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The Naqshbandi-Haqqani Order, Which Has Become Remarkable for Its Spread in the “West” and Its Adaptation to Vernacular Cultures

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The Naqshbandi-Haqqani Order, Which Has Become Remarkable for Its Spread in the “West” and Its Adaptation to Vernacular Cultures From madness to eternity Psychiatry and Sufi healing in the postmodern world Athar Ahmed Yawar UCL PhD, Division of Psychiatry 1 D ECLARATION I, Athar Ahmed Yawar, confirm that the work presented in this thesis is my own. Where information has been derived from other sources, I confirm that this has been indicated in the thesis. Signed: 2 A BSTRACT Problem: Academic study of religious healing has recognised its symbolic aspects, but has tended to frame practice as ritual, knowledge as belief. In contrast, studies of scientific psychiatry recognise that discipline as grounded in intellectual tradition and naturalistic empiricism. This asymmetry can be addressed if: (a) psychiatry is recognised as a form of “religious healing”; (b) religious healing can be shown to have an intellectual tradition which, although not naturalistic, is grounded in experience. Such an analysis may help to reveal why globalisation has meant the worldwide spread not only of modern scientific medicine, but of religious healing. An especially useful form of religious healing to contrast with scientific medicine is Sufi healing as practised by the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order, which has become remarkable for its spread in the “West” and its adaptation to vernacular cultures. Research questions: (1) How is knowledge generated and transmitted in the Naqshbandi- Haqqani order? (2) How is healing understood and done in the Order? (3) How does the Order find a role in the modern world, and in the West in particular? Methods: Anthropological analysis of psychiatry as religious healing; review of previous studies of Sufi healing and the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order; ethnographic participant observation in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order, with a special focus on healing. Ethnography was done at many sites, over a period of 11 years. Findings: (1) Knowledge is generated by means of the individual’s contact with Shaykh Nazim, who, in turn, is said to be in contact with the Prophet. Knowledge is therefore personalised, situational, and ever-changing. Purification of the nafs (psyche, soul) is held to increase the capacity for knowledge. (2) Discourse in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order centres around healing of the soul, which is held to be a salvific and intellectual exercise. Activities and intellectual disciplines are subsumed into soul-healing. Healing techniques are eclectic and universally applied, ultimately under the perceived direction of Shaykh Nazim. (3) The Order attracts followers through charisma and personal contacts; adapts to local vernaculars; creates alternative social networks; makes everyday activities part of soul-healing; provides low-cost personalised healing; and reflects postmodern concerns and ecumenism. Implications: Healing that reflects pre-modern, religious models of the intellect, and a medical science that is not merely naturalistic, has encompassed scientific narratives and gained adherents in the postmodern world. 3 I M P A C T S TATEMENT This thesis is: ♦ One of the first, perhaps the first, extended studies of Sufi healing in the West. ♦ One of the first, perhaps the first, extended studies to consider Sufi healing in the context of psychiatry. ♦ The first study to focus explicitly on healing in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order. This thesis has: ♦ De-exotified Sufi healing, by showing that it can be not only in the West, but of the West; and that it is not only liminal and dramatic, but can be an understated part of everyday life. ♦ Located Sufi healing as a tradition operating in the postmodern West. ♦ Shed some light on the reasons for the persistence and popularity of religious healing in a postmodern age. ♦ Shown how religious healing can arise from ways of knowing based on experience, rather than mere “belief”. ♦ Shown a close relationship between religious healing and pre-modern models of the intellect. This thesis can: ♦ Inform psychiatrists on what might be “normal”, and “abnormal”, in a Sufi community or individual. ♦ Prompt reflections on the origins and roles of scientific and religious healing of psychological suffering. ♦ Give psychiatrists an enhanced understanding of, and ability to co-operate with, emic religious healing. 