Levering, Bas & Van Manen, Max (2002) Phenomenological Anthropology in the Netherlands and Flanders In: Tymieniecka, Teresa (ed.) Phenomenology World-Wide. Dordrecht: Kluwer Press, (pp. 274-286)

PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN in the early writings of Sartre. Third, the existing THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS religious institutions could no longer offer comfortable answers to the moral and ethical concerns that were One of the first to apply phenomenological method in the raised and addressed in different ways by the existential- Netherlands was the Philosopher and linguist Hendrick J. ism of Camus, the Marxism of Sartre, and the ethical Pos (1898-1955). He invited Husserl in 1928 to give the philosophy of Levinas. Finally, some Dutch philosophers so-called Amsterdamer Vortrage (Amsterdam Lectures) seemed especially capable of translating and introducing on phenomenological psychology. But it was not until the sometimes difficult works of French and German after World War II that phenomenology became more philosophical thought to the humanities and the social deeply established in Dutch philosophy. The primary sciences. Some scholars, such as William A. Luypen, Jan sway of influence now came from the south, from France. Hendrik van den Berg, Adriaan Peperzak, and Stephan Heidegger's influence was important, but it was espe- Strasser, were translated into various languages, partly cially the French existentialists such as Jean-Paul Sartre, due to their ability to make the French and German tra- Simone de Beauvoir, Albert Camus, Gabriel Marcel, ditions accessible and partly because they did this in Emmanuel Levinas, and in particular Maurice sometimes highly unique and provocative ways. Merleau-Ponty who dominated the philosophical scene in Thus, it is not accidental that Sartre's 1946 the Netherlands and Flanders. L'Exis-tentialisme est line Humanisme is echoed in the title Much of the immediate postwar Dutch phenomeno- of William A. Luypen's 1959/1960 text Phenomenology logy was marked less by originality than by a reworking and Humanism, subtitled A Primer in Existential of the intellectual scholarship "translated" from French. Phenomenology. Luypen's book has been translated into This French orientation in Dutch philosophy can be many languages and reprinted numerous times. It departs explained in several ways. First, prewar philosophy in the from the "primitive fact" of existential phenomenology by Netherlands was essentially philosophical anthropology. emphasizing Husserl's notion of the lifeworld and his And the concerns of philosophical anthropology resonate credo "Zw den Sachen selbst," interpreted as "Back to more strongly in the writings of the French original experience," as well as the primacy of phenomen-ologists than in the more epistemological and inten-tionality and the nature of phenomenological methodologically focussed works of Husserl. Second, the knowledge. The purpose of this point of departure is to postwar period was marked by an intense interest in work through a phenomenology of freedom and cultural concerns and the kinds of questions that were intersubjectivity by thematizing lifeworld phenomena such posed and addressed by the French existentialists. In their as the experience of ethics, liberation, work, hatred, works, the individual had no recourse to anything but his indifference, love, and justice. Luypen did not merely or her personal freedom and responsibility in a manner want to translate, but also to reinterpret and rethink described philosophically the PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS 275

phenomenological influence. For example, in Phenom- Philosophy of the Encounter (1965), Fenomenologie van enology and Humanism, he argues that Sartre is not really de Taal (Philosophy of Language) (1963), and Sociale a phenomenologist, but a Cartesian thinker. Filosofie (Social Philosophy) (1968). Other books in In the introduction to Phenomenology and Meta- English are Philosophy of Labor and From Phenomenol- physics, Luypen shows how he places himself in the ogy to Metaphysics. Kwant exercised particular influence philosophical tradition. He accuses Thomism of repeating on the legitimation of physical education in the curricula old answers and thus ignoring new questions, and he of schools at all levels by showing that embodiment shows how he himself was indebted to Heidegger. In other precedes cognition. books, he elaborated on themes that he had identified in Cornelius (Cees) A. van Peursen (1920-1996) was a early work: Phenomenology of Natural Law (1967), multifaceted philosopher of culture at the Universities of Phenomenology and Atheism (1964), and Theology is Leiden and Amsterdam. His Lichaam, Ziel, Geest (Body, Anthropology (1974). His texts may now appear some- Soul, Spirit) (1956) has been translated into several what dated, but from the 1960s to the early 1980s, they languages. Initially subtitled Introduction to a Phenome- exerted significant international influence within and nological Anthropology, it explores the relation between outside the discipline of philosophy. mind and body. Van Peursen was especially inspired by Reinout Bakker (1920-1987), professor of philoso- Plessner and Merleau-Ponty, in whose work he found a real phical anthropology at the University of Groningen, made solution for the Cartesian mind-body problem, which would important contributions to the historical study of phe- soon become one of the most important problems of ana- nomenology. De Geschiedenis van het Fenomenologisch lytical philosophy. In a comparative study, Phenomenology Denken (The History of Phenomenological Thought) and Analytical Philosophy (1968), van Peursen developed (1964) is an introduction to the phenomenologies of key a dialogue between transcendental phenomenology and the figures such as Husserl, the phenomenologist of essence; linguistic philosophy of Wittgenstein, Austin, and Ryle. He Scheler, the phenomenologist of lived experience; addressed subjectivity versus intersubjectivity and the Heidegger, the phenomenologist of being; Sartre, the remainders of a Cartesian egology confronting a constantly phenomenologist of freedom; and Merleau-Ponty, the elusive self. If philosophy could only surrender its tran- phenomenologist of openness. In Filosofische scendental pretensions, then nothing would obstruct a Antropo-logie van de 20ste Eeuw (Philosophical reconciliation between phenomenology and ordinary lan- Anthropology of the 20th Century) (1982), Bakker guage philosophy. Van Peursen's lifelong interest in