DOCUMENT RESUME ED 027 797 FL 001 238 By-See/ye, H. Ned. Ed. A Handbook on Latin America forTeachers: Methodology and AnnotatedBibliography. Illinois State Office of the Superintendentof Public Instruction, Springfield.;Northern Illinois Univ., De Kalb. Spons Agency-Office of EducationWHEW/ Washington. D.C. Pub Date 68 Note- 79p. EDRS Price MF-50.50 HC-S4.05 Descriptors-Acculturation, *Annotated Bibliographies,Articulation (Program), Course Objectives,*Cross CulturalDifferences, Curriculum Development,Elementary Schools, Cultural Training. Cultural Context, Levels, *Latin Evaluation Methods, *Instructional Innovation,*Interdisciplinary Approach, Language Learning American Culture, Simulated Environment,Simulation. Social Studies, Spanish A product of a 1968 Title IIINational Defense Education ActPilot Workshop on Teaching Latin American CulturalThemes, this booklet is designed to(1) further the cause of LatinAmerican understanding inSpanish, social studies, and elementary school classes. (2) to be used infuture workshops, and (3) serve as amode; for similar handbooks involvingothercultures.Part 1 iscomposed o f seven Methodologically oriented articles inwhich developments in this areaof study are anticipated. Topics treatedare--(1) new instructional aimsfor social studies. (2) pertinency in LatinAmerican studies, (3) the culturecapsule and political simulation techniques. (4) guidelines for awell-articulated socioculturalunderstanding addition to existing language programs,(5) culture test item validationand measurement techniques. and (6) the "rationalefor -measurement of acculturationalabilities in individuals. Part 2 consists of a200-item annotated bibliography onLatin America developed by 16 scholars -representing sevenacademic disciplines. (AF) A Handbook on LatinAmerica for Teachers

METHODOLOGY AND ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, EDUCATION ILWELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION

11115 DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE

PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT.POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS

STA13 DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIALOFFICE Of EDUCATION

POSITION OR POLICY.

Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction Ray Page, Superintendent

Illinois Title III, NDEA Program Doctor Paul E. Woods, Director Derald Merriman, Assistant Director for Modern Foreign Languages

edited by H. NED SEELYE Northern Illinois University De Kalb, Illinois

1968

_ A HANDBOOK ON LATINAMERICA FOR TEACHERS: METHODOLOGY AND ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: A PROBLEMFINDING APPROACHTO THE TEACHING OF SOCIALSTUDIES 0.P. Esteves 3 CHAPTER TWO: PERTINENCY IN LATIN AMERICANSTUDIES

H. Ned Seelye 6 CHAPTER THREE: CULTURE CAPSULES

_ H. Darrel Taylor, John L. Sorenson 15 CHAPTER FOUR: LEVELS OF SOCIOCULTURALUNDERSTANDING FOR LANGUAGE CLASSES Howard Lee Nostrand 19 CHAPTER FIVE: POLITICAL SIMULATION: ANINTRODUCTION John R. Parker, Clifford Neal Smith, MarshallH. Whithed 25 CHAPTER SIX: ITEM VALIDATION ANDMEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES IN CULTURETESTS H. Ned Seelye 29 CHAPTER SEVEN: MEASURING THE ABILITYTO FUNCTION CROSSCULTURALLY H. Ned Seelye 34 A SELECTED, ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY ON LATIN AMERICA Gilbert D. Bartell, C. Daniel Dillman, RolardT. Ely, Edward W. Glab, Jr., RoderickT.

Groves, Jorge Armando,Gutiirrez Padilla, Benjamin Keen, Joseph A. Martellaro, E. Craig Morris, Rosendo R. Rivera, Peter A. Roman,Anthony Scaperlanda, H. Ned Seelye, Margaret G. Smith, A. ManuelVizquez-Bigi, Charles R. Wicke 44 , 71 NAMES AND ADDRESSES OFPUBLISHERS LISTED IN BIBLIOGRAPHY 75 SKETCH OF HANDBOOK CONTRIBUTORS PREFACE

In-service teacher training workshopsprovide opportunities for teachers to maintain contact with other professionals toestablish educational goals anddevise methods and techniques leading toimprovement of instruction. They are an extension of the colleges anduniversitiesinthat they present the latest developments in academic research. Their structurerelates to the school classroom by giving practical suggestions on the mosteffective ways to present facts and concepts, as well as to buildskills, in the subject matter classes.It follows that workshops, sponsored by the Office ofthe Superintendent of PublicInstruction, would be those requested by schoolpersonnel to meet their specific needs. Foreign language instruction has occupied animportant place in the curriculumof schools that offer quality educational programs.Teachers and administrators have been dissatisfied with the results that haveoften been obtained. The students have not always become fluent in thelanguage studied. Many who attainedfluency often lacked the cultural insights and culturalreferents that should have been marked as prime goals of their foreign languagestudy. Teachers have lacked thebackground

necessary to presentproperly curfent cultural material. Many textsfailed to furnish adequate cultural materials. A pilotworkshop titled "Teaching CulturalThemes of Latin America" was designed, throughthe cooperation of the staff ofNorthern Illinois University and this Office, to giveresourceful teachers an annotated bibliography, interdisciplinary concepts, and themethodology to further the cause of Latin American understanding inSpanish, social studies, and elementaryclasses. This handbook is designed to be used infuture workshops and to serve as amodel for handbooks involving other cultures.

Ray Page Superintendent of Public Instruction INTRODUCTION

This Handbook had its beginning in a Title III, "key idea," thus providing ready sources which bear NDEA Pilot Workshop on Teaching Cultural Themes upon an idea of some consequence. of Latin America which was held at Northern Illinois The fruitful collaboration of a Spanish teacher University in fie spring of 1968 for experienced with an anthropologist produced an unusually teachers of social studies and Spanish. The Office of seminal article which was published seven years ago the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State in the Modern Language Journal and is reprinted of Illinois acted as an ideal padrino to its publication; here. "Culture Capsules" presents a rather detailed while gracefully picking up the tab of expenses, it outline of aspects of Latin American culture which refrained from any and all forms of censorship. The the language teacher can develop inbrief daily opinions expressed here, then, obviously cannot lessons at the end of his regular Spanish class. The pretend to reflect the opinions or policy of the authorstress that the point of these "capsules" Illinois Department of Public Instruction. As is should be confined to one minimaldifference always ultimately the case, the person who writes the between Latin and Anglo customs. opinion is the one responsible for its soundness. This A very recentrevision and summary of the booklet is designed for NDEA workshop directors promising attempt to develop guidelines to help and participants, and teachers of Spanish and social determine which cultural data should be included at studies. the various language levels is summarized in Chapter The Handbook enjoyed the freedom which comes Four. from not having to worry about the marketability or Chapter Fiveoffers an introductioninto a commercial appeal of its contents. We took chances. controversial technique which is rapidly gaining the A few of the articles are directed to rather limited attention of socialstudies teachers:political numbers of important readers, and few readers simulation. The authors of this chapter art will find all of the articles of equal interest. Some themselves working on the frontier of knowledge in articles are meant to be suggestive in a general this area and are able to authoritatively provide a theoretical way, while others are more specific and preliminary "map" of the game. immediate in their appeal. An attempt was made to The last two chapters both concern themselves anticipate some of the developments in the pedagogy with testing cultural knowledge. The first article of Latin American studies, rather than rest safely on emphasizes the need to document the validity of the the "tried'n true." culture patterns a teacher wants to test, and a system This manual can be divided into two parts: the of evaluating the "credibility" of these patterns is first contains six articles on methodology, and the suggested. Teachers are encouraged to venture into second part consists of an annotated bibliography. uncommon test formats. The last chapter suggests The first chapter introduces recent.sources of ideas rationale which will enable a social scientist to concerning the aims of social studies instruction. The measure the degree of acculturation of a North chapter argues that subject matter content should be American living abroad by use of an objective test regarded as a means to an end, and that content which requires the North American to recognize should not be learned for its own sake. Content itself Latin American cultural forms. The prerequisites of has no intrinsic value if it does not develop new such a test are discussed in some detail. attitudes and skills. The ossence of this new approach The second half of the Handbook consists of an is not to guide students into a solution of annotated bibliography of some 200 recent teacher-presented problems, but rather to stimulate publications.Sixteen scholars representing seven students to formulate questions which can then be different academic disciplines collaborated in this brought into sharper focus through a manipulation undertaking. The reader who feels overwhelmed by of content. Dr. Esteves points out that problem the number of books reviewed in the bibliography solving often leads to pat prefabricated solutions to might take consuelo in learning that none of the problems which are problems precisely because they annotators has read all of the books, either. Nor is it do not have easy solutions--or perhaps because they necessary to read them allin order to gain an don't have any solutions. understanding of Latin America. The reader will find The second chapter applies the philsophy of using the bibliography helpful as an aid to selecting recent content as a means to an end. As an example ofhow titles on aspects of Latin America which interest a teacher might organize aunit around a "pertinent" him. topic,six"key ideas" are borrowed from the Besides those who directly collaborated in the University of Texas Latin American Curriculum production of this manual, the editor would like to Project. Content material appearing in about 35 express gratitude to the following: Dr. Mary Louise publications which are included in the annotated Segue!( Dept. of Education,NorthernIllinois bibliography is then organized under the appropriate University); Dr. Robert L. Morgenroth (Head of the

1 Department of Foreign Languages, NorthernIllinois which appearsinChapter Two. Able clerical University); Dr. Paul E. Woods (Title III,NDEA assistance was volunteered by Miss LydiaDiaz, Miss Director, Illinois); and a special gracias to Mr.Derald Pamela A. Janousek, Miss Vikki Mazzotti, Mrs. Ellen Merriman(AssistantDirector,TitleIII, Modern Mia Milas, and especially Mrs. Anne M. Rebuck, Mrs. Languages) for his encouragement, and to Mr. James Helen Rivera and Mrs. Grace Meyer who ably assisted C. Andrews (Library Director, ArgonneNational with the proofreading. This is a Title III, National Laboratories) for helpful tutelage in editing the Defense Education Act, publication. bibliography. Appreciation is also due MissNoreen G. Johnson, Miss Susanne Mosel, and MissPatricia A. H. Ned See lye Vanthournout for providing the bibliographic index De Kalb, Illinois July1968 i

2 CHAPTER ONE

A PROBLEM-FINDING APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF SOCIAL STUDIES

