leading to the block (i.e. which signals are opposing) or merely protect the block by a single signal showing "Stop (and Proceed)".

An APB example To give an example of the above described features of an APB system, we'll look at how a meet could take place on an APB line. First an eastbound train is arriving at the meeting point where it is to go in the siding. Note that the westbound signal protecting the siding is at "Stop and Proceed" due to the eastbound train occupying the overlap.

The crew stops the train before the siding entry switch and lines the switch for the siding. 41

The train clears the line

...and closes the switch. The eastbound train stays in the siding because it is instructed to meet another train at that location. The meeting westbound train passes its previous siding.

The westbound passes the headblock signal and the opposing signals tumble down.

The opposing signals clear as the westbound passes them.

The westbound is now approaching the siding with the meeting train. The opposing signals on the west side of the siding are are still providing "double yellow".

...until the westbound reaches the overlap.

As soon as the westbound clears the line, the eastbound headblock signal clears, permitting the eastbound to leave the siding.

In our example the eastbound stays in the siding for a while. The westbound has reached the other end of the siding and tumbled down the signals on the next stretch of line.

The overlap is also active for following trains in this example. In some installations it is switched out by direction sensing circuitry.

After clearing the overlap, the westbound signal protecting the siding changes to "Approach". The previous signal also stays at "Approach" to provide the "double yellow".

42 Finally the westbound clears the first block after the siding and the "double yellow" signals change to "Clear".

The eastbound now gets ready to depart and opens the switch. This sets the signals protecting the siding to "Stop and Proceed" and the eastbound is ready to go.

When opening the switch for the train to depart special rules has to be observed, as a train might be on its way towards the siding and too close to be able to stop when the switch is opened. The crew must wait 5 minutes at the opened switch to see if any train is approaching, before they can pull their train out of the siding. Normally the eastbound would open the switch as soon as the westbound has cleared the switch. With the westbound moving away in the same block no train can be approaching from behind, and the clear eastbound headblock signal indicates that no other westbounds are near the siding. The train may therefore pull out of the siding immediately.

9. прочитайте текст Absolute Permissive Block и письменно ответьте на вопросы a) What does the APB-System protect? b) What do trains need? c) What means “Signals on lines may be approach-lit”? d) What can you say about American signal aspects and indications? e) What main protection tasks has the APB-System to perform? f) Describe the features of an APB-System.

10. составьте тематический словарь к тексту ABS

Absolute Permissive

 Block System  Informal way of dispatching 

11. переведите все предложения с выделенными словами 12. составьте ассоциограмму к тексту

Домашнее задание 1. составьте историю развития сигнализации на желехной дороге России (используйте для поиска информации справочную литературу и Интернет) 2. напишите краткое изложение на тему «Story of the british semaphore» 3. письменно переведите текст «Railway signaling» 4. прокомментируйте название текста Railway Signalling In the years BC (Before Computers) We are all familiar with the Signal Box that used to grace every station and wayside junction on our Railways. While the simple idea of just pulling levers to clear the signals is basically correct the actual function is a little more complex. The Signalman and the mechanism in the Signal Box are the safety system that prevents accidents and controls the running of the trains to the timetable.

43 While the system is controlled by a set of very strict rules, mechanical interlocks are built into the Signal Box that physically prevent the signalman from setting what are known as 'Conflicting Routes'. Grosmont Signal Box Consider the situation shown opposite: With the points 'Normal' as shown in the diagram, Signal 1 must NOT be cleared as any train approaching from the left on that line could be de-railed. On the other hand Signal 2 Can be safely cleared to allow a train to pass. If the Points need to be reversed then both signals need to be at danger then Signal 1 can be safely cleared. A simple mechanical interlocking using notches and locking 'Tappets' was used to provide this function. The diagrams show a simple tappet locked three lever frame controlling 1 2 3 the point and signals. On the right is a diagram of the locking levers mechanism showing the lever tails with the notches and the tappets connected to the locking bars, while on the other side is a representation of the signal levers. All the systems so far described rely on the integrity and vigilance of the signalman, Some form of aid was clearly needed to help the 'Bobby in the Box'. The earliest form of train detection was the simple treadle. This is a simple pivoted metal ramp that is mounted on the inside of the running rail. When a train passes over the treadle the flanges of the wheels depress the ramp on its pivot operating an electrical contact, in most cases these are now only used where track circuits are unreliable such as platform ends where the track is likely to be dirty or rusty. Another use of the treadle is as a fouling bar to prevent the signalman from changing a set of facing points while a train was standing on them. the treadle is connected to a locking bolt which engages the tie bar across the heal of the points.

The locking bolt and the treadle are connected to a lever (usually blue) in the signal box. All the signals associated to the set of points are interlocked so they cannot be changed unless the bolt is engaged. If a train stops on the points, then the signalman would not be able to withdraw the bolt because the treadle cannot rise because of the wheel flanges, On the ground frame the FPL lever is the one on the far right of the frame. This lever is locked remotely by the signalbox when no shunting is taking place. Along side the frame is a telephone to talk to the signalman at New Bridge.

Unit 3 Automatic Control Open Communication Standards for Safe and Secure Railway Control Today's railway control systems are largely based on and data network technologies. The success of high capacity fiber optic backbone and long-haul technologies, and the proliferation of the Internet and have led to inexpensive off-the-shelf equipment and components based on Ethernet standards and the Internet Protocol (IP) becoming available for nearly all network applications. Scalability and flexibility are among the features that make IP so attractive. Today, Ethernet and IP are the dominant choices for enterprise Local Area Networks (LAN). Although the boom has recently slowed, there is no doubt that the evolution of network and information technologies will continue and further important advances are expected. This article deals with vital data communication and network technology for main line railways in the light of the

44 dominance of IP and the expected further evolution of network architectures and technologies. The focus is on networks for the vital signaling and control systems of large railway operators with railway- specific emphasis on safety and security according to the required "safety integration levels". Variety of Data Networks in Interlocking Environments Deutsche Bahn (DB) illustrates the complexity of a large railway interlocking and control environment of the type provided by Alcatel. The main system units are:  Alcatel 6111 LockTrac (Electronic Interlocking ESTW L90) is implemented as interlocking centers with remote interlocking units, including Field Element Controllers (FEC).  Automatic Train Control (ATC) subsystems, consisting of Alcatel 6452 AlTrac (LZB) and Alcatel 6481 AlTrac Radio Block Centers (RBC) for the European Train Control System (ETCS) level 2, which also interoperate with the interlocking system.  The above units are embedded in a hierarchical structure of operating centers (BZ), subcenters (UZ) and ATC centers, and down to the levels of interlocking modules and field elements. All the subsystems have different development histories, meet different requirements and are at different stages of evolution. Consequently, various data communication technologies and separate networks today coexist in large environments like that of Figure 1. It is of vital importance that there should be two separate operation and control center networks (BZ-UZ LAN/WAN) with different security levels, both using Ethernet / IP technology. The network with the higher security level uses (WAN) links via leased lines in a Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) backbone with link encryption through special Security Gateways (SG). In the network with lower security requirements, WAN links through a routed IP network are realized via special Secure Routers (SR). A separate Ethernet-based network interconnects the interlocking centers with the 6452 AlTrac and the 6481 AlTrac RBC, at present via leased or dedicated lines without security gateways. Cellular technology is also used to control moving trains via the RBCs. In addition, field busses and classical and voice frequency transmission via copper wire are still widely used. For example, interlocking centers communicate with remote interlocking units via multiplexed fiber optic rings or via copper-wire star configurations. Most of the network and transmission equipment is delivered by Alcatel. The division that is responsible for the overall system implementation benefits from the equipment and support of other Alcatel divisions, particularly as regards the network aspects. An example is the carrier-class OmniSwitch equipment for leading-edge LAN / WAN configurations. In contrast to complex systems which have been deployed and modified over many years, there are less complex interlocking and control systems with shorter histories that incorporate a homogeneous data transmission architecture based on standard protocols. An example is the Alcatel 6151 LockTrac (Electronic Interlocking L 90 5) system, which encompasses up to about twenty smaller interlocking stations interconnected to the Central Traffic Control (CTC). There is a local network at each location based on standard Ethernet LAN technology, while the CTC communicates with the interlocking stations via a backbone network using standard WAN technology. The same IP-based can be used at the WAN and LAN levels; this corresponds to Alcatel's approach of using its TAS control platform for various signaling applications. From an overall cost point of view, configurations based on multiple networks, protocols and transmission techniques are clearly not optimum. Approaches based on a standard IP communication solution are paving the way for future network technologies suitable for railway systems. They are the focus of the remainder of this article. Standard Protocol-based Vital Data Communication in Railway Systems Figure 3 shows a somewhat simplified layered model to help explain the main issues of a standard communication protocol stack for vital signaling and control applications.

45 The lowest layers (physical layer and basic transport protocols) are covered by commercially available components (network interface cards with communication software), for example, Ethernet with TCP/IP or the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) instead of TCP, or field busses, such as Profibus, Controller Area Network (CAN) and Multi-Vehicle Bus (MVB). Above these two layers are the functions required to support the connection and session processes, such as initialization and switch-over of redundant channels. Just below the top application layer is a layer of safety-related functions which are essential in vital railway communication protocols. It is necessary to distinguish between "safety-related transmission functions" and "safety-related access protection functions". Following a frequently used convention, transmission-related safety is simply denoted as "safety", whereas access protection is denoted as "security". Only "safety" functions are required if the transmission network has the well controlled properties of a "closed network". However, access protection is needed in addition to "safety" functions if the network is "open" that is, if its safety properties are untrusted because they cannot be determined. This is normally because the network is large with an unknown number of more or less anonymous subscribers. The use of open networks may be attractive because of their lower costs, although access protection involves additional efforts and costs. Basically, access protection is realized using cryptographic means, which makes it necessary to organize the management of cryptographic keys. Security against malicious attacks is an important issue, which may only become evident to railway operators in a few years time when hackers are attracted by the much larger number of networks in railway use than today. Safety-related functions in both open and closed networks include powerful coding schemes to detect system-originated transmission errors as part of the task of guaranteeing data integrity and authenticity. The 64 bit Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC 64) is still widely used; more advanced systems use message digests generated by hash functions, such as MD4 or MD5. This and some other functions in the safety-related protocol layer have to be realized in a fail-safe way. For example, Alcatel's TAS control platform supports a 2-out-of-3 computer architecture on which all the vital applications run. State-of-the art vital communication solutions are "one channel safe", that is, redundant channels are not necessary to ensure safe transmission, although they do contribute to increasing the transmission availability. For the latter purpose, it is important that the communication protocol provides functions to make effective use of any redundant channels. The One Channel Safe (OCS) protocol used by the TAS control platform includes mechanisms to switch over to redundant channels without losing any data packets. This is achieved by protocol elements that control the retransmission of any data that is lost during switchover. Security Solutions Two groups of security solutions are commonly used in open networks:  Network solutions, in which encryption is concentrated in network nodes known as security gateways, secure routers or similar.  Client solutions with end-to-end encryption. SGs and SRs support a network structure with secure (closed) LANs shielded against untrusted open networks (backbones). The SG solution, which DB has introduced on a large scale for its control center WANs, is based on commercially available "crypto boxes" operating point-to-point at the ends of a leased line. Crypto boxes are layer 1 encryption devices because they encipher and decipher the data stream on the physical layer at the WAN interface. Not surprisingly, data transmission security has also been an important issue in the Internet and in IP-based enterprise networks. Consequently, the IP world offers flexible and powerful security solutions. The IPSec (IP Security) set of standard protocols provides encrypted packet data transport in several configurable ways. This includes options for the most commonly used and approved cipher algorithms and key exchange methods. IPSec protocols work together with IP; they perform

46 encryption/decryption in the same basic transport protocol layer as IP, thereby converting this layer into a barrier which protects the applications in the layers above. In common with IP itself, this is compatible with any application running on top if it. An SG or SR is constructed by adding gateway and routing functions in a separate device, in principle as shown in Figure 4b. A client security solution results if IPSec is added in a client's protocol stack. Several other protocols are available and in use to implement client security, such as the Secure Socket Layer (SSL). However, such solutions have not been introduced so far into vital data communication systems for the railways. A client solution for security which is to be implemented in the main line railway world is the "Euroradio" protocol which will be used in the ETCS for the vital communication between the RBC and the units onboard vehicles via the "open" GSM-R and the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN). In principle similar to SSL, encryption is implemented in conjunction with message authentication and integrity checking within the fail-safe safety layer of RBCs and onboard units. This Euroradio safety and security protocol has been standardized for the ETCS after extensive investigations in workgroups. Whereas the Euroradio protocol has been agreed, a decision is still awaited on standardization of the communication interfaces for the RBCs and the interlocking units. Alcatel, as a leading supplier of interlocking and ETCS equipment, is participating in the ongoing decision process within UNISIG (ETCS-related association of European manufacturers of railway signaling equipment). However, existing orders in a variety of project environments have to be met without delay, which might make it necessary to use partly proprietary intermediate solutions. A crucial item in any security solution is the need to establish a management organization for the encryption keys. It appears that railway operators are at the early stages of embracing open standard protocols in the area of security. The crypto box solution used by DB AG uses symmetric keys that are manually exchanged at certain intervals. The same would appear to apply at the start of Euroradio operation in ETCS. Available automated key exchange procedures, such as Internet Key Exchange (IKE) in IPSec, often use a combination of symmetric and unsymmetric techniques; the latter require Certificate Authorities to be established, which would be an additional task to be done by the railways. There have been major advances in this field in urban rail. ComTrac MT, the data communication system used by Alcatel SelTrac® systems for urban rail applications, offers IPSec with dynamic key management using the standard IKE protocol. In this implementation, the "secure routers" refer to so-called Security Devices (SD) which delineate the data communication network; the system includes a central Certificate Authority, which issues certificates to all SDs. The SDs create trusted networks (automatic train supervision, wayside equipment and train borne equipment) between each other and examine all data traffic; they only pass through traffic that is encapsulated in IPSec format and that authenticates correctly. This provides a clear border to any untrusted network. More details are provided in the Urban Rail Solutions section of this issue. Evolution Highlights in the Technology of Large Networks Before addressing strategic issues for rail networks, an attempt should be made to recognize the main streams of evolution of general network technology. To be more precise, the dominance of IP refers to the success of the IP protocol suite version 4 (IPv4), which originated about 20 years ago! However, sooner or later IPv4 will be succeeded by IPv6, which will bring substantial improvements to critical areas such as IPv4 address depletion, efficient packet handling and ease of networking. Authentication and security, an option in IPv4, will be an integral part of IPv6. IT people expect that packet data communication technology using next generation IP protocols will continue to expand and, in the long term, will incorporate or replace most other current systems. One of the key aspects of this vision is "service integration". Major issues that are currently being addressed include the integration of voice (voice over IP), as well as video and data services in fixed and mobile networks. It is assumed that new packet data applications (home networks, remote control, online gaming, mobile Internet, etc) will require the extended address range of IPv6. Whereas the future on the network protocol level seems to be decided for IP, there is no clear decision about the lower protocol layers (physical and link access), which are the technological basis for today's metropolitan and long-haul WAN and backbone systems. Many years ago, synchronous systems were the leading technology (SDH and the Synchronous Optical NETwork or SONET are still widely used), then new asynchronous systems, primarily the Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Frame

47 Relay, seemed like more promising candidates. Today, Ethernet is squeezing out the last remaining competing LAN/uplink technologies, like the Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and is entering the 10 Gbit/s range. Consequently it has become a strong candidate for metropolitan and long-haul applications. Commercial and practical needs of network service providers in such mixed-technology environments led to the standardization of Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS) as a method for provisioning virtual circuits over multiple network technologies. It is also viewed as a promising technique with regard to the evolution of IP because it can conveniently add important Quality of Service (QoS) features to IP networks, which it would be difficult for IP to provide. Far reaching visions anticipate a fully optical switching and transmission technology in which the technology options (SDH, ATM, Frame Relay, Ethernet) and their different control planes are merged within a unified system under a protocol roof named "IP with generalized MPLS" (GMPLS). Advanced optical long-haul technology uses Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) to achieve transport capacities in excess of 40 Gbit/s. These technological streams support a trend to large "generalized" networks. To meet the need for smaller and "private" networks within such large networks it is expected that the technique of logical ("virtual") separation into closed subnetworks will be an essential part of this evolutionary scenario. Such techniques are already available today, for example Virtual LAN (VLAN) in Ethernet and secure Virtual Private Networks (VPN) using IPSec; they are cost-effective and are being increasingly deployed. Thus, a vision of a future "service integrating" general network structure, as shown in Figure 5, is reasonable; nearly all services (voice, video, data), possibly offering several security levels, might be implemented as "applications" in an IP/GMPLS-based VPN structure over a common multi-technology (fixed and mobile) transport infrastructure base. Strategic Issues for Future Railway Data Networks There are a few important strategic questions concerning the vital railway field for which the answers will be strongly influenced by the anticipated evolution of general network technology. Questions include:  Are cost-saving security solutions based on routed IP networks and on protocols proven in the Internet and enterprise networks (e.g. IPSec, SSL) really suited to rail systems requiring high security integration levels? The answer is difficult because it must take into account not only technical questions, but also hard to calculate (and hence debatable) issues of hazard analysis. The challenge for the railway community is to incorporate "outside" technical solutions into their systems which must meet additional safety requirements (such as fail-safe detection and indication of failure of a security mechanism) before they can be safety approved using the established in-depth approval processes. This is practically impossible in the case of third-party software. However, there is an economic way based on close cooperation between the railway industry, general IT security specialists and general IT certification and approval bodies, such as the Bundesamt fü r Sicherheit in der Informationstechnik (BSI) in Germany. Recently the BSI awarded its highest level security approval to the IPSec router "box" of an IT manufacturer which runs essentially on standard PC hardware with a dedicated "hardened" version of Linux. The cost of developing such hardened implementations of open source software will be recouped by revenues from the general IT market. However, it is still necessary to incorporate such advanced "boxes" in a fail-safe way into rail systems and to approve them accordingly.  Which technologies (hardware and protocols) are appropriate and have the longest commercial availability? Vital railway equipment with its very long product lifecycles needs to be complemented by off-the-shelf components with the longest commercial availability in order to avoid frequent modifications. As implicitly suggested throughout this article, Ethernet and IP may be a good choice because of their outstanding prospects for the future. This is despite the effort involved in the likely change from Ipv4 to

48 IPv6 if components supporting the old version vanish from the market. Network implementations for railway signaling and control face the situation that general network technologies migrate to more complex structures and much higher transmission rates (network people say "") than are needed by vital railway applications (still in the kbit/s range!). In view of this, it is important that because of the very wide range of applications, Ethernet and IP might be expected to maintain their coverage of lower bandwidth, less complex networks.  Will long-term network evolution really enable railway operators to deploy large universal networks, possibly even in the form of public networks, such that most or all services can be provided using the anticipated VPN structure? Without having prophetic capabilities, we can only remind ourselves that previously incredible technology revolutions in the IT field have already generated outstanding consequences. Normally, cost saving is the driving force. If commercial aspects play a still larger role in the railway operation business, some of the network convergence issues should be tackled by railways in the short or medium terms. Examples are the integration of their mobile and fixed network services. An answer for both vital applications and for signaling and control has been implicitly given above when considering the question of security. Conclusion Vital data network issues for railways cover a wide scope, ranging from the existing rail network plant, through standard protocol issues for safe and secure communications, to far-reaching technological visions relating to the telecoms and IT fields. It can be concluded that Alcatel's strategy of migrating signaling communication interfaces to Ethernet and IP and relying on these technologies in their LAN/WAN solutions is well justified. Alcatel can offer its railway customers the benefits of leading-edge products and systems expertise based on its extensive experience in the railway, telecoms and datacoms sectors. Consequently, rail operators can be sure of overall system optimization and support from Alcatel.

Dr Hans-Werner Renz In charge of Product Strategy and Product Management for network products (LAN/WAN) and issues within the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel in , Germany.

Упражнения 1. прочитайте текст Open Communication Standards for Safe and Secure Railway Control 2. прокомментируйте схемы, приведенные в тексте 3. ответьте на вопрос «Какое оборудование производите Alcatel для контроля на железной дороге»

Домашнее задание 1. письменно переведите текст и составьте 5 вопросов по содержанию текста New technology helps improve railroad safety measures Matt Hardin The flashing red lights at a railroad crossing are supposed to mean "STOP," but many cars snake through the gates, creating the chance of being hit by a train. Research completed in Knoxville by the UT Transportation Center suggested a gate with skirts that completely blocks a car from crossing or a standard red light would significantly reduce the number of accidents. Steve Richards, director of the UT Transportation Center, said with the coming of a network of supertrain tracks, it will be necessary to change safety methods with the times. He has suggested a net or pop-up barrier, which will not allow a car to enter a grade, the area where the road meets the railroad tracks. "If a vehicle approaches a crossing, once it got to a point of no return, then a net would spring up out of the pavement and restrain the vehicle," said Richards. "Another idea would be to have a pop-up barrier, which would pop-up in front of the car. There would be damage to the vehicle." UT has been active in train research since the mid-1980s. The four quadrant gate system, the technical name for the gate with skirts, was tested successfully in East Knoxville at the Cherry Street intersection.

49 "In the 1970s, there were around 2,000 people killed each year at grade crossings," Richards said. "In the time since, we've invested $3 billion in flashing light signals. The number is now around 500 deaths per year." Richards believes to make additional gains, new technology will have to be developed. However, new technology is expensive. "It's more expensive," Richards said. "That's one of the big issues. It costs anywhere from $70,000 for the flashing lights. For flashing lights with gates, it costs $150,000. The cost for the four quadrant gates would approach $200,000." Bruce George, from the office of safety analysis for the Federal Railroad Administration, said railroads are getting safer. "For high speed rails, the department has laid down some guidelines," George said. "If you are operating at speeds of 125 mph, no crossing. From 110-125, you have to preclude intrusion on the rail right away." There are now five major high speed rails being funded or developed under the 1989 ISTEA Act. Richards said he believes the emergence of high speed rails will present new crossing problems in the future. "The key here is that if you have a train moving in excess of 100 miles an hour, you simply cannot allow a grade-crossing accident," Richards said. "We need devices that prevent cars from entering the track area, and we need to stop them in a way that minimizes injuries to the vehicle occupants." Richards foresees the eventual installment of a in the train that would relay to a receiver in the car when a train is coming. "The system we are using - with flashing lights, whistles, gates and signs - is more than 100 years old and was not designed for trains going that fast," Richards said. "We need to consider the special needs of today's motorists and high speed rail."

Unit 4 Interlocking A New Concept for Interlocking Solutions Using Standard PC Technology The Alcatel 6171 LockTrac (PIPC) is an innovative electronic interlocking using PC technology and a flexible, modular, open standard communication-based architecture, to ensure a high level of safety, optimized total cost of ownership and high interoperability level. It offers main line and urban rail operators a complete interlocking solution with an optimized lifecycle cost. Technical Overview The Alcatel 6171 LockTrac (PIPC) core is a redundant 2-out-of-2 system characterized by its double back-up concept, which makes it effectively a (2-out-of-2) x 2 solution. Safety relies on the heterogeneous back-up of the independent units: dual input acquisitions, dual processing, dual output results and a dynamic voter system verifying the coherence between the two units. The hot-standby configuration ensures changeover without any perturbation of the operation. Moreover, maintenance is made easier by isolating a line using a simple switch, without interrupting the safety features of the system. The configuration has been developed to allow remote control of single or double track lines and stations from either one main central control or distributed control centers along the line. Various deployment configurations are available, enabling installation in technical rooms or at the wayside. The general architecture, shown in Figure 1, follows a standard three-layer approach. The different subsystems, like the Maintenance Aid System (SAM) and Electronic Interlocking Module (EIM), communicate with each other and with a Central Traffic Control (CTC) system through IP-based networks or another standard communication system. 50 Functional Flexibility through Modularity The Alcatel LockTrac PIPC has several acquisition options and is able to interface with nearly all types of CTC system and communication protocols. It can be used for station interlocking, complete , block systems, level crossings, and fail-safe rail control data transmission. To cover the diverse needs of rail operators, ranging from just a few points to well over 50 points to be controlled, two kinds of configuration have been developed. The standalone configuration for the low range comprises one EIM including signaling and local Input/Output (I/O) interface control. A distributed configuration for the medium and high range consists of one EIM for signaling and several EIM for distributed I/O interfaces via private Ethernet networks. Station Deployment Cost-effectiveness Most national networks have specific signaling principles (i.e. rules to be applied on field equipment). A rail network deployment applies these principles to a specific station. The Alcatel 6171 LockTrac (PIPC) solution is based on a complete software platform used for exhaustive modeling of the signaling principles (using graphs method, Petri net), data preparation tool (ASIFER) and automatic validation (AVIFER). This platform uses a high-level man-machine interface, natural for a signaling engineer, reducing significantly the design and validation cost and non-regression testing. Significant customer value was introduced through the innovative integrated tools. These tools enable generic rules and specific rules to be defined, which then can be used to instantiate graphs for each station, to compile them automatically and to generate all the documentation that is used to crosscheck the process. A similar process implemented by a separate team enables test cases to be defined, which are then run automatically, guided by a simulator. Creating a New Reference The LockTrac PIPC product was designed in the 90s for and with SNCF (French Railways). Alcatel has already equipped tens of train stations with this new electronic interlocking and will equip around 100 more in the next few years. The Portuguese Railway (REFER) also decided to use the LockTrac PIPC to replace their traditional relay interlockings on some regional lines. Since the beginning of 2004, the Tunes/Lagos line (7 stations) has been equipped with PIPC. A second line, Baixa, will be equipped by the end of 2004. In parallel with main line applications, the product has been adapted to urban rail needs. In 2003, Alcatel successfully commissioned the four biggest stations of the Bordeaux Tramway system. On this project, Alcatel demonstrated its capability to provide a complete LockTrac solution in less than 12 months. More recently RATP, the Paris Metro operator, decided to replace all their relay interlocking systems by a generic solution (PMI - Poste de Manœuvre Informatisé) adapted to their needs and based on LockTrac PIPC. Within a contract covering several years, the generic PMI platform is planned for delivery to RATP in 2004, with a first application in the Lilas 11 station in 2005, followed by a frame contract to equip a number of other RATP stations. Conclusion The feasibility and the cost-effectiveness of a novel design, based on generic modeling of interlocking principles, have been proven in practice by Alcatel's 6171 solutions using the LockTrac (PIPC) electronic interlocking. The base product offers several features such as high availability, reduced testing and validation costs, integrated automatic diagnosis and the utilization of standard PC and communication technologies. All these contribute to achieving an optimized lifecycle cost with a competitive acquisition price for both urban and main line applications. Gerard Basso Director of Operations in Alcatel Transport Solutions Division projects in .