phe- makes it clear how among phenomenologists the nomenological issues is evident in the titles of his many condition humaine, which was speculatively developed in publications, for example, Korte Inleiding in de Existentie the biological anthropology of Max Scheler, Arnold Gehlen, Filosofie (Concise Introduction to Existential Philosophy) and Helmuth Plessner, acquires greater shape. Bakker was (1948), Fenomenologie en Werkelijkheid (Phenomenology concerned with the relation between philosophy and and Reality) (1967), and Verhaal en Werkelijkheid empirical science since in the Netherlands philosophy (Narrative and Reality) (1992). had lost its central position among the sciences. The importance of Reinier Beerling (1905-1979) for Bakker wrote a monograph on Albert Camus (1966), phenomenology is particularly noteworthy in virtue of and he translated Merleau-Ponty's In Praise of Philoso- his critical stance. In 1935 he had already written about phy (1979) and the "Preface" to The Phenomenology of German existentialism in Antitheses. He was one of the Perception (1986). His book on Merleau-Ponty was sub- first Dutch philosophers to become deeply involved in titled Filosoof van het Niet-wetende Weten (The Philo- the work of Heidegger. And in 1976 he published Van sopher of Unknowingly Knowing) (1965), with which Nietzsche tot Heidegger. But he professed to have pro- he referred to Merleau-Ponty's fundamental project of blems with the obscurity of Heidegger's texts, which developing a reflective relation to the pre-reflexive he nevertheless respected because of their tremendous experience of the lifeworld. scope. Beerling further published a study about Husserl, Since the 1950s, Remy (Remigius) C. Kwant (1918-) allusively entitled De Transcendentale Vreemdeling (The had also distinguished himself by making Merleau-Ponty Transcendental Stranger) (1965). Beerling referred in this accessible to the general Dutch public through texts such work to Husserl's Ideas II. He shows the primacy of the as Mens en Expressie in het Licht van de Wijsbegeerte individual in Ideas and how the individual merely remains van Merleau-Ponty (Human Expressivity in the Light of a function of the social. It should be noted that Husserl's the Philosophy of Merleau-Ponty) (1968), Wijsbegeerte three volume Zur Phdnomenologie der Intersubjektivitdt van de Ontmoeting (1959), translated into English as was not published until after 1973. 276 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS

Beerling criticized Husserl for making the Wesenschau Denken van Husserl (1966), published in English as conditional on the fact of personal experience. Indeed, if The Development of Husserl's Thought (1978). it were the case that one could only say something mean- In 1980, de Boer published Grondslagen van de ingful, for example, about marriage if one was married Kri-tische Psychologie (Foundations of Critical oneself, then this would have undesirable consequences. Psychology), in which he focussed on the methodology of It would mean that the psychologist or psychiatrist psychology. Seventeen years later he wrote Pleidooi voor would not have access to all sorts of psychological phe- Interpretatie (A Plea for Interpretation) (1997), which nomena if he or she had not experienced them from demonstrated a revision of the perspective that he had the inside. In Beerling's view, Husserl converted the articulated in 1980. The opening chapter of this book is human being who was at home in his or her world into a entitled "Op weg naar een interpretatieve psychologic" transcendental stranger. And according to Beerling, (On the Way to an Interpretive Psychology), which is a Husserl's transcendental phenomenology was therefore clear reference to Jan Linschoten's On the Way to a unsuitable as a foundation for the social sciences. Phenomenological Psychology (1959). Linschoten's study Adriaan Peperzak (1929-) received his doctorate under of William James was partially intended as a primer Ricoeur in Paris with a dissertation entitled Le Jeune for the program of the phenomenological psychology of Hegel et la Vision Morale du Monde (The Young Hegel the Utrecht School (see below). According to the Boer, and the Moral World View) (1969). From 1964 on, psychology was no longer an empirical science with a Peperzak was a professor at the Universities of Nijmegen, hermeneutic supplement, which he had accepted in Delft, Utrecht, and Amsterdam. In 1991, he received 1980 along the lines of Jiirgen Habermas. By 1997, de the Arthur J. Smith Chair in Philosophy at Loyola Uni- Boer recognized the full status of interpretive versity of Chicago. Peperzak provided several translations psychology. and introductions to the thought of Ricoeur and Levinas. De Boer's philosophical anthropology is dialogic, His Dutch works include Op Weg naar de Waarheid van emphasizing human intentionality, uniqueness, and "Ik Ben" (On the Way to the Truth of the "I Am") (1965). authenticity. He argues that besides a philosophical He also published in English To the Other: an Introduc- articulation of anthropological postulates, psychology tion to the Philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas (1993), a needs to be furnished with empirical material. The collection of essays entitled Ethics as First Philosophy: empirical "furnishing" refers back to the original aspira- The Significance of Emmanuel Levinas for Philosophy, tions of the Utrecht School. Phenomenological psychol- Literature and Religion (1995), and Beyond: the Philo- ogy is the scientific explication of the intentional sophy of Emmanuel Levinas (1997). structures of human being as situated existence. Inter- A Dutch philosopher who also moved to the United pretation is always incomplete. Interpretive psychology States is Joseph J. Kockelmans (1923-). He produced does not aim to arrive, via an alternative route, at natu- several studies and introductions to the works of Husserl ralistic explanations of human behavior; rather, it and Heidegger, such as Edmund Husserl: Een Inleiding demands an orientation toward difference and uniqueness tot zijn Fenomenologie (1963), published in English as and a receptive eye for what is contingent and unpre- A First Introduction to Husserl's Phenomenology (1967). dictable in the psychology of human existence. Kockelmans also published several books on phenome- In Tarnara A. Awater en Andere Verhalen over nology and science, for example, Phaenomenologie en Sub-jectiviteit (Tamara A. Awater and Other Stories about Natuurwetenschap (1962), published in English as Phe- Subjectivity) (1993), he suggests that