0. P. Esteves In his discussion of the "curriculum revolution" the point here: taking piace in American schools today, Fenton (1967:1-5) advances three possiblereasons for the "Now, here, you see,it latearrival of social studies to the 10-year-old takes all the running you can curricular reform movement. About five years ago, do to keep in the same place. Fenton states, this movement reached the social If you want to get somewhere studies when three developments converged: (1) the you must run at least twice as educational community saw that the social studies fast" (1966:412). program had failed to keep pace with curricular reform in science and mathematics--yet the world's most pressing problems--war, population explosion, Leinwand concludes by saying that most of the race relations--all fell within the social studies area; curriculum bulletins, though they use the vocabulary (2) new knowledge about the way in which children of the new social studies, appear to be running twice learn demanded new materials of instruction and as fast while essentially staying in the same place. new techniques; and finally, (3) money from private In the first place, the lack of one or more, but at foundations and the government became available to least one, comprehensive theory unifying the support research. structure of the social or behavioral sciences is Fenton's reasons may "reasonably" account for sufficient to preclude the approach.to social studies the state of affairs involving the teaching of social from the point of view of the social sciences. studies in the past few years. Furthermore, even a Needless to say,the simple addition of more superficial inspection into what has been proposed fragmented information will not produce integrated under the name of "new social studies programs" knowledge in the minds of students. More important, clearly indicates that most specialists who subscribe however, evenifsuch theoriesbuilt around to Fenton's diagnosis of the situation tend to replace conceptual organizations,structures,or logical the all-inclusive history-based approach by either one systems were available in the various social or or a combination of several sOcial science disciplines, behavioralsciences, the so-calledknowledge such as anthropology, economics, political science, explosion would be enough to maintain--if not and sociology. Hence, most of what is claimed to be widen--the knowledge gap which has already "new" in both methodology and materials for social accelerated the treadmill on which we run. studies seem to have these features in common There must be abetter way! A more ( Leinwald 1966:412-14): comprehensive approach to the teaching of social studies from the point of view of both teacher and students must exist. a) the curriculum of the social studies is defined New methods .and updated social science content as process and structure; are necessary but not sufficient to improve social b) the student's role is viewed as that of a social studies curriculum and instruction. A redefinition of scientist; and means-and-ends relationships in teaching and learning c) the social studies area is promoted to the seems to be in order. The position advocated by an status of a behavioral science. increasingly large number of educators, for whom Shaver (1967:589) may serve as the spokesman, is If the teaching of social studies is to have any that social studies education is general education. impact on the lives of students trying to cope, The continuous nature of the socialstudies understand, and eventually contribute to the program--intended for all students from kindergarten resolution of the most pressing social problems, one through high school--makes explicit the intention might start by questioning whether social studies that all youth in American schools are to be prepared education can ever achieve the hoped for objectivity for increasing reflective and effective participation in implicit in the above statements. social living. However, to be other than disastrous, Despite the obscurity and ambiguity which citizen contributions to the formation of public permeate this type of educational discourse, neither policies are contingent upon a real understanding of the one-sided nor the interdisciplinary approaches of the practical realities of democratic process. social scientists will be able to help teachers even get In fact, contrary to assumptions often made by off the ground.Leinwand's comments on the teachers (especially at the high school level), students Queen's statement in Alice in Wonderland illustrate are concerned with, and quite capable of, discussing

3 intelligently pressing social issues. Those involved in education sought in social studies today must be one curriculum work such as that carried out by the that centers on "problemfinding,not Harvard Project (Oliver and Shaver 1966) have found problem-solving." Problem solving easily degenerates thathighschoolstudents' concern withsocial into problem giving in the hands of teachers anxious problems is more realistic than teachers in the past to measure learning by the numberof lines students have expectedit to be. The Harvard Project has can regurgitateat the end of a given course. To identified questions which are both vital to the prevent this realbut unfortunate outcome of functioning of a pluralistic society and meahingfu I to instruction, teachers must adopt a different attitude securing the interest and involvement of youngsters. toward the use of the subject matter they teach; they Consider, for example, the following questions: What must use subject matter as means to an end, not an relations with minority groups should be forced on end in itself. members of the society? What are the responsibilities The bibliography at the end of this chapter is of therich to the poor, and of the poor to offered as an introduction to current materials on themselves? How should we balance economic social studies and methods of inquiry. It is hoped strength with humanitarian notions of equality? that these resources will bridge the gap between the The social studies curriculum, originally based on old and the new social studies by providing impetus history and geography, extends itself to the whole and direction for high school teachers. In the next world, not just to the United States and its society. chapter, H. Ned Seelye will make some suggestions What is the basic reason for studying Latin America, on how the new approach argued in this chapter can or any other countries, their peoples andcultures, be appliedto the teaching ofLatin America. from an anthropological, sociological, economical, or Utilization of the inquiry method in social studies is political v!ewpoint? The underlying reason should be not dependent upon (although itis enhanced by) the same, whatever the country: to enable students expensive books, machines, and audiovisual to understand the human conditioninthese materials. The attitude of the teacher is the focal countries and to appreciate other peoples' efforts to point of the new socialstudies. As stated by cope with problems which concern all humanbeings. Goldmark (1968:221): If social studies is to contribute to the more general educational objective delineated above, then My hopeisthatsocial more than new methodology and up-to-date studies teachers will go into materials are needed. In the first place, a different t heir schools with the attitude on the part of the teacher is necessary, one commitment to ongoing, which -.nes the important concepts and contents of doubting, questioning, the social sciences to accomplish a different end. It is evaluating, and an attitude of problem solving towardknowledge reconstructing, and attempt while furthering inquiry, questioning, and doubting. to foster this commitment in To use Bruner's words (1968:69-72, 89-90), the their students.

4 BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR TEACHERS OF HIGH SCHOOL SOCIAL STUDIES Berg, Harry D., ed. Evaluation in Social Studies. McLendon, Jonathon C. Social Studies in Secondary Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Education. Macmillan, 1 965. Social Studies, 1965. * Oliver, Donald, and James P. Shaver. Teaching Public Bruner, Jerome S."Culture,Politics, and Issues in the High School. Houghton, Mifflin, Pedagogy," Saturday Review, May 18, 1968. 1966.

Sanders, Cleary, Robert E., and Donald H: Riddle,eds. Norris M. Classroom Questions: What PoliticalScience in the Social Studies. Kinds? Harper, 1966. Washington, D.C.: National Council for the Social Studies, 1966. Shaver, James P. "Social Studies: The Need for Redefinition," Social Education, November Fair, Jean, and Fannie R. Shaftel, eds.Effective 1967. Thinking in the Social Studies. Washington, ADDITIONAL SOURCES D.C.: Nation Council for the Social Studies, 1967. A list of materials available from the National Council for the Social Studies may be * Fenton, Edwin. The New Social Studies.Holt, securea by writing to the council at 1201 1967. Sixteenth St., KW., Washington, D.C. 20036.

Gibson, John S. New Frontiers in the Social Studies. A fairly extensive Review of Curriculum Materials, Vol.I,Goals for Students,Means for edited by Dorothy M. Fraser, is found in Teachers; Vol.II,Action and Analysis. Social Education, April 1968. Reprints of EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:CitationPress, this are available for 25 cents each from the Scholastic Magazines, Inc., 1967. National Council for the Social Studies (see above). * Goldmark, Bernice. Social Studies: A Method of Inquiry. Belmont, Calif. Wadsworth An Annotated Bibliography of Anthropological Publishing Co., 1968. Materials for High School Use, by James Gal lager, may be obtained from Krug, Mark M. History of the Social Sciences: New Anthropology Curriculum StudyProject, Approaches to the Teaching of Social 5632 So. Kimbark Ave., Chicago, III. 60637. Studies. Waltham, Mass.: Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1967. Help on Simulation games may be secured froma regionaloffice of the Foreign Policy Leinwald, Gerald. "Queries on Inquiry in the Social Association. Write to Bob G. Henderson, 53 Studies," Social Education, October 1966. West Jackson Boulevard, Room 740, Chicago, III. 60604. Assistance can also be Mager, Robert F. Preparing Instructional Objectives. obtained from the authors of the chapter on Fearon, 1962: simulation in this Handbook. See also: Scott 1966 in the annotated bibliography. * Massialas, Byron G., and C. Benjamin Cox. Inquiry in Social Studies. McGraw-Hill, 1966. Subscription to these periodicalsisstrongly recommended: SocialEducation. (1201 Massialas,Byron G., and Jack Zevin.Creative Sixteenth St.,N.W., Washington,D.C. Encounters in the Classroom: Teaching 20036); Trans-Action (Circulation Manager, Learning Through Discovery. Wiley, 1967. Box1 043A, WashingtonUniversity, St. Louis, Mo. 63130).

* Especially recommended.

5 CHAPTER TWO

PERTINENCY IN LATIN AMERICAN STUDIES

H. Ned Seelye

A recent survey of the Latin American content in the recent Title III, NDEA, Pilot Workshop on the primary and secondary texts concludes that "there is Teaching of Latin American Cultural Themes held al stilltoo much concentration, especiallyin Northern Illinois University in the spring of 1968, elementary textbooks, on content whichlacks few experts marshall the same qualifying dat?, ta pertinency. Here, the effort to avoid controversy puntuate their often conflicting liews. Without some brings an inordinant amount of space to identifying sort of structure or interpretive frame, an isolated the 'banana' countries, the 'tin' country, the 'old' "happening" is just not meaningful. customs, and too little of the 19th and 20th century The best test of the pertinency of a fact or reality political and cultural developments are opinionis to determine whether itis capable of very inadequately treated" (Perrone 1965:119). The assisting the student in developing skill in analyzing a writer goes on to observe that the basic organization problem of some significance.(The types of of content has not changed in decades; the title problems which Dr. Esteves mentions in the Iasi headings have remained the same. "What is needed is chapter are examples ofsignificantuniversal a total rethinking by scholars and textbook writers concerns.) To gain a clearer idea of how fact and of the questions of what is important and what is no processinteract,let us observe ahypothetical longer important as Latin America is studied for student grappling with a problem. understanding." Suppose the student has become interested in the Is there an irreducible minimum of facts without problem of how the self-image,or senseol which Latin America cannot be understood? One nationalism, of the Latin American is affected by the poignant study (Gill 1968:4-5) says this about the mass media. The first thing he might dois make a lis1 content of social studies texts: of mass media which he thinks might influence the Latin American's view of himself (newspapers, Names and dates seem to be included magazines, radio, television). Next, he might ask indiscriminately. There is a wide range of himself just what facts he would need to know aboul dates included in the texts, the number the media and the people exposed to it in order tc varying from zero to eighty-nine, with a arrive at some conclusion. He might consider the median of ten. Of those books which number of newspapers and magazines and theii include dates (seven out of the nine circulation, the frequency of radios in the homes (oi examined), no one single date is found in the number of transitor radios sold for a giver all of them....The number of names period), the number of television channels and set! included also varies greatly, ranging from (or the availability of public viewing of TV in store zero to fifty-two, with a median of nine. fronts, bars, etc.), and, of course, the content of the Of the fifteen names mentioned most media. Two other potentially important bits ol frequently in the textbooks, only Porfirio information are whether the subjects are literate, anc Diaz and Fidel Castro belong to the 20th whether the media reaches the consumer in century.... All books are 1950, or later, language he understands. (It may be noted here tha editions, yet only three mention leaders in none of these facts are of any consequence tc Latin American countries since the Second someone interested ii Aztec religion, for example World War. Facts become relevant when they become necessari to understanding a problem already defined.) TN Both teachers and textbook writers tend to next operational problem for the student might ue tc overestimate the importance of isolated facts. Even decide whether one country is going to be chosen foi the countries most commonly chosen to illustrate study (and if so, which one), or whether the study Latin America--Mexico andBrazil--"arenot going to attempt a generalization about a large! representative of Latin America as a whole" (Gill segment of Latin America. This decisbn moves th 1968:4). On the other hand, valid generalities which student in two directions: to a bibliography, wch a can be applied to the majority of Latin America are the card catalog or the Handbook of Latin Americat difficult to come by (Henke 1964). As became Studies (1967), to discover what materials are readih provocatvely evident during the panel discussions of available; and to think about logical divisions o the fourteen Latin American specialists who assisted Latin America (Indian-mestizo-European