Christian Pichon Product and Development manager in the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel, Massy

Упражнения 1. прочитайте текст A New Concept for Interlocking Solutions Using Standard PC Technology 2. дайте техническую характеристику устройству Alcatel 6171 LockTrac (PIPC) 51

Introducing High Performance Electronic Interlockings to North America From the early days of mechanical lever frames, the signaling interlocking has been a key tenet of the safety of railway operations. It does, however, represent one of the significant costs associated with maintaining, upgrading and enhancing the railways, especially with the evolution of the large scale free- wired relay-based interlockings. As the lifecycle costs of relay interlockings began to be fully appreciated, the potential of computer-based technology was explored as an alternative, less costly solution. Thus, in the 1980s, the first Solid State Interlocking (SSI) systems began to be installed in Europe and North America. The systems developed were necessarily driven by the requirements of the target markets. Consequently, the typical system architectures differed markedly between the two continents. North America's driving market was the main line environment: low complexity installations, typically end of siding ( entry/exit), with minimal input/output requirements spread over many hundreds of miles. From this environment came the small, distributed interlocking. Europe's driving market was the intercity rail environment: large, highly complex layouts involving high input/output densities within compact geographical zones. Centralized interlocking emerged from this environment. With some notable exceptions, there has been little intermixing of technologies despite the significant benefits of each interlocking type in specific applications. In the urban rail market, with the pressures of maintaining service during commissionings, minimizing the impact of failure and minimizing intrusive maintenance, solid-state technology offers real benefits. Distributed Interlocking The typical distributed configuration consists of a central interlocking module together with Input/Output (I/O) modules mounted in a single rack. Interlockings with this configuration are only capable of controlling small groups of equipment and, as such, multiple interlockings may be located in a single equipment building, depending on equipment density and quantity. Distributed installations require vital communication links between the interlockings, generally operating in a master/slave arrangement. Centralized Interlocking In this configuration, the central interlocking module is located in an equipment room at the central control depot or in a remote location, with I/O modules distributed around the installation. Such interlockings can control very large territories regardless of the geographic spread of the equipment as the I/O modules can be located remotely from the central interlocking (i.e. independently distributed or remotely consolidated). This means that in areas of low equipment density, such as suburban lines, the I/O modules may be located individually in wayside cabinets adjacent to the controlled equipment. Conversely, in high equipment density areas, such as large city center passenger stations where, typically, wayside equipment is housed in equipment buildings, the I/O modules may be consolidated to control groups of equipment. Implementation With the reliance of many major cities on their railway networks, in many cases extending to 24 hours a day / 7 days a week, large

52 commissionings must inevitably take a staged approach so that the engineering possession (engineering possession is a period when the operational railway is handed over to engineering staff for commissioning, maintenance, etc) time may be minimized and the granted engineering possessions may be limited to off- peak operation periods. In these situations, the benefits of solid-state interlockings become apparent. The benefits of SSI first become noticeable when the data configuration has been completed. This is the point at which, in the relay equivalent, the relay racks would be built. However, in solid-state systems, this is when data can be simulation-tested within the office. This flexibility means that the entire system logic can be exercised within the design office environment, allowing modifications to be made which, in the relay equivalent, would require costly onsite rewiring. This benefit exists for all SSIs, regardless of the configuration. It is one of the technology's key advantages over the more established relay solution. However, in a distributed system with a complex layout, this benefit can be quickly overshadowed by the problems of overcoming complexity with multiple systems. For example, Figure 3 is a simplified representation of a complex layout. The layout is of a through passenger station, and continues as a mirror image to the left of the diagram (not shown). An approximate breakdown of the installation into distributed areas is shown in dotted red. A and B will continue leftwards to include the station throat and E will continue rightwards to include further reaches of the station approach. It can be seen that a route from S23 to S17 with a control line that extends to S1, requires communication between distributed area controllers E, C and A. As this is typically a master/slave arrangement, the communication path will be central control to E, E to C, C to A, A to C, C to E, and E to central control. With North American NX operation, this path will be repeated twice to establish a route. Clearly, there is a point at which the complexity of the layout reduces the geographical size of a distributed control unit to such an extent that the ensuing convoluted transmission results in performance problems. This issue has been a source of difficulties for some operators. Considering the layout from the perspective of a centralized interlocking system, the transmission path becomes: central control to interlocking module, interlocking module to E, C and A I/O modules simultaneously, E, C and A I/O modules to the interlocking module simultaneously and interlocking to central control. Again, the path will be repeated twice for a standard North American NX route. The centralized interlocking I/O modules transmit/receive simultaneously rather than working as master/slave pairs. This is because the controlling unit is the central unit while all the I/O modules act as its slaves. With a typical centralized interlocking controlling between 5 and 15 times the amount of equipment controlled by a single distributed interlocking, the benefit of this arrangement for a complex layout can be quickly appreciated. While centralized interlockings eliminate the performance issues that have adversely affected complex installations using some distributed architectures, there is a further more subtle performance issue that is mitigated by the new architecture. Considering the layout in Figure 3 with respect to a staged commissioning, it can be seen that when implemented with a distributed system, it is feasible for interfaces to vary between phases as a sequence of relay controlled sections are replaced with distributed interlockings. As these interfaces vary, response times vary along the master/slave communication path. This has led to problems arising during commissioning that could not be identified earlier in the project. For example, a route from S23 to S17 might, during the course of staged commissioning, vary its interfaces as follows: E to relays; E to C to relays; E to C to A. 53 Thus, beyond the standard commissioning tests performed in Stages 1 to 3, situations might arise in which the change in performance time falls outside that acceptable to the operation of distributed unit E. This can lead to a complex set of performance testing being required during stage testing, over and above regression testing of the cross-boundary routes. For the sake of clarity, the example is overly simplified, but it demonstrates the failure potential. With a centralized architecture, regardless of the stages imposed, the interface will always be between a central module communicating simultaneously with all the I/O modules. Consequently, the architecture minimizes the potential for unforeseen performance issues to arise during staged commissioning. Such commissionings are easily managed by introducing stage data to the interlocking, providing a facility to generate the logic for each stage and fully simulate it prior to installation. Configuration changes with respect to the solid-state interlocking are simply additions of I/O modules to the interlocking network together with fringe wiring to the relay circuits, which is required regardless of the technology used to undertake the staged approach. Failure Management A key concern with any electronic system that is used to control a large area of operationally critical infrastructure is the reliance on a single unit, the failure of which could close down the entire network. To overcome this possibility, solid-state technologies utilize the concept of redundancy, that is, they introduce standby components to the interlocking that will continue to operate in the event of a system failure. Many distributed interlockings have a single processor architecture, which means that the redundancy needed to ensure high availability requires the deployment of a duplicate system with a switchover mechanism. Many centralized interlockings, including Alcatel's LockTrac interlocking product line, have a checked-redundant module architecture in which at least two processors must agree on a safety critical course of action for it to proceed. The natural extension of this concept is to increase redundancy to enhance availability; three processors are provided, any two of which must agree before a safety critical course of action can proceed. Implementing a fully redundant system simply requires the addition of a third processor card, independent processor power supply, etc, within the interlocking rack. This provides a switchover free, seamless backup in the event of a failure. Recovering from an individual failure simply requires the removal and replacement of the failed board, without interfering with the operation of the system (hot swap modules). At the I/O module level, a failure is generally not so critical for a number of reasons: I/O modules are constructed as cards with several inputs/outputs. Thus a single failure, while potentially removing a complete card from service, only removes a small amount of equipment from service. The design of the system with respect to the allocation of wayside equipment to I/O modules, ensures that no single I/O module controls a complete group of lines. This prevents the loss of a module from completely shutting down the approach to a station or any other critical grouping of lines. For these reasons, many I/O modules are non-redundant (two-out-of-two) units. However, Alcatel recognizes that the removal from service of some key infrastructure cannot be allowed, and therefore offers a redundant I/O module for use with its LockTrac centralized interlocking product. This unit utilizes a processor for communication and failure management that is checked-redundant in a two-out- of-three configuration and controlling I/O cards that are checked-redundant (two-out-of-two) along with a standby set of cards, also two-out-of-two. This arrangement means that any processor failure can be treated in the same way as the central interlocking equipment with hot swappable cards; should an I/O card fail, control will remain with the working unit. The failed set can be replaced and brought back into service without affecting operation. This arrangement overcomes the need for any checked-redundant unit to ultimately combine to one physical unit at the point of input and output. Intuitive diagnostic facilities that aid rapid and efficient fault-finding are coupled with intelligent failure management design. Such tools immediately report the failure of a component, generally isolating it to the board level, enabling it to be rapidly repaired and restored to service without any loss of service.

54 Such facilities ensure that system maintenance and diagnostics can achieve levels of efficiency that relay solutions simply cannot match. Conclusion For the complex urban rail market, the benefits of the centralized interlocking concept can be enormous, throughout the entire lifecycle. From the recognized benefits of solid-state interlockings in general during the design and test phase, through the performance and reliability of the operational phase, to the simplicity of modification when infrastructure changes dictate, centralized solid-state interlocking is a practical solution for high performance urban rail networks. Having a long history and worldwide installation experience with this technology, Alcatel is currently implementing its LockTrac centralized interlocking on the New York City Transit Authority's Bergen Street line. This installation represents the evolution of LockTrac and Alcatel's commitment to delivering the benefits of a centralized architecture to the North American urban rail environment. Adrian Peach Product Manager for LockTrac MT in the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel, Weston, Ontario, Canada.

3. кратко передайте содержание текста Introducing High Performance Electronic Interlockings to North America

Домашнее задание 1. письменно переведите текст и составьте 5 вопросов по содержанию текста Interlocking Turnout Control by George W. Schreyer There are many methods currently in use for controlling turnouts. They can be controlled mechanically with a switch stand or ground throw, electrically with attached motors and remote switches or pneumatically with air cylinders and remote air valves. However it is done, model railroad control systems usually activate only one, or maybe two turnouts at a time. The method described here provides full interlocking control of sets of any number of turnouts. On narrow gauge or branch lines, individual turnout control is prototypical, a brakeman must get off the train and throw each turnout by hand. On real railroads turnouts and signals are often controlled by an "interlocking." An interlocking is some arrangement by which several related turnouts and signals are controlled together as sets. For example, most main line sidings, crossings, interchanges, and yard or terminal throats are controlled by an operator in a switch tower or a remote dispatch center. The operator manipulates controls which set up "routes" through the trackwork instead of individually setting turnouts and signal aspects for each device. This method of control reduces operator workload and significantly reduces the chance for errors and subsequent accidents…

2. составьте краткое сообщение на тему «Interlocking on the Russian Railroad» Unit 5 Safety measures on the railroad

Built-in Safety: Changes Brought by European Railway Signaling The long history of Europe's railways, starting from the first industrially used railroads in 19th century England, evolved in a very diverse manner. Until now, it has been shaped by a great number of national characteristics which go far beyond the differences in rail gages. For example, there are: Different regulations concerning the operating procedures and separation of responsibility for operating and maintenance staff (interlocking systems staff, train drivers). Incompatible power supply systems (AC/DC, combined with different voltages and AC frequencies). Diverse braking systems and energy recovery systems in high-speed trains.

55 Different rail profiles and installation positions (angles of inclination) as well as differing maximum permitted axle loads. Different catenary suspensions and incompatible structure gages (minimum distance between a virtual train corridor and parts which bound it, such as signal masts, buildings and oncoming trains). This list is far from comprehensive. For example, there are currently 13 mutually incompatible Automatic Train Protection (ATP) systems in use within Europe (see Figure 1). These systems monitor the correct response of the driver to signal indications conveyed alongside the line or direct to the cab. If necessary, they intervene in the traction vehicle's drive control and brake control systems. It is these ATP systems, which were designed to work with country-specific signaling systems, that prevent cross-border train traffic in Europe. To overcome this problem, the European Union (EU) is defining railway signaling standards. This effort has been going on for more than ten years.

Упражнения 1. прочитайте текст Built-in Safety: Changes Brought by European Railway Signaling 2. письменно переведите текст 3. прочитайте текст Safety in Railway Technology и ответьте на вопросы после него

Safety in Railway Technology Safety has played and continues to play a central role in the work of European standardization committees in the field of railway signaling. It requires the earnest endeavor of all those involved to move from an understanding of safety which was historically shaped on a country-specific basis to a new definition which can be accepted throughout Europe and applied equally to everyone. The following example from a national signaling industry highlights the problems, including the following key topics:  safety fundamentals;  fail-safe principle;  safety and reliability;  approval process. Safety fundamentals The planning and construction of railway installations in Europe is based on a more than 150- year-old tradition. Rules devised over several generations in individual countries are founded on years of empirical knowledge. The aim of all interested parties is to virtually eliminate accidents. To this end, adherence to design and construction engineering requirements for wheels, rail and track bed (such as maximum axle loads, vehicle braking capability, and the use of safety glass) are as vital to safety as is compliance with the planning rules for track installations, such as:  Maintenance of overrun sections after signals.  Guaranteeing flank protection measures to ensure that trains do not come too close at points.  Eliminating level crossings on high-speed lines.  Definition of maximum curve speeds for line sections and switches according to the curve radius and grade, etc. Furthermore, rail traffic safety is ensured by operating staff (traffic controllers, engine drivers, maintenance engineers) observing the rules that are set out in the operating regulations. Fundamental to these rules is the stipulated behavior of operating staff in safety-critical situations. Careful maintenance of the existing signaling plant is just as important as the widespread automation of rail traffic using modern control and safety technology. The connection between control and safety technology can be represented as follows: 56 Control technology:  control-system engineering: automatic train guidance;  operating position representation: train describer, overviews of the operating position, time-distance lines;  action tools in the event of deviations from the timetable. Safety technology ("signaling"): protects trains against collisions and derailment using:  route protection: interlocking systems, block technology and level crossings,  train protection: monitoring of adherence to the permitted train speed (INDUSI, LZB, etc). The essential difference between the two components lies in their relationship to guaranteeing safety in rail operation. Safe operation can be realized without control technology using the current state- of-the-art on low-volume secondary lines. However, it is not possible to achieve safe rail operation without a minimum level of safety technology. Only by using control technology in conjunction with modern safety technology is it possible to safely achieve the high train densities required by mass transit systems. Fail-safe principle In the event of failure of a safety component, the affected system must revert to a non-dangerous (safe) state. The following examples illustrate how this can be achieved in day-to-day operations:  Train brakes to a halt should a fault occur in the continuous automatic train control system.  Signal sets to stop in the event of a fault in the interlocking system.  Switch immovably maintains its position if a fault occurs in the interlocking system. Numerous fail-safe systems are in daily use. Common to all of them is the use of redundancy in the broadest sense. A twin-channel computer command system for the green lamp of a rail signal is a simple example. In this example, the dual-computer system which controls the lamp and performs a monitoring function is commanded by a single-channel, secure data transmission channel. This also serves in the rearward direction as a transmission channel for forwarding the "actual" state of the lamp (on/off/disturbed) to the secure central computer of the interlocking system. In reality, for reasons of economy, a dual-computer system of this type controls and monitors several signals (several bulbs) in parallel. Safety and reliability Without the use of reliability redundancy, if a fail-safe product breaks down, an operating restriction would be created automatically, since responsibility for the safe working of the system must now be assumed by the staff on the basis of prescribed operating instructions. Several hours may elapse until the defective component is repaired, depending on the situation and the local conditions. During this time, the risk of an accident increases substantially compared with automatic operation. In essence, the lower the incidence of direct human intervention, the greater the overall safety of passengers and freight. Consequently, all signaling systems must be highly reliable and be designed to "fail-safe". Both characteristics have been successfully combined in the so called "two-out-of-three" principle for computer hardware, which has been in use for more than 20 years in the central control and monitoring computers of many European railways. This principle is based on a continuous automatic train control radio block center. Today, numerous variants of this basic principle exist in all areas of safety technology, from nuclear power plants, through aviation and aerospace applications to use in military technology, as well as industrial heating and elevator technology. Approval process Some considerable time before the start of development of a new computer-based signaling system, a detailed dialog has to take place with the future infrastructure owner(s) (rail companies, owners of private and industrial railways, metropolitan railways and mass transit enterprises) about the specifications for and risks associated with the use of the future system. Following this, a detailed quantitatively-supported risk analysis will be drawn up, either by the customer or on its behalf. It is at this stage that collaboration begins with the licensing authority that will assess and ultimately approve the risk

57 analysis and specification as a basis for starting the development. Based on the approved risk analysis and specification, the safety certification is drawn up by the manufacturer and submitted to the licensing authority for clearance. If approval is given, development can start. In the past, before European railway signaling standards were defined, a more qualitative approach was frequently taken, such as Mü 8004 in Germany. A quantitative risk analysis was waived, since for a new system an absolute freedom from faults was assumed. This had to be qualitatively demonstrated by the manufacturer in accordance with defined rules. To evaluate the effect of random hardware breakdowns during operation, simple formulas were provided as a basis for calculation. This approach was based on empirical values gathered over many years and was successful so long as the software was of low complexity. For example, Figure 4 shows the approval cycle for a product for a mass transit customer or for Deutsche Bahn AG up to about the late 1990s.

1. What role does the safety play on the railroad? 2. How old is the planning and construction tradition in the Europe? 3. What planning rules for track installation do you know? 4. What are the components of the operating staff? 5. How can be represented the connection between control and safety technology? 6. What is the difference between control and safety technology? 7. What are fail-safe systems operation principles? 8. What characteristics must combine the signalling system? 9. What infrastructure owners do exist on the railroad? 10. What does the figure 4 show?

European Standardization: Current Position Up to just a few years ago, each European country had its own national rules covering rail operation, the use and design of railway signaling, and approval by the authorities. Conditioned by these rules, which applied purely at the national level, each country developed its own system, resulting in the following adverse effects:  Low mutual acceptance of signaling techniques and of the associated design principles.  Different definition of responsibilities between operating staff, especially at the interface between engine driver and traffic controller.  Different operating rules and different procedures in the event of a fault.  Mutual partitioning, and therefore no development of the market potential.  Hindrance of trans-European rail traffic because locomotives had to be changed at the border. On the initiative of the European Union in the early 1990s, these negative features of the European rail network were countered by:  Creation of preconditions for European standardization of signaling and rolling stock, as well as the creation of operating rules to ensure interoperability, starting with high-speed rail systems.  Dismantling of market barriers to facilitate the privatization of railways in the EU.  Launch of the initiative for trans-European high-speed traffic. Three main standardization directions have been urgently pursued with the aim of enhancing safety:  Harmonization of safety standards: safety principles, checking and approval.  Harmonization of requirements regarding adverse external influences, such as electromagnetic compatibility, temperature and mechanical stress.  Standardization of the operating conditions for trans-European high-speed traffic (interoperability). 58 The reason for harmonizing safety standards was not a lack of safety per se, but rather the creation of a common "safety language" which could be used and understood in all countries. This process was undertaken by the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC), Europe's principal standardization committee. With the cooperation of the rail operators, approval authorities and the signaling industry, CENELEC produced a standards framework which remains valid today. The groundwork for this took place between 1992 and 2000. Today, these standards have largely been adopted and are therefore in force. Currently, the revision time is approaching for the initial standards (new standards have to be revised 3 to 5 years after being circulated for the first time). Any national standards that are still in existence are being replaced by the new CENELEC standards, or the content of the CENELEC standards is being incorporated into the national standards. In invitations to tender for new railway systems, compliance with the CENELEC standards is demanded virtually throughout the world. An indication of the high quality and, at the same time, a recognition of the work of the engineers involved in drawing up these standards is the incorporation of numerous European standards (Europä ische Norm; EN) unaltered into International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standards. The different "sources" of the new EN safety standards for rail traffic are shown in Figure 5. In the wake of the European standardization activities relating to technical safety in railway signaling, the following standards have been generated: EN 50126: Railway applications: Specification and demonstration of Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety (RAMS) for railway applications [1]. EN 50128: Railway applications: Communications, signaling and processing systems; software for railway control and protection systems [2]. EN 50129: Railway applications: Safety-related electronic signaling systems [3]. EN 50159-1: Railway applications: Communication, signaling and processing systems Part 1. Safety-related communication in closed transmission systems [4]. EN 50159-2: Railway applications: Communication, signaling and processing systems Part 2. Safety-related communication in open transmission systems [5]. On the basis of EU Directive 96/48 (European law), a European Rail Traffic Management System / European Train Control System (ERTMS/ETCS) train protection system that is interoperable within Europe has been specified. Pilot sections of line are currently being deployed in several European countries. Data for secure train control will, for the first time, be transmitted between the fixed line installation and the train via radio link (Global System for Mobile communications - Railways; GSM-R). At the same time, on the initiative of the EU, "Notified Bodies" have been set up in several European countries to check that components developed for the ETCS comply with the specifications and to certify this, thereby ensuring the interoperability of subsystems from different manufacturers. Crucial Changes Resulting from European Standards The previous rule-based standards dictated a relatively rigid approach to the development of new railway signaling systems. This approach was characterized by:  Extensive set of rules based on just a few basic principles which a safe signaling system must satisfy.  Realization and certification of the system's fail-safe behavior.  More or less safe does not exist; it is either/or.  Relatively rigid scheme, yet simple to apply.  Qualitative rather than quantitative certification. By comparison, the standards shaped by CENELEC are risk-orientated, and are based on the following considerations: 1. How safe must it be?

59 2. Realize safety only to the required extent! 3. Provide certification that the required safety is met (including in quantitative terms)! Here safety is logically defined as the elimination of inadmissible risks. In this approach, the basic notion is that safety measures are based on a cost-benefit analysis. Accordingly, an approach involving graduated safety levels (Safety Integrity Levels SIL 1 to 4) according to a pre-defined risk classification is possible. The safety requirements, which must be carefully defined, have three elements:  Safety function: For example, the "train must be automatically braked at maximum 5 km/h overspeed".  Quantitative element for the failure of the safety function as a result of hardware failure: For example, failure of the safety function must occur at no more than 10-9 incidents per hour).  Non-quantitative element for the failure of the safety function as a result of systematic errors (e.g. software errors), expressed as a Safety Integrity Level, SIL 1 to 4. In this context, SIL = 4 applies to highly safety-critical systems and SIL = 1 to less safety-critical systems. Systems not affecting the safety of the overall implementation are referred to as SIL = 0 systems. The standards, graded according to their SIL, define a wealth of quality-assurance techniques and measures for the prevention and prompt detection of systematic errors. The safety certification:  Shows (by means of a calculation) that the hazard contributions attributable to hardware failures do not exceed the quantitative element of the safety target.  Identifies how the required techniques and methods used to prevent systematic errors have been implemented for the required SIL. The risk analysis, which is the basis for classifying systems into the appropriate SIL levels, is provided by the infrastructure owner or an authorized representative. It is broken down into three parts:  Identification of hazards arising from failure of the safety-related functions of the safety system, irrespective of the technical solution.  Follow-up analysis consisting of: extent of damage (dead, injured, material damage) should a hazard materialize (seriousness of a possible accident) and the frequency of damage.  Risk acceptance analysis: The risk is given by extent of damage ¥ frequency of damage. Possible evaluation criteria include:  qualitative criterion: As Low As Reasonably Practicable (ALARP);  X% contribution to the natural mortality rate: Minimal Endogenic Mortality (MEM) principle;  failure rates of comparable systems already in operation: "Globally At Least As Good" (Globalement Au Moins Aussi Bon; GAMAB). The related risk acceptance analysis procedure is determined by the executing party in concert with the licensing authority. Additionally there is the "RAMS principle", which is represented in the comparison between "old" and "new" as follows:  Previously, considerable attention was paid to safety in the event of breakdowns (fail-safe behavior). Reliability and availability were considered desirable but not directly related to safety.  In future, the required overall passenger safety is only achievable if not only the fail-safe behavior continues to be guaranteed, but also if reliability, maintainability, and hence availability, are likewise guaranteed. Figure 6 shows how the availability, and hence the reliability, of a safe system essentially determines that system's overall safety. The CENELEC-based view differs from the traditional approach by observing the developed product throughout its lifetime. The foundation

60 for this is a phase-oriented lifecycle model covering development, project design, assembly, operation and maintenance. The basic notion behind this is that safety cannot be factored in only at the end of the development, but involves implementing a good mix of fault-prevention and fault-disclosure measures during all phases of the lifecycle. Accordingly, the CENELEC standards provide that alongside those who are directly involved in the development of control and safety technology systems, independent "guardians" are responsible for system safety in all lifecycle phases. Their roles are defined within the standard as:  RAMS manager;  verifier;  validator;  assessor. Strict rules apply to the independence of the verifier, the validator and, in particular, the assessor. The better the application of the techniques and methods in each phase of the lifecycle, the fewer faults will arise, and the more likely they are to be promptly discovered. Nevertheless, additional defensive fault-control measures for software are urgently recommended in the standard to ensure that any faults which were, despite all precautions, not detected at the manufacturing stage, prove as "harmless" as possible in the field. Recommended programming languages (e.g. subset of C or C++ with coding standards) and systematic tests involving measurement of the code coverage (technique), as well as various analysis methods (such as Preliminary Hazard Analysis, Fault Tree Analysis, Markov diagrams, and others), are explicitly mentioned in the standard. In all European countries, responsibility for the official granting of approval continues to rest with the national licensing authorities, which are increasingly making use of the preliminary work conducted by assessors. Such assessors must hold an appropriate certification from the supervisory authority for their particular area of expertise. In this context, the model of assessment centers within signal construction companies has proved a success. These centers act broadly independently of their own companies, and are constantly monitored by the supervisory authority. A component or system can be approved on the basis of the expert report compiled by the assessment center, provided it is accepted by the supervisory authority. Following this trend, the supervisory authority, at least in Germany, is retreating step-by-step from their detailed involvement with the design and analysis of the signaling solution. As a result of the increasing demand within CENELEC for quantitatively-based certification, the total cost of approving new products is rising quite considerably. This is the price that must be paid for technical cross-acceptance of generic components between the European countries and their licensing authorities.