the unique cannot nomenology and Physical Science (1966). While at the be represented by the general; it can perhaps only be University of Pennsylvania, he translated and edited a approached narratively. There will always be a distinction selection of studies written some 30 years earlier by between philosophy and literature since, unlike literary proponents of the Utrecht School; they are published narratives, philosophical arguments can never be decided in Phenomenological Psychology: The Dutch School by style. In 1997, de Boer published in English a very (1987). lucid introduction to Levinas entitled The Rationality of Theo de Boer (1932—) was professor of Philosophical Transcendence: Studies in the Philosophy of Levinas. Anthropology at the University of Amsterdam from 1968. And from 1992 to 1997, he was a professor at THE HUSSERL ARCHIVES AND the Free University of Amsterdam. His doctoral studies, PHENOMENOLOGY IN FLANDERS which he researched at the Husserl Archives, resulted in a dissertation entitled De Ontwikkelingsgang in het The history of the Husserl Archives begins in 1938. A few months after Husserl's death in 1938, Herman L. van PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS 277

Breda visited Freiburg to conduct research for a dis- Gadamer, but his most interesting contribution was sertation entitled The Transcendental Phenomenological with respect to the place and significance he assigned to Reduction in Husserl's Later Period (1920-1938). During psychoanalysis. He argued that human self-knowledge is his last years, Husserl had lost most of his German stu- limited because human experience is limited. From a dents owing to the Nazi threat, and he had become quite philosophical anthropological point of view, philosophy lonely. Even after his death, the threat continued, posing a and science do not stand in a hierarchical but in a reci- serious danger to the survival of his unpublished writings. procal relation; they need each other for a more com- Van Breda assisted Husserl's widow in finding safe prehensive understanding of human existence. The same refuge in Belgium until she emigrated to the United is true for the relation between philosophy and psycho- States. And with the help of the Belgian External Affairs analysis, which requires a phenomenological ministry, he succeeded in smuggling more than 45,000 reinterpre-tation of the unconscious. pages written in shorthand into Belgium. In addition to The works of Antoine Vergote (1932-), who was at Husserl's library, van Breda also managed to save some Leuven, also extends the discussion about the relation of Husserl's furnishings, such as his desk now on display between phenomenology and psychoanalysis. Similarly, in the Husserl Archives. It is largely due to the efforts of psychoanalysis was a theme in the work of Samuel van Breda that the enormous wealth of Husserl's work is Usseling, who held a Chair in Philosophy at Leuven still in existence today. Van Breda succeeded in per- until 1997. Usseling's Retoriek en Filosofie (Rhetoric and suading Eugen Fink and Ludwig Landgrebe to come from Philosophy) (1976) was strongly inspired by Heidegger's Freiburg and Prague to Leuven. There they transcribed thinking about language. In this text, Usseling some 2800 pages of Husserl's old fashioned steno script. distanced himself from his mentors de Waelhens and At the urging of van Breda, the Dutch publisher Kwant, and thus from Merleau-Ponty, since Martinus Nijhoff (now Kluwer) has been publishing, Merleau-Ponty accorded language less of a central place. since 1950, the work of Husserl in the Husserliana series. Usseling oriented himself primarily to Heidegger, More than 30 volumes have been produced to date. Nietzsche and Derrida, and he employed contemporary Since 1958, Martinus Nijhoff also has published the interpretations of ancient myths in reconsidering series Phcenomenologica, which at present includes language and narrative discourse as sources of truth. A more than 150 titles, offering an excellent overview of comprehensive overview of Usseling's work, which spans the development of philosophical phenomenology since more than 30 years, is found in Macht en Onmacht Husserl. (Power and Powerlessness) (1999). A central theme in his After the war, Walter and Marly Biemel succeeded work is that human beings construct their worlds through Fink and Landgrebe as associates of the Husserl Archives. speaking and writing, but in these discourses, there is After the death of van Breda in 1947, Rudolph Boehm always something that eludes. Recently, Usseling has undertook the editing of Husserliana. The directorship of focussed on the question of the phenomenology of the Husserl Archives was passed on to Samuel Usseling writing. and subsequently to Rudolph Bernet. After the ^Anschluss in 1938 by the Nazis, Stephan In 1946, Alphonse de Waelhens (1911-) was appointed Strasser (1905-1991) escaped with his wife from Austria to the Chair of Philosophy at Leuven, where he adopted a to Belgium. Even in Belgium he had to go underground in similar critical orientation to the work of Husserl as had 1942. Van Breda offered him work at the Husserl been taken by Beerling. He reinterpreted Husserl's work, Archives, where, in the space of 25 months, Stephan especially from the perspective of Merleau-Ponty. Strasser, his wife and mother-in-law transcribed 20,000 According to de Waelhens, the initial phase of Husserl's pages of Husserl's shorthand into ordinary text. These phenomenology was purely idealistic; idealism was experiences and his studies with de Waelhens in 1944 implied by Husserl's phenomenological method. But the were formative for Strasser's philosophical career. In concept of the lifeworld, as found in Krisis der 1949, Strasser received an appointment in Philosophical euro-pdischen Wissenschaften und die transzendentalen Psychology and Anthropology at the University of Pha-nomenologie, is not compatible with such Nijmegen, and he was also given the Chair in Normative abstraction. While Husserl explicitly rejected an and Historical Pedagogy. He kept the Chair in Pedagogy existentialist stance in his later work, de Waelhens felt until 1970. He retired in 1975. that he was able to trace existentialist themes back to After an initial interest in neo-Thomistic thought, Husserl's earlier writings. Strasser became closely acquainted with the work of Husserl. De Waelhens produced original commentaries on He rejected the philosophy of Sartre and also showed no the work of Husserl, Heidegger, Merleau-Ponty and sympathy for humanistic psychology, structuralism and 278 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS

Marxist thought. For a time, he became intensely inter- Utrecht has often been cited as the beginning of the ested in Heidegger, but eventually he moved closer to reputation of the Utrecht School, and his appointment to Merleau-Ponty and in his later years especially to the emeritus status in 1957 has been associated with its demise. work of Levinas. In contrast to his philosophical devel- It was Martinus J. Langeveld who had invited Buy- opments, Strasser's orientation to pedagogy and human tendijk to the University of Utrecht in 1946. After World science underwent little change. Pedagogically, he shook War II, Langeveld had been the sole professor in the off the influences of voluntarism and intellectualism and Social Sciences at the University of Utrecht. He was found great practical wisdom in the synthesis of Fiihren guided by a strong humanistic perspective, to which and Wachsenlassen. Strasser exercised significant inter- Buytendijk seemed most suited. Langeveld's recruitment national influence. In North America, his writings pro- policy was open only to academics who were positively vided access to continental thought; in Germany, he oriented to phenomenology. In the early years, he had assisted to introduce the French Levinas; in France, he even refused the appointment of Adriaan D. de Groot, an helped to introduce the German Husserl; and in Japan, empirical analytically oriented methodologist who had he aided to initiate the human science approach. been eager to move from Amsterdam to Utrecht. Instead, Throughout his career, it was Strasser's ambition to Langeveld appointed van Lennep to the psychology post, practice human science without doing violence to what is even though van Lennep was at first glance considered human. His 1947 inaugural lecture was on the theme an outsider. "Objectiviteit en Objectivisme" (Objectivity and Objec- It can be argued that the fundamental impulse of the late tivism). In 1950, he introduced the Husserliana series by 1940s and 1950s, to which the various members of the publishing the first volume: Cartesianische Meditationen Utrecht School were committed, was rooted in pedagogy. und die Pariser Vortrage (Cartesian Meditations and the Dutch society was worried about the future of its youth, Paris Lectures). In 1950, he also wrote Het Zielsbegrip in which had been dislocated and disenfranchised by the de Metaphysische en in de Empirische Psychologic, postwar turmoil. Thus, it is possible to discern a certain published in English as The Soul in Metaphysical and inclination among diverse representatives to integrate the Empirical Psychology (1963). In 1956, he published Das various social disciplines. Humanism and personalism Gemut: Grundgedanken zu einer phdnomenologische became key concepts. The psychologists, pedagogues, Philosophic und Theorie des menschlichen Gefuhlslebens, psychiatrists, criminologists, and jurists who constituted the published in English as Phenomenology of Feeling (1977), intellectual membership of the Utrecht School were which anticipated his dialogical phenomenology, although all sailing under the flag of the personal responsibility the term dialogic was not yet used. In 1962, Strasser and social engagement of the individual human being. authored Fenomenologie en Empirische Menskunde, The beginning of the Utrecht School can be situated authored in English as Phenomenology and the Human at the end of World War II. The phenomenological psy- Sciences (1963). Strasser had close connections with chiatrist Henricus C. Riimke was a pioneer and leader. Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, where in 1984 a special From 1928 to 1933, he lectured at the University of alcove was dedicated to his work and correspondence. Amsterdam and from 1933 to 1963 at the University of Duquesne University Press also published The Idea of Utrecht. Initially, he had been professor in developmental Dialogical Phenomenology (1969) and Understanding and psychology, but from 1936, he occupied the Chair of Explanation (1985). These books did not appear in Dutch. Psychiatry. Riimke's psychiatry was closer to literary than to medical thought. Using Karl Jaspers' notion of empathic intuition, Rtimke completed a dissertation on PHENOMENOLOGY AND THE HUMAN SCIENCE Phaenomenologie en Klinisch Psychiatrische Studie over DISCIPLINES: THE UTRECHT SCHOOL het Geluksgevoel (Phenomenology and Psychiatric Stu- The Dutch or Utrecht School can be considered a genu- dies of the Feeling of Happiness) (1923). However, in his inely original Dutch contribution to the international interpretation of illness and health, Riimke's views were discussion about phenomenology. The Utrecht School shaped by a Christian-humanistic anthropology, emphas- consisted of an assortment of phenomenologically orien- izing the importance of authenticity. According to ted psychologists, educators, pedagogues, pediatricians, Riimke, deviant authenticity could actually be a sign of sociologists, criminologists, jurists, psychiatrists, and health, but what the ill person lacks is a balanced differ- other medical doctors, who formed a more or less close entiation between openness and closedness. The condition association of like-minded academics. The appointment, of health is related to an integrated personhood in a in 1946, of J.-J. Frederik Buytendijk to the University of disintegrated society. PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS 279

Riimke 's approach was characterized by anti-psychiatric In Persoon en Wereld, the editors van den Berg and themes, but he was far ahead of his time. In the late Linschoten use the following quote from Buytendijk on 1940s, it had been the custom to place dysfunctional the title page: families under isolative supervision. But Riimke spoke We want to understand the human being from the against isolation in institutions and in favor of integra- meaningful ground structure of that totality of tion into society. He interpreted dysfunctional behavior situations, events, and cultural values to which he is as a possible expression of normal life struggles. oriented and about which he has consciousness, and to The academic career of the psychologist Buytendijk which all his actions, thoughts, and feelings are (1887-1974) was unusual in that he never studied psy- related—this is the world in which the person exists, chology. He completed his medical studies in 1909 and which he encounters in the course of his personal was promoted in 1918 on the basis of a dissertation history, and which he shapes through the