6 rural-urban; etc.). To send a studenttoa problem thatinterests the student. The more bibliography before he has defined his problem is precisely a problem is defined, the les4 trouble a probably premature. We see what we are conditioned student will have in researching it, and the more to see; if the student does not know what he is fruitful will be the outcome. (On the other hand, it is looking for, chances are he will not notice many not desirable to have the student hung up on relevant items. background. As would be the case with the car At this point, the student's problem should be put pictures, sometimes it is advisable to jump in and in some sort of order. He defines the problem more begin manipulating the "documents," and fillin specifically, consults the bibliography and lists the background as the need arises.) The teacher, with the relevanttitles and the information theyyield, cooperation of the school librarian, can also guide arranges the data--and then discovers that he cannot the student in his bibliographic work. Rather than be draw any conclusions because he could not collect told to read a book on the general topic chosen, enough information. About this time, the teacher students should be taught to skim and to read will probably be hearing from the student, and the carefullyonly limited sections which are really teacher can check the student's sources. If, and let us relevant to their specific area of interest. Otherwise, stick with this extreme case, no more information is the student will fast become bogged down in the avai/able to the student, what has been lost? The fantastic explosion of knowledge which threatens to "inconclusive" conclusion with which the student is engulf all scholars, especially those in science and the forced to content himself is a lot more realistic than social sciences. If the student report is to be written, most neat solutions usually presented by textbooks, the teacher can offer invaluable assistance and and has the added advantage of acquainting the encouragement in the first draft. If the report is student with research techniques. Naturally, teachers presented orally, sympathetic questions can help a will want to guide weak students into defining student evaluate his own work. problems that can afford a sense of accomplishment This approach would replace the role of teacher as upon study. sabelotodolecturer,with the role of research Take a student with no known academic or assistant to an interested student. This matter of intellectual accomplishments or interests save two: student interest is crucial. An uninterested student girls and stealing cars. He might be cajoled into edges the teacher into the unprofessional role of making a scrapbook of clippings of Latin American baby-sitter. The looming disadvantage of girls and photos of cars culled from a stack of systematically covering "all" of Latin America from Mexican magazines. If the teacher is female, there is Columbus to Castro is that there will inevitably be a good chance that the student will try to test her much which bores the captive students (in addition sophistication with some of the pinups he has to there being much thatissuperficialand collected, so she might want to forget about part of misleading). If it is felt necessary to "cover" an area, the initial assignment and emphasize the inanimate. then it had best be divided into a number of smaller Pictures of cars can be catalogued according to make, units for students to select from according to their model, year, number of occupants, whether male or individualinterests.Latin Americais such an female is driving, type of highway, etc. The student's interesting subject that it seems inexcusable to make summary of this information (number of cars it boring for students. collected, number of females driving, etc.) can be Occasionally, pedantic arrogance dictates a certain presented to the class to see what kind of corpus which has to be taught--but not, perhaps, "conclusions" (hypotheses)might be ventured learned.Inan otherwise exciting approach to concerning the economic structure, transportation teaching culture in conjunction with language classes, facilities, and position of the women in the country one recent report says that the programmed based on the data. The class can be asked to suggest approach "assumes first, that the student is not yet other kinds of information which might check the ready to take responsibility for directing his own "conclusions" (number of licensed women, number studies, and second, that for the student relatively of cars imported annually from Europe, etc.). Some unversed in the areas being studied, a general survey of the South American magazines would be more course approach is indicated. In independent study interesting to old car buffs. Some Peruvian taxis, for the student studies what he wishes, when he wishes, example, are virtual antiques. The main pedagogical and to the extent that he wishes. It was felt that such point in these exercises is to (1) get the student an approach was not suitable for the typical interested in Latin America, (2) direct this interest, secondary school student in that it could easily lead step by step, into pertinent areas of concern, and (3) to unnecessary specialization in certain areas of develop his skill in discovering things about peoples private interest at the expense of deplorable lacunae and places. in other important areas" (Regenstreif n.d.:4). While The teacher's role in a problem-oriented approach, few students are capable of independent study such as this, is to assist the student in defining the without the guiding direction of a teacher, and while

7 the programmed mode of operation which esthetic documents of Western literary Regenstreif advocatesis probably justified in this h istory,itfollowed that the cultural case by practical, operational exigencies,the cry of content of the course would focus on "deplorable lacunae" should not be taken too other esthetic documents, such as music seriously. and the plastic arts. Now that the primary It is a great aid to functioning in a foreign culture aim of most language courses is to improve to have special (limited) interests or hobbies related a student's oral fluency so thathe is able to that culture. Dancing, sports, stampcollecting,' to communicate in the foreign language, movies, books, almost anything (including an interest the traditional role of culture is wholly in the opposite sex) can sustaina person inadequate. As language has become experiencing the "cultural fatigue" of residence viewed as a functional tool, so may culture abroad. Peace Corps training centers suggest that the be regarded as a complementary tool to volunteers develop areas of private interest for just aid the student in functioning in a foreign this reason (see Textor 1966). society (Seelye 1968:24). Then too, what better way to involve a student with Latin America than by encouraging him to Nevertheless, the general approach to teaching explore something he is already interested in? The culture which Regenstreif is exploring (individual more a student becomes willinglyinvolved with study carrels equipped with slide projector, both silent Latin America, the more he runs into other areas and and sound movie projectors, tape recorders, and problems which he will also find engrossing. Lacunae containing programmed materials for review during can be filled in at a later date when theneed arises. study halls, free time, etc.) is exciting and the results The "typical" secondary student has shown a of this work will undoubtedly be of interest to the remarkable resistence to learning anything he is not profession.2 interestedin.Although there are dozens of Another approach to teaching culture inthe important topics to study about Latin America, I can language classroom is outlined in the next chapter. think of no one topic which should necessarily be While the authors encourage teachers to prepare brief covered in any given high school course on Latin units on a specific aspect of culture, I would suggest America. that the exercise become a more active one for the Finally, the teacher who prescribes the parameters students, and a less active one for the teacher,by of student learning is bound by biases of which he having students prepare the materials under the may be only dimly aware.An guidanceof the teacher. The specificity of the next two anthropologically-oriented study will define the basic chapters should be a real aid to teachersinterested in ideas of Latin America quite differently than an teachh, ilturein the language classroom. By historically-oriented study, for instance. making tne study of culture more pertinent to some It is difficult to free oneself from the values which of the basic problems in the area, more interest is one's particular society imposes--and most teachers usually generated in the study of Latin America. are middle class whites. ThisWASP culture most of Professor Nostrand proposes that the essentials of us have inherited is probably adistinct liability in the foreigncultural system be organized under interpreting much of Latin America (Morse 1964). In headings of a structured inventory which he calls an fact, the imaginative program directed by Regenstreif "emergent model" (The "emergent model"is states that their programmed units usually serve to developed at greater length in Nostrand 1967.) Some "introduce the student to aparticularartist, 30 headings are grouped under the four large rubrics composer, statesman, artistic movement,important of The Culture, The Society, The Individual, and the historical period, or work of art" (p.2). This seems to Ecology: be a classic reflectionofa humanitiesbias. THE EMERGENT MODEL Interestingly, one historian has said that (with the corresponding categories of Murdock's "anthropology, in its present state, offers the best Outline of Cultural Materials) point of departure for examining Latin-American culture; literary and historical studies are especially I. The Culture (value system, ethos, assumptions about weak" (Morse 1964:106). It is difficult to conceive reality, verifiable knowledge, art forms, language, paralanguage and kinesics) of a profound understanding of Latin America being II. The Society (familial, religious, achieved through any one discipline;it requires eco nomic-occupational, political andjudicial, consultingmulti-disciplinarysources. One article educational, intellectual-esthetic, recreational, states the problem for language teachers in these communications, social proprieties) terms: Ill.The Individual(integration of the personality, organismic level, intrapersonal and interpersonal When the aim of language instruction valuation, status of: men, women, adolescents, was to acquaint the student with the children; intrapersonal conflict)

8

_ IV. The Ecology (attitudes toward nature, exploitation Honduras, 222-223 [climate of Nicaragua], 233 of nature, use of natural products, technology, [climate of Panama],253 [climate of Cuba], 266 settlements and territorial organization, travel [climate of Dominican Republic],275 [climate and transportation) of French Antilles and French Guiana], 287 [climate of Guyana],277 [climate of Haiti],308 The Latin American Curriculum Project at the [climate of PuertoRico], 318 [climate of University of Texas has further provided the teacher Surinam],321 [climate of Netherland Antilles], with a suggested outline of concepts central to an 338[climate of Jamaica], 341[climate of understanding of Latin America. Their publication, Trinidad],344 [climate of Barbados] ; Webb Key Ideas About Latin America (Bulletin No. 4, 1967; see also: Burnett 1968 and Heath 1965. 1967), is a fine step toward the eventual resolution of the problem of selecting pertinent themes and II. Historical Backgrounds facts. Abstracting the main skeletal ideas almost A. Indian and Spanish cultures interacted to verbatim from this source (the study lists many more produce a unique colonial society. su b-categories), 37 publications wereselected3 (mostly anthologies and collections of essays) from Arciniegas 1967:3-75[pre-colonial history]; the annotated bibliography for review in terms of the Clissold 1966:52-79 [the Spanish imprint] ; Frank 1967:121-142 ["Indian problem" in La. Am.] ; six "key ideas" suggested by the LACP. Hanke 1967b:17-50 [Indians of Andies] ; Keen Three undergraduate coeds from Northern Illinois 1967:2-38 [ancient America] , 86-94 [Spain's University--Noreen G. Johnson, Susanne Mosel, and I ndian policy], 115-127 [class and caste], Patricia A. Vanthournout--graciously consented to 180-190 [formation of colonial Brazil], 198-217 index the publications under the appropriate "idea" [masters and slaves], 161-172 [colonial culture heading. The remaining portion of this chapter and the enlightenment] ,46-57[great contains their bibliographic guide, indexed under the discoveries]; Leyburn 1966:14-112 [Haitian class following rubric: and caste] ; Loprete 1965:1 6-80 [Indian cultures]; Schurz 1964:23-29 [pre-colonial The Physical Environment history); Urea 1966:7-18 [indigenous cultures]; Historical Backgrounds laliz 1968:89 [the Inca and colonial periods], Contemporary Society and the Family 168 [Indians in British Honduras] . Contemporary Culture Values, Ideals,and Creative Expression B. Spanish colonial administration was highly V. Comtemporary Economics centralized and authoritarian, and Spanish VI.Contemporary Politics, Government,and control was reinforced by the activities of International Relations the Church which, under royal patronage, was a wealthy, conservative influence. I. The Physical Environment (Thus, two strong Indian traditions, A. Latin America is an areaof great authoritarian government and pervasive physicaldiversity,relativelyisolated religious influence, were continued.) from world population centers andtrade routes. Mountains, tropicalrain forests, Arciniegas 1967:75-110 [Spanish colonies]; and deserts or semi-arid regions account Burnett 1968; Hanke 1967b:65 [Chile] ,73 America's for more than half of Latin [Argentina],99 [Brazil]; Keen 1967:40-45 (about nearly eight million square miles [Hispanic background],138-148 [Church in the S.). 21/2 times the size of the U. I ndies],191-197 [government and church]; _ Loprete 1965:80-115 [colonial society]; Schurz Adams 1960:66-67[geographicalsetting and 1 964:33-50[colonial empire]; Ureffa 1966: social change in Peru] , 112-113 [land and people 1 9-27[discovery and colonization] , 28-42 of Bolivia]; Alexander 1962: 15-28 [land]; [colonial culture] ; Veliz 1968:6-7 [Argentina], Anderson 1967:69-86 [resources for 22 [Bolivia],41-43 [Brazil], 75-76 [Colombia] , development]; Burr 1967:159-160 [adequacy of 1 01-3 [Paraguay] ,127-8 [Uruguay], 150 physicalresources]; Hanke 1967b: 17-127 [Mexico],168 [British Honduras] , 175 [Costa Bolivia,Chile,Brazil]; [geography ofPeru, Rica], 227-8 [Panama],241-3 [Cuba],301 Loprete 1965: [physical environment] ; Robinson [Puerty Rico]. 1967; Schurz 1964:3-22[land] ; laliz 1968: 16-17 [climate of Argentina] , 21, 36 [geography C. The wars for independence in Spanish of Bolivia],53 [climate of Brazil] , 69 [climate of America had complex causes and in some Chile],84 [climate of Colombia] , 97 [climate of areas were also civil wars.The legacy of Ecuador], 107[climateof Paraguay],121 the colonialperiod and the wars for [climate of Peru],131 [climate of Uruguay] , 145 independence persisted in varying degrees. [climate of Venezuela], 162 [climate of Mexico] , 172 [climate of British Honduras] , 184 [climate Arciniegas 1967: 131-210 [independence] ; of Costa Rica] , 192 [climate of El Salvador] , 204 Burnett 1968: 1-15 [challenges to order] ; Hanke [climate of Guatemala], 214 [climate of 1967b: 17-67 [wars for independence in several So. 9 Am countries]; Keen 1967: 172-179 [revolt of [upsurge of population] ;Heath: 1965:3-138 the masses],218-258 [independence] ; Loprete [delineation of cultural entities in La Am.] ; Hyde 1965:158-170 [independence], 180-193 1967:3-13 [the people] ;Leyburn 1966:3-13 [reorganization and consolidation); Schurz [Haitian population) ;Loprete 1965:1-15 1964:40-50 [Bolivar and independence]; Urea [Population] ;Robinson 1967: 42-62 [human 1 966:43-56 [independence]; Wiz 1968:7-10 background] ; Schurz 1964:51-56 [the people]; [independenceinArgentina],59-63 [Chile], Ureda 1966:115 [population statistics) ; Vgiz 76-77[Colombia], 128 [Uruguay], 151-3 1968:17 [population statistics of Argentina], 36 [Mexico], 228-232 [Panama), 243-245 [Cuba], [Bolivia], 54 [Brazil], 69 [Chile], 84 284 [Guyana). [Colombia), 97 [Ecuador],107 [Paraguay), 122 [Peru],131 [Uruguay],145 [Venezuela], D. A major political crisis in thenew nations 162 [Mexico], 172 [British Honduras], 184 was the conflict of interests among rural [Costa Rica],192 [EI Salvador],204 landowners, rising middle class, and the [Guatemala],214 [Honduras], 223 [Nicaragua], peasant and urban masses. 233 [Panama], 238, 253 [Cuba],267 [Dominican Republic], 276 [French Antilles and Burnett 1968;Hanke 1967b: 151-4 [Catholic social French Guiana),287 [Guyana), 297 [Haiti),308 reform] ; Keen 1967150-160 [Bourbon reforms], [Puerto Rico], 318 [Surinam], 321 [Netherland 32 5-347[Brazil: from empire to republic]; Antilles], 338 [Jamaica], 341[Trinidad and Loprete 1965:105-116 [conflicts in colonial Tobago), 344 [Barbados],346 [Associated society]; vóbz 1968:43-51[Brazil: empire to British States), 349 [Crown Colonies], 666-674 republic),90-91[Ecuador], 103-7[after [population of La. Am.]; see also Wagley 1968. independence in Paraguay], 111-117 [Peru], 1 37-141[Venezuela), 154-9 [Mexico), 169 B. Latin American populations are racially [British Honduras), 176-182 [Costa Rica], mixed, and although reliable statistics on 188-190 [El Salvador], 196-201 [Guatemala], racial composition are impossible to 208-21 1[Honduras], 217-220 [Nicaragua), obtain, several groups of countries with 257-260 [Dominican Republic], 291-2 [Haiti]; similar population characteristics may be Wagley 1968:118-154 [the peasant];see also: identified. Alexander 1962, Johnson 1964, Viliz 1068:43-65 [peasants and rural migrants in politics]. Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:29-56 [the people] ; Clissold 1966:52-79 [the Spanish imprint],121-151 [Brazil); Frank 1967:121-142 E. Economic diversification and development ndian problem"]; Gerassi 1963:128-132 have been sporadic anduneven, with [Indians in Peru],220 [Indians in Bolivia); Hanke far-reaching economic, social, and political 1967b:47 [future of Bolivia],234 [race and class effects. (See Section V.) in Brazil), 215 [Argentines], 201-3 [Indians in Bolivia]; Heath 1965:3-138[delineation of Anderson 1967:3-46 [economic role of La. Am cultural entities in La Am.], 475-556 [world nation-state],47-67[nation-building and iws] ;Leyburn 1966:v-xxxvi[the Haitian development policy) ;Frank 1967:3-120 9eople); Maner 1967; Robinson 1967:42-62 [capitalist development of underdevelopment in [racial composition]; Schrut 1964:56-61 [the Chile]; Hirschman 1961:3-42 [economic people]; Wiz 1968:315 [ethnic structure of development); Keen 1967:95-102 [economic Caribbean), 324-326 [slavery in the West Indies], foundations], 128-137 [political institutions of 690-712 [Indians]; Wagley 1968:1-80 [La. Am. the Indies]; Loprete 1965:105-116[colonial culture]; Wagley 1958:30-47 [Brazilian Indians], economics) ; Urea 1966:57-77 [after 61-85 [Indians in Mexico], 281-2, 292-5 [future independence),78-96 [organization and of Indians]; see also: Burnett 1968. stability), 97-112 [prosperity and renewal); Viliz 1968:129-130 [welfare state of Uruguay]. C. Relations among the many ethnicgroups vary from nation to nation although in II l.Contemporary Society and the Family general there tends to be less overt racial A. Population distribution and growthrates discrimination and hostility than in the vary within and among nations. U.S.