Joachim Warlitz Director for Customer Satisfaction and Quality within the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel in Stuttgart, Germany

4. прочитайте текст European Standardization: Current Position и напишите краткое изложение по этому тексту 5. прочитайте текст Safety: Railroad and Railroad Equipment, составьте к тексту ассоциограмму

Safety: Railroad and Railroad Equipment.

These guidelines are for your safety when working on-board trains, in railroad yards, or in the vicinity of railroad equipment. These guidelines do not discuss work on or around electric trains or tracks of the type used in many rapid transit systems. Check local regulations for specific guidelines, regulations, and required training. GENERAL SAFETY RULES: 1. Remain alert and aware of your surroundings at all times. Trains and railroad yards can present hazardous situations with which you are not familiar. 2. Know the rules listed below. Railroad personnel are familiar with these rules and may assume that all personnel in the area are also familiar with them.

61 3. Do not attempt to cross in front of locomotives. Locomotives and railroad cars require long distances to stop and have blind spots where they cannot see pedestrians or vehicles. WALKING IN A RAILROAD YARD: 1. Listen for approaching engines or railroad cars. Walk at a safe distance from the side of the tracks. Avoid walking between the rails or on the railroad ties. Pay attention to footing. If it is necessary to turn your head or look backward, stop and look before proceeding. 2. Expect the unexpected. Engines, railroad cars or other equipment may move without warning on any track in either direction. 3. DO NOT RELY ON OTHERS TO WARN YOU of approaching engines, railroad cars or other equipment. Even if personnel have been assigned to provide warning, stay alert. You may not hear or see the warning. 4. Maintain a safe distance from passing engines, railroad cars or other equipment to avoid being struck by projecting or falling objects. 5. Do not sit, stand, step, walk or place coins or other objects on the rails, switches, guard rails or other parts of the track structure. 6. After looking in both directions to be sure there are no approaching engines or railroad cars, cross tracks immediately. 7. Take extra precautions if it is raining, snowing or if there are icy conditions. Snow may conceal trip hazards. Avoid walking or working under icicles. Keep all steps clear of ice, snow and other slippery substances. 8. Stand clear of all tracks when trains are approaching or passing in either direction. Do not stand on one track while trains are passing on other tracks. WORKING IN THE RAILROAD YARD: 1. Be aware of the surface on which you are walking or working. 2. Stand still and clear of the track when referring to paperwork or using portable communications devices. 3. When walking from behind or out of an engine, , building or other structure look in both directions before approaching any railroad track. 4. Listen for the movement of engines, railroad cars or equipment. RIDING EQUIPMENT: 1. Restrict riding on equipment to essential personnel whose duties require riding or who are properly authorized. Riders must ride only in spaces provided for that purpose. 2. Restrict personnel from riding on the side of the car or engine. Observe that no one is doing so before passing structures and other engines or railroad cars. 3. Remain alert for conditions that can cause abrupt changes in speed. Examples include: train braking, changes in grade, wet or icy tracks, and entering or leaving a railyard or . 4. Protect yourself from abrupt changes in speed by:  Remaining seated as much as possible. Place both feet on the floor, on a foot rest or firmly on the floor at the base of a wall or other stable structure in front of you.  If standing, stand with feet a shoulder's width apart, one foot slightly ahead of the other. Use your hands to brace against a wall or hold on to a grab rail.  If walking, have a firm grip on grab rails, bulkhead edges or an overhead grab rail. Halt until the abrupt change ceases. WORKING ON OR AROUND RAILROAD EQUIPMENT: 1. Remain alert for the unexpected movement of equipment. 2. Observe the condition of equipment before using it. Look for loose, bent or missing stirrups, ladder rungs and brake platforms. 3. Use side ladder and face equipment as you ascend or descend equipment. Be alert for unexpected movement and observe for obstructions before ascending or descending. 4. Dismount or mount equipment only when it is in a stopped position. 5. Cross over standing equipment by using engines or railroad cars which are equipped with end platforms and hand rails. Never place any part of the body on or between the coupler and the end sill of the railroad car.

62 6. Restrict crossing from freight car to freight car while they are moving. 7. Cross between passenger cars by holding on to railings and grab bars. Remain aware of walking surface conditions. 8. Cross through equipment only when authority has been given. This to be done only when the selected car is equipped with a crossover platform and hand holds. 9. DO NOT CRAWL UNDER ANY RAILROAD CAR, including cars which are standing still, unless authorized to do so by the authority designated by the railroad. At all times when any member of the cast or crew must work under any railroad car, a person trained in railroad signals shall act as a spotter. A flag or similar signaling device is to be displayed so as to be clearly visible to the train operator while work under any railroad car is being performed. 10. Allow sufficient clearance in front of, in back of, and to the side when walking around railroad equipment. Such equipment may move without warning.

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Railways plans to install device to prevent collisions February 26, 2003 14:33 IST Rattled by a series of train accidents, the Railways plan to install a device to prevent collisions, Railway Minister Nitish Kumar said on Wednesday. The Anti-Collision Device, an intelligent micro-processor based equipment, has been developed indigenously to prevent collisions, he said presenting the Railway Budget for 2003-04 in the Lok Sabha. He said the device when installed on locomotives, brake vans and at stations and level crossings gates, would prevent collision of trains. Kumar said that extended field trials of this device has been successfully completed and deployment of the equipment has already been started on the Indian Railways. To accelerate the pace of this work, it is proposed to carry out ACD survey of 10,000 route kms and provide ACD over additional 1750 route kms, he said. The Railway Minister said that concerned over the vital issue of safety, a White Paper covering the entire spectrum of the issues involved in safety in train operations would be presented during the course of the current session of Parliament. Stating that one of the major contributing factors for accidents had been found to be human failure, Kumar noted that the filling up of vacancies in safety categories in Group D has assumed importance. "It has been decided to fill up more than 20,000 such vacancies through Railway Recruitment Boards within the next one year," he said. Asserting that training played an important role in increasing the efficiency of the employees, he said the Railways was determined to effect continuous improvement in safety related training. To enable this, training facilities at all Zonal Training Centers, seven Supervisory Training Centers and eight Central Engineering Training Centers were being suitably upgraded. Modules on Disaster Management are also being prepared; he said and added that new works at a cost of Rs 41 crone (Rs 410 million) were proposed to be taken up. Kumar said that continuous track circuiting enabled detection of discontinuities caused by rail and weld fracture or acts of sabotage. This helped in taking timely precautionary measures and prevented possible accidents besides improving the line capacity and safety at gates, he said. He also said that for upgrading and modernizing the bridge inspection and management systems, action had been taken to initiate underwater inspection, computerized non-destructive testing with state of the art equipment and introduce a modern Bridge Management System. The minister said that to minimize injuries during rail travel, coaches were being re-designed without any sharp corners in the interior and duly padding up vulnerable areas. In order to prevent coaches from climbing over each other n the event of a collision, tight lock couplers were being introduced progressively, he said. 63 Concurrently, redesigning coach ends to take the full impact of the collision has been undertaken so that passenger areas remain free from damage due to collision or heavy impact.

Unit 6 Connection Telephone History Series "We picture inventors as heroes with the genius to recognize and solve a society's problems. In reality, the greatest inventors have been thinkers who loved tinkering for its own sake and who then had to figure out what, if anything, their devices might be good for." Jared Diamond On March 10, 1876, in Boston, Massachusetts, Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone. Thomas Watson fashioned the device itself; a crude thing made of a wooden stand, a funnel, a cup of acid, and some copper wire. But these simple parts and the equally simple first -- "Mr. Watson, come here, I want you!" -- belie a complicated past. Bell filed his application just hours before his competitor, , filed notice to soon patent a telephone himself. What's more, though neither man had actually built a working telephone, Bell made his telephone operate three weeks later using ideas outlined in Gray's Notice of Invention, methods Bell did not propose in his own patent. " . . . an inspired black-haired Scotsman of twenty eight, on the eve of marriage, vibrant and alive to new ideas." Alexander Graham Bell : The Life and Times of the Man Who Invented the Telephone Intrigue aside for now, the story of the telephone is the story of invention itself. Bell developed new and original ideas but did so by building on older ideas and developments. Bell succeeded specifically because he understood acoustics, the study of sound, and something about electricity. Other inventors knew electricity well but little of acoustics. The telephone is a shared accomplishment among many pioneers, therefore, although the credit and rewards were not shared equally. That, too, is often the story of invention. Telephone comes from the Greek word tele, meaning from afar, and phone, meaning voice or voiced sound. Generally, a telephone is any device which conveys sound over a distance. A string telephone, a megaphone, or a might be considered telephonic instruments but for our purposes they are not telephones. These transmit sound mechanically and not electrically. How's that? Speaking into the can of a string telephone, for example, makes the line vibrate, causing sound waves to travel from one end of the stretched line to the other. A telephone by comparison, reproduces sound by electrical means. What the Victorians called "talking by lightning." A standard dictionary defines the telephone as "an apparatus for reproducing sound, especially that of the voice, at a great distance, by means of electricity; consisting of transmitting and receiving instruments connected by a line or wire which conveys the electric current." Electrical current 1) operates the telephone and 2) your voice varies that current to communicate. With those two important points established, let's look at telephone history. The telephone is an electrical instrument. Speaking into the handset's transmitter or microphone makes its diaphragm vibrate. This varies the electric current, causing the receiver's diaphragm to vibrate. This duplicates the original sound. Modern telephones don't use carbon in their handsets. They use electret microphones for the transmitter and piezoelectric transducers for receivers but the principle described in the image linked above is the same. Sound waves picked up by an electret microphone causes "a thin, metal-coated plastic diaphragm to vibrate, producing variations in an electric field across a tiny air gap between the diaphragm and an electrode." A piezoelectric transducer uses material which converts the mechanical stress of a sound wave upon it into a varying electrical signal.

64 Telephone history begins at the start of human history. Man has always wanted to communicate from afar. People have used smoke signals, mirrors, jungle drums, carrier pigeons and to get a message from one point to another. But a phone was something new. Some say Francis Bacon predicted the telephone in 1627, however, his book New Utopia only described a long speaking tube. A real telephone could not be invented until the electrical age began. And even then it didn't seem desirable. The electrical principles needed to build a telephone were known in 1831 but it wasn't until 1854 that Bourseul suggested transmitting speech electrically. And it wasn't until 22 years later in 1876 that the idea became a reality. But before then, a telephone might have been impossible to form in one's consciousness. While Da Vinci predicted flight and Jules Verne envisioned space travel, people did not lie awake through the centuries dreaming of making a call. How could they? With little knowledge of electricity, let alone the idea that it could carry a conversation, how could people dream of a telephonic future? Who in the fifteenth century might have imagined a pay phone on the street corner or a machine on their desk? You didn't have then, an easily visualized goal among people like powered flight, resulting in one inventor after another working through the years to realize a common goal. Telephone development instead was a series of often disconnected events, mostly electrical, some accidental, that made the telephone possible. I'll cover just a few. There are many ways to communicate over long distances. I have reproduced a nice color diagram which shows the Roman alphabet, the international flag code, , and semaphore signaling.

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Early Telephone Development In 1729 English chemist Stephen Gray transmitted electricity over a wire. He sent charges nearly 300 feet over brass wire and moistened thread. An electrostatic generator powered his experiments, one charge at a time. A few years later, Dutchman Pieter van Musschenbroek and German Ewald Georg von Kleist in 1746 independently developed the Leyden jar, a sort of battery or condenser for storing static electricity. Named for its Holland city of invention, the jar was a glass bottle lined inside and out with tin or lead. The glass sandwiched between the metal sheets stored electricity; a strong charge could be kept for a few days and transported. Over the years these jars were used in countless experiments, lectures, and demonstrations. In 1753 an anonymous writer, possibly physician Charles Morrison, suggested in The Scot's Magazine that electricity might transmit messages. He thought up a scheme using separate wires to represent each letter. An electrostatic generator, he posited, could electrify each line in turn, attracting a bit of paper by static charge on the other end. By noting which paper letters were attracted one might spell out a message. Needing wires by the dozen, signals got transmitted a mile or two. People labored with telegraphs like this for many decades. Experiments continued slowly until 1800. Many inventors worked alone, misunderstood earlier discoveries, or spent time producing results already achieved. Poor equipment didn't help either. Balky electrostatic generators produced static electricity by friction, often by spinning leather against glass. And while static electricity could make hair stand on end or throw sparks, it couldn't provide the energy to do truly useful things. Inventors and industry needed a reliable and continuous current. In 1800 Alessandro Volta produced the first battery. A major development, Volta's battery provided sustained low powered electric current at high cost. Chemically based, as all batteries are, the battery improved quickly and became the electrical source for further experimenting. But while batteries got more reliable, they still couldn't produce the power needed to work machinery, light cities, or provide heat. And although batteries would work telegraph and telephone systems, and still do, transmitting speech required understanding two related elements, namely, electricity and magnetism. In 1820 Danish physicist Christian Oersted discovered electromagnetism, the critical idea needed to develop electrical power and to communicate. In a famous experiment at his University of Copenhagen classroom, Oersted pushed a compass under a live electric wire. This caused its needle to

65 turn from pointing north, as if acted on by a larger magnet. Oersted discovered that an electric current creates a magnetic field. But could a magnetic field create electricity? If so, a new source of power beckoned. And the principle of electromagnetism, if fully understood and applied, promised a new era of communication In 1821 Michael Faraday reversed Oersted's experiment and in so doing discovered induction. He got a weak current to flow in a wire revolving around a permanent magnet. In other words, a magnetic field caused or induced an electric current to flow in a nearby wire. In so doing, Faraday had built the world's first electric generator. Mechanical energy could now be converted to electrical energy. Is that clear? This is a very important point. The simple act of moving ones' hand caused current to move. Mechanical energy into electrical energy. Although many years away, a turbine powered dynamo would let the power of flowing water or burning coal produce electricity. Got a river or a dam? The water spins the turbines which turns the generators which produce electricity. The more water you have the more generators you can add and the more electricity you can produce. Mechanical energy into electrical energy. Faraday worked through different electrical problems in the next ten years, eventually publishing his results on induction in 1831. By that year many people were producing electrical dynamos. But electromagnetism still needed understanding. Someone had to show how to use it for communicating. In 1830 the great American scientist Professor Joseph Henry transmitted the first practical electrical signal. A short time before Henry had invented the first efficient electromagnet. He also concluded similar thoughts about induction before Faraday but he didn't publish them first. Henry's place in electrical history however, has always been secure, in particular for showing that electromagnetism could do more than create current or pick up heavy weights -- it could communicate. In a stunning demonstration in his Albany Academy classroom, Henry created the forerunner of the telegraph. In the demonstration, Henry first built an electromagnet by winding an iron bar with several feet of wire. A pivot mounted steel bar sat next to the magnet. A bell, in turn, stood next to the bar. From the electromagnet Henry strung a mile of wire around the inside of the classroom. He completed the circuit by connecting the ends of the wires at a battery. Guess what happened? The steel bar swung toward the magnet, of course, striking the bell at the same time. Breaking the connection released the bar and it was free to strike again. And while Henry did not pursue electrical signaling, he did help someone who did. And that man was Samuel Finley Breese Morse. From the December, 1963 American Heritage magazine, "a sketch of Henry's primitive telegraph, a dozen years before Morse, reveals the essential components: an electromagnet activated by a distant battery, and a pivoted iron bar that moves to ring a bell." In 1837 invented the first workable telegraph, applied for its patent in 1838, and was finally granted it in 1848. Joseph Henry helped Morse build a telegraph relay or repeater that allowed long distance operation. The telegraph later helped unite the country and eventually the world. Not a professional inventor, Morse was nevertheless captivated by electrical experiments. In 1832 he heard of Faraday's recently published work on inductance, and was given an electromagnet at the same time to ponder over. An idea came to him and Morse quickly worked out details for his telegraph. As depicted below, his system used a key (a switch) to make or break the electrical circuit, a battery to produce power, a single line joining one telegraph station to another and an electromagnetic receiver or sounder that upon being turned on and off, produced a clicking noise. He completed the package by devising the Morse code system of dots and dashes. A quick key tap broke the circuit momentarily, transmitting a short pulse to a distant sounder, interpreted by an operator as a dot. A more lengthy break produced a dash. became big business as it replaced messengers, the Pony Express, clipper ships and every other slow paced means of communicating. The fact that service was limited to Western Union

66 offices or large firms seemed hardly a problem. After all, communicating over long distances instantly was otherwise impossible. Yet as the telegraph was perfected, man's thoughts turned to speech over a wire. In 1854 Charles Bourseul wrote about transmitting speech electrically in a well circulated article. In that important paper, the Belgian-born French inventor and engineer described a flexible disk that would make and break an electrical connection to reproduce sound. Bourseul never built an instrument or pursued his ideas further. In 1861 Johann Phillip Reis completed the first non-working telephone. Tantalizingly close to reproducing speech, Reis's instrument conveyed certain sounds, poorly, but no more than that. A German physicist and school teacher, Reis's ingenuity was unquestioned. His transmitter and receiver used a cork, a knitting needle, a sausage skin, and a piece of platinum to transmit bits of music and certain other sounds. But intelligible speech could not be reproduced. The problem was simple, minute, and at the same time monumental. His telephone relied on its transmitter's diaphragm making and breaking contact with the electrical circuit, just as Bourseul suggested, and just as the telegraph worked. This approach, however, was completely wrong. Reproducing speech practically relies on the transmitter making continuous contact with the electrical circuit. A transmitter varies the electrical current depending on how much acoustic pressure it gets. Turning the current off and on like a telegraph cannot begin to duplicate speech since speech, once flowing, is a fluctuating wave of continuous character; it is not a collection of off and on again pulses. The Reis instrument, in fact, worked only when sounds were so soft that the contact connecting the transmitter to the circuit remained unbroken. Speech may have traveled first over a Reis telephone however, it would have done so accidentally and against every principle he thought would make it work. And although accidental discovery is the stuff of invention, Reis did not realize his mistake, did not understand the principle behind voice transmission, did not develop his instrument further, nor did he ever claim to have invented the telephone. In the early 1870s the world still did not have a working telephone. Inventors focused on telegraph improvements since these had a waiting market. A good, patentable idea might make an inventor millions. Developing a telephone, on the other hand, had no immediate market, if one at

all. Elisha Gray, Alexander Graham Bell, as well as many others, were instead trying to develop a multiplexing telegraph, a device to send several messages over one wire at once. Such an instrument would greatly increase traffic without the telegraph company having to build more lines. As it turned out, for both men, the desire to invent one thing turned into a race to invent something altogether different. And that is truly the story of invention. Analog and digital signals compared and contrasted

67 Analog transmission in telephone working. At the top of the illustration we depict direct current as a flat line. D.C. is the steady and continuous current your provides. The middle line shows what talking looks like. As in all things analog, it looks like a wave. The third line shows how talking varies that direct current. Your voice varies the telephone line's electrical resistance to represent speech. Below is a simplified view of a . Current goes on and off. No wave thing. There was no chance the Reis telephone described above could transmit intelligible speech since it could not reproduce an analog wave. You can't do that making and breaking a circuit. A pulse in this case is not a wave! It was not until the early 1960s that digital carrier techniques simulated an analog wave with digital pulses. Even then this simulation was only possible by sampling the wave 8,000 times a second. In these days all traffic in America between telephone switches is digital, but the majority of local loops are analog, still carrying your voice to the central office by varying the current.

3. заполните пропуски в предложениях, используя текст Early Telephone Development In 1729 English chemist Stephen Gray sent charges . A few years later, Dutchman Pieter van Musschenbroek and German Ewald Georg von Kleist in 1746 developed . In 1753 an anonymous writer, possibly physician Charles Morrison, suggested in The Scot's Magazine that . In 1800 Alessandro Volta produced . In 1820 Danish physicist Christian Oersted discovered . In 1821 Michael Faraday got . In 1830 the great American scientist Professor Joseph Henry transmitted . In 1837 Samuel Morse invented In 1854 Charles Bourseul wrote about . In 1861 Johann Phillip Reis completed . In the early 1870s the world still did not have a .