meanings that he constructs and assigns to everything. The entitled Proeven over Gewoontevorming in Dieren human person is not an "entity' with properties, but an (Experiments of Habit Formation in Animals). In 1991, he initiative of relations to a world that he chooses and by was appointed the Chair of Physiology at the University which he is chosen. of Amsterdam, and in 1929, he was appointed at Gro-ningen. In 1946, he received the surprising According to Buytendijk, to understand human exis- assignment of Chair in Theoretical Psychology at the tence one does not start from what is simple or from University of Utrecht, as well as appointments in the bottom up, but from the complex and from the top Nijmegen and Leuven. After 1957, he remained as an down. Similarly, animal psychology is best understood emeritus at Utrecht and returned for two more years as from the higher orders down. That approach is char- Chair after the death in 1964 of one of his students and acteristic of all his work, from his Psychology of Animals successor, Jan Linschoten. (1920) to Prolegomena of an Anthropological Physiology The psychologist Buytendijk differed from the psy- (1965). For example, in the latter book, he employs chiatrist Riimke in that his philosophical starting point considerations about the idea of an anthropological phy- was the healthy human being rather than the ill person. siology and aspects of human embodiment and In his wide range of publications, Buytendijk preoccupied psycho-physical problems to introduce a himself only rarely with methodological issues. An comprehensive study of exemplary modes of human interesting discussion of methodology is contained in existence and physiological regulatory systems. He his Psychologic van de Roman (Psychology of the Novel) describes in detail modes of being such as being-awake (1962), in which he argues that one can only really and asleep, being-tired, being-hungry, being-emotional, understand what one cares about. He speaks of "the as well as regulatory aspects such as posture, respiration objectivity of love," and using reflective analyses of and circulation. novels by Dostoevsky, he shows how literature might In general, the work by Buytendijk and many of his provide especially relevant insights for psychological colleagues was more determined by attitude than by phe- understanding. In "Husserl's Phenomenology and Its nomenological method. In his personal life, Buytendijk Significance for Contemporary Psychology" (1965/87) he was known for his unorthodox sense of morality and shows how the phenomenological method can be applied detachment from societal norms. Yet, he suggested that to those modes of existence that belong to the praxis of freedom can only be possible in recognition of a moral the lifeworld. This text offers a foundation for the pro- order. After his 50th birthday, Buytendijk converted from gram of the Utrecht School, which yielded many applied Protestantism to Catholicism. From Buytendijk's point of studies. Several examples of practical phenomenological view, a central problem of our modernist age is the loss of lifeworld studies were published in Joseph Kockelman's trust and at-homeness in the world. As he might see it, a Phenomenological Psychology: The Dutch School (1987). modernist recognition of autonomy could not be tempered Buytendijk's phenomenological program required that by means of postmodern forms of critique but rather by knowledge of human existence be gathered by observa- pre-modern forms of understanding. Buytendijk rejected tions of everyday life situations and events. He argued the claim to autonomy of the Renaissance ideal and that the obvious features of a lifeworld that we interpret reached back to recover a sense of obsequiousness and linguistically must become questionable and enigmatic. submissiveness of earlier times. The book Per soon en Wereld (Person and World) (1953) Buytendijk published his pedagogical ideas in is a collection of now classic phenomenological lifeworld Erzieh-ung zur Demut: Betrachtungen uber einige studies from which Kockelmans made a selection for padagogische Ideen (Educating toward Humility: Some his Phenomenological Psychology: The Dutch School. Reflections on Pedagogical Ideas) (1928). During the war, he wrote his 280 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS

study Over de Pijn (Pain) (1946), which still offers a Langeveld employed phenomenology at several levels. relevant contemporary critique of the search for a life During the 1950s, he coordinated a large-scale national without suffering. While pain carries mostly negative study of problem youth, and he was primarily responsible connotations in today's world, Buytendijk pointed out that for integrating, in a phenomenological manner, the var- pain forces us to reflect and to give it a place and meaning ious reports of this study. The final analyses were inspired in our lives. by the philosophies of Heidegger and Bollnow on build- Some philosophers, such as de Boer, regarded the ing, dwelling and thinking. One of Langeveld's most Utrecht phenomenologists as good psychologists but influential texts was Beknopte Theoretische Pedagogiek often poor philosophers. In his opinion, they tried to (Concise Theoretical Pedagogy), in which he elaborated represent empirical phenomenology contextualized by a phenomenological pedagogy. This work was published time and place as rigorous science. The well-known exist- in 15 editions between 1946 and 1979. Langeveld anal- ential phenomenology of Buytendijk's De Vrouw: Haar yzed the phenomena of child rearing and educational Natuur, Verschijning, en Bestaan (Woman: Her Being, experiences by paying close attention to concrete and Appearance, and Existence) (1951) was simultaneously common situations and events in the lives of children far ahead of its time and trapped by its time. It later and adults. This led to remarkable results. For example, received severe criticism from feminist commentators. he rejected the view that pedagogical authority should be One can make the case that if stripped of their related to general theory of authority. Authority is not just uni-versalistic pretensions the existential a question of moral choice; rather, authority is necessary phenomenological studies of the Utrecht School still because children require pedagogy for their very existence constitute the most original contribution of Dutch and in order to be able to grow up. Langeveld then linked phenomenology. Even today, one may appreciate the this existential phenomenological starting point for the brilliant reflective