Adams 1960:67-70 [population distributionand Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:29-56 [the social structure of Peru], 112-114 [landand people]; Arciniegas 1967:215-233 [Negroes and people of Bolivia),287-290 [Mexico]; Alexander whites in Haiti) ; Hanke 1967b [new La Am. 1962:29-56 [the people]; Anderson 1967:205 nationalism] ;Heath1 965:342-360[social [Population statistics]; Burr 1967:158-9 [effect stratif ication inLa. of population Am..], 475-556 increase] ;Gerassi 1963:20-24 [world-views); Keen 1967:456-489 [society in [population statistics); Hanke 1967:170-5 transition); Loprete 1965:206-226 [social life];

10 Morner1967; Schurz 1964:51-87 [thepeople]; B. Several common Latin American traits or Wag ley 1968:155-174 [concept of socialrace]; values may be identified, although there Wag ley 1958:93-118 [Negroes in Martinique]. are variations amongnations and within them (individualism, personalism, D. Upper and lower sectors or classes may be formalism, fatalism). identified with more mobility within than between. Various socioeconomic groups Alexander 1962:126-8 [centralism]; Crawford may be more specificallyidentified as 1966:95-169 [positivism and idealismin peasants and rural laborers, urbanworking Argentina]; de Lan 1967:107-110[culture class, urban unemployed, urban middle conflicts], 151-161[culture and language], class, landed upper class, and 93-103 [young people]; Hanke 1967a:154-166 [Panamericanism]; Heath 1965:124-138 business-oriented, urban upper class. [regionalism in Brazil]: Schurz 1964:297-322 [cultural characteristics]; Tomasek 1966:23-40 [the Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:29-56 [personalism and materialism]. people], 85-106 [labor problems], 107-120 [society] ;Burr 1967:91-94 [rule byelite]; C. Cultural confiict characterizes much of Henke 1967b:193 [economic questions insocial Latin America as a result of changes reform], 166-177 [rural-urban migration] ; Hanke 1967a:219-222 [Colombians] ; Heath 1965:3-138 associated with industrialization, [cultural entities of La. Am.], 257-474[social urbanization, secularization, and organization;Johmon 1964; Lipset 1967:61-116 emergence of the middleclass, and new [industrial and middle class elites], 256-342 ideologies. [laborelite and contemporary peasant movements]; Robinson 1967:42-62 [class Adams 1960; Alexander 1964:3-21[Venezuela); divisions]; Vi liz 1967:15-42 [politics and social Burr 1967:172-4 [culturalvalues]; de Loin class]; VAiz 1968:386-395 [working class in 1967:107-116 [culture conflicts], 39-49 [the politics],674-690, 736-742 [working classes]; city]; Hanke 1967b166-177[rurallife and Wagley 1968; see also: Johnson 1958. modernization),177-186 [developmental problems],1 9 3-8[social reform]; Heath 1965:40 5-4 23 [urbanization without E. The extended family, includingseveral breakdown] ; Johnson 1964:3-20; Leyburn generations and extensivelateral 1966:1 77-210 [home lifeinHaiti], 285-9 relationships,is of considerable [problems of the elite]; Schurz 1964:297-322 importance inallsectors of Latin [cultural characteristics and social organization]; Smith 1968;Veliz 1968:94 [urbanization], American society. 586-614 [industrialization]; Wagley Burr 1967:97 [the extended family as pressure 1968:194-212 [middle class dilemma]. group]; Moth 1965:257-310 [family, marriage, [class and kinship D. Values, goals, and ideals are illustrated in and divorce in Brazil, 324-341 Latin America's art, architecture, music, inArgentina]; Robinson 1967:42-62[family unit]; Tomasek 1966:27-29 [strengthof family and literature. ties]; Wagley 1968:175-193 [kinship patternsin Brazil]. Alexander 1962:203-216 [culture]; Arciniegas 1967:2 2 5-242[literature: modern to anti-modern], 251-256 [literaturein revolutionary La. Am.]; Clissold 1966; Crawford IV.Contemporary Culture:Values,Ideals, and 1966; de Lain 1967:1-10 [the press], 73-82 Creative Expression [theater]; Hanke 1967b:121-7 [Brazil's cultural A.Culturally, "Latin America" is a varying explosion],2 40 [Villa-Lobos];Johnson blend of diverse Indian, Spanish-European, 1964:79-100 [writers], 101-135 [artists]; Keen African, and, more recently,North 1967:311-32 4[literature], 490-507 American elements. [contemporary literature] ;Loprete 1965:130-1 4 5[arts and letters],172-181 de Lecin 1967:107-116[culture conflict], [romanticism and neo-classicism],194-226 literature]; Schurz 151-161[culture and language]; Leyburn [contemporary art and 1966:3-112 [Haitian caste and class], 297-304 1964:335-343 [literature]; Ureffa 1966:97-112 [creole language]; Loprete 1965;Schurz [prosperity and renewal] ,113-130[art, 1964:297-322[cultural characteristics]; Urefla literature, music, architecture], 132-145 148-150 1966:114[ Russian revolution and woman [literature], 145-147[theater], suffrage]; Wiz 1968:752-764[cultural [music], 151-161[art]; Vgiz 1968:764-789 [theater], 795-802 background],743-752 [football]; Wagley [literature], 789-795 1968:1-80 [La. Am. culture] . [painting and sculpture],802-814 [architecture],

11 814-820 [music], 820-826 [cinema], 826-832 V. Contemporary Economies [press]. A. E co nomic developmentisof primary concern throughout Latin America. The E. Religion. The role of t' ..: Roman Catholic problem is to raise per capita income and Church in Latin America is changing as improve the welfare of a large population society becomes more secular. which is growing more rapidly than that of any other world region.