4. прочитайте текст The Inventors: Gray and Bell и составьте подробноый рассказ об изобретении Грейя и Беллаа. The Inventors: Gray and Bell Elisha Gray was a hard working professional inventor with some success to his credit. Born in 1835 in Barnesville, Ohio, Gray was well educated for his time, having worked his way through three years at Oberlin College. His first telegraph related patent came in 1868. An expert electrician, he co- founded Gray and Barton, makers of telegraph equipment. The Western Union Telegraph Company, then funded by the Vanderbilts and J.P. Morgan, bought a one-third interest in Gray and Barton in 1872. They then changed its name to the Manufacturing Company, with Gray remaining an important person in the company. To Gray, transmitting speech was an interesting goal but not one of a lifetime. Alexander Graham Bell, on the other hand, saw telephony as the driving force in his early life. He became consumed with inventing the telephone. Born in 1847 in Edinburgh, Scotland, Graham was raised in a family involved with music and the spoken word. His mother painted and played music. His father originated a system called visible speech that helped the deaf to speak. His grandfather was a lecturer and speech teacher. Bell's college courses included lectures on anatomy and physiology. His entire education and upbringing revolved around the mechanics of speech and sound. Many years after inventing the telephone Bell remarked, "I now realize that I should never have invented the telephone if I had been an electrician. What electrician would have been so foolish as to try any such thing? The advantage I had was that sound had been the study of my life -- the study of vibrations." In 1870 Bell's father moved his family to Canada after losing two sons to tuberculosis. He hoped the Canadian climate would be healthier. In 1873 Bell became a vocal physiology professor at Boston College. He taught the deaf the visual speech system during the day and at night he worked on what he called a harmonic or musical telegraph. Sending several messages at once over a single wire would let a telegraph company increase their sending capacity without having to install more poles and lines. An inventor who made such a device would realize a great economy for the telegraph company and a fortune for his or her self. Familiar with acoustics, Bell thought he could send several telegraph messages at once

68 by varying their musical pitch. Sound odd? I'll give you a crude example, a piano analogy, since Watson said Bell played the piano well. Imagine playing Morse code on the piano, striking dots and dashes in middle C. Then imagine the instrument wired to a distant piano. Striking middle C in one piano might cause middle C to sound in the other. Now, by playing Morse code on the A or C keys at the same time you might get the distant piano to duplicate your playing, sending two messages at once. Perhaps. Bell didn't experiment with pianos, of course, but with differently pitched magnetic springs. And instead of just sending two messages at once, Bell hoped to send thirty or forty. The harmonic telegraph proved simple to think about, yet maddeningly difficult to build. He labored over this device throughout the year and well into the spring of 1874. Then, at a friend's suggestion, he worked that summer on a teaching aid for the deaf, a gruesome device called the phonoautograph, made out of a dead man's ear. Speaking into the device caused the ear's membrane to vibrate and in turn move a lever. The lever then wrote a wavelike pattern of the speech on smoked glass. Ugh. Many say Bell was fascinated by how the tiny membrane caused the much heavier lever to work. It might be possible, he speculated, to make a membrane work in telephony, by using it to vary an electric current in intensity with the spoken word. Such a current could then replicate speech with another membrane. Bell had discovered the principle of the telephone, the theory of variable resistance, as depicted below. But learning to apply that principle correctly would take him another two years. Bell continued harmonic telegraph work through the fall of 1874. He wasn't making much progress but his tinkering gathered attention. , a prominent Boston lawyer and the president of the Clarke School for The Deaf, became interested in Bell's experiments. He and George Sanders, a prosperous Salem businessman, both sensed Bell might make the harmonic telegraph work. They also knew Bell the man, since Bell tutored Hubbard's daughter and he was helping Sander's deaf five year old son learn to speak. In October, 1874, Green went to Washington D.C. to conduct a patent search. Finding no invention similar to Bell's proposed harmonic telegraph, Hubbard and Sanders began funding Bell. All three later signed a formal agreement in February, 1875, giving Bell financial backing in return for equal shares from any patents Bell developed. The trio got along but they would have their problems. Sanders would court bankruptcy by investing over $100,000 before any return came to him. Hubbard, on the other hand, discouraged Bell's romance with his daughter until the harmonic telegraph was invented. Bell, in turn, would risk his funding by working so hard on the telephone and by getting engaged to Mabel without Hubbard's permission. In the spring of 1875, Bell's experimenting picked up quickly with the help of a talented young machinist named Thomas A. Watson. Bell feverishly pursued the harmonic telegraph his backers wanted and the telephone which was now his real interest. Seeking advice, Bell went to Washington D.C. On March 1, 1875, Bell met with Joseph Henry, the great scientist and inventor, then Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. It was Henry, remember, who pioneered electromagnetism and helped Morse with the telegraph. Uninterested in Bell's telegraph work, Henry did say Bell's ideas on transmitting speech electrically represented "the germ of a great invention." He urged Bell to drop all other work and get on with developing the telephone. Bell said he feared he lacked the necessary electrical knowledge, to which the old man replied, "Get it!" Bell quit pursuing the harmonic telegraph, at least in spirit, and began working full time on the telephone. After lengthy experimenting in the spring of 1875, Bell told Watson "If I can get a mechanism which will make a current of electricity vary in its intensity as the air varies in density when a sound is

69 passing through it, I can telegraph any sound, even the sound of speech." He communicated the same idea in a letter to Hubbard, who remained unimpressed and urged Bell to work harder on the telegraph. But having at last articulated the principle of variable resistance, Bell was getting much closer. On June 2, 1875, Bell and Watson were testing the harmonic telegraph when Bell heard a sound come through the receiver. Instead of transmitting a pulse, which it had refused to do in any case, the telegraph passed on the sound of Watson plucking a tuned spring, one of many set at different pitches. How could that be? Their telegraph, like all others, turned current on and off. But in this instance, a contact screw was set too tightly, allowing current to run continuously, the essential element needed to transmit speech. Bell realized what happened and had Watson build a telephone the next day based on this discovery. The Gallows telephone, so called for its distinctive frame, substituted a diaphragm for the spring. Yet it didn't work. A few odd sounds were transmitted, yet nothing more. No speech. Disheartened, tired, and running out of funds, Bell's experimenting slowed through the remainder of 1875. During the winter of 1875 and 1876 Bell continued experimenting while writing a telephone patent application. Although he hadn't developed a successful telephone, he felt he could describe how it could be done. With his ideas and methods protected he could then focus on making it work. Fortunately for Bell and many others, the Patent Office in 1870 dropped its requirement that a working model accompany a patent application. On February 14, 1876, Bell's patent application was filed by his attorney. It came only hours before Elisha Gray filed his Notice of Invention for a telephone. Mystery still surrounds Bell's application and what happened that day. In particular, the key point to Bell's application, the principle of variable resistance, was scrawled in a margin, almost as an afterthought. Some think Bell was told of Gray's Notice then allowed to change his application. That was never proved, despite some 600 lawsuits that would eventually challenge the patent. Finally, on March 10, 1876, one week after his patent was allowed, in Boston, Massachusetts, at his lab at 5 Exeter Place, Bell succeeded in transmitting speech. He was not yet 30. Bell used a liquid transmitter, something he hadn't outlined in his patent or even tried before, but something that was described in Gray's Notice. The Watson-built telephone looked odd and acted strangely. Bellowing into the funnel caused a small disk or diaphragm at the bottom to move. This disk was, in turn, attached to a wire floating in an acid- filled metal cup. A wire attached to the cup in turn led to a distant receiver. As the wire moved up and down it changed the resistance within the liquid. This now varying current was then sent to the receiver, causing its membrane to vibrate and thereby produce sound. This telephone wasn't quite practical; it got speech across, but badly. Bell soon improved it by using an electromagnetic transmitter, a metal diaphragm and a permanent magnet. The telephone had been invented. Now it was time for it to evolve. Simplified diagram of Bell's liquid transmitter. The diaphragm vibrated with sound waves, causing a conducting rod to move up and down in a cup of acid water. Battery supplied power electrified the cup of acid. As the rod rose and fell it changed the circuit's resistance. This caused the line current to the receiver (not shown) to fluctuate, which in turn caused the membrane of the receiver to vibrate, producing sound. This transmitter was quickly dropped in favor of voice powered or induced models. These

70 transmitted speech on the weak electro-magnetic force that the transmitter and receiver's permanent magnets produced. It was not until 1882, with the introduction of the Blake transmitter, that Bell telephones once again used line power. The so called local battery circuit used a battery supplied at the phone to power the line and take speech to the local switch. Voice powered phones did not go away completely, as some systems continued to be used for critical applications, those which may have been threatened by spark. In 1964 NASA used a voice powered system described as follows: "A network of 24 channels with a total of more than 450 sound powered telephones, which derive their power solely from the human voice, provide the communications between the East Area central blockhouse (left) and the various test stands at NASA's George C. Marshall

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The Telephone Evolves At this point telephone history becomes fragmented and hard to follow. Four different but related stories begin: (1) the further instrument and all its parts, (2) the history of the telephone business, (3) the history of telephone related technology and (4) the history of the telephone system. Due to limited space I can cover only some major North American events. Of these, the two most important developments were the invention of the vacuum tube and the transistor; today's telephone system could not have been built without them. Progress came slowly after the original invention. Bell and Watson worked constantly on improving the telphone's range. They made their longest call to date on October 9, 1876. It was a distance of only two miles, but they were so overjoyed that later that night they celebrated, doing so much began dancing that their landlady threatened to throw them out. Watson later recalled "Bell . . . had a habit of celebrating by what he called a war dance and I had got so exposed at it that I could do it quite as well as he could." The rest of 1876, though, was difficult for Bell and his backers. Bell and Watson improved the telephone and made better models of it, but these changes weren't enough to turn the telephone from a curiosity into a needed appliance. Promoting and developing the telephone proved far harder than Hubbard, Sanders, or Bell expected. No switchboards existed yet, the telephones were indeed crude and transmission quality was poor. Many questioned why anyone needed a telephone. And despite Bell's patent, broadly covering the entire subject of transmitting speech electrically, many companies sprang up to sell telephones and telephone service. In addition, other people filed applications for telephones and after Bell's patent was issued. Most claimed Bell's patent couldn't produce a working telephone or that they had a prior claim. Litigation loomed. Fearing financial collapse, Hubbard and Sanders offered in the fall of 1876 to sell their telephone patent rights to Western Union for $100,000. Western Union refused. On April 27, 1877 filed a patent application for an improved transmitter, a device that made the telephone practical. A major accomplishment, Edison's patent claim was declared in interference to a Notice of Invention for a transmitter filed just two weeks before by . This conflict was not resolved until 1886 however, Edison decided to produce the transmitter while the matter was disputed. Production began toward the end of 1877. To compete, Bell soon incorporated in their phones an improved transmitter invented by Francis Blake. Blake's transmitter relied on the diaphragm modifying an existing electrical current, an outside power source. This was 71 quite different than the original invention and its improvements. Bell's first telephone transmitter used the human voice to generate a weak electro-magnetic field, which then went to a distant receiver. Bell later installed larger, better magnets into his telephones but there was a limit to what power the human voice could provide, Myer indicating about 10 microwatts. On July 9, 1877 Sanders, Hubbard, and Bell formed the first . Each assigned their rights under four basic patents to Hubbard's trusteeship. Against tough criticism, Hubbard decided to lease telephones and license franchises, instead of selling them. This had enormous consequences. Instead of making money quickly, dollars would flow in over months, years, and decades. Products were also affected, as a lease arrangement meant telephones needed to be of rental quality, with innovations introduced only when the equipment was virtually trouble free. It proved a wise enough decision to sustain the for over a hundred years. In September, 1877 Western Union changed its mind about telephony. They saw it would work and they wanted in, especially after a subsidiary of theirs, the Gold and Stock Telegraphy Company, ripped out their telegraphs and started using Bell telephones. Rather than buying patent rights or licenses from the Bell, Western Union decided to buy patents from others and start their own telephone company. They were not alone. At least 1,730 telephone companies organized and operated in the 17 years Bell was supposed to have a monopoly. Most competitors disappeared as soon as the Bell Company filed suit against them for patent infringement, but many remained. They either disagreed with Bell's right to the patent, ignored it altogether, or started a phone company because Bell's people would not provide service to their area. In any case, Western Union began entering agreements with Gray, Edison, and Amos E. Dolbear for their telephone inventions. In December, 1877 Western Union created the American Speaking Telephone Company. A tremendous selling point for their telephones was Edison's improved transmitter. Bell Telephone was deeply worried since they had installed only 3,000 phones by the end of 1877. Western Union, on the other hand, had 250,000 miles of telegraph wire strung over 100,000 miles of route. If not stopped they would have an enormous head start on making telephone service available across the country. Undaunted by the size of Western Union, then the world's largest telecom company, Bell's Boston lawyers sued them for patent infringement the next year. On January, 28 1878, the first commercial switchboard began operating in New Haven, Connecticut. It served 21 telephones on 8 lines consequently, many people were on a party line. On February 17, Western Union opened the first large city exchange in San Francisco. No longer limited to people on the same wire, folks could now talk to many others on different lines. The public switched was born. Other innovations marked 1878. On February 21, 1878, the world's first telephone directory came out, a single paper of only fifty names. George Williard Coy and a group of investors in the New Haven District Telephone Company at 219 Chapel Street produced it. It was followed quickly by the listing produced by the oddly named Boston Telephone Despatch Company. In 1878 President Rutherford B. Hayes administration installed the first telephone in the White House. Mary Finch Hoyt reports that the first outgoing call went to Alexander Graham Bell himself, thirteen miles distant. Hayes first words instructed Bell to speak more slowly. In that year the Butterstamp telephone came into use. This telephone combined the receiver and transmitter into one handheld unit. You talked into one end, turned the instrument round and listened to the other end. People got confused with this clumsy arrangement, consequently, a telephone with a second transmitter and receiver unit was developed in the same year. You could use either one to talk or listen and you didn't have to turn them around. This wall set used a crank to signal the operator. The Butterstamp telephone On August 1, 1878 Thomas Watson filed for a ringer patent. Similar to Henry's classroom doorbell, a hammer operated by an electromagnet struck two bells. Turning a crank on the calling telephone spun a magneto, producing an alternating or ringing current. Previously, people used a crude thumper to signal the called party, hoping someone would be around to hear it. The ringer was an immediate success. Bell himself became more optimistic about the telephone's future, prophetically writing in 1878 "I

72 believe that in the future, wires will unite the head offices of the Telephone Company in different cities, and that a man in one part of the country may communicate by word of mouth with another in a distant place." Subscribers, meanwhile, grew steadily but slowly. Sanders had invested $110,000 by early 1878 without any return. He located a group of New Englanders willing to invest but unwilling to do business outside their area. Needing the funding, the Bell Telephone Company reorganized in June, 1878, forming a new Bell Telephone Company as well as the New England Telephone Company, a forerunner of the strong regional Bell companies to come. 10,755 Bell phones were now in service. Reorganizing passed control to an executive committee, ending Hubbard's stewardship but not his overall vision. For Hubbard's last act was to hire a far seeing general manager named Theodore Vail. But the corporate shuffle wasn't over yet. In early 1879 the company reorganized once again, under pressure from patent suits and competition from other companies selling phones with Edison's superior transmitter. Capitalization was $850,000. William H. Forbes was elected to head the board of directors. He soon restructured it to embrace all Bell interests into a single company, the National Bell Company, incorporated on March 13, 1879. Growth was steady enough, however, that in late 1879 the first telephone numbers were used. On November 10, 1879 Bell won its patent infringement suit against Western Union in the United States Supreme Court. In the resulting settlement, Western Union gave up its telephone patents and the 56,000 phones it managed, in return for 20% of Bell rentals for the 17 year life of Bell's patents. It also retained its telegraph business as before. This decision so enlarged National Bell that a new entity with a new name, American Bell Company, was created on February 20, 1880, capitalized with over seven million dollars. Bell now managed 133,000 telephones. As Chief Operating Officer, Theodore Vail began creating the Bell System, composed of regional companies offering local service, a long distance company providing toll service, and a manufacturing arm providing equipment. For the manufacturer he turned to a previous company rival. In 1880 Vail started buying Western Electric stock and took controlling interest on November, 1881. The takeover was consummated on February 26, 1882, with Western Electric giving up its remaining patent rights as well as agreeing to produce products exclusively for American Bell. It was not until 1885 that Vail would form his long distance telephone company. It was called AT&T. On July 19, 1881 Bell was granted a patent for the metallic circuit, the concept of two wires connecting each telephone. Until that time a single iron wire connected telephone subscribers, just like a telegraph circuit. A conversation works over one wire since grounding each end provides a complete path for an electrical circuit. But houses, factories and the telegraph system were all grounding their electrical circuits using the same earth the telephone company employed. A huge amount of static and noise was consequently introduced by using a grounded circuit. A metallic circuit, on the other hand, used two wires to complete the electrical circuit, avoiding the ground altogether and thus providing a better sounding call. The brilliant J.J. Carty introduced two wireservice commercially in October of that year on a circuit between Boston and Providence. It cut noise greatly over those forty five miles and heralded the beginning of long distance service. Still, it was not until 10 years later that Bell started converting grounded circuits to metallic ones. And ten years after that until completion. Depending on local conditions and economies, some independent telephone companies did not introduce two wire for decades after. Consider this example from the Magazine Telephone Company of central Arkansas: "After the end of WW II, the R.E.A. System was introduced to the area. This electrification project induced noise into the one wire magneto system that was currently in use by the Telephone Company. Henry [Stone] converted the magneto system to a new system called common battery. Instead of just one wire, common battery required two metallic wires for each circuit." On February 28, 1885 AT&T was born. Capitalized on only $100,000, American Telephone and Telegraph provided long distance service for American Bell. Only local telephone companies operating

73 under Bell granted licenses could connect to AT&T's long distance network. Vail thought this would continue the Bell System's virtual monopoly after its key patents expired in the 1890s. He reasoned the independents could not compete since they would be isolated and without long distance lines. With licensed companies providing local service, Western Electric manufacturing equipment and AT&T providing long distance, Vail's structuring of the Bell System was now complete. In September 1887, Vail resigned from American Bell. They lost a great man. He was at odds with Bell's Boston bankers and financiers, people who often ignored an area if profits might be marginal. J. Edward Hyde explained the situation best: "The singular worship of profits so disgusted Theodore Vail that he left the Bell Company in 1887. As a parting shot, he wrote: 'We have a duty to the public at large to make our service as good as possible and as universal as possible, and that earnings should be used not only to reward investors for their investment but also to accomplish these objectives.' Bell management thanked him for his comments and wished him a happy retirement. Those he left behind had neither his visionary business sense nor his sensible principles of customer service. Ignoring the protests of customers regarding exorbitant rates and the pleas of rural areas for service at any price, Bell's leadership plundered selected profitable areas during the remaining years of their exclusive ownership without realizing that they were pinning a target on their own chest in the neglected regions. Undoubtedly Bell's management suspected that bad times lay just on the other side of the initial patent expiration. Incredibly, they did nothing to prevent the deluge. In the cities where the Bell had its biggest stake, competitors appeared on nearly every corner." In 1889 the first public coin telephone came into use in Hartford, Connecticut. The first payphones were attended, with payment going to someone standing nearby. In 1892 Bell controlled 240,000 telephones. But the independents were coming on fast, especially by using better technology. The first automatic dial system began operating that year in La Porte, Indiana. The central office switch worked in concert with a similar switch at the subscriber's home, operated by push buttons. Patented in 1891 by Almon B. Strowger, this Step by Step or SXS system, replaced the for placing local calls. People could dial the number themselves. The first automatic commercial exchange began operating in La Porte, Indiana in 1892. Strowger's switch required different kinds of telephones and eventually models with dials. A.E. Keith, J. Erickson, and C.J. Erickson later invented the rotating finger-wheel needed for a dial. The first dial telephones began operating in Milwaukee's City Hall in 1896. Independents were quick to start using the new switch and phones. The Bell System did not embrace this switch or automation in general, indeed, a Bell franchise commonly removed "Steppers" and dial telephones in territories it bought from independent telephone companies. Not until 1919 did the Bell System start using Strowgers durable and efficient switching system. This tardiness contributed to Bell's poor reputation around the turn of the century. Almon Strowger went on to help form Automatic Electric, the largest telephone equipment manufacturer for the independent telephone companies. Before continuing let's look at Strowger's achievement. The automatic dial system, after all, changed telephony forever. Almon Brown Strowger (pronounced STRO-jer) was born in 1839 in Penfield, New York, a close suburb of Rochester. Like Bell, Strowger was not a professional inventor, but a man with a keen interest in things mechanical. Swihart says he went to an excellent New York State university, served in the Civil War from 1861 to 1865 (ending as a lieutenant), taught school in Kansas and Ohio afterwards, and wound up first in Topeka and then Kansas City as an undertaker in 1886. This unlikely profession of an inventor so inspired seems odd indeed, but the stories surrounding his motivation to invent the automatic switch are odder still.

74 The many stories suggest, none of which I can confirm, that someone was stealing Almon Strowger's business. Telephone operators, perhaps in league with his competitors, were routing calls to other undertakers. These operators, supposedly, gave busy signals to customers calling Strowger or even disconnected their calls. Strowger thus invented a system to replace an operator from handling local calls. In the distillation of these many stories, Stephan Lesher relates a story from Almon's time in Topeka: "In his book, Good Connections, telephone historian Dave Park writes that Strowger grew darkly suspicious when a close friend in Topeka died and the man's family delivered the body to a rival mortician. Strowger contended that an operator at the new had intentionally directed the call to a competitor -- an allegation that gave rise to tales that the operator was either married to, or the daughter of, a competing undertaker." Whatever the circumstances, we do know that anti-Bell System sentiment ran high at this time, that good telephone inventions commanded ready money, and that Strowger did have numerous problems with his local telephone company. Strowger was a regular complainer and one complaint stands out. Swihart describes how Southwestern Bell personnel were called out to once again visit Strowger's business, to fix a dead line. The cause turned out to be a hanging sign which flapped in the breeze against exposed telephone contacts. This shorted the line. Once the sign was removed the line worked again. It may be supposed that this sort of problem was beyond a customer's ability to diagnose, that Strowger had a legitimate complaint. But on this occasion Southwestern Bell's assistant general manager, a one Herman Ritterhoff, was along with the repair crew. Strowger invited the man inside and showed him a model for an automatic switch. So Strowger was working on the problem for quite some time and was no novice to telephone theory. Brooks says that, in fact, Strowger knew technology so well that he built his patent on Bell system inventions. It must be pointed out, however, that every inventor draws ideas and inspiration from previously done work. Brooks says specifically that the Connolly-McTighe patent (Patent number 222, 458, dated December 9, 1879) helped Strowger, a failed dial switchboard, as well as an early automatic switch developed by Erza Gilliland. But Strowger did not build the instrument since he did not have the mechanical skills. A rather clueless jeweler was employed instead to build the first model, and much time was wasted with this man, getting him to follow instructions. As with Bell, Strowger filed his patent without having perfected a working invention. Yet he described the switch in sufficient detail and with enough novel points for it to be granted Patent number 447,918, on March 10, 1891. And in a further parallel with Bell, Almon Strowger lost interest in the device once he got it built. It fell upon his brother, Walter S. Strowger, to carry development and promotion further, along with a great man, Joseph Harris, who also helped with promotion and investment money. Without Harris, soon to be the organizer and guiding force behind Automatic Electric, dial service may have taken decades longer for the Bell System to recognize and develop. Competition by A.E. forced the Bell System to play switching catchup, something they really only accomplished in the 1940s with the introduction of crossbar. In 1893 the first central office exchange with a common battery for talking and signaling began operating in Lexington, Massachusetts. This common battery arrangement provided electricity to all telephones controlled by the central office. Each customer's telephone previously needed its own battery to provide power. Common battery had many consequences, including changing telephone design. The big and bulky wall sets with wet batteries providing power and cranks to signal the operator could be replaced with sleek desk sets. I'll cover telephone design in another chapter, but, briefly, there were four great overlapping eras in telephone development: Invention, Crank, Dial and Handset. They went from, respectively, 1876 to 1893, 1877 to 1943, 1919 to 1978 and 1924 to the present. In 1897 Milo Gifford Kellogg founded the Kellogg Switchboard and Supply Company near Chicago. Kellogg was a "graduate engineer and accomplished circuit designer", who began his career in 1870 with Gray and Barton, equipment manufacturers for Western Electric. There he developed Western Electric's best telephone switchboards: a standard model and a multiple switchboard. Both were invented in 1879 and patented in 1881 and 1884, respectively. He retired from Western Electric in 1885, "and began making and patenting a series of telephone inventions of his own, which work extended over a period of 12 years and which culminated in the issue of 125 patents to him on October

75 17, 1897, besides which over 25 had previously been issued to him." He was also quite political, successfully winning suits against Bell and delaying other Bell actions to his benefit. Telecom History called him "probably the man in the American independent telephone business who first placed himself in opposition to the Bell Company." His major accomplishment was the so called divided-multiple switchboard, of which two were built. One was sold to the Cuyahoga Telephone Company of Cleveland, Ohio and the other to the Kinloch Telephone company of Saint Louis. The Cleveland installation boasted 9,600 lines, with an ultimate capacity of 24,000! Such large switchboards were needed to handle increasing demand. The Kellog boards were much larger than Bell equipment, mostly designed by Charles Scribner. Saint Louis and Detroit independents started switching to Kellog boards, "threaten[ing] Bell's profitable urban markets." Under such pressure and once again running out of money, Bell regrouped. In 1899 American Bell Telephone Company reorganized yet once again. In a major change, American Bell Telephone Company conveyed all assets, with the exception of AT&T stock, to the New York state charted American Telephone and Telegraph Company. It was figured that New York had less restrictive corporate laws than Massachusetts. The American Bell Telephone Company name passed into history. In 1900 loading coils came into use. Patented by Physics Professor Michael I. Pupin, loading coils helped improve long distance transmission. Spaced every three to six thousand feet, cable circuits were extended three to four times their previous length. Essentially a small electro-magnet, a or inductance coil strengthens the by decreasing attenuation, the normal loss of signal strength over distance. Wired into the transmission line, these electromagnetic loading coils keep signal strength up as easily as an electromagnet pulls a weight off the ground. But coils must be the right size and carefully spaced to avoid distortion and other transmission problems. The definitive book on loading coil history and early long distance working is Neil Wasserman's book, From Invention to Innovation: Long Distance Telephone Transmission at The Turn of the Century. John Hopkins/AT&T Series in Telephone History. 1985. In 1901 the Automatic Electric Company was formed from Almon Strowger's original company. The only maker of dial telephone equipment at the time, Automatic Electric grew quickly. The Bell System's Western Electric would not sell equipment to the independents, consequently, A.E. and then makers like Kellog and Stromberg-Carlson found ready acceptance. Desperate to fight off the rising independent tide, the Bell System concocted a wild and devious plan. AT&T's president Fredrick Fish approved a secret plan to buy out the Kellog Switchboard and Supply Company and put it under Bell control. Kellog would continue selling their major switchboards to the independents for a year. At that time the Bell System would file a patent suit against Kellog, which they would intentionally loose. This would force the independents to rip out their newly installed switchboards, crushing the largest independents. The plan was discovered, aborted, and further scandalized AT&T. By 1903 independent telephones numbered 2,000,000 while Bell managed 1,278,000. Bell's reputation for high prices and poor service continued. As bankers got hold of the company, the Bell System faltered. In 1907 Theodore Vail returned to the AT&T as president, pressured by none other than J.P. Morgan himself, who had gained financial control of the Bell System. A true robber baron, Morgan thought he could turn the Bell System into America's only telephone company. To that end he bought independents by the dozen, adding them to Bell's existing regional telephone companies. The chart shows how AT&T management finally organized the regional holding companies in 1911, a structure that held up over the next seventy years. But Morgan wasn't finished yet. He also worked on buying all of Western Union, acquiring 30% of its stock in 1909, culminating that action by installing Vail as its president. For his part, Vail thought telephone service was a natural monopoly, much as gas or electric service. But he also knew times were changing and that the present system couldn't continue.