observations of its authors. Strasser's determination of authority to his philosophical anthropo- accusation of phenomenological impressionism does not logy, wherein self-responsible self-determination assumed really hold water since the highly recognizable time- and a central value. culture-bound descriptions were always contextualized by From our contemporary, postmodern perspective, it more or less explicit but never closed anthropological is easy to notice that there were certain universalistic pre- postulates. tensions in the work of proponents of the Dutch School and Many phenomenologists of the Utrecht School were that Langeveld's phenomenological pedagogy was colored practically engaged. For example, Buytendijk wrote by the cultural and historical perspectives of his time. popular contributions about science in journals and Langeveld did not really address the question about whe- magazines. He was editor-in-chief of the Aula book ther his phenomenological writing had general validity. But series, which has informed the public about science in his developmental psychology, he did emphasize that the and philosophy for more than 50 years. Buytendijk was phenomenon of childhood is a recent historical "dis- not only influenced by the great phenomenologists, he covery." Perhaps, the phenomenological studies of the also functioned as an active thinker in his correspondence Utrecht School are now less valid for their methodological with the likes of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Helmuth aspirations, but they retain a high level of validity for their Plessner, Max Scheler, Ludwig Binswanger, Romano practical engagement. It is remarkable that many of Lan- Guardini, Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir. geveld's studies—such as "De verborgen plaats in het Martinus J. Langeveld (1905-1989) obtained his doc- leven van het kind" (The Secret Place in the Life of the torate with a dissertation entitled Taal en Denken In 12 Child) (1953), "Das Ding in die Welt des Kindes" (1956) tot 14 Jarige Leerlingen (Language and Thinking in 12 (The Thing in the World of the Child), and to 14 Year Old Students) (1934). In 1939, he received the "Phaeno-menologie van het Leren" (1952) Chair in Pedagogy at the University of Utrecht. Until (Phenomenology of Learning)—are still very readable World War II, pedagogy was largely connected with the and formative for understanding the pedagogical preparation of teachers. In 1946, it became an indepen- lifeworld. dent discipline at the University. Langeveld established In comparison with his extensive pedagogical, psy- the groundwork for this program and assumed the first chological, and clinical publications, Langeveld's meth- combined Chair in Pedagogy, Developmental Psychol- odological writings are quite sparse. He collected several ogy, and Didactics. Gradually, several separate Chairs articles in Capita uit de Algemene Methodologie der were established: first Orthopedagogy and next Education Opvoedingswetenschap (Principles of a General Metho- and Social Pedagogy. Langeveld remained responsible for dology of Educational Science) (1959/1972), and after the Chair in general pedagogy until he retired. some pressure, he eventually added a methodological PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS 281

chapter to his Beknopte Theoretische Pedagogiek (Con- criminal had to be seen as an autonomous being, someone cise Theoretical Pedagogy) (1955). The members of the who had a place in the moral order. That is why requital, Utrecht School obviously shared an aversion to explicat- reconciliation, retribution, and retaliation received so ing methodological problems. Langeveld was quite clear much attention in his work. Other phenomenological about his relation to the work of Husserl. He did not criminologists associated with the Utrecht School inclu- acknowledge the scientific validity of a transcendental ded G. Th. Kempe, P. A. H. Baan, J. C. Hudig, R. Rijksen, subjectivity, and he replaced the transcendental reduction and G. P. Hoefnagels. with the method of immanent reduction, which stresses Some of the most important and programmatic writ- the situatedness and concrete particularity of human ings of the Utrecht School are to be found in collections. experience. He said "yes" to Husserl's method but "no" Person and World: Contributions to a Phenomenological to his philosophical pretensions. Phenomenology had to Psychology (1953) was edited by van den Berg and remain focused on the everyday concerns of the concrete Linschoten. It features classic articles such as Langeveld's lifeworld. "Verborgen Plaats in the Life of the Child" (The Hidden Within the domain of pedagogy, and at the interna- Place in the Life of the Child), "De Hotelkamer" (The tional level, Langeveld exercised a tremendous influence. Hotel Room) by van Lennep, "Over de Afkeer van de He published numerous studies in the German language, Eigen Neus" (On Being Repulsed by One's Own Nose) some of which were never translated into Dutch. Indeed, by Riimke, "Gelaat en Karakter" (Face and Character) in Germany he had been long recognized as a prominent by Kouwer, "Aspecten van de Sexuele Incarnatie" "German" pedagogue. (Aspects of Sexual Incarnation) by Linschoten, "De Willem J. Pompe (1893-1968) held the chair in Psychologic van het Chaufferen" (The Psychology of Criminal Justice and Criminal Law at the University of Driving a Car) by van Lennep, and "Het Gesprek" (The Nijmegen from 1923 to 1928 and at the University of Conversation) by van den Berg. Another volume of such Utrecht from 1928 to 1968. In his valedictory lecture, studies, with international contributions, was Situation: "Strafrecht en Vertrouwen in de Mede-Mens" (Criminal Contributions to Phenomenological Psychology and Law and Trust in our Fellow Human Beings), his Psycho-Pathology (1954). It was launched as an interna- phe-nomenological anthropology came to full expression. tional journal for phenomenological psychology, but only Punishable infractions were first of all interpreted as one volume appeared. A third volume worth mentioning transgressions of trust. The criminal was seen as a person is Rencontre, Encounter, Begegnung: A Humanistic Psy- who is aware of responsibility for the community. Pun- chology (1957). This book was edited by Langeveld ishment had to be seen as an opportunity for reconcilia- and dedicated to Professor F. J. J. Buytendijk on the tion and should work toward a good society. For Pompe, occasion of his retirement. It consists of 37 articles, the distinction between criminal and normal behavior