Adams 1960:3 32-4[religion in Mexico]; Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:35 [outside Alexander 1962:217-236 [the church]; Burr influences], 57-84; Alexander 1964; Anderson t 1967:98 [church as pressure group]; Hanke 1967:205,310-364 [per capita income statistics]; 1967b:151-4 [Catholic action in social reform]; Burr 1967:157-8 [per capita income statistics), Rinke 1967a:170-1 [Catholic church], 124-138 160-9 [economic factors]Frank 1967:1-274 [religion and the church]; Hyde 1967:52-86 [capitalism]; Gerassi 1963:19-40 [conditions], [Christian Democratic challenge); Johnson 374-387 [economic statistics], 443-6 agriculture 1958;Leyburn 1966:113-176 [Haitian religion]; in Colombia]; Hanke 1967b:60-2 [Uruguay's Lipset 1967:190-232 [religious elites] ; Martz welfare state],1 77-197 [developmental 1965:276-283 [dichotomies inthe Church]; problems]; Heath 1965:139-256 [agriculture and Mecham 1966; Robinson 1967:42-62; Schurz economics],438-453 [economic autonomy and 1964:329-234; Smith 1968; Viliz 1967:192-220 social change in Mexican villages); Hirschman [religion and social change inBrazil]; Viliz 1961; Hyde 1967:87-144 (self-help and agrarian 1968:730-6 [catholic church]; see also: Wagley reform); Johnson 1964:49-78[rural labor], 196& 161-185[industrialists],186-205 [urban workers] ; Keen 1 967:27 7-289 [economic activity],290-310 [way of life]; Lipset 1967:3-60 [values, education, and F. Education is for the elite and does not entrepreneurship], 94-116[industrialelite], provide the trained personnel necessary for 256-4300 [labor elite]; Loprete 1965:1-15 socioeconomic progress; with 50% of the [economy], 206-226 [economicsin20th population under 20 years of ageless than century]; Martz 1965:251-5 [labor and politics], 20% were in school in 1965. 150-8 [aspiration for economic development]; Robinson 1967:63-99[resources]; Schurz Adams 1960:89-94 [education kl Peru], 329-332 1964:131-234; Veliz 1968:15-20 [economic [Mexico]; Alexander 1962:189-202 [educational statistics of Argentina], 32-35, 37-39 [Bolivia], system]; Alexander 1964:246-270 [Venezuela); 55-57 [Brazil], 67-73 [Chile), 81-88 [Colombia), Burr 1967:170-2 [educational system], 98 93-100 [Ecuador],106-110 [Paraguay], 117-125 [students as pressure group]; de Lan 1967 [the [Peru], 130-6 [Uruguay], 143-8 [Venezuela), university] ; Hanke 1967b154-166; Johnson 160-6 [Mexico], 170-4 [British Honduras], 182-7 1964:206-226 [university students]; Leyburn [Costa Rica], 190-5[ElSalvador], 203-7 1966:265-284 [Haitian problems]; Lipset [Guatemala, 2 11-216 [Honduras], 220-6 1967:343-484 [education and elite formation]; [Nicaragua], 232-6 [Panama], 250-6 [Cuba], Loprete 1965:206-226 [education in the 20th 265-9 [Dominican Republic], 273-8 [French century]; Robinson 1967:42-62[illiteracy]; Antilles and French Guiana], 285-290 [Guyana), Schurz 1964:324-9; Ured'a 1966:117-8 294-3 00 [Haiti],306-311[Puerto Rico), [educational system]; VAiz 1968:20 313-320 [Surinam], 31 7-323[Netherland [educational statistics of Argentina], 39 Antilles], 333, 338-340 [Jamaica], 334, 341-3 [Bolivia], 57 [Brazil], 72[Chile], 87-8 [Trinidad and Tobago), 335, 344-6 (Barbados), [Columbia], 100 [Ecuador],110 [Paraguay], 336, 346-9 [Associated States],336, 349-351 125 [Peru], 134 [Uruguay], 148 [Venezuela], [Crown Colonies]. 165 [Mexico], 174 [British Honduras],187 [CostaRica], 195 tEl Salvador], 207 B. In addition to industrial development, and [Guatemala, 216 [Honduras], 226 [Nicaragua], related to general economic progress, are 236 [Panama], 255 [Cuba],269 [Dominican the problems of inflation,taxation, Republic], 277 [French Antilles and French government spending, and government's Guiana], 287 [Guyana], 300 [Haiti], 310 role in the economy. [Puerto Rico], 320 [Surinam], 323 [Netherland Antilles], 340 [Jamaica], 343 [Trinidad and Alexander 1962:57-84 [the economy]; Tobago], 346 [Barbados], 349 [Associated Alexander 1964:151-8[Venezuelanfinancial States],3 51 [Crown colonies], 379-386 problem],159-193 [agrarian reform]; Anderson [students inpolitics], 712-730 [educational 1967:3-86 [economic role of La. Am. institutions]; see also: Tomasek 1966:115-127 nation-state and policy-making], 115-200 [student political activity] ; Wagley 1968. [administrative development policy], 203-381

I, 12 [role of gov'tin development]; Hanke in Bolivia], 51-3 [gov't of Brazil since 1964], 1967b:177-19 6 [developmental problems]; 63-7[rise of parties inChile], 77-81 [20th I Hirschman 1961:69-94 [inflation], 95-124 [price century Colombia], 91-3[recentpolitical stability], 125-160 [trading groups]; Leyburn development in Ecuador], 117-121[recent 1966:250-264 [Haitian commerce]; Martz political development in Peru], 245-250 [Castro 1 965:159-171[ideologies of economic in Cuba], 261-5 [recent politics of Dominican development]; Viliz 1968:468-652 [problems in Republic, 313[self-gov't.in Surinam], 316 economic development], 542-586 [organization]; [self-gov't. Netherland Antilles], 365-379 see also: Adams 1960 and Heath 1965. [military in politics],379-386 [students in politics], 386-395 [working class in politics], VI. Contemporary Politics, Government,and 395-403[La. Am. integration and territorial International Relations disputes] ; see also: Adams 1960

A. Given the lack of preparation for B. Although Latin American governments are representative government, acceptance of not Western-style democracies, personalist military rule and thinlydisguised rule is fading, and responsible political dictatorship, uneven economic parties are developing. (However, political development, internal disunity, and stability remains the exception.) defensive nationalism, it is not surprising that the Latin American republics do not Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:9-10 [Communists tend to be republics in practice and that and Jacobinism], 145-172 [gov't. and politics]; they are often unstable. Alexander 1964:73-104 [gov't. and opposition parties in Venezuela]; Burnett 1968; Burr Alexander 1 96 2:1 73-188 [the military]; 1967:99-102[political parties]; de Le6n Alexander 1964:22-72 [revolutions and regimes 1967:29-38 [politics], 63-72 [political rights]; i., Hanke 1967b:17-93 [govit.of Ecuador, in Venezuela], 1 05-1 50 [the militaryin Venezuela]; Anderson 1967:87-114 [La. Am. Argentina, Brazil]; Hanke 1967a:167-9 [communism in La. Am.], 224-8 [Venezuelan politicalsystem],1 15-200 [administrative decision making], 203-209 [generation of governments]; Heath 1965:454-474 [the transition to a mass democracy in Argentina]; development aspiration], 31 0-364[gov't performance in development]; Arciniegas Hyde 1967: [reaction and revolution], 145-167 [Frei sets the pace]; Keen 1967:391-402 1 967:2 4 3-2 7 0[dictators and revolutions]; Burnett 1968; Burr 1967:75-88 [Inter-La. Am. [Argentina], 4 03-4 19 [republicanBrazil]; Leybum 1966:210-249 [Haitian politics]; Martz relations],89-107 [domestic politics in La. Am.] ; de Lecin 1967:53-62 [the military]; Gerassi 1965:214-222 [responsible parties]; Robinson 1963:53-75 [recent history of Argentina], 76-99 1967:100-119[political patterns]; Schurz [recent history of Brazil], 100-7 [recent history 1 964:89-130 [govst.]; Szulc 1965; Tomasek of Mexico], 112-122 [gov't in Chile], 123-8 1966; Ureira 1966:130-162 [overthrow of dictators]; Viliz 1967:158-191 in [gov'tinParaguay], 128-140 [Peru],141-8 [stability [Ecuador], 149-1 54 [Colombia], 155-166 Mexico]; Veliz 1968:17 [constitutional systems [Venezuela],1 67-1 86 [Central America], of Argentina], 36 [Bolivia], 54 [Brazil], 69 187-202 [Caribbean Islands], 206-210 [Costa [Chile], 485 [Colombia], 97 [Ecuador], 110 Rica], 211-8[Uruguay], 219-223[Bolivia], [Paraguay], 122 [Peru], 132 [Uruguay], 141-5 391-405 [Castro and the nationalists]; Hanke [Venezuela], 159-163 [Mexico], 172 [British 19 67b:127-138 [OAS], 184 [coup d'etats], Honduras], 184 [Costa Rica], 192 [El Salvador], 207-248[politics]; Hanke 1967a:172-6 205 [Guatemala], 21 6 [Honduras], 226 [obstacles to change], 193-218 [Caribbean [Nicaragua], 236 [Panama], 253 [Cuba], 267 revolution]; Heath 1965:361-378 [toward the [Dominican Republic], 276 [French Antilles and comparative study of politicization], 454-474 French Guiana], 287 [Guyana] ,297 [Haiti], 308 [the transition to amass democracy in [Puerto Rico], 318 [Surinam], 321 [Netherland Argentina]; Johnson 1 9 5 8; Johnson Antilles], 326-331,338[Jamaica], 333,341 1 964:1 3 6-1 60 [the military]; Keen [Trinidad and Tobago], 335, 344 [Barbados], 19 67:2 60-27 6[dictators and revolutions], 335, 347 [Associated States], 336, 350 [Crown 37 4-390 [storm over the Andies], 420-456 Colonies],356-365 [Party systems in La. Am.]. [Cuban revolution]; Lipset 1967:146-189 [the military elites] ; Loprete 1965:194-226 [politics], C. Latin America's political future appears to 251-268[Brazilianrevolution]; Martz 1965; depend upon the ability of moderate and Szulc 1965; Tomasek 1965; Veliz 1967:66-118 liberal leaders to attract mass support and [middle class military coup], 249-277 [Cuban carry out basic reforms in the face of revolution]; Veliz1 9 68:1 1-15[Peron in vested-interest opposition and extremist Argentina],23-32 [after the constitutional period agitation.

13 Mall, London, S. Alexander 1962:145-172[gov't and politics]; 1968 by Robson Lowe Ltd., 50 Pall Alexander 1964:297-307 [the balancesheet of W. 1, Great Britain. The pre-publicationprice will be the Venezuelan revolution];Burnett 1968; de $17.50; after publication $20.00. Le Sn 1967: 83-92[university and politics]; Gerassi 1963:52-223 [leaders ingov't.] ; Hanke 2. For further informationwrite to Foreign 1967a :1 8 3-1 92[ power struggleinCentral Language Innovative Curricula Studies,TitleIll, America]; Hanke 1967b:207-248[gov't.] Hyde ESEA, 550 City Center Building, 220 E. Huron, Ann violence], 168-206 1967:87-117 [self-help and Arbor, Michigan 48108. [taking the other road]; Johnson1958:Johnson [political groups], 1964; Martz 1965:184-213 Adams 2 28-236 [politicaluniversity]; Schurz 3. The following publications were indexed: 1964:89-130 [gov't.]Szulc 1 965;Veiiz 1960, Alexander 1962, Alexander 1964,Anderson Clissold 1965, 1 9 67:43-65 [peasantsinpolitics],119-158 1967, Arciniegas 1967, Burr 1967, [students in politics] ; see also: Adams1960, Connell 1966, Crawford 1961, de Le6n 1967,Frank Heath 1965, Wagley 1968, Tomasek 1966. 1967, Gerassi 1963, Hanke 1967a (Vol.1), Henke 1967b (Vol. 2), Heath 1965, Hirschman 1961,Hyde D. United States-Latin Americanrelations 1967, Johnson 1964, Johnson 1958, Keen1967, have been characterizedby alternating Leyburn 1966, Lipset 1967, Loprete1965, Martz periods of U.S.interest and neglect, 1965, Mecham 1966,Winer 1967, Pohl 1967, conflict and cooperation, within ageneral Robinson 1967, Schurz 1963, Smith 1968,Szulc atmosphere of increasing U.S. concern 1965, Tomasek 1966, Urea 1966,Veliz 1967, Veliz with Latin America. Anti-Americanismis 1968, Wagley 1968, Wagley 1958. an inevitable aspectof United States-Latin American relations. REFERENCES CITED Adams 1960; Alexander 1962:12-3[changing nature of Inter-Americanrelations], 237-250 [La. Gill 1968. See Latin American curriculum Project in Am. and the world]; Alexander1964:136-150 the annotated bibliography. [foreign policy of the Venezuelanrevolution], 308-320 [the role of the Venezuelandemocratic Handbook of Latin American Studies. See entry in revolution in America]; Anderson1967:3-47 annotated bibliography. [American aid toLa. Am. economic evelopment]; Arciniegas 1967:266-7 [Monroe Henke,L. Do the Americas Have A Common -JOctrinel ;Burr 1967:1-237[perspectivesin History? A Critique of the Bolton Theory. U.S.-La. Am. relations], 176-226[U.S. and Knopf, 1964. Alliance for Progress]; Clissold1966:7-19 [introduction] ; Connell 1 966; de Len Morse, R. M. "The Strange Career of 'Latin 1 967:1 1 7-1 28[anti-Americanism] ;Gerassi American Studies'," The Annals 356, 1963:40-7 [news and facts], 224-248[U.S.-La. November 1964, 106-i 2. Am. inter-history], 251-343[Alliance ,for Progress],305-316 [military aid], 317-331 [AID Nostrand, H. L. "Emergent Model of a Sociocultural in Colombia, 332-343 [politicalconsiderations], System; Maquette Prospective d'un Systeme 406-424 [U.S. policy inLa. Am.], 427-433 Socio-Culturel," Bulletin des Professeurs de [Agreement between U.S. and Honduras], Francais, Washington State College 434-442 [Agreement between U.S. and (Ellensburg), No. 5, Dec. 1967, 10-15. A Nicaragua]; Hanke 1967a:9-68[U.S.-middle version of this will soon become available American relations]; Hirschman 1961:53-68 through ERIC on microfiche: Background [Inter-Am. relations] ; Hyde 1967:47-51[another Data for The Teaching of French, Office of Cuba that wasn't]; Keen 1967:508-529[two Education, Project II, OE-6-14-005. Americas] ; Leyburn 1966:305-311 [Haiti and the U.S.] ; Loprete 19 65:1 94-206 Perrone 1965. See entry in annotated bibliography. [Pan-Americanism]; Schurz 1964:252-297 [internat'lrelations]; Szulc 1965:233-316 Regenstreif, H. The LearningLaboratory Program of [alliance with the U.S.]; Tomasek 1966:310-346 the Foreign LanguageInnovative Curricula [U.S. assistance in a revolutionary setting] ;Wiz Studies (F (JCS)Project. Ann Arbor, 301-6 1968:243-250 [U.S. and Cuba] , Michigan. (Stenciled). 6 pp.;n.d. [U.S.-Puerto Rico], 414468 [foreign relations] , 533-542 [aid to La. Am.]. FOOTNOTES Seelye, H. N. "Culture in theForeign Language Classroom," Illinois Journalof Education, 1. A fine handbook devoted tothe postage stamps March 1968, 22-26. of Guatemala is scheduled forpublication late in