76 In January 1913 the Justice Department informed the Bell System that the company was close to violating the Sherman Antitrust Act. Vail knew things were going badly with the government, especially since the Interstate Commerce Commission had been looking into AT&T acquisitions since 1910. J.P. Morgan died in March, 1913; Vail lost a good ally and the strongest Bell system monopoly advocate. In a radical but visionary move, Vail cut his losses with a bold plan. On December 19, 1913, AT&T agreed to rid itself of Western Union stock, buy no more independent telephone companies without government approval and to finally connect the independents with AT&T's long distance lines. Rather than let the government remake the Bell System, Vail did the job himself. Known as the Kingsbury agreement for the AT&T vice president who wrote the historic letter of agreement to the Justice Department, Vail ended any plans for a complete monopoly. But with the independents paying a fee for each long distance call placed on its network, and with the threat of governmental control eased, the Bell System grew to be a de facto monopoly within the areas it controlled, accomplishing by craft what force could not do. Interestingly, although the Bell System would service eighty three percent of American telephones, it never controlled more than thirty percent of the United States geographical area. To this day, 1,435 independent telephone companies still exist, often serving rural areas the Bell System ignored. Vail's restructuring was so successful it lasted until modern times. In 1976, on the hundredth anniversary of the Bell System, AT&T stood as the richest company on earth. At this point we need to look back a few years. In 1906 invented the three element electron tube. Its properties led the way to national phone service. Long distance service was previously limited to 1,500 miles or so. Loading coils and larger, thicker cables helped transmission to a point but no further. There was still too much loss in a telephone line for a voice signal to reach across the country. Transcontinental phone traffic wasn't possible, consequently, so a national network was beyond reach. Something else was needed. In 1907 Theodore Vail instructed AT&T's research staff to build an electronic amplifier based on their own findings and De Forest's pioneering work. They made some progress but not as much as De Forest did on his own. AT&T eventually bought his patent rights to use the tube in their telephone amplifier. Only after this and a year of inspecting De Forest's equipment did the Bell Telephone Laboratory make the triode work for telephony. Those years of research were worth it. Electron tube based amplifiers would make possible radiotelephony, transmission, radar, , and hundreds of other technologies. Telephone repeaters could now span the country, enabling a nationwide telephone system, fulfilling Alexander Graham Bell's 1878 vision. Recalling those years in an important interview with the IEEE, Lloyd Espenschied recounts "In May [1907], several of us had gone to a lecture that Lee De Forest had given on at the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. In this lecture, he passed around a queer little tube to all the audience. It was the first three-element tube to be shown in public, I found out afterwards. He passed this around and everybody looked at it and said, "So what!" Even De Forest said that he didn't know what it was all about. He looked on it as a detector. Actually it was an evolution of the Fleming valve, but he would never give credit to anyone." Later in the interview, Espenschied gives an opinion of De Forest shared by many at the time, "No, he was no engineer. He was just a playboy all his life. He's just plain lucky that he stumbled into the three- element device. Just plain lucky. But that was handed to him for persevering; he kept at it, grabbing and grabbing at all the patent applications without knowing what he was doing." Luck or not, De Forest was first to build and then exploit the the three element tube. It later enabled the vacuum tube repeater which ushered in telephony's electronics age. A triode is sometimes called a thermionic valve. Thermions are electrons derived from a heated source. A valve describes the tube's properties: current flows in one direction but not the other. Think of a faucet, a type of control valve, letting water go in only one direction. This controlled flow of electrons, not just electricity itself, marks the end of the electrical age and the beginning of the electronic age. Armstrong later developed the regenerative circuit which fed back the input signal into the circuit over and over again. In electronic books of the era many called him "Feedback Armstrong." His circuit

77 amplified the signal far more than original designs, allowing great wireless or wireline transmission signal strength. The feedback circuit could also be overdriven, fed back so many times that supplying a small current would develop an extremely high frequency. The circuit would thus resonate at the frequency of a , letting the triode receive or detect signals, not just transmit them. DeForest later claimed to have invented regeneration; this was a lie. DeForest invented the three element tube by trial and error; he did not even understand how it worked until five years later when Edwin Armstrong explained it. As evidence of the triode's success, on January 25, 1915 the first transcontinental telephone line opened between New York City and San Francisco. The previous long distance limit was New York to Denver, and only then with some shouting. Two metallic circuits made up the line; it used 2,500 tons of hard-drawn copper wire, 130,000 poles and countless loading coils. Three vacuum tube repeaters along the way boosted the signal. It was the world's longest telephone line. In a grand ceremony, 68 year old Alexander Graham Bell in New York City made the ceremonial first call to his old friend Thomas Watson in San Francisco. In an insult to Lee de Forest, the inventor was not invited to participate. This insult was carried over to the 1915 World's Fair in San Francisco, in which AT&T's theater exhibit heralded coast to coast telephone service without mentioning the man who made it possible. In 1919 Theodore Gary and Company bought the Automatic Electric Company. Years later, when A.E. became AG Communication Systems, the AGCS website said "Theodore Gary aimed to cash in on the accelerating trend of replacing manual labor with machinery, and saw great potential in the Bell System market. Gary formed a syndicate that secured an option on the majority of Automatic Electric Company common stock. In 1919, he exercised his option to purchase the company." Since Automatic Electric didn't manufacture for the Bell System the words "potential in the Bell System market" means licensing potential. Indeed, the AGCS site goes on to say that, "By the mid-1920s, AE was licensing about 80 percent of the automatic telephone equipment in the world. It became the second largest telecommunications manufacturer in the United States after Western Electric." Finally, on November 8, 1919, in what must have been a humiliating experience for the telecommunications giant, AT&T at last introduced large scale automatic switching equipment to their telephone system. Using step by step equipment made, bought, and installed by Automatic Electric. The cut over to dial in Norfolk, Virginia was a complete Bell System policy change. No longer would they convert automatic dial systems to manual as they bought independent telephone companies, but they would instead embrace step by step equipment and install more. In 1921 the Bell System introduced the first commercial panel switch, a very odd invention. Developed over eight years, it was AT&T's response to the automatic dialing feature offered by step by step equipment. It offered many innovations and many problems. Although customers could dial out themselves, the number of parts and its operating method made it noisy for callers. Ironically, some switchmen say it was a quiet machine inside the central office, emanating "a collection of simply delightful 'clinking,' 'whirring' and 'squeak, squeak, squeak' noises." Working like a game of Snakes and Ladders, the switch used selectors to connect calls, these mechanical arms moving up and down in large banks of contacts. When crossbar switching came on the scene in 1938, panel switches were removed where possible, although some remained working until the mid 1970s. Panel became the first defunct switch in the public switched telephone network In 1925 Western Electric sold its overseas manufacturing plants to a small company with a big name and even bigger ideas: International Telephone and Telegraph. A controversial decision within the Bell System. AT&T sold factories in 11 countries, fearing a United States anti-trust lawsuit. Western kept one foreign company: Canadian Northern Electric, holding it until 1957. AT&T would not return officially to the international market until 1977. ITT's owners, the curious, conspiratorial Behn brothers, Sosthenes and Hernand, bought Western Electric International for 30 million dollars and renamed it International Standard Electric. Their purchase, backed by J.P. Morgan's bank, included Western's large British manufacturer, renamed Standard Telephones and Cable. The Behns agreed not to compete in America against Western Electric, and to be the export agent for AT&T products abroad. AT&T agreed in return not to compete internationally against the Behns. Now equipped with a large manufacturing arm, IT&T spread across

78 the globe, buying and influencing telephone companies (and their governments) on nearly every continent. In January, 1927, commercial long distance radio-telephone service was introduced between the United States and Great Britain. AT&T and the British Postal Office got it on the air after four years of experimenting. They expanded it later to communicate with Canada, Australia, South Africa, Egypt and Kenya as well as ships at sea. This service had fourteen dedicated channels or frequencies eventually assigned to it. The overseas transmitter was at Rugby, England, and the United States transmitter was at Deal, New Jersey. Nearly thirty years would pass before the first telephone cable was laid under the Atlantic, greatly expanding calling capacity. In the next year The Great Depression began, hitting independent telephone companies hard, including the manufacturer Automatic Electric. Although telephones had been used in the White House for many years, the instrument did not reach the president's desk until the Hoover administration at the start of the Great Depression. "In 1929, when the Executive Offices were remodeled the historic one-position switchboard which had served for so many years was retired from service and a new two-position switchboard, especially built to meet the President's needs, was installed. The number of stations was materially increased in addition to many special circuits for the use of the President. It was at this time a telephone was installed on the President's desk for the first time." The United States Congress created the Federal Communications Commission in 1934 to regulate telephones, radio, and television. It was part of President Roosevelt's "New Deal" plan to bring America out of the Great Depression. Not content to merely follow congressional dictates, and unfortunately for wireless users, the agency first thought it should promote social change through what it did. To promote the greater good with radio, the F.C.C. gave priority to emergency services, broadcasters, government agencies, utility companies, and other groups it thought served the most people while using the least . This meant few channels for radio-telephones since a single wireless call uses the same bandwidth as an F.M. radio broadcast station; large frequency blocks to serve just a few people. Treating radio like a public utility, something like the railroads, it was thought a public agency could protect the public against monopoly practices and price gouging. But like many bureaucracies, at every opportunity the FCC tried to enlarge its role and power, eventually aligning itself with large communications companies and then actually working against the consumer. The worst examples were outside of telephony, helping the RCA corporation against F.M. , ruining Edwin Armstrong in the process, and favoring RCA over Farnsworth, the first real developer of television, leaving him penniless as well. Along the way were maddening delays in approving technical advances and frequency allocations, something that continues to this day. Late in 1934 the FCC began investigating AT&T as well as every other telephone company. The FCC issued a 'Proposed Report' after four years, in which its commissioner excoriated AT&T for, among other things, unjustifiable prices on basic phone service. The commissioner also urged the government to regulate prices the Bell System paid Western Electric for equipment, indeed, even suggesting AT&T should let other companies bid on Western Electric work. The Bell System countered each point of the FCC's report in their 1938 Annual Report, however, it was clear the government was now closely looking at whether the Bell System's structure was good for America. At that time AT&T controlled 83 percent of United States telephones, 91 percent of telephone plant and 98 percent of long distance lines. Only the outbreak of World War II, two and a half months after the final report was issued in 1939, staved off close government scrutiny. In 1937 Alec Reeves of Britain invented modern digital transmission when he developed Pulse Code . I say modern because Morse code and its variants are also digital: organized on and off pulses of electrical energy that convey information. While PCM took decades to implement, the advent of digital working was a momentous event and deserves much consideration. David Robertson, a biographer of Reeves, goes so far as to claim Reeves as the father of modern telecommunications. "I think a fair argument can be sustained that the adoption of digital is the principal motor of change in the early 21st century. For sure, there'd have been no merger between AOL and Time Warner and other moves towards combining media with telecom companies had it not become possible to transmit information of all sorts in the same binary way. Whether all this is good news is, of course, another issue."

79 In 1937 was installed between Toledo, Ohio and South Bend, Indiana. Long distance lines began moving underground, a big change from overhead lines carried on poles. In that same year the first commercial messages using carrier techniques were sent through the coax, based on transmission techniques invented by Lloyd Espenschied and Herman A. Affel. Multiplexing let toll circuits carry several calls over one cable simultaneously. It was so successful that by the mid 1950s seventy nine percent of Bell's inter city trunks were multiplexed. The technology eventually moved into the local network, improving to the point where it could carry 13,000 channels at once. In 1938 retractile, spring, or cords were introduced into the Bell System. A single cotton bundle containing the handset's four wires were fashioned into a spiral. This reduced the twisting and curling of conventional flat or braided cords. Spiral cords were popular immediately. AT&T's Events in Telecommunication History [ETH] reported that introduction began in April, with Western Electric providing 6,000 cords by November. Still, even with W.E. then producing 1,000 cords a week, the cords could not be kept in stock. In 1938 the Bell System introduced crossbar switching to the central office, a system as excellent as the panel switch was questionable. The first No. 1 crossbar was cut into service at the Troy Avenue central office in Brooklyn, New York on February 13th.This culminated a trial begun in October 1937.A detail of a is shown on the right. Western Electric's models earned a worldwide reputation for ruggedness and flexibility. AT&T improved on work done by the brilliant Swedish engineer Gotthilf Ansgarius Betulander. They even sent a team to Sweden to look at his crossbar switch. Installed by the hundreds in medium to large cities, crossbar technology advanced in development and popularity until 1978, when over 28 million Bell system lines were connected to one. That compares to panel switching lines which peaked in 1958 at 3,838,000 and step by step lines peaking in 1973 at 24,440,000. Much telephone progress slowed as World War II began. But one major accomplishment was directly related to it. On May 1, 1943 the longest open wire communication line in the world began operating between Edmonton, Alberta and Fairbanks, Alaska. Built alongside the newly constructed Alaskan Highway, the line was 1500 miles long, used 95,000 poles and featured 23 manned repeater stations. Fearing its radio and submarine cable communications to Alaska might be intercepted by the Japanese, the United States built the line to provide a more secure communication link from Alaska to the United States. Back to crossbar. Note the watch-like complexity in the diagram. Current moving through the switch moved these electro- mechanical relays back and forth, depending on the dial pulses received. Despite its beauty, these switches were bulky, complicated and costly. The next invention we look at would in time sweep all manual and electro-mechanical switching away. On July 1, 1948 the Bell System unveiled the transistor, a joint invention of Bell Laboratories scientists William Shockley, , and Walter Brattain. It would revolutionize every aspect of the telephone industry and all of communications. One engineer remarked, "Asking us to predict what transistors will do is like asking the man who first put wheels on an ox cart to foresee the automobile, the wristwatch, or the high speed generator." Others were less restrained. In 1954, recently retired Chief of Engineering for AT&T, Dr. Harold Osborne, predicted, "Let us say that in the ultimate, whenever a baby is born anywhere in the world, he is given at birth a number which will be his for life. As soon as he can talk, he is given a watchlike device with 10 little buttons on one side and a screen on the other. Thus equipped, at any time when he wishes to talk with anyone in the world, he will pull out the device and punch on the keys the number of his friend. Then turning the device over, he will hear the voice of his friend and see his face on the screen, in color and in three dimensions. If he does not see and hear him he will know that the friend is dead."

80 The first transistor looking as crude, perhaps, as the first telephone. The point contact transistor pictured here is now obsolete. Capitalizing on a flowing stream of electrons, along with the special characteristics of silicon and germanium, the transistor was built into amplifiers and switching equipment. Hearing aids, , phonographs, computers, electronic telephone switching equipment, satellites and moon rockets would all be improved or made possible because of the transistor. Let's depart again from the narrative to see how a transistor works. Transistor stands for transit resistor, the temporary name, now permanent, that the inventors gave it. These semidconductors control the electrical current flowing between two terminals by applying voltage to a third terminal. You now have a minature switch, presenting either a freeway to electrons or a brick wall to them, depending on whether a signal voltage exists. Bulky mechanical relays that used to switch calls, like the crossbar shown above, could now be replaced with transistors. There's more. Transistors amplify when built into a proper circuit. A weak signal can be boosted tremendously. Let's say you have ten watts flowing into one side of the transistor. Your current stops because silicon normally isn't a good conducter. You now introduce a signal into the middle of the transistor, say, at one watt. That changes the transistor's internal crystalline structure, causing the silicon to go from an insulator to a conductor. It now allows the larger current to go through, picking up your weak signal along the way, impressing it on the larger voltage. Your one watt signal is now a ten watt signal. Transistors use the properties of semi-conductors, seemingly innocuous materials like geranium and now mostly silicon. Materials like silver and copper conduct electricity well. Rubber and porcelain conduct electricity poorly. The difference between electrical conductors and insulators is their molecular structure, the stuff that makes them up. Weight, size, or shape doesn't matter, it's how tightly the material holds on to its electrons, preventing them from freely flowing through its atoms. Silicon by itself is an ordinary element, a common part of sand. If you introduce impurities like arsenic or boron, though, you can turn it into a conductor with the right electrical charge. Selectively placing precise impurities into a silicon chip produces an electronic circuit. It's like making a magnetically polarized, multi-layered chemical cake. Vary the ingredients or elements and you can make up many kinds of cakes or transistors. And each will taste or operate a little differently. As I've just hinted, there are many kinds of transistors, just as there are many different kinds of tubes. It's the triode's solid state equivalent: the field effect transistor or FET. The FET we'll look at goes by an intimidating name, MOSFET for Metal Oxide Field Effect Transistor. Whew! That's a big name but it describes what it does: a metal topped device working by a phenomenon called a field effect. A silicon chip makes up the FET. Three separate wires are welded into different parts. These electrode wires conduct electricity. The source wire takes current in and the drain wire takes current out. A third wire is wired into the top. In our example the silicon wafer is positively charged. Further, the manufacturer makes the areas holding the source and drain negative. These two negative areas are thus surrounded by a positive.

Now we introduce our weak signal current, say a telephone call that needs amplifying. The circuit is so arranged that its current is positive. It goes into the gate where it pushes against the positive charge 81 of the silicon chip. That's like two positive magnets pushing against each other. If you've ever tried to hold two like magnets together you know it's hard to do -- there's always a space between them. Similarly, a signal voltage pushing against the chip's positive charge gives space to let the current go from the source to the drain. It picks up the signal along the way. Check out this diagram, modified only slightly from 's excellent site: As Louis Bloomfield of Virginia puts it:"The MOSFET goes from being an insulating device when there is no charge on the gate to a conductor when there is charge on the gate! This property allows to amplify signals and control the movements of electric charge, which is why MOSFETs are so useful in electronic devices such as stereos, , and computers." We come to the 1950s. was not widespread until the end of the decade in North America, not until direct dialing and automatic switching became common. Dial tone was first introduced into the public switched telephone network in a German city by the Siemens company in 1908, but it took decades before being accepted, with the Bell System taking the lead. AT&T used it not only to indicate that a line was free, but also to make the dialing procedure between their automatic and manual exchanges more familiar to their customers. Manual exchange subscribers placed calls first through an operator, who listened to the number the caller wanted and then connected the parties together. The Bell System thought dial tone a good substitute for an operator's "Number please" and required this service in all of their automatic exchanges. Before the 1950s most of the independent telephone companies, but not all, also provided dial tone. And, of course, dial tone was not possible on phones such as crank models, in which you signaled an operator who then later connected your call. I mentioned direct number dialing, where callers made their own long distance calls, This was first introduced into the Bell System in a trial in Englewood, New Jersey in 1951. Ten years passed before it became universal. On August, 17, 1951 the first transcontinental microwave system began operating. One hundred and seven relay stations spaced about 30 miles apart formed a link from New York to San Francisco. It cost the Bell System $40,000,000; a milestone in their development of radio relay begun in 1947 between New York and Boston. In 1954 over 400 microwave stations were scattered across the country. A Bell System "Cornucopia" tower is shown at left. By 1958 microwave carrier made up 13,000,000 miles of telephone circuits or one quarter of the nations long distance lines. 600 conversations or two television programs could be sent at once over these radio routes. But what about crossing the seas? Microwave wasn't possible over the ocean and radiotelephony was limited. Years of development lead up to 1956 when the first transatlantic telephone cable system started carrying calls. It cost 42 million dollars. Two coaxial cables about 20 miles apart carried 36 two way circuits. Nearly fifty sophisticated repeaters were spaced from ten to forty miles along the way. Each vacuum tube repeater contained 5,000 parts and cost almost $100,000. The first day this system took 588 calls, 75% more than the previous ten days average with AT&T's transatlantic radio-telephone service. In the early 1950s The Bell System developed an improved neoprene jacketed telephone cord and shortly after that a PVC or plastic cord. These replaced the cotton covered cords used since telephony began. The wires inside laid parallel to each other instead of being twisted around. That reduced diameter and made them more flexible. Both, though, were flat and non-retractable, only being made into spring cords later. In the authoritative Dates in American Telephone Technology, C.D. Hanscom, then historian for Bell Laboratories, stated that the Bell System made the neoprene version available in 1954 and the plastic model available in 1956. These were, the book dryly indicated, the most significant developments in cord technology since 1926, when solderless cord tips came into use. On June 7, 1951, AT&T and International Telephone and Telegraph signed a cross-licensing patent agreement. This marks what Myer says "led to complete standardization in the American telephone industry." Perhaps. I do know that ITT's K-500 phones are completely interchangeable with

82 W.E. Model 500s, so much so that parts can be freely mixed and matched with each other. But whether Automatic Electric and other manufacturers produced interoperable equipment is something I am still researching. It is significant, though, that after seventy-five years of competition the Bell System decided to let other companies use its patents. Myer suggests a 1949 anti-trust suit against WECO and AT&T was responsible for their new attitude. On August 9, 1951 ITT began buying Kellogg stock, eventually acquiring the company. In 1952 the Kellogg Switchboard and Supply company passed into history, merging with ITT. Roger Conklin relates, "In just a few years after the buyout, ITT changed the name from Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company to ITT Kellogg. Then, after merging Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation, its separate telephone manufacturing company in Clifton, NJ. into ITT Kellogg and combining manufacturing operations into its Cicero Ave. facility in Chicago, the name was changed again to ITT Telecommunications. . . . The last change to ITT Telecommunications [took] place [in]1963." "In 1989, ITT sold its entire worldwide telecommunications products business to Alcatel and withdrew totally from this business. In 1992 Alcatel sold what had formerly been ITT's customer premises equipment (CPE) business in the US, including its factory in Corinth, MS. to a group of private investors headed by David Lee. Initially after purchasing this business from Alcatel, this new company was known as Cortelco Kellogg. It continues to manufacture and market what had formerly been ITT's U.S.-made telephones and related products. The name 'Kellogg' has since been dropped from its name and the company is now known as Cortelco. For a short while Cortelco continued to use the ITT name and trademark on its products under a license from ITT, but this also has been discontinued." In 1952 the Bell System began increasing payphone charges from a nickel to a dime. It wasn't an immediate change since both the payphone and the central office switching equipment that serviced it had to be modified. By the late 1950s many areas around the country were still charging a nickel. Most likely AT&T started converting payphones in New York City first. In the mid-50s launched the Essex research project. It concentrated on developing computer controlled switching, based upon using the transistor. It bore first fruit in November, 1963 with the 101 ESS, a PBX or office telephone switch that was partly digital. Despite their computer expertise, AT&T agreed in 1956 under government pressure not to expand their business beyond telephones and transmitting information. Bell Laboratories and Western Electric would not enter such fields as computers and business machines. In return, the Bell System was left intact with a reprieve from anti-monopoly scrutiny for a few years. It is interesting to speculate whether IBM would have dominated computing in the 1960s if AT&T had competed in that market. In 1955 Theodore Gary and Company merged into General Telephone, forming the largest independent telephone company in the United States. The combined company served "582,000 domestic telephones through 25 operating companies in 17 states. It also had interests in foreign telcos controlling 426,000 telephones." Automatic Electric, Gary's most well known company, retained its name but fell under an even larger corporate umbrella. AGCS goes on to say, The Gary merger package included Automatic Electric Co. (AE), which now had subsidiaries in Canada, Belgium and Italy. GTE had purchased its first telephone-manufacturing subsidiary five years earlier in 1950 - Leich Electric. But the addition of AE's engineering and manufacturing capacity assured GTE of equipment for their rapidly growing telephone operations. General was founded in 1926 as Associated Telephone Utilities by Sigurd Odegard. The company went bankrupt during the Great Depression and in 1934 reorganized itself as General Telephone. General had its own manufacturing company, Leich Electric, which began in 1907. Growth was unspectacular until Donald C. Power became president in 1950. He soon bought other companies, building General Telephone into a large telecommunications company. After the merger of Automatic Electric, General acquired answering machine producer Electric Secretary Industries in 1957, carrier equipment maker Lenkurt Electric in 1959, and Sylvania Electronics in that same year. In 1959 the newly renamed General Telephone and Electronics provided everything the independent telephone companies might want. Although they were not the exclusive manufacturer for the independents, Automatic Electric was certainly the largest. And where GTE aggressively went

83 after military contracts, the Bell System did not. In the late 1950s, for example, Lenkurt Electric produced most of the armed forces' carrier equipment. GTE lasted until 1982. In January, 1958, Wichita Falls, was the first American city in the Bell System to institute true number calling, that is, seven numerical digits without letters or names. Although it took more than fifteen years to implement throughout the Bell System, ANC, or all number calling, would finally replace the system of letters and numbers begun forty years before at the advent of automatic dialing. Telephone numbers like BUtterfield8, ELliot 1-1017 or ELmwood 1-1017. The 1960s began a dizzying age of projects, improvements and introductions. In 1961 the Bell System started work on a classic cold war project, finally completed in 1965. It was the first coast to coast atomic bomb blast resistant cable. Intended to survive where the national microwave system might fail, the project buried 2500 reels of coaxial cable in a 4,000 mile long trench. 9300 circuits were helped along by 950 buried concrete repeater stations. Stretched along the 19 state route were 11 manned test centers, buried 50 feet below ground, complete with air filtration, living quarters and food and water. In 1963 the first modern touch-tone phone was introduced, the Western Electric 1500. It had only ten buttons. Limited service tests had started in 1959. Also in 1963 digital carrier techniques were introduced. Previous multiplexing schemes used analog transmission, carrying different channels separated by frequency, much like those used by . T1 or Transmission One, by comparison, reduced analog voice traffic to a series of electrical plots, binary coordinates to represent sound. T1 quickly became the backbone of long distance toll service and then the primary handler of local transmission between central offices. The T1 system handles calls throughout the telephone system to this day. In 1964 the Bell System put its star crossed videotelephone into limited commercial service between New York, Washington and Chicago. Despite decades of dreaming, development and desire by Bell scientists, technicians and marketing wonks, the videotelephone never found a market. 1968. Even the astute Japanese fell victim to developing picturephones as this unflattering photograph shows, this model was probably developed by Nippon Telephone and Telegraph In 1965 the first commercial was launched, providing 240 two way telephone circuits. Also in 1965 the 1A1 payphone was introduced by Bell Labs and Western Electric after seven years of development. Replacing the standard three slot payphone design, the 1A1 single slot model was the first major change in coin phones since the 1920s. 1965 also marked the debut of the No. 1ESS, the Bell Systems first central office computerized switch. The product of at least 10 years of planning, 4,000 man years of research and development, as well as $500 million dollars in costs, the first Electronic Switching System was installed in Succasunna, N.J. Built by Western Electric the 1ESS used 160,000 diodes, 55,000 transistors and 226,000 resistors. These and other components were mounted on thousands of circuit boards. Not a true digital switch, the 1ESS did feature Stored Program Control, a fancy Bell System name for memory, enabling all sorts of new features like speed dialing and . Without memory a switch could not perform these functions; previous switches such as crossbar and step by step worked in real time, with each step executed as it happened. The switch proved a success but there were some problems for Bell Labs engineers, particularly when a No.1ESS became overloaded. In those circumstances it tended to fail all at once, rather than breaking down bit by bit. In June 1968 the FCC allowed non Bell equipment to be legally attached to Bell System lines. Despite restrictions the Bell System would impose on such equipment, many companies started producing products to compete with Western Electric. In 1969 Microwave Communications International began transmitting business calls over their own private network between Saint Louis and Chicago. Bypassing Bell System lines, MCI offered cheaper prices. AT&T bitterly opposed this specialized common carrier service, protesting that Bell System's long distance rates were higher since they subsidized local phone service around the country. Still, MCI was a minor threat, economically. The real problem started a few years later when MCI tried to connect to the Bell System network.

