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Pima Agriculture, Water Use and Water Rights, 1848-1921

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Pima Agriculture, Water Use and Water Rights, 1848-1921 The Sword of Damocles: Pima Agriculture, Water Use and Water Rights, 1848-1921 Item Type text; Electronic Dissertation Authors DeJong, David Henry Publisher The University of Arizona. Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this material is made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona. Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such as public display or performance) of protected items is prohibited except with permission of the author. Download date 04/10/2021 11:30:59 Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/195634 THE SWORD OF DAMOCLES: PIMA AGRICULTURE, WATER USE AND WATER RIGHTS, 1848-1921 By David H. DeJong _________________________ Copyright © David H. DeJong 2007 A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of the DEPARTMENT OF AMERICAN INDIAN STUDIES In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Graduate College THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA 2 0 0 7 2 THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA GRADUATE COLLEGE As members of the Dissertation Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by David H. DeJong entitled “The Sword of Damocles: Pima Agriculture, Water Use and Water Rights, 1848-1921” and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. ______________________________________________________ Date: April 6, 2007 Jennie R. Joe, Ph.D. ______________________________________________________ Date: April 6, 2007 K. Tsianina Lomawaima, Ph.D. ______________________________________________________ Date: April 6, 2007 Joseph Hiller, Ph.D. ______________________________________________________ Date: April 6, 2007 Tom Holm, Ph.D. Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate’s submission of final copies of the dissertation to the Graduate College. I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement. ______________________________________________________ Date: April 6, 2007 Dissertation Director, Jennie Joe, Ph.D. 3 STATEMENT BY AUTHOR This dissertation has been submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for an advanced degree at the University of Arizona and is deposited in the University Library to be made available to borrowers under rules of the Library. Brief quotations from this dissertation are allowable without special permission, provided that accurate acknowledgement of source is made. Requests for permission for extended quotation from or reproduction of this manuscript in whole or in part may be granted by the copyright holder. Signed: David Henry DeJong______ 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are several people deserving of acknowledgement for their encouragement during my doctoral studies. I recognize and appreciate the support of Dr. Jennie Joe. I first meet Dr. Joe in 1988 when I was interviewed and subsequently hired as an historian by the Indian Health Service’s Tucson Office of Health Program Research and Development, then located on the San Xavier District of the Tohono O’odham Nation. Over the years, I have had the privilege of working with Dr. Joe on a number of health related studies, including one centered on the occupational health hazards facing American Indian wild land and forest firefighters. It was Dr. Joe who encouraged me to pursue doctoral studies upon my return from New York State in 2000, and for her guidance and support at every step in this process, I am appreciative. I also acknowledge the support of my wife Cindy and my five children, Rachelle, Rebecca, Joshua, Ralissa and RaeAnna. Each member of my family has given up time that I can never reclaim, but that I trust has prepared me for life as a scholar. Too frequently, my family ribbed me for having a book in hand or reading yet another article. Without their commitment and support for my studies, I could not have completed this academic milestone. Without the support and continual encouragement of Cindy, and the sacrifices she made as a result of my studies, I could not have persevered. I personally dedicate this study to Mr. Gerald Freeman Brown, a Pima elder who has been a friend, coworker and fellow laborer. Mr. Brown taught me more than he might have imagined. His friendship and wisdom were an encouragement and a blessing. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES. 6 LIST OF MAPS. 7 LIST OF TABLES. 8 ABSTRACT. 9 TIMELINE. .11 INTRODUCTION: “A WEST OF JEFFERSONIAN FARMERS?”. .12 CHAPTER 1: “NONE EXCEL THEM IN VIRTUE AND HONESTY:” THE PRELUDE: 1694-1848. 38 CHAPTER 2: “GOOD SAMARITANS OF THE DESERT:” THE PIMA VILLAGES AND THE CALIFORNIA EMIGRANTS, 1846-1852. 61 CHAPTER 3: “ADVANATGEOUS TO THE INDIANS?” THE OVERLAND ROUTES AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PIMA RESERVATION: 1852-1860. .89 CHAPTER 4: “THE GRANARY OF ARIZONA:” CIVIL WAR, SETTLERS AND PIMA AGRICULTURE, 1860-1869. .116 CHAPTER 5: “BETRAYAL OF FRIENDSHIP:” A CRISIS ON THE RIVER, 1869-1880. 