14 CHAPTER THREE

CULTURE CAPSULES

H. Darrel Taylor John L. Sorenson

For many years foreign language teachersacross When we realize that theremay be thousands of America have tried to bring into their classroomsa contrasting cultural features, the question arises, "feeling" for the peoples whoselanguage they teach.1 "How shall we decide whichare more important These attempts have most oftenstressed the than others?" Obviously, onlya restricted number refinement definition of culture, drawing fromthe can be dealt with in a classroom course in Spanish or fine arts and folklore. There isa place in the any other language. Our approach to this problem classroom for culture in thissense and there are derives from the functional view of culture virtually many fine materials available. held by all anthropologists. Culture is thought ofas No concerted effort has been made withinthe the more orlessintegrated,historically-derived teaching profession or by commercial firmsto system of symbols in the minds of the members ofa produce materials for a comparison of cultures in the society by which they interpret their experiences and anthropological sense. Nelson Brooks (1960) has predict the behavior of their fellows. This view written on the theory of comparison of cultures ina emphasizes what culture does in the lives of people. chapter entitled, "Language and Culture." Robert All patterns of regular, socially-approved behavior Lado (1957) has a valuable chapteron "How to within the cultural system shared by members ofa Compare Cultures." Worthwhile insightson the society more or less influenced all tin; otherpatterns importance of an anthropological orientation to the of the system. The result is to producea consistent, study of culture are contained in these books. What intelligible world in which the individualcan carry follows suggests a method of procedure for the on a psychologically meaningful existence. Failure to production of short, meaningfulprograms using this consider any one sector of the culture is likelyto view of culture for applicationin the ordinary give the student a distorted view of why Mexicans,or foreign language classroom. A handy title for these any other group, act as they do. One listing of the programs might be "Culture Capsule." These culture various categories or sectors to which attention capsules can be constructed so that any teacher,new should be drawn in the study ofany culture is as or experienced, may present them easily, and his follows: Technology, Economy, Social Organization, students may all participate meaningfully. PoliticalOrganization, World View (Religion and In order that the procedures described belowmay Philosophy), Esthetics, and Education. We believe be specific rather than general, it will be assumed that by being presented the key cultural contrasts for that the problem is a comparison between the each of these categories on the language level which cultures of Mexico and the United States. Ofcourse, the student of Spanish hascome to understand, he the application of these ideas to a description of will be well on the way to both understanding andto cultural differences between the United States and sympathetic appreciation of the Mexican people. any other foreign language area is obvious. The order of consideration of the categorieshas We do not aim to give a complete and rounded some significance. While no one order is sacred, there picture oflifeinMexico. The culture capsule appears an advantage in starting with those areas technique tr ies to select those key cultural where concrete phenomena dominate, suchas differences which are especially difficult for the Technology, only later progressingto the more outsider to understand on the basis of his own life abstract sectors, such as World View. That general experiences. Good examples from Mexico are the progression can be observed below in the sample pay& system, latifundio, donshipor the curandero. outline. There, words or phrasesare used to suggest, The functional equivalents of these patterns in life in rather than to elaborate, contrasting culturalpatterns the U.S.A. are likely to seem to the American which, students of Mexican culture wouldno doubt student as so "natural" or "obvious" that he finds it agree, differ significantly from American patterns. difficult to think of Mexicans as other than "quaint" The list does not exhaust the possibilities. or worse. Each culture capsule draws attention to We begin the outline witha"subcultural" one such difference and shows how it is meaningful category of contrasts in biological, geographical and in terms of Mexicanlife. The whole integrated historical features all of whichare instructive for the sequence of capsules over the period of a year student interested in cultural differences.It may sketches a picture of what it is like to be Mexican, prove desirable to omit them or relocate their showing that the customs make concatenatedsense. positioninthe scheme of categories as actual

15 experience in the classroompermits us to judge IV.Social organization category better their value. A.Kinship, family, and marriage 1. Kin cooperation and in-law relations 2. Courtship, the dueria system 3. Inheritance, including names I. Subcultural category B. Race and ethnicity (mestizo, creole, indio,gachupin, etc.) A.Biological characteristics of the people (skin C. Locality groupings color, stature, common diseases, etc.) 1. The village, colonia, and so on as a B. Resources category (lack of coal, lack of loyalty unit extensive plains for cultivation, ores, oil,large 2. Ecology of the community, most unused territories,water power, climatic prestigeful residence near the plaza; the variety, etc.) plaza itself C. Geographical category [3.The contrast between rural and urban 1. Latin America not a homogeneousunit life.-ed.] 2. Mexico not a homogeneous unit D. Interest and function groupings 3. Slowness of knowledge to penetrate due 1. Classes (occupation, income, education, partly to distance mobility, etc.) 4. Comparative distances and expenses to 2. Donship ship to population centers likeEurope 3. Compadrazgo D. Historical category 4. "The Church" vs. the State 1. Spain's Catholic-Mediterranean position (anticlericalism, monastic orders, 2. The age of discovery andSpain's place in convents) Protestantism it V.Political organization category 3. The conquest in America 4. The Colonial era Law 5. The Republican era A. 1. Roman law basis 6. The Modern era 2. Personal violence, aggression, the duel II. Technological category B. Government 1. The Caudillo Caciquismo A. Food-getting and using 2. Single political party and elections 1. Cultivation and the major crops 3. Preparing, serving, and eating typical 4. The military as a locus of power 2. Revolution") foods 5. Right to revolt (and "The 6. Yanqui-baiting B. Shelter-Housing (the patio form, barred windows, fronting on street) 7. Sindicalismo 8. La Mordida C. Clothing 1. Forms: rebozo, serape, blouse, noshoes, broad-brim hat, etc. VI.World View category 2. Age, class and ethnic significance of costume A.View of God or the supernatural 1. God, devil, Mary, demons, etc. D. Tools Virgen de Guadalupe 1. Human or animal power, not power 2. machines, typical 3. Patron saints 2. Hand crafts and equipment being 4. Sickness and curing causes: espanto, evil eye,los aires, rep:aced by industry (a) hot and cold E. Transportation curanderos 1. Ass, oxen, humans most common (b) 2. Increasing auto, bus, rail and air travel 5. Sorcery 3. Regionalism as related to transportation B. View of man 1. Personal honor III.Economic organization category 2. Male superior to female("macho") 3. Self-improvement conceptvirtually vs. A.Self-subsistence of the family, normal; absent(Sensuality or relaxation specialization rare Puritanism) relationships B. Haciendas (latifundio) 4. Distant, jealous, suspicious C. Patron system outside kin or village empiricism, D.Agrarian reform (ejidor.., etc.) 5. Logic, dialetic are superior to E. Merchandizing system (markets, tiendas) pragmatism F. Braceros C. View of society and nation Malinche, G.Turismo 1. Heroes: Cuauhtemoc, Montezuma, Corte.s,Jugrez, etc.

16 2. Mexicanisrno concerning animals.Inthe UnitedStates,animals are 3. I ndigenismo personified more often than in Mexicanculture. In the United 4. The State to be obeyed implicitly States there are Societies for the Preventionof Cruelty to Animals; there are animal hospitals andcemeteries. We read VII. Esthetics category of Elmer, the Borden Bull, and hi3 "wife",Elsie and their "daughter", Daisy. Ferdinand, thetimid bull, is content with A. Fiestas (including Carnival) flowers and is also the subject ofa favorite story. Favorites of B. Bull-fighting long standing are Donald Duck and MickeyMouse. Thus, we C. Music (rancherra) give animals the emotions and culturethat people have. D. Dancing (folk and formal) Mexican people think more of the bestialityof the animals. E. Humor Animal bodies differ from human bodies.They have special F. Drinking patterns names for animal feet, animal backs, and animal necks,as G. Sports opposed to human feet, backs, and necks.Ferdinand is not the H. Children's games andtoys Mexican idea of a bull, nor is the ponderousdairybullthe I. Fireworks Mexican concept of a bull. They thinkof him as a wild, J. Literature strong, clever brute that dependsupon strength and the K. Theater and Movies instinct to live. Anglo-Saxon Americansthink of a game fish L. "El Charro"as a type or a wild beast in the same sense thata Mexican thinks of a bull. VII I. Education category The bullfight has many parts thatcome in a special order, and each has a complicated ritual.The procession with its A. Schools and teaching methods pomp and ceremony presents the participants. An orchestra B. Universities plays music which prepares thescene for each part in the C. Analfabetismo and mass education show. The music instillsa tragic note when we hear the announcement of the last part-- the matador in hii brilliant traje de luces who with sword and muletain hand presents It will have been observedthat the classroom himself for the moment of truth, whenthe man will try to presentation of the capsulesmight be orientedto kill the beast. severallevels.For example, the generalidea of The bullfight is an extravaganza of colors,music, and "fiesta" might be treated withmuch or little detail, action. It is the most popular sport in Mexico.Bullfighters depending on the class's there enjoy the popularity that moviestars do in the United preparation for States. The great show of the matador's understanding the subject. Thisoffers the possibility valor pleases the of using the same Mexican people very much, but beyond thisit is an emotional program of capsules for twoor experience in which the spectator more years of student experience. Thus, sees the victory of a the graduate fearless, intelligent athleteover brute strength and animal student could go into considerabledetail on fiestas cunning. while the introductory-levelstudent is but briefly exposed to the key ideas involved. The intent of this scriptisto produce It should be rememberedthat whatever the level understanding, not merely tolerance,in the mind of of sophistication of the ideasin the culture capsule, the American who is learningSpanish. It is hoped the phrasing in Spanish ofthe classroom lesson will that after tolerance ofa foreign culture will come be appropriate to the class level. The culture capsule u nderstanding, and that understandingwillbe system is intended primarily to teach the language followed by appreciation. Thus,peoples will be with culture content, an important but secondary bound together by bonds ofinformed sympathy accompaniment. which take into account their A method which basic differences can be used to develop one of understood as rationallyas possible. these topics into a practicalclassroom presentation is The scriptis to beillustrated by a few now suggested. well-selected posters, filmstripsor slides, and at least An experienced teacher writesa script in simple one item of realia. This three-dimensional Spanish which is carefully prepared object to be on the level should be very carefully chosenand must epitomize of the lexical and structural items in Spanish which the positive side of the comparison.In our example, the student has studied inclass. This script is the it could be a miniature of the bullfighter's capsule of summary description costume -- and explanation of a thing of beauty suit of lights as the Spanish call the cultural difference between the Mexican and the it! All these visual aidsare presented by the teacher North American. Although itwould be written in as he reads the script in the foreign language Spanish for classroom and are use, an example (the bullfight) appropriately distributed in thepresentation. of such a summary might read like this: If the scriptuses cognates or place names which do not come within the lexicalexperience of the In order to understand that inMexico bullfights are not class, each of these should beprinted in bold black considered to be cruel to the bull, itis necessary to know letters on a separate "poster card" about something of the ideas of North 6" X 10" in Americans and Mexicans size and placed on the board (groove,felt, black,