84 At the end of the 1960s AT&T began experiencing severe customer service problems, especially in New York City. The reasons were many but most had to do with unforeseen demand, coupled with reduced maintenance. The Bell System fixed the problems but not without an attitude that embittered people by the millions. In Boettinger's pro-Bell System history, he recounts the troubles this way: "In 1969, unprecedented jumps in usage and demand caused service deterioration in several large cities. Huge and rapid injections of equipment and personnel trained in accelerated programs were required before quality levels were restored. The experience showed how vital telephones had become to modern life (when even persons on welfare were felt to need a phone) and how frustrations with breakdown led to aggressive behavior." That the Bell System didn't understand how vital telephones were to modern life is beyond understanding; that welfare recipients weren't thought to deserve a phone is beyond acceptance, however, Ma Bell was not alone in dealing with dissatisfied customers. GTE also had problems. GTE and Automatic Electric went through tremendous growth in the 1960s, with A.E. expanding to four different facilities. In 1969 their California facility in San Carlos made transmission equipment. Switchgear and related equipment came from Northlake and Genoa, Illinois, and telephones and other customer apparatus came from Huntsville, Alabama. Automatic Electric Limited in Canada also produced equipment. A.E.'s research in the 1960s resulted in their first computerized switch being cut into service into , Florida in September 1972. It was called the No. 1 EAX (Electronic Automatic Exchange). Growth wasn't handled well, though, by their parent company, General Telephone and Electronics. GTE was then a poorly managed conglomerate of 23 regional phone companies and a maker of, among other things, televisions and light bulbs. They had their successes and failures. "Introducing a crimestopper so advanced Dick Tracy doesn't have it yet." In1971 General Telephone and Electronics (GTE Sylvania) introduced a data system called Digicom. It let dispatchers identifying patrol car locations on a screen, and allowed officers to run license plate checks. When a patrolman touched a spot on the digicom screen it lit up the same spot on the dispatcher's map. Produced by their Sociosystems Products Organization, I do not know how many units were actually installed by GTE, but it certainly foreshadowed later developments. Today many police departments use cellular digital packet data (CDPD) to run plates and communicate in text with their dispatchers. CDPD runs on existing cellular networks, with data rates no more that 9.6 or 19.2 Kbs, adequate for most purposes but slow when you consider that in the year 2000, 29 years after this system was introduced, we are still laboring with creeping data rates. GTE had their problems as well, especially with customer service, getting worse and worse through the late sixties, with the company admitting their problems by conducting a highly unusual national magazine ad campaign in November, 1971. The ad in the National Geographic read: "A lot of people have been shooting at the telephone companies these days. And, in truth, we've had our hands full keeping up with the zooming demand for increased phone service. But General Telephone and, in all fairness, the other phone companies haven't been sitting around counting dimes. For some time now, we've been paying a healthy 'phone bill' ourselves trying to make our service do everything you expect of it . . . During the next five years we'll be spending over $6 billion upgrading and expanding every phase of our phone operation . . . Ladies and gentlemen, we're working as fast as brains, manpower and money can combine to make our service as efficient as possible." And although GTE might not have "sat around counting dimes," GTE's poor service record continued, a reputation that haunts it to this day. Rightly or wrongly, the phone companies, particularly those in the Bell System, watched agog as customer relations got worse. Hacking and toll fraud increased dramatically, as the phone company became fair game, a soulless and uncaring monster to war against. Attacking Ma Bell became common and almost fashionable. In 1974 the Justice Department began investigating AT&T again for violating antitrust laws. They recommended Western Electric and Long Lines be divested from AT&T. Many people in Justice as well as throughout the country were concerned with the size of AT&T and their monopoly status. Although everyone knew the Bell System provided the

85 best telephone service in the world, it had done so with little or no competition. AT&T's assets stood at 75 billion dollars. Big was not good in the early 1970s, with anti-establishment (particularly the military industrial establishment) feeling running high during the Vietnam and Watergate era. Contributing to the Bell System's woes, in July, 1977 the FCC instituted a certification program, whereby any telephone equipment meeting standards could be connected to Bell System's lines. Dozens and then hundreds of manufacturers started competing with Western Electric, making everything from answering machines, , fax machines, speakerphones, to differently styled telephones. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, Stromberg-Carlson of Rochester, New York and then Lake Mary, Florida, produced a marvelously simple switch known as the X-Y. While an independent phone maker at the turn of the century, Stromberg-Carlson had by the early 70s been acquired by General Dyanmics. They were later bought by Rolm and then by Siemens of Germany, who still owns it today. It's new name is Siemens-Stromberg. But back to their switch. Little known outside the industry, the Stromberg-Carlson X-Y step by step switch solidly competed for business against Strowger technology (manufactured by Automatic Electric and others) in thousands of installations throughout rural America. Some may remain in Mexico and South America. Although the Bell System and many independents preferred the Strowger design for small communities, many telephone companies did not. Strowger equipment often worked reliably for decades but it was more complicated than X-Ys and it required a great deal of preventative maintenance performed by skilled craft workers. Ray Strackbein, who used to work for Stromberg-Carlson, says that X-Ys, by comparison, needed few repairs and fixes were simple. He writes, "I once met a husband-and-wife team that traveled throughout the Great Plains in their Winnebago motor home on a yearly cycle and routined hundreds of X-Y offices each year. They would work Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the winter, and Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota in the summer. Even a Switchman who could not figure out how to wire a doorbell for a central office could maintain a C.O. full of X-Y switches." Ray then goes on to describe the Stromberg-Carlson X-Y step by step switch, which could be configured or enlarged in blocks of 100 lines: "Describing it is rough, but it was a modular switch that was horizontally slid into a vertical bay of shelves. An array of 400 (10X10X4) bare copper wires ran vertically behind the switch for the whole length of the bay. Four circuits were needed to make a connection: Tip, Ring, Sleeve, and Helper Sleeve. Each switch sat on shelf about 12"X9"X2" (2" high). When someone dialed a number, the retracted switch moved horizontally -- the X direction -- (left-to-right as you faced it from the front), one step for each dial-pulse. Then when the dialed digit stopped pulsing, the switch rapidly extended horizontally away from you as you faced it, with four contacts, one for each circuit -- T, R, S, and HS -- sampling the 10 possible phone trunks for an idle trunk to the next selector. The design of the X-Y switch was brilliant. Unlike the Strowger that lifted the armature for each dial pulse then rotating through a half- circle to find an idle line, the X-Y switch lifted no weight. The moving switch rested on the plate and moved only horizontally. This made for a switch of a much more simple design than the Strowger." Stromberg-Carlson introduced their first digital switch around 1978, the Stromberg Carlson System Century digital switch. As switches were going digital, so, too, were nearly all electronics in the telecommunication field. Still, a few technological holdouts remained, as the Bell System replaced their last local cord switchboard in 1978, on Santa Catalina Island near the coast of Los Angeles, California. That's right, operators still placing calls by hand in the Age of Disco. "[T]he smallest version of Western's 160 toll switchboard" was replaced by a 3ESS, the first Bell switch, incidentally, to be shipped by barge. The city served would have been Avalon. This according according to the June, 1978 Bell Laboratories Record and personal correspondence with P. Egly of Santa Rosa, California. Egly relates the following about Avalon: "Tom, Avalon had its own inward operator and I even remember the route, 213 + 012 +... Calls off the island were handled by the same operator using She surely dialed all calls in the same way that any of the

86 operators in the LA toll centers did. I am not sure if the trunks to the mainland were by microwave or by cable. " "[Since this was a manual exchange] There were no dial phones on Avalon, all were manual magneto service with even the payphones having cranks. Most of the private subscribers had 300 or 500 type sets with dial blanks connected to magneto boxes. The operator rang the subscriber from her board using her ring key to supply ringing current from a standard WECO ring generator." He goes on to say that the Bell System had a like system in Nevada: "There was a similar situation in Virginia City, Nevada with the subscribers having the old walnut and oak magneto phones with local battery. In this case, most subscribers resisted the cutover to dial service, since the magneto phones were quite elegant. . . all polished wood and gleaming brass bells. They were part of the period atmosphere of the town." This simple switching technology came within six years of outliving the most advanced telephone company on earth. But one manual local toll board remained in the public switched telephone network even longer. Michael Hathaway reports that "[My] parents owned the Bryant Pond Telephone Company in Bryant Pond, Maine, the last hand-crank magneto company to go dial. It was in our living room and the last call was made October 11, 1983." Hand crank magneto switchboards evolved around the turn of the century. Their arrangement was not common battery, where the exchange or central office powers their equipment and supplies electricity to customer's phones. Rather, a crank at the switchboard operators position was turned to signal a customer. Turn the crank and you caused a dial at a customer's telephone to ring, a magneto in the crank generating the ringing current. To place a call a customer signaled the operator with a similiar crank on their telephone. A big battery in the base of the customer's telephone supplied the talking power when a call got connected. This system is called local battery, where the customer's phone supplies the power. Here's an example of a magneto switchboard below, a 1914 Western Electric Type 1200, known as a "Bull's Eye." This board is at the Roseville Telephone Company Museum and it still works for demonstrations. So, you had many people on non-dial, candlestick or box telephones, as nearly a hundred years before. My father, incidentally, worked a magneto powered switchboard in his youth, near Davidson, Michigan. Mike goes on to say that, "My father and mother Elden & Barbara Hathaway sold the Bryant Pond Telephone Company in 1981 but it took two years to convert. They did have about 400 customers ( probably 200 lines - two switchboards full). When they bought the company there were only 100 customers. The Oxford County Telephone Company, which bought it, retained ownership of the last operating switchboards, and they are currently deciding what they would like to do with them. The options include giving them to the town of Bryant Pond, and I have heard there is interest from the Smithsonian. My mother, who is 83, thinks that's quite exciting. To sum up, although some manual switchboards may have remained in the PSTN, those being small office switches, or PBXs, the Bryant Pond board was the last central office manual exchange in America. On this happy and nostalgic note of technology passing away, so at the same time was the world's greatest telephone company coming to an end. Although they had pioneered much of telecom, many people though the was growing faster than the Bell System could keep up. Many thought AT&T now stood in the way of

87 development, rather than being the harbinger of it. And the thought of any large monopoly struck most as inherently wrong. In 1982 the Bell System had grown to an unbelievable 155 billion dollars in assets (256 billion in today's dollars), with over one million employees. By comparison, Microsoft in 1998 had assets of around 10 billion dollars. On August 24, 1982, after seven years of wrangling, the Bell System was split apart, succumbing to government pressure from without and a carefully thought up plan from within. Essentially, the Bell System divested itself. Judge Harold Greene entered a decision called the Modified Final Judgment, since it impacted the 1956 decision limiting AT&T to the telephone business. In the MFJ as it is known, AT&T kept their long distance service, Western Electric, Bell Labs, the newly formed AT&T Technologies and AT&T Consumer Products. AT&T got their most profitable companies, in other words, and spun off the regional Bell Operating Companies or RBOCs. Complete divestiture took place on January, 1, 1984. The operating Companies then consolidated into the seven large entities. In perhaps the most cumbersome part of the Modified Final Judgment, Judge Greene split the country into 160 local access and transport areas, loosely structured around area code boundaries. Local phone companies would not provide long distance service and long distance companies could not provide local service. Judge Greene thought the Baby Bells would dominate long distance service in their territories if allowed to provide it. He insisted that only a long distance company could pass LD traffic from one LATA to another. By now this prohibition has ceased on a federal level, however, many states have yet to allow complete local and long distance competition. And although AT&T once again provides local service for a few select markets, as of July, 2001, only 8% of local lines belong to competitors, giving the local telephone companies a practical monopoly Theodore Vail would have preferred.

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The speaking telegraph 140 years of communication by John Hinson Hardly a book on signalling exists that doesn't have an opening chapter detailing the development of early signalling which of necessity covers the use of telegraph instruments. But telegraph instruments were not used solely to signal trains - in fact this was not their original purpose. They were there to convey messages, as would be done by telephone today. When railways first came into being, communication was distinctly rudimentary. The most popular means of sending a message was of course to write it down and send it on a train - a practice that remained popular until the recent privatisation exercise. But this method was no help if there was need to send a message advising of the late running of a train, for example, and initially the only alternative was to send a message by courier on horseback. However, as soon as electricity cam along, efforts were made to use it for communication. Early instruments were complex, Cooke & Wheatstone's first instrument comprised five needles which could each be deflected to two possible positions, allowing any two needles to point at a specified letter laid out in a arrangement. The first installation was between Euston and Camden on the LNW for communication with the rope-haulage winding house, but as this complicated arrangement required no less than six wires between locations and at the time was regarded as prohibitively expensive to install system-wide. Similar instruments were installed on the GW between Paddington and West Drayton in 1839, but they very quickly fell into disrepair. Messages were sent by operating two of the five needles in combination to denote a letter. Cooke & Wheatstone replaced this in 1843 with a new type, using just two needles (and therefore three electrical wires). The letters of the alphabet were identified by counting the number of deflections of the needle, rather than the single deflection method of the five-needle 88 instruments. This was the equipment that achieved fame by warning of murderer seen leaving Slough in 1845, leading to his arrest at Paddington. It is worth noting, although not significant to this tale, that the two needles were marked for Up Trains and Down Trains, suggesting their later use for signalling purposes. Letters of the alphabet were identified by multiple strokes of the needle, but it is not clear as to whether the two circuits were used independently for "Down" and "Up" messages, or whether the separate needles were used for sending and receiving messages. Telegraph became more commonly used from 1845 onwards. The need for separate Up and Down needles was, of course, not significant when the instruments were being used solely to transmit messages, and single-needle instruments spread from the early 1850s for general communication. Most of these were built by Tyer & Co. Interestingly, as the proper block signalling system developed, many redundant telegraph instruments were rebuilt into block instruments and quite a number of these conversions are still in use today. The continuing use of the "single-needle speaking telegraph" is not well documented. It is known that they were the only means of conversing between signal boxes on the former GN High Barnet branch right up to the resignalling by London Transport in 1939. It is also said that such instruments existed in station offices on the former LNW Windermere branch until the 1950s for communications about wagon loading and passenger matters. But the most significant survivors were to be found on the erstwhile Great Northern main line. Here, a complex network of circuits supplemented the telephone network, being used in the main to announce late running trains for regulating purposes. For a moment, visualise yourself as a signalman in a box in the days when the only means of conversation is the telegraph. No telephones. Supposing you need to discuss with your colleague in the next box some minor block irregularity that has occurred, or maybe to discuss the racing results. The telegraph would be far too public - everyone on the circuit could read your conversation, including the Station Master who would certainly not approve. It could not have taken long for signalmen to realise they could use the block instruments as telegraph for private conversations. As early as 1889, warnings were issued against doing this, and the instruction was still to be found in the British Railways Regulations for Train Signalling as late as 1972: Use of Block Indicators and Bells. These must be used exclusively for the purposes shown herein and must not under any circumstances be used for conversing. As far back as 1873, a Captain Mallock was commissioned to review block working for the Indian government and stated to the Society of Telegraph Engineers that "A needle instrument of any sort permits of talking, and is dangerous". He preferred one wire two position instruments (such as Tyers) for this reason. In the discussion that followed, Mr. Chubb (a director of the North London Railway, and previously manager of that line) agreed. They used Tyers* instruments and "the men could not talk with it. The men would talk if it was possible, and he found the best way was to let them have a speaking instrument in addition to Tyers." This was a remarkably enlightened attitude for an early Victorian manager. * - The North London actually used Pryce & Ferreira instruments, manufactured under licence by Tyer & Co. An interesting early single-needle instrument of unknown origin (seen here laid on its back) had the needle enclosed in a large glass-fronted wooden case. The reason for this large contraption is not clear - open up the case and there is virtually nothing inside! On the single-needle instruments, the Cooke & Wheatstone and other complex codes were abandoned and instead messages were sent morse code. The needles no longer required to be observed visually to be read - metal sounders were provided so that deflections could be identified by ear as a "ting" and a "tong". These sounders were, in fact, often enhanced by signalmen by the placing of a tobacco tin tightly on the sounders, producing a sharp "click" and "clack".

89 Morse code was not used in the traditional sense, in that there was no distinction between the length of a dot or a dash. Each was of equal duration, a dot being represented by a right-hand deflection of the needle (a low note on the sounder) and a dash by a left-hand deflection, with the higher note. Thus each letter would be identified by a combination of notes, staff identifying them more by the tune than by reading morse code. Incidentally, figures were spelt out as words, rather than using the traditional morse code numbers. This was probably to ensure clear identification in messages that contained so many figures. Again, staff would read each number by its tune rather than letter by letter. Messages would be acknowledged with M (understood) or E (not understood). Each location, be it a signal box or telegraph office would have a two digit identifying code - usually one that made a distinctive tune for easy identification. It should also be mentioned that some busy locations had local circuits between boxes for train routing purposes. In these instances, the instrument was mounted on the block shelf adjacent to the relevant block instrument, and the two letter identifying code of the train's destination would be sent after signalling the train on the block bell. The normal circuits would generally be mounted at waist level near to the train register desk. A few boxes had an "exchange", working in a similar manner to a telephone concentrator. A bank of circuits would be provided, each with a switch that could link it to the one instrument provided that had sending capabilities. Circuits could be connected through by switching two circuits to the sending instrument. Owing to the length of a through connection, signals could sometimes be weak. Operators in the telegraph offices generally had a more sophisticated instrument, with a piano key arrangement for sending messages. Some were in traditional style, as shown here, whilst others were rather more modern. Little information exists about the introduction of the latter, but the fact they were made from matt black-painted plywood suggests they were not that old! As has been said, these single-needle instruments survived in intensive use right into the early 1970s. They were popular with signalmen as there was no need to pick a phone up to take a message, and indeed it was possible to hear messages intended for others and get a picture of how trains were running. With this information, signalmen were able to regulate traffic accurately without any need for Control intervention. My own first job on leaving school in 1971 was as "Telegraph Lad" at Kings Cross. Elsewhere, the job would have called Booking Boy, or Box Lad, for that was really what the job was. However part of the job required the receiving of messages from Crescent Junction (Peterborough), Hitchin South and Hatfield No.1 about the running of Up expresses. We were required to calculate from their passing times how late they were running, and this was marked on a card which was transmitted to key points on the station (such as the Train Announcer's Office and the Arrivals Indicator) by closed- circuit television. An amazing contrast between 1830s telegraph to the latest 1970s technology! To learn the telegraph, I was sent to the Signalling School at Ilford, where I sat through a full signalman's course in order to benefit from the small amount of it devoted to the telegraph. I suspect I must have been among the last to be trained to use it, and I could still manage to send messages today, although I would be a bit rusty on the receiving. Some of the other messages we received were on more general traffic matters. For instance, every Sunday afternoon, a message would come from Crescent Junction: COW 2B18 1 BG PARCELS POST This curious sounding message, when read in conjunction with the Telegraph and Telegrams code book, tells that there is an additional brake van attached to the rear of train 2B18 loaded with parcels. Whilst the presence of telegraph instruments in traditional mechanical signal boxes didn't seem out of place, the site of one in the 1950s power box at Potters Bar certainly did. Nevertheless, without abandoning the entire system, it was necessary to provide one there.

90 The first sign of abandonment of the system was when the old Kings Cross miniature lever power box closed in 1971, and the layout transferred to the control of a small temporary panel in the corner of the new power box that was being prepared to control a large part of the ECML. Dignity, perhaps, over- ruled common sense, and three brand new telephone circuits were provided to allow, for the first time, verbal communication with Crescent Junction, Hitchin South and Hatfield No.1. The telegraph instruments continued in use elsewhere on the line, in most cases right up to the closure of the boxes. I do not know where (or when) the last circuit in use was, it would be interesting to know . . . 1. What was not the original purpose of telegraph instruments? 2. Give the characteristics to the early telegraph instruments. 3. What was new in Cooke & Wheatstone? 4. What do you know abour Morse code?

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Supplementary reading  ABOUT CELLULAR COMMUNICATION AND MOBILE INTERNET Telephone, television, cellular communication and W.W.W. ( -- Internet) -- all these are different conceptions creating an enormous net for mankind. Mobile Internet is the main "know-how", it is a break into and out of the borders. In the West millions of non-business people, even housewives have two or three apparates of cellular communication. Speed is the main problem of today in that sphere of technology which is linked in our sense with an ordinary telephone receiver. Mobile Internet, mobile video are impossible without speed, as the speed of data transmitting is the main problem nowadays. By the year 2004 there will be 120 millions users of Mobile Internet and every fourth user will do it with the help of cellular communication for working in the W.W.W. Different services of banks, shoppings, booking tickets for all kinds of transport, for cinemas, exhibitions, theatres -- all these will be accessible at any time and place. By the year 2001 more than a half subscribes of mobile nets will use WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) — it is an electronic language worked out specially for the Mobile Internet. Most devices of cellular communications will be exposed as an Internet Language. The electronic mail, voice messages, trade, bank operations, etc. will be carried out with their help. With the help of high technology there is a tendency to obtain the speed of 11 megabits per second, comparing with the speed of 9,8 kilobits nowadays. Using Internet mankind will have cellular voice and video communication nets all over the world, and its ring will cost not more than a local ring.  SUPERCONDUCTIVITY AND SUPERFLUIDITY Superconductivity is a low-temperature phenomenon in which a material loses all electrical resistance when it is cooled to a temperature near absolute zero. This unusual behavior was discovered in 1911 by a Dutch physicist, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes. In experiments to measure the resistance of frozen mercury, he discovered that the resistance vanished completely at a temperature of 4.15 K (-289 degrees C). Vitaly Ginsburg and Alexei Abrikosov, have made decisive contributions to our under-standing of how superconductivity and magnetism can coexist. In the 1950s V. Ginsburg together with Lev Landau formulated a theory that could describe how superconductivity disappears at certain "critical" values of electrical 91 current and magnetic fields, in more detail than before. They introduced a measure for the order among electrons, which they called the superconducting order parameter. Guided by a deep physical Intuition they went on to formulate mathematical equations whose solution determines the order in a super- conductor. They found a close correspondence with what had been measured for super-conductors known at the time. It is worth pointing out that the reasoning behind this Ginsburg-Landau theory was of such general validity that it is used today to gain new knowledge in many of the subfields of physics. Applications of superconductivity The discovery of better superconducting compounds is a significant step toward a wider spectrum of applications, including faster Computers with larger storage capacities, nuclear fusion reactors in which ionized gas is confined by magnetic fields, magnetic Suspension of high-speed ("Maglev") trains, and perhaps most important of all, more efficient generation and transmission of electric power over long distances. Super fluidity is a state of matter characterized by the complete absence of viscosity, or resistance to flow. The term super fluidity is applied primarily to phenomena observed in liquid helium at very low temperatures, but the term is also sometimes used to refer to the frictionless flow of electrons in certain metals and alloys at very low temperatures. The phenomenon of super fluidity was discovered in 1937 by the Russian physicist Peter Kapitza. He observed that liquid helium, when cooled below 2.17 K (-270.98° C), could flow with no difficulty through extremely small holes, which liquid helium above that temperature cannot do. He also noticed that on the walls of its Container superfluity helium formed a thin film (approximately 100 atoms thick) that flowed against gravity up and over the rim of the Container. Super fluidity can be explained using the theory of quantum mechanics. It occurs when large numbers of atoms or molecules are cooled, in a process known as "condensation", so that they occupy the same quantum energy state. The Condensed atoms will therefore inter-act with each other and their surroundings according to exactly the same physical laws, and, when distributed evenly throughout the normal liquid atoms, create unusual properties such as super fluidity.  THE NEW YORK SUBWAY Early in the development of the plans for the subway system in New York City, it was foreseen that the efficiency of operation of a road with so heavy a traffic as is being provided for would depend largely upon the completeness of the block signaling and interlocking systems adopted for spacing and directing trains. On account of the importance of this consideration, not only for safety of passengers, but also for conducting operation under exacting schedules, it was decided to install the most complete and effective signaling system procurable. The problem involved the prime consideration of: Safety and reliability. Greatest capacity of the lines consistent with the above. Facility of operation under necessarily restricted yard and track conditions. In order to obtain the above desiderata it was decided to install a complete automatic block signal system for the high-speed routes, block protection for all obscure points on the low-speed routes, and to operate all switches both for line movements and in yards by power from central points. This necessarily involved the of the block and switch movements at many locations and made the adoption of the most flexible and compact appliances essential. Of the various signal systems in use it was found that the one promising entirely satisfactory results was the electro-pneumatic block and interlocking system, by which power in any quantity could be readily conducted in small pipes any distance and utilized in compact apparatus in the most restricted spaces. The movements could be made with the greatest promptness and certainty and interconnected for the most complicated situations for safety. Moreover, all essential details of the system had been worked Out in years of practical operation on important trunk lines of railway, so that its reliability and efficiency were beyond question. 92 The application of such a system to the New York subway involved an elaboration of detail not before attempted upon a railway line of similar length, and the contract for its installation is believed to be the largest single order ever given to a signal manufacturing company. In the application of an automatic block system to an electric railway where the rails are used for the return circuit of the propulsion current, it is necessary to modify the system as usually applied to a steam railway and introduce a track circuit control that will not be injuriously influenced by the propulsion current. This had been successfully accomplished for moderately heavy electric railway traffic in the Boston elevated installation, which was the first electric railway to adopt a complete automatic block signal system with track circuit control. The New York subway operation, however, contemplated traffic of unprecedented density and consequent magnitude of the electric currents employed, and experience with existing track circuit control systems led to the conclusion that some modification in apparatus was essential to prevent occasional traffic delays. The proposed operation contemplates a possible maximum of two tracks loaded with local trains at one minute intervals, and two tracks with eight car express trains at two minute intervals, the latter class of trains requiring at times as much as 2,000 horse power for each train in motion. It is readily seen, then, that combinations of trains in motion may at certain times occur which will throw enormous demands for power upon a given section of the road. The electricity conveying this power flows back through the track rails to the power station and in so doing is subject to a "drop" or loss in the rails which varies in amount according to the power demands. This causes disturbances in the signal-track circuit in proportion to the amount of "drop," and it was believed that under the extreme condition above mentioned the ordinary form of track circuit might prove unreliable and cause delay to traffic. A solution of the difficulty was suggested, consisting in the employment of a current in the signal track circuit which would have such characteristic differences from that used to propel the trains as would separate selectively upon an apparatus which would in turn control the signal. Alternating current supplied this want on account of its inductive properties, and was adopted, after a demonstration of its practicability under similar conditions elsewhere. After a decision was reached as to the system to lie employed, the arrangement of the block sections was considered from the standpoint of maximum safety and maximum traffic capacity, as it was realized that the rapidly increasing traffic of Greater New York would almost at once tax the capacity of the line to its utmost. The usual method of installing automatic block signals in the United States is to provide home and distant signals with the block sections extending from home signal to home signal; that is, the block sections end at the home signals and do not overlap each other. This is also the arrangement of block sections where the telegraph block or controlled manual systems are in use. The English block systems, however, all employ overlaps. Without the overlap, a train in passing from one block section to the other will clear the home signals for the section in the rear, as soon as the rear of the train has passed the home signal of the block in which it is moving. It is thus possible for a train to stop within the block and within a few feet of this home signal. If then, a following train should for any reason overrun this home signal, a collision would result. With the overlap system, however, a train may stop at any point in a block section and still have the home signal at a safe stopping distance in the rear of the train. Conservative signaling is all in favor of the overlap, on account of the safety factor, in case the signal is accidentally overrun. Another consideration was the use of automatic train stops. These stops are placed at the home signals, and it is thus essential that a stopping distance should be afforded in advance of the home signal to provide for stopping the train to which the brake had been applied by the automatic stop. Ordinarily, the arrangement of overlap sections increases the length of block sections by the length of the overlap, and as the length of the section fixed the minimum spacing of trains, it was imperative to make the blocks as short as consistent with safety, in order not to cut down the carrying capacity of the railway. This led to a study of the special problem presented by subway signaling and a development of a blocking system upon lines which it is believed are distinctly in advance of anything heretofore done in this direction.