4 C ONTENTS Acknowledgements 7 Note on transliteration 8 Note on translation 11 Structure of the references section 12 Introduction: psychiatry and religious healing 13 1. Psychiatry’s beliefs 19 1.1 The development of the psyche and the iatros 19 1.2 Psychiatry as religious healing 38 2. Sufi knowledge and healing 44 2.1 Knowledge 44 2.2 Healing 60 3. The Naqshbandi-Haqqani order 75 3.1 Naqshbandis 75 3.2 Naqshbandi-Haqqanis 88 4. Investigating healing in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order 103 5. Knowledge in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order 118 5.1 Shaykh Nazim’s life 119 5.2 The nature and acquisition of knowledge in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani 131 order 5 5.3 Being with Shaykh Nazim 144 6. Healing in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order 183 6.1 The patient and the healer 184 6.2 The art of suffering 204 6.3 Healing 219 6.4 Healing: extended vignettes 263 6.5 Eschatological healing 294 7. Knowledge, healing, and postmodernity 310 7.1 Knowledge 311 7.2 Healing 315 7.3 Postmodernity 324 7.4 Conclusions and ways forward 338 Appendix 1: Research on the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi order 344 Appendix 2: The Naqshbandi-Haqqani Golden Chain 351 Appendix 3: Naqshbandi-Haqqani prayers 355 Appendix 4: Naqshbandi-Haqqani obituaries 389 Glossary 393 References 439 6 A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank the masters of the Naqshbandi-Haqqani Sufi order, for their kindness and insight. The dervishes of the order provided much companionship, support, advice, and information. Many tried to heal me, or had me try to heal them. My debt to them is inescapable. The following people provided much practical help: Introductions, accommodation, and transport: Zero Quensel, Saydam Akpinar, Asim Zubčević, Dika Ahmetspahić, Ahmad Nazir, Shahdan Kaur, Abdul Rahman Thomas, Bashira, Bernhard Harrer, Tobias, Menekshe Walsh, Habib Ershad, Yalçin Hussein. Interpretation: Ahmad Nazir, Michael Noble, Ali Said, Marina Şerife, Gabi. Financial assistance: Phyllis Taylor, Lawrence Ching. Last, I thank my indefatigable supervisor, Roland Littlewood, and my family and friends, without whom very little would have been possible. 7 N O T E O N T RANSLITERATION The lingua franca in the Naqshbandi-Haqqani order is English. However, on fieldwork, many other languages were used in my presence: principally German, Turkish, and Arabic. Research papers and books contained words from these languages and, in addition, French, Spanish, Persian, Urdu, Kazakh, Turkmen, and Gujarati. The German, French, and Spanish uses of the Latin alphabet are too widely known to discuss here. Modern Turkish is generally written in the Latin alphabet, including some letters not found in English: Turkish Letter Pronunciation C, c j in jam Ç, ç ch in checkmate Ğ, ğ Elongates the preceding vowel. I, ı (i without a tittle) i in flirt İ, i (i with a tittle) ie in piece Ö, ö u in purpose Ş, ş sh in shine Ü, ü ew in dew Persian, Ottoman Turkish, and Urdu are generally written in variants of the Arabic script. Kazakh, Turkmen, and Gujarati are also written in Arabic script, although other alphabets predominate (Latin and Cyrillic for Kazakh and Turkmen; a variant of Devanagari for Gujarati). For all these languages, I have used the transliteration system, for Arabic script, of the Encyclopaedia of Islam, third edition (EI3), with one modification: when pairs of letters are used to signify a single .the letters are underlined. This was, in fact, the practice in EI2 ,(ش consonant (for instance, sh for 8 The letters b, d, f, g, h, j, k, m, p, r, s, t, v, w, y, and z are pronounced more or less as in English. Vowels are pronounced as follows: Transliteration Pronunciation A, a a in man Ā, ā a in father E, e ai in fair I, i i in sit Ī, ī ea in tea O, o o in short Ō, ō o in over U, u u in put Ū, ū oo in fool Consonants not already mentioned are transliterated as follows (I have not mentioned phonemes that do not occur in the thesis): Arabic or Sound Transliteration Persian Letter .Ch in checkmate چ Ç, ç (th in this (Arabic ذ Dh, dh z in zoo (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu)1 1 I have not mentioned pronunciation variations in Kazakh, Turkmen, and Gujarati, since I quote from these languages only very briefly. 9 Emphatic d (Arabic)2 ض Ḍ, ḍ z in zoo (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) Sound made when gargling with an empty throat. Similar to French غ Gh, gh r. .(Hoarse h coming from the throat (Arabic ح Ḥ, ḥ h in hello (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) .ch in loch خ Kh, kh .l in love ل L, l When used as the definite article in Arabic, pronounced like the subsequent letter, when that letter is d, dh, ḍ, n, r, s, sh, ṣ, t, th, ṭ, z, or ẓ. n in noon ن N, n In Arabic, sometimes elided with the subsequent consonant. .k coming from the throat ق Q, q Often pronounced in contemporary Persian as a gh. sh in shine ش Sh, sh (Emphatic s, similar to sw in sword (Arabic ص Ṣ, ṣ s in soup (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) (th in think (Arabic ث Th, th s in soup (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) (Emphatic t (Arabic ط Ṭ, ṭ t in tea (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) (Emphatic z, arguably closer to th in this than to z in zoo (Arabic ظ Ẓ, ẓ z in zoo (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu) Soft glottal stop. Very common in English: for instance, precedes ء ˀ the a in apple. (Hard glottal stop, from the middle of the throat (Arabic ع ˁ Soft glottal stop (Persian, Ottoman Turkish, Urdu).
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