more than half of which were in German or French. was only relative. In the court of justice, there should In the Preface to Persoon en Wereld (1953), van den always remain the possibility for recognition of personal Berg presents the program of existential or phenomen- responsibility. In 1948, he formulated the legal prin- ological psychology as a new psychology. He explicates ciple of diminished responsibility to stand trial. This how this psychology rejects both introspection and principle of relative responsibility is still used, and it extra-spection. The rejection of introspective psychology implies a recognition of the other as absolute other. Irre- means a refusal to study the other by studying oneself. The sponsibility in some respect does not fundamentally alter rejection of extraspection was a refusal to adopt the the existence of responsibility in other areas. And this objectifying attitude of naturalistic scientific psychology. other responsibility forms the possibility for integrative Instead, phenomenological psychology was interested in reconciliation. immediate experience and exploring the relation of the Punishment was interpreted as an opportunity for human being to his or her world. The phenomenologist being released from guilt. Revenge ought never be a resolves to stay as close as possible to the ordinary events of reason for punishment. Thus, punishment played a peda- everyday life. In the Postscript to the same book, gogical function and was seen as formative of social Linschoten offers a further elaboration of the program of the conscience. In Het Nieuwe Tijdperk en het Recht (The Utrecht School. In a clear statement, he anticipates the New Times and the Law) (1946), Pompe showed that both inappropriateness of Strasser's well-known critique of the modern justice, which reduced the criminal to an inferior work of the Utrecht School as "phenomenological being, and ancient justice, which posited fundamental impressionism." equality, led to problems. According to Pompe, the Strasser had formulated his critique with reference to the work of Sartre in his Fenomenologie en Empirische 282 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS

Menskunde (Phenomenology and the Human Sciences) people from different cultures "see" differently, and (1963), but everyone knew that it was meant to apply people see and understand their worlds differently from especially to the proponents of the Utrecht School. In the ways that their close and distant forebears did, just as the Postscript, Linschoten shows why phenomenological their own children will perceive the world differently. As psychology was interested in literary sources and why a an example, van den Berg criticizes such studies as the sharp distinction must be made between poetics and Kinsey report, entitled The Sexual Behavior of the Human science. The so-called literary approach of the Utrecht Male. He suggests that while this report might be char- School should not be regarded as a sign of an overly acteristic of the North American male it says virtually suggestive rhetorical use of language motivated by nothing about, for example, the European male. unfounded impressionistic opinions; instead, it belonged After completing a primary and secondary teacher to a systematic methodical approach to the lifeworld. education program, van den Berg (born in 1914) entered Linschoten argues that vivid description has the function medical school. In 1946, he completed his doctoral work of bringing the things of our lifeworld into nearness. under Riimke with a dissertation on schizophrenic psy- Literary material can be used as a resource. But according chosis entitled De Betekenis van de Phaenomenologische to Linschoten, phenomenology starts where the novel or of Existentiele Anthropologie in de Psychiatric (The Sig- poem stops. Phenomenological clarification is an expli- nificance of Phenomenological or Existential Anthro- cation of meaning that proceeds in a hermeneutic circle. pology in Psychiatry). Van den Berg studied in France In the introductory essay to Phenomenological Psy- and Switzerland and received a lectorate in chology: The Dutch School (1987), Kockelmans, too, psycho-pathology in 1948. In 1951, he was appointed to observes how the phenomenologists of the Utrecht the Chair of Pastoral Psychology at the University of School frequently make use of poetry and literature. He Utrecht. Van den Berg's writings made an important sees three reasons: (1) Many "great poets and novelists contribution to the reputation of the Utrecht School. His have seen something very important and have spoken publications have been widely translated into many of it in a remarkably adequate way" that is useful for languages. His book Met Ziekbed (1952) was published phenomenological explication; (2) phenomenologists in English as The Psychology of the Sickbed (1966); but may use literary sources "to illustrate a point on which the French title says most about its content: Conseils au the phenomenologists wishes to focus attention"; and Visiteur d'un Malade A lit e (Advice for Visitors of (3) most important, "poetic language... is able to refer Bedridden Patients) (1969). The Phenomenological beyond the realm of what can be said 'clearly and dis- Approach to Psychiatry (1955) was reissued as A tinctly'" (Kockelmans 1987, pp. viii, ix). Kockelmans Different Existence (1974), which still is an excellent adds that it is important to note that no author he includes introduction to the phenomenological approach. In in his collection of studies from the Dutch School has addition to many phenomenological studies in psychology used literary work as a substitute for the work that the and psychiatry, he also wrote several lucid author has tried to accomplish. Poems and novels do not methodological introductions, such as Zien: Verstaan en prove anything, says Kockelmans, but "both can be Verklaring in de Visuele Waarneming (Seeing: Under- enormously helpful in bringing certain phenomena closer standing and Interpretation in Visual Perception) (1972). to us and... helping us to understand ourselves and the Van den Berg became especially known for the world in which we live" (p. ix). development and application of a historical phenomen- One phenomenologist of the Dutch School was espe- ological approach that he termed the metabletical method. cially conscious of the historical and cultural Metabletica is a word derived from the Greek meaning embedded-ness of phenomenological psychology. In fact, "to change." His book Metabletica: Principles of a His- he was far ahead of the later