17 etc.) before the class in easy sight before the lecture machines (tape, phonograph, film projector, etc.) is begun. needed to present the audiovisual aid; 2) topic and The presentation probably should not last more title of the culture capsule; and 3) the level of than ten minutes.It should be self-contained and progress for which written. For example, there might limited to ONE MINIMAL DIFFERENCE. All the be six culture capsules on kin relationships. The first talent and energies of the programmer should be geared to the level of beginning students; the second, directed to a simple statement of the essential for use near the end of the first year's study; and the difference and selection of the audiovisual aids third, for the beginning of a second year of study, which illustrate these dramatically. Pauses during the etc. presentation to allow the students to study the aids Summer workshops in foreign language pedagogy are worth more than many extra words. could be encouraged to develop the materials for Once the culture capsule has been presented by new culture capsules.Inless populated areas, a the teacher and heard by the students, questions are clearing house for these could be set up in State asked by the teacher. The students are allowed to Councils of Foreign Language Teachers, or State make brief notes as the culture capsule is presented Federations of Foreign Language Clubs.In more but have no script to follow as the teacher reads. populated areas a central library of culture capsules These questions are of two types: rhetorical and could be worked out on a district or even a single "open-ended." school basis. The rhetorical questions are so phrased that the The culture capsule can normally be presented as a student must answer only "yes" or "no" and then self-contained pedagogical unit in part of one class repeat the words used in the question. For example: period (although two or three might be tied together Q: Do Mexicans enjoy bullfights? into a larger unit if they are particularly related to A: Yes; Mexicans enjoy bullfights. wA.:11 other).If this is done a minimum of once a The difficulties of speaking the foreign language are week during the school year of 36 weeks, even these enough for many students, without requiring them 36 culture capsules would go a long way toward to contribute or remember ideas not suggested bringing knowledge of the realities of life in a foreign directly by a rhetorical question. land to students of the foreign language. Elaboration The "open-ended" questions are phrased in such a of the capsules in a second year of study would lead way that the student may supply one or more items to expanded knowledge but within a consistent of information on his own. Example: framework.2 Q: How does a Mexican think of the bull? FOOTNOTES A: He thinks of the bull as a wild animal. These questions are asked of the students who 1.This articleoriginally appearedinModern have a better control of the language. They lead to Language Journal 45, December 1961, pp. 350-354, discussion of the important difference being studied. and is reprinted here with the kind permission of Dr. Envoivement of all the students in a discussion after Sorenson and the editor of the MU. the presentation of a culture capsule is of vital importance to this system. 2. Immediately after publication much interest was Experienced and well-traveled teachers probably shown by language teachers in "culture capsules", have many pictures, slides, and realia which they use and Dr. Taylor began to systematically prepare in theirclasses. Nevertheless, these are generally materials for classroom use. But a year later, with presented as a "change of pace" device and are not tragic prematurity, Dr. Taylor was killed in a vehicle integrated into the total foreign language learning accident while accompaning a troop of boy scouts on experience according to the level of development of an outing. The loss to the profession which Darrell the students. Many times the requirements of Taylor's death irrevocably presents is difficult to extracurricularactivitieskeep a teacher from appreciate by one who did not know him personally; organizing the material he does have so they will as a former student of his, the clarity of the stature accomplish a specific purpose. New teachers are at a and dynamics of the man, and the magnitude of the great disadvantage in this phase of teaching. loss, have not been diminished by the intervening The paraphernalia for any culture capsule can be years. HNS devised so that it will fit into a shoe box and can be REFERENCES CITED shelved library-style for cooperative use by many teachers. Thus, a new teacher would be able to bring Brooks, N. Language and Language Learning: Theory to his classes cultural information with about the and Practice. Harcourt, 1960. same frequency and preparation as an experienced teacher. On each shoe box containing the aids and Lado,R.Linguistics Azrou Cultures:Applied script for a culture capsule, there could appear a Linguistics for Foreign Language Teachers. labelwith the following information:1) t h e U. of Michigan P., 1957.

18 CHAPTER FOUR

LEVELS OF SOCIOCULTURAL UNDERSTANDING FORLANGUAGE CLASSES

Howard Lee Nostrand

Foreign language teachers in the United States been done in Level I. And one will want to havein owe an apology to students who arethwarted by mind what ought to be rounded out in Levels III and indefensible sequences an up-staircase whose risers IV, in order to say what ought to be completedin vary from two inches to three feet. We have itin our Level II. power to design a well-articulated sequence, notonly The persons listed in footnote 1 agreed to v, Rhin any one school or college, butalso between serve as members of a temporarycommittee on the institutions.1 Coordination on thislargerscale problem. They were shown the statement borrowed becomes necessary as the mobility of the population from the North Carolina guidelines draft, LevelsI of increases, causing more and more students to change through IV. Mrs. Tora T. Ladu, State Supervisor of schools. Foreign Languages, generously permitted this use But coordination among free agents must rest on the draft, and a modified form of the draftis agreement. One logical road toward a consensus is to embodied in this report. The committee members propose, for voluntary adoption by schoolsand were asked to elaborate the statementfor Level II, colleges, a standard of achievement to be expected of and the chairman of the committee has undertaken the learner at each successive level. For the purposeof to put together the thoughtful replies hereceived. articulating sucha sequence of standards,the Some members of the committee have thought the specified "terminal behavior" at each level may be North Carolina statement for LevelIIwas subdivided into seven components: the four language overambitious; others, that it called for less than is skills, including the paralanguage (intonation, speech needed. In reconciling the responses, therefore, two rhythm, and thelike); language analysis; versions of the standard have been distinguished: acquaintance with the foreign people's literature; and "minimal" and "desirable". We should set the understanding of the people's culture and social standard as high as we can, in view of the many structure. students who still do not go beyond Level II of any Not only will learners of different ages progress at foreign language. The minimal standard may in fact different average rates and ideally, both the pace be needed by some schools, at least for a few years, and the sequence of instruction will beindividualized as a step toward a programwhich will meet the for each learner but we must expect different desirable standard. Meanwhile the lower standard profiles of proficiency for the several age groups and may be useful as a core ofunderstanding that can be for individual learners. In general, youngchildren counted on, if no more can be assured in the near will excel in imitating speech spontaneously;older future, for the purpose of so constructing courses learners will excel in reading, writing andanalyzing. and tests that students will no longer be the victims We cannot say at present how much understanding of bad articulation as they transfer from one school of a culture can be taught along with thelanguage on system or from one teacher to another. Dr. Jerald Green, a member of the committee, has a given "Level"because we simply have not tried any sufficiently planned entry, reentry andsequential argued convincingly that the reader needs to have in development of socioculturalcontent. The mind, finally, the practical procedures proposed for Washington (State)Foreign Language Program is integrating the teaching of cross-cultural working on this problem with demonstrationclasses understanding into the teaching of the language. For only against this background can a teacher judge the which are using the course developed atSaint-Cloud and published by Chilton, Voix etImages de France. feasibilityof solving the pedagogicalproblems, What ultimately proves feasible at each Level will supposing that we would be able to produce the depend on how important we collectivelyjudge knowledge of what can most truthfully be said about cross-culturalunderstanding tobe.Itwillalso a culture. depend on how well this achievementstimulates The present report assumes that the insights it motivation to study the language and literature,and calls for are not to occasion any use of English in how wellitserves as abasis for successful class; and that the insights called for will be taught communication with speakers of the targetlanguage. through a combination of (1) audiolingual dialogues, One cannot visualize, even tentatively, what can presented orally and audiovisually, embodying be accomplished by the end of Level II,for example, significant social situations and cultural unless one has in mind a notion of what willhave manifestations as well as language structures; (2)

19 explaining 1.2 Leisure-time activities homework exercises, in English at first, describe in (3) simple but good The student will be able to the patterns and key terms; common literature (including a few popularsongs) presented E nglish two of the more leisure-time activities ofadolescents in the on tape, in filmedrecitations, or in print; (4) class discussions based on the homeworkexercises and foreign society. kept within the students' capacity to usethe foreign 1.3 Literature language; (5) optional reading in relatedfields of The student will be able to individual interest, from sources suggestedin the 1.3.1 recite one stanza of a poem homework instructions and available atthe school or 1.3.2 tell simply how it illustrates some public library; (6) planned coordinationbetween the aspect of the culture. foreign language sequence and the concomitantand 1.4 Songs (a) the history sequence, (b) the The student will be able to prior sequences: of each of social studies sequence (particularlyfor concepts 1.4.1 sing or recite one stanza include used in analyzing a socioculturalsystem), (c) the three folk songs (may language arts sequence (Englishand American Christmas carols) literatureintheirsociocultural as well as 1.4.2 comment simply on theartistic value world-literature context), (d) music, (e) art,(f) the of the songs and theirplace in the manual arts (styles and the artisantradition in the culture foreign society), and (g) cooking andsewing.2 LEVEL II PROPOSED STANDARDS FOR LEVELS I THROUGH IV Minimal Standard The student will be able to dothe following (Revised from Ladu, 1967. See the Partial in addition to the expectationsfor Level I: Bibliography appended to this report.) 0.1 Themes of the culture State orally a simpledefinition and an Note: Except in Section 1.2, where illustrative instance for eachof any four main themes of the foreignculture.3 The the student's reading and response are or to be in English,all of the verbal illustrativeinstance may be arecall narrative responses called for are to be inthe paraphrase of adialogue or a foreign language, as are the literary studied. could select texts (and of course the dialoguesand For French culture, the teacher main themes: songs) referred to. four of twelve proposed I 'in div idualisme,l'intellectualiti,l'art de l'amitie, It is anticipated that on the first Levels,English will vivre,le realisme,le bon sens, of the l'amour, la famille, la religion, lajustice, la be used in a gradually diminishing portion themes of homework exercises and background reading or liberte, la patrie.4 Among the main in Hispanic culture, the followinghave been other co-curricular activities. No written response dignidad, the language is called for until Level III. suggested: individualism, orientation toward persons,serenidad, work, human LEVEL I beauty, leisure valued over nature mistrusted,"cultura" despite"la realidad del medio," risingexpectations. 1.1 Proprieties of the Foreign Culture The student will be able to describe (in the 11.2 Literature foreign language), or demonstrate physically, 11.2.1 Recite one stanza of a second poem how to behave according to the proprietiesof (in addition to the one calledfor in the foreign culture in the following common 1.3). situations: Co mment simply on theartistic Greetings,introducing aperson, 11.2.2 features and/or historical significance t ha n k i ng,saying goodbye, eating (rudiments of table manners), of a prose work or selection,several conduct toward persons of one's own pages in length, whichhe has read or and of higher socialstatus. The has studied on tapeinfilmed proprietiesinclude the distinction recitation. between formal and informal terms 11.2.3State orally how each selection or of address; handshaking and any work studied illustrates some other pertinent kinesic patterns; the theme(s) or other pattern(s)of the avoidance of any conduct considered foreign people's culture orsocial impolite in these situations. relations.