144 CHAPTER 6: “SUBSISTENCE OR SUFFER:” FAMINE AND STARVATION, 1880-1904. 177 CHAPTER 7: A SCHEME TO ROB THEM OF THEIR LAND?” ALLOTMENT OF THE PIMA RESERVATION, 1902-1921. 204 CHAPTER 8: “ABANDONED LITTLE BY LITTLE:” THE 1914 PIMA ADJUDICATION SURVEY. .242 CHAPTER 9: “AN EQUAL CHANCE?” PASSAGE OF THE FLORENCE CASA GRANDE PROJECT OF 1916. 273 CONCLUSION: PIMA AGRICULTURE AND WATER USE IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. 303 REFERENCES. .330 6 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2:1 The Gila River . .64 Figure 2:2 A View to the North of the Pima villages and fields. .66 Figure 2:3 A Pima Granary. .75 Figure 2:4 A Pima Village. .81 Figure 3:1 Maricopa Wells, 1870 . 100 Figure 4:1 Ammi White’s Wheat Mill near Casa Blanca . .129 Figure 5:1 Pima Chief Antonio Azul with Son Antonito. .148 Figure 5:2 Many Pima moved into the Salt River Valley. 166 Figure 6:1 Construction on the Florence Canal, 1886. .179 Figure 6:2 The Buttes above Florence. .184 Figure 6:3 Many Pima families faced difficult times. .191 Figure 6:4 Chicago Tribune, June 18, 1900. .194 Figure 6:5 Antonio Azul in Front of Cords of Mesquite near Sacate. 198 Figure 7:1 Pumping plants in Sacaton, 1915. 208 Figure 7:2 Santan Floodwater Canal, ca. 1915. 216 Figure 7:3 The Pima Agency in Sacaton, ca. 1913. 231 Figure 7:4 Irrigating crops near Sacaton, ca. 1915. 232 Figure 7:5 Fowler Ad Advertising Leasing of Pima Land. 235 Figure 7:6 A Pima farmer, ca. 1920. 237 Figure 9:1 Pima farmer Richard Pablo, ca. 1920. 283 Figure 9:2 The Blackwater Flume. 285 Figure 9:3 Construction of Lateral 2-1-4, ca. 1915. 288 Figure 9:4 Ashurst-Hayden Diversion Dam, 2003. 294 Figure 9:5 Olberg Bridge and Sacaton Diversion Dam, 1941. 298 7 LIST OF MAPS Map 1: Historical Geophysical Features of the Gila River Indian Reservation. 34 Map 2: Geographic Expansion of the Gila River Indian Reservation. .35 Map 3: Eighteenth Century Location of Tribal Nations. 50 Map 4: Southern Gold Trails through the Pima Villages, 1849-1852. .63 Map 5: National Roads leading to the Pima villages, 1858 . 92 Map 6: Overland Mail Routes across Arizona, 1858-1861. .93 Map 7: Survey Map of the 1859 Pima Reservation. .107 Map 8: The Surveyed Reservation and Pima and Maricopa Fields. .113 Map 9: Proposed Removal to the Indian Territory. 160 Map 10: Village Clusters within the Pima Reservations, 1914 . .254 Map 11: Irrigation Projects on the Pima Reservation 1908-1922. 282 8 LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Crop Production in the Pima and Maricopa villages, 1860. .117 Table 2: Percentage Use of Gila River Natural and Flood Water Flow, Select Years, 1866-1918. 178 Table 3: Grain Production vs. Cords of Mesquite Cut, 1887-1904. .197 Table 4: Mean Field Size of Abandoned and 1914 Cultivated Pima Lands. 244 Table 5: Comparison of Cultivated and Abandoned fields in Pima Village Clusters, 1914. 257 Table 6: 1914 Field Cropping Patterns by Village Clusters. 263 Table 7: Actual vs. Proportionally-calculated acres by crop on the Pima Reservation, 1914. 264 Table 8: Actual and Proportionally-calculated Acreage of Pima Crops versus Arizona Crops, 1914. .265 Table 9: Proportion of Fields Sown to Grain by Acres based on GIS Analysis. 266 Table 10: Cultivated Mean Field Size by Village Cluster. .268 9 ABSTRACT This study identifies the historical factors that impacted Pima agriculture, water use and water rights in south-central Arizona between 1848 and 1921. Federal land and resource policies, especially federal Indian policies, impacted the dynamics of Pima agriculture and water use during these crucial years when the federal government utilized economic liberalism to open the West to homesteading and facilitate the development of the region’s vast resources. As an agricultural people, the Pima did not passively accept these policies and events. Rather, they proved adaptive, demonstrating their resourcefulness in important ways. In response to water deprivation and infringement of their water rights, the Pima reduced the amount of land they cultivated. While before 1880 they had increased their cultivated acreage and expanded their trade networks, in the years after they creatively found ways to keep land in production despite water shortages. As the water crisis deepened, the Pima abandoned their least productive lands. In the midst of great deprivation, they relocated (or abandoned) a number of villages and scores of fields in an attempt against great odds to maintain their agricultural economy. To make the most of their diminishing water resources, the Pima adapted by growing small grains such as wheat and barley, even when these crops no longer proved to be economically viable in Arizona. While not new to their crop rotation, the Pima relied almost exclusively upon these crops by the 1910s since they required considerably less water than others. Because the Pima had prior and paramount rights to the water and were wrongfully deprived of their rights to the use of water, their water rights struggle raised a 10 metaphorical Damoclean sword above the heads of those non-Indian farmers who used the water.
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