postmodern critique of the torical Psychology (published in English in 1961 as The dangers of foundationalism, essentialism, and historical Changing Nature of Man) describes the changing relation and cultural universalism. Jan Hendrik van den Berg between adults and children many years before a similar argued that the very project of all phenomenology was work by the French historian Philipe Aries. For example, contextualized by the limits of language, culture, time, and Van den Berg describes the process of the infantilization place. According to van den Berg, phenomenological of adulthood and the appearance of puberty as a historial psychology does not claim to have found a universally and cultural phenomenon. The special feature of the valid approach to human phenomena; rather, it is always metabletical method is that it approaches its object of self-conscious of its anthropological starting point. study not diachronically, as development through time, Therefore, it is futile to speak of a general but synchronically, from within a meaningful constitu- phenomenology of perception since tion of relations among different events during the PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS 283

same shared period. For example, in Leven en Meervoud the increasing influence of American behaviorism on (1963) (published in English in 1974 as Divided Exis- Dutch soil. As well, the phenomenological tradition had tence), he provides a concrete portrayal and a surprisingly come under attack from Marxist critical theory originating early postmodern interpretation of the development of the in Germany and from the post-structuralism of new human psyche by connecting it with a variety of simul- French authors. taneous developments in the surrounding culture, showing And yet, while psychology lost much of its phenomen- how the sense of self-identity is increasingly fragmented, ological support in the Netherlands, this was not quite true divided, and determined by externals. for disciplines such as pedagogy or education. Within the Van den Berg continues to produce unique and chal- broad domain of pedagogy, the Utrecht School remained lenging phenomenological studies. In 1989, he published active, even after the retirement of Langeveld in 1972. Hooligans, a study of a new type of criminal and bandit. During the 1950s and 1960s, Edith E. A. Vermeer produced De Me table tica van God (The Metabletica of God) (1994) studies about play, and Nicolaas Beets wrote about the was followed in 1996 by^Geen Toeval: Metabletica and lifeworld of the adolescent. Rob Lubbers developed a more Historische Beschrijving (No Accident: Metabletica and hermeneutic orientation to the study of pedagogy. During the Historical Description), which offers a comprehensive 1970s and 1980s, Ton A. J. Beekman, in collaboration with overview of his work. At Duquesne University, a van den Karel Mulderij en Hans Bleeker, devised a practical method Berg alcove is being prepared for his work. As homo for phenomenological pedagogy by injecting a reflective universalis and as a postmodern cultural pessimist avant la approach to lived experiences with ethnographic participant lettre, van den Berg continues to act as a provocateur and observation procedures. Bleeker and Mulderij studied as a source of inspiration for phenomenological inquiry. children's experiences of living spaces and physically han- While the work of van den Berg continues to draw dicapped children's experiences of their bodies and wheel- interest, it is true that after the retirement of Buytendijk in chairs. Lennart Vriens conducted lifeworld research in the 1957 the reputation of the Utrecht School began to wane area of peace education. in psychology, law, and psychiatry. In hindsight, this In recent years, further developments in phenomen- decline is often attributed to Buytendijk's student and ological methodology, as originally inspired by the Dutch successor Jan Linschoten, who had been one of the most School, are more likely found outside than inside the gifted representatives of the movement of phenomen- Dutch borders. There are examples of contemporary ological psychology during the 1950s. But when in the developments that reach back to the Utrecht School in mid-1960s Linschoten started to lecture about De Idolen their concern with the concrete particulars of everyday van de Psychologic (The Idols of Psychology) (1964), the life. These phenomenological methods are now more phenomenological tradition of the Utrecht School sensitive to subjective and intersubjective roots of received a serious blow as a result of his apparent meaning, to the complexity of relations between language defection. And yet, Linschoten did not really turn his back and experience, to the cultural and gendered contexts of on phenomenology as such. In "Die Unumganglichkeit interpretive meaning, and to the textual dimensions of der Phanomenologie" (1962), he argues that "phenom- phenomenological writing and reflection (see, for enological psychology" is a philosophical discipline example, Researching Lived Experience (1990/97) and especially suited for studying the pre-reflective sphere of The Tact of Teaching (1991) by Max van Manen and the lifeworld in various domains. But "psychology" is Childhood's Secrets (1996) by Max van Manen and Bas also the scientific discipline that focuses on psychological Levering). The growing interest in the relevance of such phenomena using quantitative, experimental, and empiri- phenomenological research methodologies for the knowl- cal analytic methods. edge base of professional practices attests to the vitality of The demise of the Utrecht School also came from the concerns with reflective interpretation, the experience of outside. A few years earlier Adriaan D. de Groot had sensitive understanding, and humanistic impulses as they published his empirical-analytical Methodology (1961), are applied in the disciplinary domains of pedagogy, the and this triggered a new trend away from lifeworld health sciences, and psychology. oriented studies. In his book, he assigned phenomenology a minor role in the preparatory phase of "real" empirical BAS LEVERING research. Phenomenology was regarded as too subjective University of Utrecht and unscientific. The influence of de Groot's Methodology reached far beyond the domain of the social and human MAX VAN MANEN sciences into the humanities. It also opened the door for University of Alberta, Canada 284 PHENOMENOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY IN THE NETHERLANDS AND FLANDERS

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