View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Carolina Digital Repository FROM BODY TO SHRINE: THE CONSTRUCTION OF SACRED SPACE AT THE GRAVE OF `ALI IBN ABI TALIB IN NAJAF Rose S. Aslan A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Religious Studies. Chapel Hill 2014 Approved by: Carl W. Ernst Anna Bigelow Omid Safi Mohsen Kadivar Todd Ochoa © 2014 Rose S. Aslan ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Rose S. Aslan: From Body To Shrine: The Construction Of Sacred Space At The Grave Of `Ali Ibn Abi Talib In Najaf (Under the direction of Carl W. Ernst) This dissertation analyzes medieval Muslim constructs and perceptions of sacred space from the ninth to fourteenth centuries using `Ali’s grave as point of departure. It delves into three themes—sacred body, sacred space, and sacred ritual—all of which shed light on ways in which Shi`i scholars helped mold communal memory and identity, as well as how Sunni scholars contested Shi`i claims to legitimacy based on their distinct memories of the past. This dissertation seeks to understand how and why scholarly representations of `Ali’s body, grave, and connected pilgrimage rituals impacted the development of normative Shi`ism. This dissertation makes three main arguments. First, by establishing `Ali’s walaya, Shi`i scholars could elevate the status of Najaf through contact with the praesentia of `Ali’s sanctified body contained within it. Second, by examining often conflicting Shi`i and Sunni narratives of `Ali’s burial and location of his grave as found in geographical, historical, and hagiographical texts. By claiming the legitimacy of `Ali’s grave, Shi`is could uphold Najaf’s reputation as a pilgrimage destination, as well as retain control over the city, despite being persecuted minorities in a majority Sunni environment. Some Sunni scholars saw Shi`i-controlled Najaf as a threat in addition to their general distrust of Shi`i scholarship and doctrine. iii Third, the ritual practices and supplications recommended by scholars in their pilgrimage manuals guided pilgrims through a reenactment of pilgrimages scholars claimed were performed by the Imams when `Ali’s grave was hidden. I suggest that scholars contributed to the growing genre of pilgrimage manuals in order to bolster the communal Shi`i identity and create a setting where Shi`is could express their religious devotion in a sacred space away from the domination of the Sunni majority. I argue that for Muslims, the grave of a sanctified figure such as `Ali could function as a symbolic site allowing for the reenactment of rituals of piety, the persistence of historical memory, and the strengthening of communal identity. iv To my son IssHaq Habib: although you came late in the writing process, you gave me the motivation to get a job and finish writing so I could spend more time with you. You have brought so much joy into my life! v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The research for this dissertation was funded in part by the Mellon Dissertation Writing Fellowship provided by the Program in Medieval and Early Modern Studies Program at UNC-CH and the Fadel Educational Foundation. My advisor Carl W. Ernst provided me with excellent mentorship over the past six years, both in the courses I took with him and then as the chair of my dissertation committee. He always pushed me to become an independent and critical scholar and to find my own way. Anna Bigelow has always provided useful feedback on my work and I have enjoyed our numerous discussions on ways to think about the nature of space, place, and the sacred. Mohsen Kadivar first introduced me to Shi`i theology in a course I took with him at Duke University, and he allowed me to pursue independent study courses with him to further my knowledge of Shi`ism. His encyclopedic knowledge of the Islamic sciences is inspiring and he always had productive comments, in addition to kind words, to offer on my research. He saved me from making numerous erroneous claims and always guided me to relevant resources for my research. Omid Safi introduced me to a wide variety of materials in his courses and always provided words of encouragement. As the only non-Islamic studies scholar on my committee, Todd Ochoa offered a keen eye and valuable perspective on my theoretical approaches and pushed me to consider new ways of thinking about my material. vi Special thanks goes to Elliott Bazzano, Matthew Pierce, and Nermeen Mouftah for providing feedback on several chapters, and to Emily Pollokoff for offering her keen eye in the final stage of editing. There are many people in Najaf I would like to thank and whom I hope to visit again in more peaceful times. Sami Rasouli, the founder and director of the Muslim