93 Block section lengths are governed by speed and interval between trains. Overlap lengths are determined by the distance in which a train can be stopped at a maximum speed. Usually the block section length is the distance between signals, plus the overlap; but where maximum traffic capacity is desired the block section length can be reduced to the length of two overlaps, and this was the system adopted for the Interborough. The three systems of blocking trains, with and without overlaps, is shown diagramatically on page 143, where two successive trains are shown at the minimum distances apart for "clear" running for an assumed stopping distance of 800 feet The system adopted for the subway is shown in line "C," giving the least headway of the three methods. The length of the overlap was given very careful consideration by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company, who instituted a series of tests of braking power of trains; from these and others made by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, curves were computed so as to determine the distance in which trains could he stopped at various rates of speed on a level track, with corrections for rising and falling to grades up to 2 per cent. Speed curves were then plotted for the trains on the entire line, showing at each point the maximum possible speed, with the gear ratio of the motors adopted. A joint consideration of the speeds, braking efforts, and profile of the road were then used to determine at each and every point on the line the minimum allowable distance between trains, so that the train in the rear could be stopped by the automatic application of the brakes before reaching a train which might be standing at a signal in advance; in other words, the length of the overlap section was determined by the local conditions at each point. In order to provide for adverse conditions the actual braking distances was increased by 50 per cent.; for example, the braking distance of a train moving 35 miles an hour is 465 feet, this would be increased 50 per cent. and the overlap made not less than 697 feet. With this length of overlap the home signals could be located 697 feet apart, and the block section length would be double this or 1394 feet. The average length of overlaps, as laid out, is about 800 feet, and the length of block sections double this, or 1,600 feet. The protection provided by this unique arrangement of signals is illustrated on page 143. Three positions of train are shown: "A." MINIMUM distance between trains: The first train has just passed the home signal, the second train is stopped by the home signal in the rear; if this train had failed to stop at this point, the automatic stop would have applied the air brake and the train would have had the overlap distance in which to stop before it could reach the rear of the train in advance; therefore, under the worst conditions, no train can get closer to the train in advance than the length of the overlap, and this is always a safe stopping distance. "B." CAUTION distance between train: The first train in same position as in "A," the second train at the third home signal in the rear; this signal can be passed under caution, and this distance between trains is the caution distance, and is always equal to the length of the block section, or two overlaps. "C." CLEAR distance between trains: First train in same position as in "A," second train at the fourth home signal in the rear; at this point both the home and distant signals are clear, and the distance between the trains is now the clear running distance; that is, when the trains are one block section plus an overlap apart they can move under clear signal, and this distance is used in determining the running schedule. It will be noted in "C" that the first train has the following protection: Home signals 1 and 2 in stop position, together with the automatic stop at signal 2 in position to stop a train, distant signal 1, 2, and 3 all at caution, or, in other words, a train that has stopped is always protected by two home signals in its rear, and by three caution signals; in addition to this an automatic stop placed at a safe stopping distance in the rear of the train. Description of Block Signaling System The block signaling system as installed consists of automatic overlapping system above described applied to the two express tracks between City Hall and 96th Street, a distance of six and one-half miles, or thirteen miles of track; and to the third track between 96th and 145th Streets on the West Side branch, a distance of two and one-half miles. This third track is placed between the two local tracks, and will be used for express traffic in both directions, trains moving toward the City Hall in the morning and in the opposite direction at night; also the two tracks from 145th Street to Dyckman Street, a distance of

94 two and one-half miles, or five miles of track. The total length of track protected by signals is twenty-four and one-half miles. The small amount of available space in the subway made it necessary to design a special form of the signal itself. Clearances would not permit of a "position" signal indication, and, further, a position signal purely was not suitable for the lighting conditions of the subway. A color signal was therefore adopted conforming to the adopted rules of the American Railway Association. It consists of an iron case fitted with two white lenses, the upper being the home signal and the lower the distant. Suitable colored glasses are mounted in slides which are operated by pneumatic cylinders placed in the base of the case. Home and dwarf signals show a red light for the danger or "stop" indication. Distant signals show a yellow light for the "caution" indication. All signals show a green light for the "proceed" or clear position. Signals in the subway are constantly lighted by two electric lights placed back of each white lens, so that the lighting will be at all times reliable. On the elevated structure, semaphore signals of the usual type are used. The signal lighting is supplied by a special alternating current circuit independent of the power and general lighting circuits. A or automatic stop of the Kinsman system is used at all block signals, and at many interlocking signals. This is a device for automatically applying the air brakes to the train if it should pass a signal in the stop position. This is an additional safeguard only to be brought into action when the danger indication has for any reason been disregarded, and insures the maintenance of the minimum distance between trains as provided by the overlaps established. Great care has been given to the design, construction, and installation of the signal apparatus, so as to insure reliability of operation under the most adverse conditions, and to provide for accessibility to all the parts for convenience in maintenance. The system for furnishing power to operate and control the signals consists of the following: Two 500-volt alternating current feed mains run the entire length of the signal system. These mains are fed by seven direct-current motor-driven generators operated in multiple located in the various power sub-stations. Any four of these machines are sufficient to supply the necessary current for operating the system. Across these alternating mains are connected the primary coils of track transformers located at each signal, the secondaries of which supply current of about 10 volts to the rails of the track sections. Across the rails at the opposite end of the section is connected the track relay, the moving element of which operates a contact. This contact controls a local direct-current circuit operating, by compressed air, the signal and automatic train stop. Direct current is furnished by two mains extending the length of the system, which are fed by eight sets of 16-volt storage batteries in duplicate. These batteries are located in the subway at the various interlocking towers, and are charged by motor generators, one of which is placed at each set of batteries. These motor generators are driven by direct current from the third rail and deliver direct current of 25 volts. The compressed air is supplied by six air compressors, one located at each of the following sub- stations: Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, and 17. Three of these are reserve compressors. They are motor-driven by direct-current motors, taking current from the direct-current bus bars at sub-stations at from 400 to 700 volts. The capacity of each compressor is 230 cubic feet. The motor-driven air compressors are controlled by a governor which responds to a variation of air pressure of five pounds or less. When the pressure has reached a predetermined point the machine is stopped and the supply of cooling water shut off. When the pressure has fallen a given amount, the machine is started light, and when at full speed the load is thrown on and the cooling water circulation reestablished. Oiling of cylinders and bearings is automatic, being supplied only while the machines are running. Two novel safety devices having to do especially with the signaling may be here described. The first is an emergency train stop. It is designed to place in the hands of station attendants, or others, the emergency control of signals. The protection afforded is similar in principle to the emergency brake handle found in all passenger cars, but operates to warn all trains of an extraneous danger condition. It has been shown in electric railroading that an accident to apparatus, perhaps of slight moment, may cause an unreasoning panic, on account of which passengers may wander on adjoining tracks in face of approaching trains. To provide as perfectly as practicable for such conditions, it has been arranged to

95 loop the control of signals into an emergency box set in a conspicuous position in each station platform. The pushing of a button on this box, similar to that of the fire-alarm signal, will set all signals immediately adjacent to stations in the face of trains approaching, so that all traffic may be stopped until the danger condition is removed. The second safety appliance is the "section break" protection. This consists of a special emergency signal placed in advance of each separate section of the third rail; that is, at points where trains move from a section fed by one sub-station to that fed by another. Under such conditions the contact shoes of the train temporarily span the break in the third rail. In case of a serious overload or ground on one section, the train-wiring would momentarily act as a feeder for the section, and thus possibly blow the train fuses and cause delay. In order, therefore, to prevent trains passing into a dangerously overloaded section, an overload relay has been installed at each section break to set a "stop" signal in the face of an approaching train, which holds the train until the abnormal condition is removed. The to-and-fro movement of a dense traffic on a four-track railway requires a large amount of switching, especially when each movement is complicated by junctions of two or more lines. Practically every problem of trunk line train movement, including two, three, and four-track operation, had to be provided for in the switching plants of the subway. Further, the problem was complicated by the restricted clearances and vision attendant upon tunnel construction, It was estimated that the utmost flexibility of operation should be provided for, and also that every movement be certain, quick, and safe. All of the above, which are referred to in the briefest terms only, demanded that all switching movements should be made through the medium of power-operated interlocking plants. These plants in the subway portions of the line are in all cases electro-pneumatic, while in the elevated portions of the line mechanical interlocking has been, in some cases, provided. It will be noted that in the case of the City Hall Station three separate plants are required, all of considerable size, and intended for constant use for a multiplicity of movements. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to state that all the mechanism of these important interlocking plants is of the most substantial character and provided with all the necessary safety appliances and means for rapidly setting up the various combinations. The interlocking machines are housed in steel concrete "towers," so that the operators may be properly protected and isolated in the performance of their duties.  SIGNALLING EQUIPMENT AT TOWER BRIDGE, LONDON "There were I think 2 cabins, one at the foot of each tower downstream side. Maybe some interlocked lookout upstream also. Hydraulic power for the bridge operation was generated by steam engines under the roadway on the south side (one still on show) & stored in a big hydraulic accumulator which is still adjacent. Power for lifts was taken from the London Hydraulic Power Co. mains & either could be used as a standby for the other. Now it's all electric & LHPC mains carry fibre optic cables. Sad." It is thought that this picture shows the control levers in the north-east tower. The 1976-installed electric controls have replaced these levers and these work the bridge today This picture depicts, it is thought, the controls in the south-east tower. These levers remain but are no longer operational. Each frame operated a bascule independently. The levers, manufactured by Saxby and Farmer, are interlocked by what looks like a conventional tray under the operating floor, and worked the bridge by means of hydraulic valves. The levers had functions like the selection of the hydraulic engine to be used, the removal of the pawls that support the bridge deck when it is open to road traffic (the deck is lifted slightly to take the weight off the bearings), and a brake. (One may also have worked the central bolts that kept the lowered bascules together).

96 There were four hydraulic engines per bascule, two each side of the road, one large, one small, selected by lever. The two capstan-like handles in the upper photo admitted the water from the hydraulic accumulators (two each side of the bridge) to whichever engine was selected. In the upper photo, to the left of the left capstan, is the lever (in a quadrant) and the rod that worked the signal in the lower photo (or its counterpart). It has been moved to the museum. The lever in the south-east cabin is still there, but not its signal. In both photos, visible between the capstans in the upper photo and above the man's right elbow in the lower, is a smaller elevated Saxby & Farmer lever frame which worked the road and river signals hydraulically. The lever plates are still there in the south-east cabin and can just be read after years of polishing. They are interlocked by a small vertically mounted locking tray, and seem also to have been linked to the bridge mechanism so they could not be moved until the bridge was right. It seems they superseded the manual signal, as in the museum there is a centrally pivoted lower-quadrant railway-like signal that is hydraulically actuated that was said to be used to signal to river traffic until the 1950s. The equipment was not worn out when it was replaced in 1976, but the reduction in river traffic and the infrequent use made the continued use of steam boilers uneconomic. It is now powered by electrically driven hydraulics. Hydraulically worked river signal that replaced the original semaphore signals in the 1950s.  Why is there no "Q" or "Z" on many telephones? The telephone's pad of twelve buttons reflects its history. There are three letters on most buttons, except for zero, one, octothorp (#) and the star symbol (*), which have no letters. "Q" and "Z" are usually missing from the list. Why? Instead of twelve buttons, telephones used to have circular plates with ten holes numbered from zero to nine. To make phone numbers easier to remember, the phone companies assigned letters to the numbers, so people could remember mnemonics like "Charleston" for C-H instead of the first two digits of a number. Of the ten digits, zero was already used to dial the operator and one was used for internal phone company signals. That left eight numbers to which letters could be assigned. Three letters per number took care of 24 of the alphabet's 26 letters, and the least common letters "Q" and "Z" were left out, but not forever. Many telephones now show "Q" on the seven button, and "Z" on the nine button.

 Wither the busy signal? A comment from a reader: "The busy signal is going away . . ." True; with voice mail and answering machines you don't get one. In 1995 The New Brunswick Telephone Company announced they would do away with busy signals for calls made within their territory. Instead of a busy signal callers got a recording which asked them to make one of three choices: send a message, for a price, hang up, or be notified when the line was available. Again, for a price. I wonder if anyone in that province misses the busy signal. SBC/Pacific Bell offered this service in my area earlier this year, people hated it, I think because it was so aggressively pitched. Instead of getting a busy signal, a frustrating experience by itself, people got a come on, a promotion to buy something. If the Canadian telco didn't sell it too hard then perhaps people accepted it. Since we haven't always had them so I shan't miss them when they go. They were an interlude only, although a longish one, good I should think for another decade or two. When calls were manually switched there was no need for a busy signal. An operator knew if a line was busy by looking at a lamp or a marker, what was called a drop, on a manual switch board. The operator then told the caller the line was busy. 97 When dialing became automatic network progress tones such as dial tone and busy signals were needed to tell the subscriber the status of a call. There is another busy signal, of course, that one being a "fast busy" signal, going at twice the rate of the normal tone. It indicates that telephone company circuits are too busy to handle a call. Not often heard on phones but quite common on cellular telephone networks. Voice mail and answering machines and call waiting are, I suppose, just automatic operators, a step up above the obnoxious busy signal and of course quite a few steps below that of a real person to take a message. Although their people don't switch calls, perhaps answering services for doctors and lawyers are the last remnant of the always present, human attended exchange.  Did Alexander Graham Bell help dispel the ether theory? Did Alexander Graham Bell help dispel the ether theory? And how much did it cost him? The answers are yes, and 200 bucks. The fascinating reading below is from Science in American Society: A Social History by George H. Daniels, 1971, Borzoi Books, Alfred Knoph: "In 1881, a young American physicist then studying in Germany received a grant of $200 from Alexander Graham Bell to conduct an experiment on one of the most fascinating questions of nineteenth-century physics: the reality of the ether. The ether was a mysterious, jellylike, invisible entity which was thought to fill all of space; it was even present in solid matter. The vibrations set up in this ether made it possible to explain how the wavelike radiations of light could be carried through millions of miles without weakening or diluting their initial energy. Although the behavior of light seemed to demand some such medium, Albert A. Michelson doubted its existence, and he designed a relatively simple experiment which he thought might resolve the question unconditionally." "With his $200 provided by Bell, Michelson had a machine of his own design, called the interferometer, constructed by a Berlin manufacturer, and he took it to the observatory at Potsdam for the crucial experiment. His conclusion, published in the August I88I issue of the American Journal of Science, was that 'the hypothesis of a stationary ether is erroneous.' Although Michelson later repeated the experiment, with more sophisticated apparatus, in collaboration with Edward Williams Morley it was the first experiment which, as Albert Einstein remarked, 'showed that a profound change of the basic concepts of physics was inevitable' and led eventually to Michelson's becoming the first American recipient of a Nobel prize."  Integrated Maintenance of the Madrid-Seville High Speed Line Alcatel started up its railway signaling activity in Spain in 1951. Today it is the leading supplier of safety systems for the Spanish Railway Authorities with a market share of 30%. It has a skilled local team of 250 people, over 70% of whom are technical graduates. One of Alcatel's main projects is an integrated signaling system with continuous automatic train control operating at speeds of up to 300 km/h for the Madrid-Seville AVE high speed line. The project was inaugurated in 1992, since when Alcatel has been responsible for the maintenance under a contract that has been successively renewed and is currently valid until 2007. Another major project is the 250 km Spanish Mediterranean Corridor which will operate at up to 220 km/h. With a projected completion date of 2008, Alcatel has been working on various sections since 1994. To date, eleven Alcatel 6111 LockTrac (ENCE L90) electronic interlocking systems have been installed; together they control 17 stations and more than 160 km of dual track automatic block. Alcatel was recently awarded signaling contracts for three major high-speed lines: The Lérida-Barcelona section of the Madrid-Zaragoza-Barcelona-French Border line, the La Sagra-Toledo section of the Madrid-Toledo line and the Segovia- Valladolid section of the Madrid-Segovia-Valladolid/Medina del Campo line. All three projects involve the installation of the 98 European Rail Traffic Management System / European Train Control System (ERTMS/ETCS) levels 1 and 2, together with the related power supplies and other auxiliary systems. In 1988, the Spanish Ministry of Transport decided in favor of a high-speed network to promote railway usage and increase the number of rail passengers. The supply, installation and maintenance contract for the first high- speed line between Madrid and Seville (NAFA New Rail Access to Andalusia), was put out to tender by the Spanish State Railways (RENFE) for the first time. The contract was signed in July 1989 and the line was up and running less than three years later in April 1992. The line, which comprises 471 km of dual track, is designed for a maximum speed of 300 km/h. All the installations (electrification, power supply, signaling, telecommunication and auxiliary systems) were constructed by a consortium as a turnkey project, with Alcatel taking care of the signaling installations and coordination between the telecommunication and signaling systems. Because the various subsystems installed on this first high-speed line would entail a major technological change for the customer, maintenance of all the safety installations in the system was entrusted to Alcatel. The two main components of the project are the integrated signaling system with electronic interlocking and the continuous automatic train control system. The telecommunication system consists of digital equipment with a fiber optic cable infrastructure; transmission is via Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) and digital switching systems are used for both voice and data. The overhead power cable system is a 25 kV, 50 Hz monophase system; it is supplied by twelve traction substations which are controlled and monitored remotely via an alarm system. Another design feature of the signaling system is the facility for trains to travel in both directions on each of the two tracks in order to increase the operating capacity. With this in mind, there are nineteen locations at which trains can switch from one track to the other at 160 km/h, using turnouts equipped with eleven electro-hydraulic switch point machines. From an operational viewpoint, the Madrid-Seville line has five passenger train stations and 32 equipment buildings; in addition there are 22 track cabinets and three track maintenance bases. Eight of these equipment buildings house the electronic interlocking centers and the system control centers for automatic train control. These centers are home to the local operations centers, which comprise the maintenance centers; they are spaced approximately 60 km apart. The electronic interlocking system controls the external equipment (signals, switch point machines, track circuits, etc) via the element control module. It knows the status of all the equipment at all times, as well as the train locations via the track circuits. There are 32 viaducts and 17 tunnels on the line. The signaling equipment shows the electronic interlocking system, the continuous automatic train control system, the centralized traffic control system, the signals, power supply units, track circuits, switch point equipment, and networks for detecting objects falling from flyovers, all of which are managed via approximately 7000 km of signaling cable. In short, it is a complete remote control and monitoring system, with a control center in Madrid-Atocha. This center, which acts as the traffic control center is connected to the various equipment buildings containing the local operations centers; it controls all the field equipment.There are three types of maintenance work preventive, corrective and predictive determined according to fault statistics and trend analyses. Hardware and software maintenance of digital and analog equipment are both needed for all the installed signaling systems. The Atocha control center has a wide screen display with 22 video projectors and two traffic operation posts. The northern part of the line runs from Atocha to Puertollano and the southern part from Puertollano to Seville. There is also a post for the operations technician who supervises the continuous automatic train control system and another post for the power supply and substation remote control and monitoring technician. Under the maintenance contract, Alcatel must provide 24 hour cover 365 days a year to meet the objective of being able to attend an incident anywhere along the 471 km of track within 30 minutes. Maintenance is assessed according to two basic parameters: availability, which must be above 99.5% at all times, and reliability of the maintenance work, which is gauged by the number of faults in the current year compared with the weighted average of the previous three years. Lastly, it is important to monitor any trains that are more than three minutes behind schedule, because if the delay exceeds five minutes RENFE refunds passengers the full price of the ticket. This rule has applied since 1994.

