V Early Textual Evidence for the Yuezhi: 28 Introduction to the Pre- and Early-Dynastic History of China 28 References to the Yuezhi in the Zhou Annals 31 Indian Textual References 36 Introduction to the Early History of India 37 References to the Yuezhi in the Mahabharata, Ramayana and Puranas 38 Greek and Other Textual References 40

VII Conclusion: The Origin of the Yuezhi: 43 xiv

Chapter Two: The Yuezhi in the Gansu: 220 - 162 BCE 45

Introduction 45

I Han/Nomadic Relations during the 1st Millennium BCE: 45 Introduction 45 The Xiongnu 48 The Wusun 51

II Han Dynasty Textual Evidence 52 Introduction 52 The Han Shu and Shi Ji 53

III Chinese Textual Evidence for the Yuezhi in the Gansu: 58 Location 59 Population, Size and Military Strength 60 Lifeways 62

IV Chronology of Events c. 220-162 BCE: 62 To c. 202: The Yuezhi enjoy military superiority over their neighbours 63 c.2I5: Touman sends his heir apparent to the Yuezhi as hostage 63 c.202: Maodun launches a first raid against the Yuezhi 64 Maodun apologises to the Han, then inflicts a major defeat on the Yuezhi .... 66 .... and impresses the Han by doing so 67 c.I73 (?): The Yuezhi attack the Wusun who flee to the Xiongnu 69 162: The Xiongnu under Jizhu inflict a third and more devastating defeat on the Yuezhi, and turn the king's skull into a drinking cup 71 Textual Evidence: Conclusion 73

V Archaeological Evidence of the Yuezhi in the Gansu: 74 Introduction 74 Xiongnu Archaeology and Iconography 75 Evidence for the Yuezhi: the 'Podboy' Tomb 78 Charwighul 80 Haladun 81

VI Conclusion: The Yuezhi in the Gansu 83

Chapter Three: Migration of the Yuezhi Stage One: From the Gansu to the Hi Basin 86

Introduction: 86 Chronology of Events 88 XV

I Migration of the Yuezhi (Stage One). From the Gansu to the Ili Valley: 89 Xiongnu Motives in Expelling the Yuezhi 89 Chinese Textual Evidence for the Defeat and Departure of the Yuezhi 90 The Identity of the Successor to the Slain Yuezhi King 92 The Yuezhi Divide 93 From the Gansu to the Ili 95

II The Expulsion and Migration of the Sakans from the Hi Valley 97 The Identity of the Ili Basin Sakans 97 Chinese Textual Evidence for the Expulsion of the Ili Basin Sakans 99 The Probable Route of the Sakan Migration 101 Xiuxun 102 Shule 103 Wulei 104 Yutian 105 Wucha (or Wuna) 106 The Location of the Suspended Crossing/Hanging Pass 107 Nandou 109 Chipin (Jibin) 110 The Migration of the Ili Basin Sakas: Conclusion 111

III The Wusun Attack and Expel the Yuezhi from the Ili Valley: 112 Events in China c. 162-129 BCE 112 The Wusun Attack the Yuezhi in the Ili 114 The 'State' of the Wusun 116 Wusun/Xiongnu Relations c. 133-120 118 Further Division amongst the Da Yuezhi 120

IV Archaeological Evidence for the Sakan, Yuezhi and Wusun Occupations of the Hi Valley/Ysyk Kul Region 121

V Conclusion: The Migration of the Yuezhi (Stage One) 124

Chapter Four: Migration of the Yuezhi Stage Two: From the Ili to the Amu Darya 127

Introduction: 127 Han Policy Initiatives against the Xiongnu in 139 BCE 127

I Zhang Qian's Mission to the West: 130 Stage One: Recruitment - Capture - Journey to Ferghana 130 Events in China: 138-129 BCE 133 xvi

II The Yuezhi Migration from the Ili Valley to Ferghana: 136 Dayuan 136 Ethnicity and Extent of 'Greater' Dayuan 140 The Passage through Dayuan by the Da Yuezhi 142 The Mission of Zhang Qian: Stage Two 143 Archaeological Evidence of the Passage of the Yuezhi 145

III The Migration of the Yuezhi through Sogdia: 147 Introduction 147 Chinese Textual Evidence for Kangju 147 A Brief History of Sogdia from the Sixth to the Late-Second Century BCE 151 The Yuezhi's Passage through Kangju Sogdia 153 The Mission of Zhang Qian: Stage Three 154 The Yuezhi Pursued by the Wusun from the Hi to Bactria? 156

IV Archaeological Evidence of the Passage of the Yuezhi through Kangju Sogdia: 157 Introduction and History 157 Artefacts from Nomadic Tombs in Ferghana and Sogdia 159 A nthropological Evidence 161 The Evidence of 'Sogdian' Statuettes 163 Archaeological Evidence: Conclusion 164

V Conclusion: The Migration of the Yuezhi (Stage Two) 164

Chapter Five: The Conquest of Northern Bactria 167

Introduction: 167 I A Brief History of Bactria from the Bronze Age to the Arrival of the Yuezhi: 169 Bronze and Early Iron Age 169 The Achaemenids 170 Alexander and the Macedonians 172 The Seleucids 174 The Greco-Bactrians 175 The Sakas in Bactria and Parthia 181 The Overthrow of the Graeco-Bactrians 184 Asioi 185 Tocharoi 185 Sacarauloi 187 Conclusion: The Role of the Sakas and Yuezhi 188 xvii

II The Mission of Zhang Qian - Stage Four 189 128 BCE: Zhang Qian Reaches the Yuezhi in Northern Bactria 189

III The Location of the Yuezhi's Principal Settlement North of the Amu Darya: 191 Textual Evidence for the Location of the 'State' of the Da Yuezhi 191 Theories on the Location of Jianshi 192 History of Archaeological Research in Northern Bactria 193 Excavation of Urban Sites - The Location of Jianshi 194 Kampyr Tepe 195 Payonkurgan 195 Khalchayan 197

IV The Size, Strength and Lifeway of the Yuezhi North of the Amu Darya: 200 Textual Evidence 200 Population and Military Strength 201 Lifeway 201 Yuezhi Tombs in Northern Bactria? 202

V The Mission of Zhang Qian: Stage Five: 204 128/7 BCE: Zhang Qian Visits Bactria 204 The 'State' of Daxia (Bactria) 205 126 BCE: The Return of Zhang Qian 208 Han Missions to Bactria and the West After 123 BCE 209 Significance of the Missions of Zhang Qian 212

VI Conclusion: The Yuezhi Conquest of Northern Bactria: 213

Bibliography: 217