Peacemaker Teams in Iraq, kindly coordinated my precarious trip to Iraq and hosted me for the duration to my trip. He introduced me to many Iraqis in Najaf, Karbala, and Baghdad from various intellectual, activists, and artistic communities, and to him I am grateful. I spent time conducting research at numerous libraries in Najaf, and received special attention and help from the Imam Kashif al-Ghita Library, under the supervision of Shaykh `Abbas Kashif al-Gheita, the director of the library, and from Shaykh Muhammad al-Kerbasi, the director of archives. Husayn Jihad al-Hassani, who works in both al-Waqf al-Shi`i and the Imam `Ali Library as a manuscript conservationist, guided me to relevant sources for my research. Hajj Hashim al-Bajiji, the director of Cultural and Intellectual Affairs as well at `Ali’s shrine, provided me with full access to the shrine and its employees and also sent me home with a copy of nearly every book and CD published by the shrine’s publishing house. I also made use of resources in the shrine’s library, Maktabat al-Rawda al-Haydariyya, under the directorship of Hashim al-Milani, as well as materials in the Amir al-Mu’minin Library. Many thanks also goes to the employees of al-Waqf al-Shi`i (Office of Shi`i Religious Endowments), who offered me rare books from their home libraries about `Ali’s shrine and would not take no for an answer. vii I was gracefully hosted by members of the Najaf 2012 team, including Mundhir al-Hatami, secretary, and `Abdullah Janabi, director of translation. Nahla al-Zayni, my dear Iraqi sister, was a constant source of laughter, and we bonded during long conversations into the night on the rooftop of her uncle’s house, where we slept to escape from the suffocating heat, only to wake up covered in sand and mosquito bites. I met many more generous and strong Iraqis, who provided me with warm hospitality, delicious meals, lots of books, and a lifetime of powerful memories. I pray that Najaf and the rest of Iraq can recover from the devastation of Saddam Hussein, the Iraq War, and the current encroachment of ISIS, and eventually reach a state of peace and coexistence so that people can live there without fear and suspicion. Some of my dear friends in Chapel Hill provided much moral and spiritual support during the six years of my residency at UNC-CH, including Amal Boumaaza, Zeba Khan, Sanam Sheikh, Nikoo Roodi, Latifa Lipton, Aminah Wali, Nancy Milio, and others who have made my time in Chapel Hill so special. They provided safe spaces where I could be myself and unwind from the life of a graduate student. Many thanks goes to my favorite high school teacher, Thais DaRosa, to whom I will always be indebted. She made me excited about studying religion and opened up a whole new world to me in her World Religions course at Lowell High School in San Francisco. My father has always had my back and has encouraged me to pursue my interests even when they had nothing to do with his own. My family always asked when I would finish my PhD and get a real job, and I am happy that I can finally show them the fruits of my long journey as a student over many years and in several different countries. My viii husband, Muhammad Habib, was always there for me and was my biggest supporter; he was always available to help me trudge through difficult Arabic passages and to convince me to keep on top of my writing schedule. And my son IssHaq Habib gave me an incentive to finish my dissertation with his beautiful smiles and constant laughter. Wa-Allahu a`lam. ix TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION: SACRED BODY, SPACE, AND RITUAL IN MEDIEVAL ISLAM…….…...…………………………………………………....…1 Why `Ali’s shrine? Why Najaf?…………………………..………………………7 A Brief History of Najaf…………………………..……………………………....8 Sacred Body, Space, and Ritual………………...……………………………..…15 Sectarian Identity in Medieval Iraq…………………..………………………..…30 Constructing Historical Narratives in Medieval Islam…….……………….……36 Literature Review…….……………….……………………………………….…44 Chapter Organization………………………………………………………….…51 CHAPTER ONE: SACRED BODY: PRAISING `ALI AND ESTABLISHING AUTHENTICITY……….….……………………………………...55 Embodied Islam……………………………………………………………….....57 Leadership and Authority in Shi`ism…………………………….………………66 The Role of the Imams.…………………………………………………………..75 `Ali’s Life and Death………………………………………………………….....78 Accounts of `Ali’s Miracles in Shi`i Narratives…………………………………81 A Prophetic Praesentia at `Ali’s Grave………………………………………….98 From Sacred Body to Sacred Space…………………………………………….106 CHAPTER TWO: SACRED SPACE: CONTESTING THE LOCATION OF `ALI’S GRAVE….…………….………...…………………....……112 The Politics of Sacred Space in Medieval Iraq…………………………………112 x Contesting the Origins of Najaf’s History……………………………………...119