99 Providing round-the-clock cover 365 days a year naturally takes more than five people per job. This requires careful organization of the maintenance work, with dedicated staff who are able to work on their own. Teams of general and specialist staff were needed, together with suitable means of transport and communication. There also had to be a structure capable of producing the technical manuals and procedures for the preventive and corrective maintenance work. Logistics had to be managed from maintenance centers and there had to be a system for updating documents and managing their layout to make information clear and easy to access, thereby assisting staff to analyze and fix faults. In this regard, the system of fault statistics and subsequent trend analysis has been invaluable, allowing ongoing changes and adaptation of preventive maintenance with an increasing drive towards predictive maintenance, together with a reduction in corrective maintenance actions owing to the decrease in faults. All of this is undertaken in compliance with the strictest ISO 14000 Health and Safety and Environmental and ISO 9000 quality standards. Alcatel and RENFE's High Speed Infrastructure Maintenance Department have achieved joint quality certification. The maintenance centers (located in the equipment buildings which contain both the electronic interlocking system and a control center for the continuous automatic train control system) are each responsible for around 60 km of dual track, including the associated equipment buildings and track cabinets, together with all the field equipment (track circuits, signals, switch point machines, etc). On average, five specialist signaling engineers and five electronics technicians are assigned to each maintenance center. The Maintenance Department is organized into three areas. The Technical Area is responsible for ensuring maintenance standards (i.e. procedures), clearly defining what has to be done, where it is to be done, with what, how and how often. It is also responsible for providing specialized technical training to Operations Area staff. Using data from the fault statistics study, the Technical Area performs trend analyses and draws up the predictive maintenance standards, allowing the preventive maintenance standards to be modified. It also provides technical support for the Operations Area. The principal role of the operations staff is to carry out the preventive and corrective maintenance work and handle any third-party incidents that occur. A third area, Safety and Management Control, monitors the contract from the administrative point of view, taking responsibility for fault statistics and trend analyses, quality, work safety, the environment and logistics, and after-sales technical support. Since it takes five people to cover one job round the clock, the work must be organized in such a way as to allow sequential teamwork. People must work as a team and have the same technical knowledge, in addition to a range of individual skills and the ability to work on their own initiative, so that they can take decisions when failures have to be resolved without delay. In view of the services provided, it is essential that staff be totally customer-oriented and prepared to work in shifts. There are three shifts in line maintenance: morning (7 am to 3 pm), evening (3 pm to 11 pm), and night (11 pm to 7 am). These are supplemented with call-out shifts in case the staff working on the line at these times require assistance. Naturally it must be possible for staff to reach all areas of the track easily from the maintenance centers. Alcatel also maintains other RENFE installations, such as the Madrid C5 commuter line. The workload varies throughout the year, as is evident from an analysis of the standards of the various signaling equipment which shows two work peaks between March and May and September and November. These peaks would require more than 100% of total capacity, taking into account the number of people involved in maintenance. However, during the remaining months activity is below the 100% mark and so there must be pockets of work to allow this time to be saved and used when needed. Another characteristic of this work is how it is prioritized. The aim is to provide the level of reliability and availability demanded by the customer. This is achieved by prioritizing tasks, with corrective maintenance at the top followed by the handling of third-party incidents, then preventive maintenance and finally fault analysis to predict how the equipment will perform and identify any possible improvements, both in the installation of the equipment and its operation. The morning, evening and night shifts have very different work patterns. Most of the actual work is done on the night shift, between about 12.30 am and 5.00 am, when the track is not being used, enabling preventive maintenance work to be carried out (see Figure 4). During

100 the morning and evening shifts the emphasis is on resource management. This includes ensuring the equipment is in order and the instruments are properly calibrated, and managing stocks of spare parts since it is fundamental not only that a qualified person can be at the site of an incident within 30 minutes, but also that he or she brings the right spares and equipment, as well as the means for recording and communicating information so that the actions taken can be monitored. With this in mind, the training of maintenance personnel is very important. These courses combine theoretical and practical training; it takes one year to ensure that a person has all the required maintenance skills. It is also important to have the general and specific tools needed for the signaling systems together with the right spares, as well as the required communication and computer resources and means of transport so that maintenance can be carried out on time. This is the job of the centralized data acquisition and transmission network, via which stocks of spares can be checked and managed; it contains references to the tools and their calibration periods, and all the information relating to compliance with both preventive and corrective maintenance and incident handling standards. From the logistical standpoint, there is a central warehouse in Madrid and one in each of the local maintenance centers, three of which act as secondary storehouses (Atocha, Ciudad Real and Cordoba). Alcatel is collaborating with RENFE on the maintenance of the latter's lines in Spain. Working closely with the customer provides very useful information about how the equipment is operating and how it is installed so that we can make improvements. This significantly cuts non-quality costs. Fault statistics, which have been compiled since the maintenance work began in 1993, and the subsequent trend analyses have shown that the number of faults fell significantly over the first two years, and more gradually thereafter. As a result, the total number of faults in 2002 was just 36% of the faults in 1993. Another parameter, availability, lets us gauge, out of the total minutes of traffic per year, the number of minutes delay caused by signaling system incidents on the track and at the destination. Overall, between 1993 and 2002, availability was 99.978% owing to delays on the track, which in terms of delays at the destination translates into 99.994% only six thousandths short of 100%. The main difference between the maintenance carried out at the AVE Infrastructure Department and the rest of the railway infrastructure maintenance done by RENFE lies in the contracting of external services to private companies in the sector, both for railway infrastructure maintenance and construction, and for electrification, signaling, security installations, control and traffic management, and telecommunications. With this type of railway infrastructure maintenance work, RENFE controls the tasks, supervises the work, and checks that it complies with the requirements set out in the contract signed with each company or group of companies. This external service includes preventive maintenance, in most cases carried out outside commercial hours, and corrective maintenance which deals with faults and incidents relating to systems and equipment. Spain is at the forefront of Alcatel's expansion in the rail services and maintenance business. Apart from AVE high- speed line maintenance, Alcatel is responsible for maintaining the Madrid C5 commuter line, the busiest commuter line in Spain, which carries over 320 000 passengers per day. Lines 2, 4 and 5 of the Barcelona Metro are also maintained by Alcatel, as are the Valencia-Barcelona line and the electronic interlocking systems at El Escorial, Leon, Valladolid, Madrid- Atocha station, Tarrasa, and elsewhere. For over three years, Alcatel has been involved in the design and implementation of maintenance work for three lines in Portugal: The Sintra line, the Beira Alta line and the Northern line. Currently, Alcatel is providing an after-sales technical support service for over 400 of its signaling installations in Spain.

Ramó n Mayorga Marketing and Business Development Director in the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel, Madrid, Spain. ([email protected]) José P. Sánchez Maintenance Director in the Transport Solutions Division of Alcatel, Madrid, Spain.([email protected]) Francisco Ortega Manager for the Traffic Control Installations Direction of RENFE‘s high-speed infrastructure based in Madrid, Spain.([email protected])

 Rail Automation Automation and communication components of transportation systems are transforming the way America moves. Instead of running blind, STS is installing invisible to provide train operators and passengers with real-time information to be proactive about making daily decisions for transportation needs. Rail automation provides seamless and expandable innovations with multiple systems for complex puzzles.

101 STS is the primary contractor responsible for providing state-of-the-art security, information and communication rail technology and networks upgrades to make one of the world‘s largest subway systems more reliable, dependable and safe. New York City‘s subway is STS‘ largest project consisting of 26 lines, 468 stations, carrying as many as 6,000 trains and more than 4.5 million people per day on 722 miles of track. STS will supply over 400 metro stations with remote controlled automatic train supervision to be monitored in an operation control center that rivals NASA as only one part of many systems upgrades. New York: MTA/New York City Transit Siemens won 4 key technology and system improvement projects with NYCT since 1999. All projects are design, build contracts including installation and start-up. Siemens is JV/consortium leader in all cases. ATS, SONET/ATM and PA/CIS are being implemented for sub-division A and in December 2004 STS was awarded division B. CBTC technology is being piloted on the Canarsie line with CCTV. ATS Objectives and Scope Improved coordination of emergency response activities, provide operating divisions with effective centralized service management in order to improve on-time performance and more regular headway. Provide NYCT customers and general public with real-time information on service status, specifically, automatic route setting, train monitoring and tracking, transportation rule monitoring and timetable management functions. Scope of the project: VICOS OC 501 operations control system over 1/3 of the metro stations to be remotely controlled by ATS and ATC moving block technology. Commissioning: 2005 SONET/ATM Objectives and Scope Implementation of a new broadband, high-capacity, high-speed metropolitan area network (MAN) consisting of an ATM network riding over a high-speed, self-healing SONET FON using non-proprietary elements and open and flexible system architecture. Scope of the project: Install network while maintaining normal train operation for 172 passenger stations with three (3) control centers and a broad-band SONET backbone (2.5 GB/sec.) as a central component for transferring data, images and sound. Completion date: 2005 PA/CIS Objectives and Scope Provide an integrated application platform (IAP) system for a full range of applications including public address, customer information screens, CCTV, help point intercoms and control/indication functions. The PA/CIS system will ride over the SONET/ATM network to eliminate ‗noisy‘ analog PA voice circuits. Main operations will be from a centralized location and secondary operations will be from remote field dispatcher sites. The CCTV system will be designed to support operation from a central location and various secondary locations. Installation of CCTV‘s and HPI‘s will enhance safety and security. The PA/CIS system will interface to the ATS system to relay train arrival and other service status information for announcement and display through the PA/CIS elements without user intervention. Scope of the project: 13 Subway Lines and 156 Stations with PA/CIS and 10 Stations with CCTV, SCADA, Help Point Intercom Application and ACCS3 distributed over 84 workstations and servers. One (1) fully redundant Rail Control Center and one (1) Travel Information Center (TIC). Completion: 2006. CBTC Objectives and Scope Transition from fixed block to moving block technology. Reduce headways to enable capacity enhancement with existing infrastructure to improve system availability and reliability. Develop and implement CBTC technology with ‗interoperable‘ modules, which can be supplied by multiple qualified vendors. Scope of the project: Météor automatic train control and train protection system on 17 km length of the line with 24 stations and 40 new trains. Commissioning: 2006 Canadian National Rail: Canada – Rail Traffic Control System Siemens provides CN Rail with a fully integrated rail traffic control system for signaling control and dark territory control, including: train sheets, stored routes handling, wide array of signaling technician support functions, usability engineered graphical user interface, web based trackline and playback, full featured simulation, instantaneous business resumption between CN's control centers and menu driven rules editor. Scope of the project: The Edmonton, Toronto, Montreal control centers also act as fully redundant control centers, each with 13 to 19 dispatcher consoles, for CN's 18,000 track miles in Canada: Completion: 2005. Tren Urbano: San Juan, Puerto Rico – Integrated Operation Control Center As primary contractor, Siemens provided overall project management, systems integration, control and administration for a 12 mile double track heavy rail project that included 18 passenger stations, 72 heavy rail vehicles and 7 mainline interlocking including the . Scope of the project: Commission 12 miles of a heavy rail transit system with 18 passenger stations operating at 90-second headways. Siemens provided a fully integrated OCC, telecommunications, wayside and carborne signaling. Siemens ATS/ATC and OCC technology was with SACEM and SCADA based on the VICOS OC 501

102 platform respectively. US&S provided ground equipment. The system interfaces with PA/CIS, PA, fare collections, telecommunication, radio and CCTV. NTP August 1996. Completion: OCC in service sine June 2002 and opened to the public for pre-revenue service December 2004. Airport MAX Extension: Portland, OR The Portland Airport Extension project was a design-build project awarded to Bechtel. Siemens sub-contracted to provide the signal system, the communication system, SCADA and Central Control modifications. Siemens designed and furnished materials with project management, scheduling and document control. Scope of the project: The signal system was a wayside signal system with TWC and magnetic train stops. The 5.5 mile system consisted of automatic signal control, interlocking control and highway crossings. The vital circuitry was accomplished using vital relays and the track circuits were double rail power frequency with impendance bonds. Siemens was responsible for design, fabrication, installation, testing and commissioning. Additional Siemens requirements included block design verification and safe braking analysis. The communications and central control requirements were to expand the existing systems to include the Airport Extension. NTP October 1998. Completion: Siemens completed its scope of work three months ahead of schedule by November 2001. METRO : Light Rail Transit Automation System The Houston LRT project was a Siemens turnkey project with 7.5 miles of double track. Siemens was responsible for the track, vehicles, fair collection, catenary, sub-stations, signaling, communications, SCADA and VICOS Central Control. Scope of the project: Provide interlockings equipped with US&S MicroLock vital processors and power frequency track circuits. Gated crossings equipped with audio frequency track circuits, vital relays and event recorders. TWC that was a Siemens IMU-100 system was used for cross pre-emption, automatic routing and train tracking at Central Control. Siemens supplied engineering, material, fabrication, project management, scheduling and document control for the signal system. NTP February 2001. Completion: In service since January 2003  BUCKEYE YARD, Columbus, Ohio Buckeye Yard was built by PC to consolidate the Columbus, Ohio operations of the PRR and NYC in 1969. The yard was "completed" in 1970. There were six interlockings involved with Buckeye Yard, "BUCKEYE", "DARBY", "MOUNDS", "ALTON", "EAST ALTON" and "NORTH ALTON". The entire yard was 4-1/2 miles long and contained a single hump for classification. PC's Buckeye Yard was conveyed to Conrail on 4/1/76 and later NS on 6/1/99. The following information is from a PC booklet which was used to familiarize employees with Buckeye Yard and was reprinted in the May-June 1984 issue of "Rails Northeast" which, with its earlier incarnation "PC Railroader", is a fantastic source of information on the Penn Central Railroad. Receiving yard The receiving yard consists of seven tracks located adjacent to and west of the classification yard. Normal track centers are 15 foot with 20 foot spacing on alternate tracks to provide roadways for service motor vehicles. A running track is located on the west side of this yard. The receiving yard track switches are manually operated except at the base of the hump and at the north end of tracks 3, 4, 5 and 6 lead. Electric switches located at the north end of the receiving yard are operated automatically by the computer or from a button located on the switchstand. Power switches at the base of the hump are operated from the hump conductor's console or from a button located on the switchstand. Flashing white or yellow lights identify an aligned and locked route through a series of power switches. Each switch is also equipped with white, yellow and red lights. White - Switch aligned for lead Yellow - Switch aligned for diverging route Red - Stop Hump The hump, located east of the receiving yard, is 23 feet above the classification yard. The two leads extending south of the hump are called the East Hump lead and West Hump lead. These leads have capacity for humping 190 and 110 cars respectively. Controls for the hump operation, including hump engine signal controls and automatic routing, are operated from the hump conductor's console. The hump locomotive cab signals are operated manually 103 from the hump conductor's console or automatically from the computer. Signals transmitted via radio to the hump locomotive indicate desired speed, forward, reverse, or stop. The north gradient of the hump is sufficient to provide the rolling energy to drop cars into the classification yard. The exit velocity of each car, or cut from the retarders is determined by use of a mathematical formula for equating car rolling resistance measurement, distance to travel before coupling, track and curve resistance, car weight, wind velocity, etc. The moving cars are controlled by a system consisting of a master retarder and four group retarders, to assure a four mile per hour coupling speed. The car speeds through the retarder are monitored by radar scanners located ahead of the retarder sections in the center of the track. This information is entered into the computer and the computer automatically computes the retarder pressure required and activates the controls, thus controlling the speed of the car. Operation of all switches at the hump end of the classification yard is controlled by the computer through an automatic route selection control program. Wheel sensors are used to track each car through the assigned route into a selected track. Electronic loops (presence detectors) built within each switch, identify the magnetic field of a car and prevent the switch from being operated. A pin-pull retarder (PPR), located immediately north of the hump crest, is operated with a push button on the conductor's console, High load detectors (photo-electric cells) are located at four elevations above the rail ahead of the master retarder. The height of the car or carload measured by the photo cells is correlated with the pre-assigned height of the classification. The computer will determine if a car will clear the route restrictions of the assigned classification. The retarder control tower is located on the east side of the classification yard adjacent to the group retarders. Equipment is provided for manual control of retarders and switches when operations require countermanding the automatic controls of the computer. The retarder console display shows switch list line number and track number for each car or cut entering the master retarder. Upon request for each classification track, a visual display shows track capacity, cars in track and distance to coupling. Other control features include equipment failure and mis-route alarms and track clearance lights. Classification yard The classification yard consists of 40 tracks. The tracks are divided into four groups of 10 tracks each. The car capacity of the tracks ranges from 42 to 61 cars each, with a total capacity of 2,060 cars. These tracks are on 14 foot centers. The body of the yard is on a very slight descending grade of .08% which is a non-accelerating grade. Inert retarders located at the north end of all classification tracks are designed to stop the movement of free rolling cars at the end of the classification track. The pull out (north) end has two stub-end "drill tracks" connected into the two classification yard ladders. These drill tracks are connected through a series of cross-overs to the departure yard leads. The cross- overs between the pull-out leads and the departure yard are powered by electric switch machines controlled from the pull-out conductor's tower. The pull-out conductor's panel contains push-button switch controls, switch position and route lights and departure track shove signal lights. Track circuits prevent the power switches from being operated when a specific route is occupied. When necessary, switches may be controlled from the push buttons on each switchstand. Departure yard The departure yard is located east of and parallel to the classification yard. The track capacities range from 145 to 169 cars with a total capacity of 1,234 cars. A running track is located on the east side of the yard. Alternate tracks are placed on wide track centers (twenty foot) to permit operating motor vehicles between tracks for car inspection and repair purposes. All other departure yard tracks are on fifteen foot centers. A yard air system provides outlets every 50 car lengths throughout the yard. Track circuits, 300 feet from the clearance point of each departure yard track, are connected with shove signal lights on the pull-out conductor's panel. This system is related to the pull-out engine assignment through the control panel. Three high signal lights (one for each pull-out engine) are located adjacent to the departure yard. Local yard The local yard, located east of the north end of the departure yard, consists of 4 tracks with a total capacity of 168 cars. The north end of the local yard is connected with the classification yard pull-out

104 tracks and the south end is connected with east runner. Future expansion provides for construction of six tracks on the east side of the yard. Roadways Roadways provide access to all sectors of the facility. Entrances are located on Trabue Road at the south end and Roberts Road on the north end. Parking lots are located at (1) north end, (2) hump yard office, (3) car repair facility and (4) diesel facility. Communications Television scanning system A closed circuit television system is provided for viewing trains entering the receiving yard. This system consists of three cameras located on leads to the receiving yard and monitors located in the hump yard office. Track circuits located in advance of the cameras will cause approaching trains to activate a bell in the yard office and alert the classification clerk of the train arrival. Talk-back speaker system There are five separate talk-back systems in the yard. Each system is connected to a separate control point and is identified by color code on the speakers. A speaker station in the field can be activated by momentarily pushing the push button on the speaker. This will cause a chime to sound and a lamp signal to light on the control console over the key associated with that speaker. The five talk-back systems are: HUMP YARDMASTER SYSTEM - 5 Speakers (Orange) Speakers are located at the south end of the receiving yard. HUMP CONDUCTOR SYSTEM - 3 Speakers (Green) Speakers are located near the pin-puller and car inspection pits. DIESEL FOREMAN SYSTEM - 9 Speakers (Black) Speakers are located in the diesel fueling and "ready track" area. RETARDER OPERATOR SYSTEM - 4 Speakers (Yellow) Speakers are in the retarder area. NORTH YARDMASTER SYSTEM - 27 Speakers (Silver) Speakers controlled by the north end yardmaster are located at the north end of the receiving yard, on each end of the departure and local yards, along the ladders at the north end of the classification yard and adjacent to the drill tracks. Dial telephones -PBX Dial telephones are located throughout the yard. The phones are in weather-proof gray boxes marked "telephone". Yellow striped boxes are for communication with the block operator at Buckeye. Green striped boxes are for communication with the north end yardmaster. Phones identified by yellow and green stripes can be used for either purpose. Instructions for operating these phones together with frequently used numbers are located inside the box. Facsimile system Facsimile transmit and receive units are located in (1) the hump building, (2) north end locker building and (3) car repair facility. This equipment is used to transmit switch lists between the hump yard office and the north end office, and car release lists from the car repair office to the hump office. Yard operation Trains enroute The yard operation is designed to combine traffic of common destinations into designated classifications and trains. The procedure begins with the advance consists of trains enroute received on teletype printers located in the hump yard office. These reports are converted into punched cards for machine processing information used to program the yard operation. The train header and car movement cards of the advanced consist are combined with pre-punched program control and classification cards and entered into the computer. The computer is programmed to compile the classification summary reports and the Group Tally Report from this input and, upon demand, will display the information on the yardmaster's Cathode Ray Tube (CRT). Train arrival The operator at Buckeye tower controls movement of trains into and out of Columbus Yard. When trains approach Columbus Yard, the operator will obtain permission to direct the trains into the yard

105 from the north end yardmaster. The north end yardmaster will request a receiving track assignment from the hump yardmaster and will operate the yard track indicator located adjacent to the appropriate inbound lead. Three yard track indicators identified as N, S and NE govern the entrances to the yard. Trains from the north enter receiving yard tracks 3, 4, 5 and 6 lead through power switches and tracks 6, 7, 8 and 9 via manually operated switches. These power switches are operated automatically when the arriving train occupies the yard track indicator circuit. Power switches located at the south end of the receiving yard or between the hump leads and the receiving yard are operated from the hump conductor's console. These switches may be operated manually by push button on the switch when route has not been assigned or the track circuit occupied. (An assigned route is identified by flashing lights on switch stand.) Hump list preparation The classification clerk will record the car initial and number of the inbound train consists as the train passes the TV camera. The verified consist is correlated with the waybills and a switch list prepared. The switch list is made from car movement cards and pre-punched classification and track cards sorted in arrival sequence. Header cards are added to the switch list cards and entered into the computer through a card reader. The computer will check each car of the consist with each entry in the reconsignment, diversion and advance billing table. (Note: The reconsignment, diversion and advance billing table contains new shipping instructions for up dating car movement records. These instructions are entered into the computer whenever received in the yard office.) If a car in the consist matches an entry in the table, an up-dated card will be produced for the train consist. At the completion of this check, the computer will print the verified switch list on the high speed printer. Cars matched in there- consignment-diversion table will show the reassigned classification track on the switch list- This stored consist is ready for switching and/or the following reports: 1. Group Tally CRT or Teletype 2. Receiving Yard Status CRT or Teletype 3. Verified Switch List Printer 4. Crest Status CRT Inspection and bleeding After the train has entered the receiving yard, the car inspection forces will operate a signal button from the receiving yard control board to indicate the inspection and bleeding have started. Upon completion of bleeding and inspection, signal buttons will be operated to indicate inspection complete and train bled. Control boards for these computer inputs are located at each end of the receiving yard. Hump operation By means of the CRT, the yardmaster can determine the status of all tracks in the receiving yard. This display shows: Track – Train – Direction - Arrival Time – Cars - Inspection Start Time - Inspection Complete Time - Bleed Time - List Verified - Hump Request When a cut is ready to hump, the yardmaster will enter into the computer the track numbers in sequence of doubling and the hump lead to be used. The hump conductor instructs his engine crew which track to hump and lead to use (east or west) and operates the power switches to align the route between the receiving yard and hump lead. The CRT Crest Status shows the next four cars of the hump switch list to be classified, indicating to the hump conductor, the line number, car initial and number and classification track. Hump inspection Inspection pits are provided on the hump approach for car inspection. Automatic equipment provided to check flanges and dragging equipment will activate an alarm in the conductor's office and inspector's pit when defects are detected. A car inspector will note any defective condition of car, determine is repair can be made in the departure yard or if car must be shopped and adivse the hump conductor the car initial and number of the defective car. Cars to be repaired in the departure yard will continue to assigned class track. The conductor presses the /BAD ORDER/ button and the window button associated with the car. Cars requiring move to the shop are classified to designated shop tracks by pushing the (LOAD RIP or EMPTY RIP) button and correct window button. The car inspector also notifies the assistant car foreman (yard) of car initial, number, defect and disposition of cars found

106 defective on hump inspection. The car repair foreman will be notified of defective cars advanced to the departure yard by the north end yardmaster from the class inventory summary report. High car inspection Car height is measured after car passes the crest of the hump. If a car exceeds the height for the assigned classification, an alarm sounds. The conductor presses the /HIHOLD/ button routing the car to the hold track or permits the car to continue to its assigned class track, in which case, he presses the /HI CAR/ (high car) button. This "flags" the car as a high load in future print-outs and shuts off the alarm. Pin-puller retarder A pin-puller retarder located near the crest of the hump is activated by use of'PP" button on the conductor's console. This retarder is used to assist in uncoupling cars when slack is required. Retarder control Separate controls for each section of the master and group retarders provide for automatic or heavy, light or open manual settings. Extra heavy application is obtained manually by pushing EXTRA HEAVY button with control lever in heavy setting. Signal alarms provided on the retarder console denote: 1. Mis-route (must acknowledge) 6. Test section failure 2. Presence detector failure (must acknowledge) 7. Radar failure 3. Track clearance alarm (must acknowledge) 8. Long cut detection 4. Power failure 9. Switch failure 5. Retarder failure When trimming a track or when a cut is pulled from the classification yard via the hump end, the retarder operator manually controls the switches. The retarder operator can prevent a switch from being activated by operating a manual switch lever on the retarder control console. Trimming Work required in the body of the classification yard is generally handled by the north end crews. However, when trimming or pulling back tracks for humping, switches are aligned by the car retarder operator. The trim signal located on the hump facing the classification yard governs movements between the class yard and the hump. A hump bypass track controlled from the retarder tower provides for returning to the receiving yard. End of train After the final car of a cut has been humped and list changes entered into the computer, the conductor will push the EOT button. Operation of the end of train button will automatically print a corrected switch list on the yard office printer and will up date the classification track inventory. Train make up The north end yardmaster is responsible for the make up of all trains. Prior to pulling each track in the classification yard, the car inventory of the track is requested. The class track inventory summary is requested by the use of the teletype. When the track inventory is received, the yardmaster instructs the conductor to pull the cars from the track. The conductor is furnished the first and last car number on each track to be pulled, including the initial, number, location and disposition of mis-routed cars. When a track has been pulled, the yardmaster is notified of first and last car number and disposition of mis- routes. If the first and/or last car number does not agree with class tally, a check for the error is made. If required, the yardmaster will correct the computer list. The yardmaster, with use of the teletype, will report cars removed from the classification tracks. When the tracks are reported "pulled" to the computer, a complete list of the cars pulled from the tracks will be printed in the yard office. In making up a train, the conductor uses the push-button Route Selection System on the pull-out conductor's console to align routes between the classification and the departure yard. The departure tracks are equipped with shove signals. These signals are repeated on the pull-out conductor's console. Track circuits are designed to detect occupancy within 300 feet of the clearance point at the south end of the departure yard. The wayside signal and the light on the conductor's console will go out when the circuit is occupied. Train departure Upon completion of make up of the train, the yardmaster notifies the assistant car foreman (yard) to inspect the train and the cars previously reported as being defective by the hump inspector. (The defects reported by the hump inspector are identified on the pull-out summary report). The time the inspection

107 ends is entered into the computer by the car inspector from control panels located at each end of the departure yard. Buttons are provided on these panels to indicate engine on and air on for each departure yard track. The departure yard display is a status report available to the yardmaster through the CRT. When the assigned groups have been assembled in the departure yard, crews and locomotives ordered, waybills and running reports completed and the car inspection finished, the train is ready to depart. The conductor assigned to the outbound train will obtain permission for the train to enter main tracks from the operator at Buckeye. The following departure yard record maintained in the computer file will be printed automatically when the train leaves the yard: 1. Departure yard track 7. Crew ordered time 2. Train symbol 8. Crew arrival time 3. Direction 9. Locomotive call time 4. Estimated departure time 10. Locomotive on train time 5. Inspection start time 11. Air inspection complete time 6. Inspection complete time 12. Train departure time

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