20 daughter, brothers, andsisters in the 11.3 Songs middle-class family. 11.3.1 Sing or recite one stanza of anational anthem and one stanzaof a 11.25 Education State orally the chiefcharacteristics of the contemporary popular song. educational system(s) in theculture area. 11.3.2 Comment simply on themeaning of the songs. LEVEL III 11.4 The family features of what "the State orally the salient In addition to the"Desirable Standard" for family" means to a middle-class personof the Level 11, the student willbe able to do thefollowing: foreign society (e.g., emphasis on parentsand 111.1 Themes of the culture children only, or on extendedfamily; typical allthe main how close 111.1.1 Define or recognize attitudes or activities illustrating themes of the value systemin the the family ties are). manner indicatedunder 11.21.1 and 11.5 Education 11.21.2. (by instances quoted State orally or illustrate 111.1.2 Explain an instanceof humor in or paraphrasedfrom dialogues or other which the fundepends on the materials studied what "school" meansto the presupposing of one or moreof these learner's age-mates in the foreignsociety. values. 11.6 Interaction with the geographicalsetting of 111.2 Literature State orally how the main groups 111.2.1 On the basis ofsufficiently long inhabitants in two contrastingregions, within selections read (or studiedin filmed the culture area, adapt to somemain features recitations) from the worksof ten of their environment, andutilize its resources major authors of theculture -area, in the pursuit of theirculture's values. state orally orin writing thechief preoccupation(s) artistic,social Desirable Standard and/or philosophical observed in The student will be able todo the following the writing of any ofthe ten authors. in addition to theMinimal Standard: 111.2.2 Identify or describethe main cultural 11.21 Themes of the culture or societalpatterns in passages 11.21.1 Define and illustrate twoadditional quoted by the examiner, orrecalled (a total of six) mainthemes. The from memory, drawnfrom the simple definition will go beyond a selections read (cf. 111.2.1). the stating of a statement to include 111.2.3 Comment onartistic qualities of form few component value-conceptsand or style,under the conditions u nderlyingassumptions. (See indicated in section 111.2.2. footnote 3, above.) 111.2.4 Paraphrase a passagequoted by the 11.21.2 Recognize obviousmanifestations of examiner from the literaryworks the six selectedthemes in an read inclass, showing by the unfamiliar dialogue, literary text, or paraphrase or byaccompanying visualrepresentation of nonverbal comments the importhe ascribes to behavior. the passage. describe, any of the 11.22 Literature 111.3 Use appropriately, or Relate the works studied and theirauthors (if k inesic patternsimportant for known) to a type of art formand/or a communication, including thosecalled for in moment of socioculturalhistory. 1.1. Social structure 11.23 Songs 111.4 11.23.1 Describe orally the place of the Give a brief, prepared talk on anytwo of the popular song in the contemporary following: the political, judicial,educational, and economic institutionsof the foreign foreign society (entertainment and/or of satire, kinds of social gathering, kinds cou ntry; thestatus of women or of the of singer). adolescents in the society; the status minorities. The Family main religious or ethnic 11.24 setting 1124.1 State orally the salientsocial-class 111.5 Interaction with the geographical differences in the meaning of "the State orally or in writing howthe main family" to the person. groups ofinhabitantsinfour additional the two 11.24.2 State orally the main normsthat ecological regions (in addition to prescribe the behavior toward one selected for section11.6)adapt to main another of the father, mother, son, features of their environmentand utilize its

21 New Jersey:GryphonPress,1965. (For resources in thepursuit of theirculture's reviews of specific tests, e.g. ineach language; values. and for reviews of research on"Character attitudes.) LEVEL IV and Personality," including Crutchfield, and Egerton L. expectations for Level III, Krech, David, Richard S. In addition to the Ballachey. Invividual inSociety: ATextbook the student will be able todo the following: of SocialPsychology. Chapter 7 "The IV.1 Write a brief accountof any main culture or ecological Changing of Attitudes," pp.215-269. p atterns,socialinstitution, Press, 1962. of life.6 Berkeley University of California feature of the people's mode modifiability Levels should avoid (Seven variables that affect the IV.2While the first three of changing far as practicable, in of an attitude; four means contrastive analysis as conditions firstthat the learner attitudes, and the variable order to assure affecting each means. Veryreadable overcomes theethnocentric view of the the end of Level exposition, ". ..of the attitudinal foreign as eccentric, and by . ..examined (inthe two IV the learner should beable to describe any characteristics preceding chapters), the mostimportant in of the indicated patternsin relation to the determining attitude modifiability are ... corresponding patterns inhis own country. IV.3 Respond as indicatedin111.2 concerning twenty authors(instead of ten), on the basis (1) extremeness, of reading that includes onemajor novel and (2) multiplexity, one major play. consistency, Summarize main trends andcharacterize (3) I V.4 (4) interconnectedness, main movements in thesocial and cultural consonance, history of the people. (5) (6) strength and number of wantsserved beyond, students should by the attitude, (At Level V and centrality of the value towhich the initial acquaintance with (7) broaden and deepen their attitudeisrelated." p. 216 the literature, thehistory, and the regional,class, ethnic and age-groupdifferences within the sociocultural whole.) "Attitude change is broughtabout through information, changes Partial Bibliography exposure to additional in the group affiliationsof the individual, behavior toward for the annual installments, enforced modification of See also FL Annals the object, and throughprocedures which beginning in 1967-68,of the ACTF L(American change personality." p.225 Council on the Teachingof Foreign Languages,62 Fifth Avenue, New YorkCity, 10011) bibliography, particularly under thefollowing headings:Section Lado, Robert. of Language Testing: TheConstruction and Use III,The Culture; SectionIV, The Teaching IX, Testing. In the list of Foreign Language Tests; aTeacher's Book. Foreign Literature; Section (London) 1961. below, the topic ofmeasuring attitude changesis McGraw-Hill, and Longmans Cross-CulturalUnderstanding," included: it is inescapablyrelevant, though excluded "How to Test Chapter 20, pp. 275-289. from the standards statedabove. Ladu, Tora T. Banathy, Bela H. of Draft of new guidelinesfor foreign language A Theory of Selectionand Organization Department of Foreign LanguageCurricula. teachers, North Carolina Content in for discussion Thesis, University ofCalifornia, Berkeley, Public Instruction, presented conference offoreign language 1967. DissertationAbstracts 27:3767A-68A. at State teachers, December, 1967. Eugene Galanter, EckhardH. Brown, Roger William, Lindzey, Gardner, ed. Hess, and George Mandler.New Directions in Handbook of Social Psychology.Cambridge, 1963. See Chapter 1, Psychology.Holt, Mass.: Addison-WesleyPublishing Co., 1954. "Models of AttitudeChange," by R.W. See especially Chap.9, "Attitude Brown. Measurement," by Bert Green, pp.335-366. Bibliography, pp. 366-369.(A classic Buros, Oscar Krisen,ed. The Sixth Mental summary of themethods for measuring Highland Park, Measurements Yearbook. attitude change.)

22 Nostrand, Howard L. (a) to determine how examinee would "Literature, Area Study and Hispanic perform in a situation; Culture." Hispania 44, September, 1961, pp. (b) to predict how examinee would 465-472. Same study published in Yearbook perform in future; of Comparative and General Literature. No. (c) to estimate examinee's present status 10, 1961, pp. 49-58. on some variable external to the test; (d) to infer the degree to which examinee Nostrand, Howard L. has a given quality. (Consequent FilmRecital of French Poems; Cultural prescriptions for test construction.) Commentary. (With Marie-Georgette Steisel and others).University of Washington FOOTNOTES Department of Romance Languages and Literature, and Audio-Visual Services, 1964. 1. This paper was originally presented as a report to 183 pp. (Available from the University of the 19th Annual Meeting of the Pacific Northwest Washington Press,Seattle,Washington Conference on Foreign Languages held at Carroll 98105.) College on April 19 and 20, 1968. The following persons, as members of a Northwestern Conference Nostrand,Howard L., Editor and Project Director. Committee, contributed toward the present form of Background Data for the Teaching of French, the report: Jermaine D. Arendt (Consultant, Modern Part A, La Culture et la SociiteFrancaises ati F o re ignLa ngu ages,Minnesota Department of XXe Siecle, pp. xi-743. Part B, Exemples Education), Eugenio Chang-Rodriiluez (University of Littiraires, pp. iii-70. Part C, Contemporary Miami), Cecil Clark (College of Education, University Culture and Society in the United States, pp. of Washington), Brownlee Sands Corrin (Political iii-130. Final Report of Project OE-6-14-005. Science, Goucher College), Genevieve d'Harcourt Seattle:University of Washington, 1967. (Arlington, Virginia), Pia Friedrich (University of Mimeographed. Microfiches through Washington), Jerald Green (Associate in Foreign Educational Resources Information Center. Languages Education, New York State Education Department), Tora Tuve Ladu (State Supervisor of See lye, H. Ned. (Northern Illinois University, De Kalb) Foreign Languages, Department of Public An Objective Measure ofBiculturation: Instruction, North Carolina), Paul McRill (Director, Americans in Guatemala, A Case Study. Washington (State)Foreign Language Program), Pre-Publication Draft, (1968). Frances B. Nostrand (University of Washington), Lee Sparkman (Columbus, Ohio), Ruth White (University Tollinger, Suzanne, and AndreePaquette. of British Columbia). The writer of this report was The MLA Foreign Language Proficiency Chairman of the Committee. Tests for Teachers and Advanced Students: A Professional Evaluation and 2. For further possibilities of cooperation, beyond Recommendation for Test Development. the teaching faculty, see the section on "Professional N. Y. :Modern Language Association of Roles of Contributors Toward the Student's America, 1966. See pp. 140 and ff. Cross-Cultural Understanding" in the North Carolina foreign language guidelines (Ladu 1967). Tollinger, Suzanne, and Andre Paquette. A Comparison of the MLA Foreign Language 3. In every culture, a dozen or so main themes can - Proficiency Tests for Teachers and Advanced be formulated inductively. The anthropologist Morris Students with the MLA Foreign Language Opler has suggested that the main themes are Cooperative Tests. N.Y.: Modern Language unconsciously kept this few in number because each Association of America, 1966. theme centers around a value; value conflicts consequently multiply as new themes emerge; and such conflicts are painful. The ability to interpret the Upshur, J.A. behavior of culture-bearers in the light of recurrent "Cross-cultural Testing: What to Test." themes constitutes one distinguishing characteristic Language Learning 16 (3/4), 1966, 183-96. of persons who understand a culture in its own (Takes as point of departure H. Ned Seelye, terms. Language Learning 16 (1/2), 1966, 77-85. For Seelye's reply to Upshur see Chapter 4. Def in itions embodying criticalreactions to Seven, this Handbook). According to successive drafts are summarized in Nostrand, 1967, Language Teaching Abstracts 1 (1) Jan. 1968 Part A, Sections I.A, "A la recherche des the-mes (Cambridge University Press), abstract 68-27, majeurs de la civilisation francaise contemporaine," p.18, Upshur distinguishes four aims of testing: 23 avoids assuming that the student la 6. While this report and I.C., "Le substratdes croyancesinhe'rentes Level IV, this sections are can write inthe foreign language until conscience collectivefrançaise." These preclude the teaching ofwriting English, in Ladu, 1967. is not meant to further condensed in before that level. 5. Very briefcharacterizations appear inNostrand, 1961.

24 CHAPTER FIVE

POLITICAL SIMULATION:AN INTRODUCTION John R. Parker Clifford Neal Smith Marshall H. Whithed

convenience of Political simulation is an experimental technique campaigns are not timed for the the confines of the by which complex political phenomena,such as a college professors working within finally, of course, the political compaign or an international relationscrisis college semester sequence. And positions which are involvingaseriesof events and a number of number of political campaign nation-state "players," may be recreatedunder instructive to the student, and are opento him, are quasi-experimental conditions at the will ofthe not unlimited. The sameproblem exists, probably in-service public person conducting thesimulation. As such, then, even to agreater degree, for simulation techniques have theadvantage of administration training programs.Instructors be working in the international arena arefaced with all controllability; that is, the circumstances may of altered at will, and, of course, the timing maybe of these problems, plusthe added difficulty altered to suit the convenience of theresearcher or geographic distancemaking direct student impossible in almost of the class. observation and/or participation Simulation techniques are not new and, infact, all instances. experiences with the have been applied for a number of yearsin the field I t appears from our Inpoliticalscience, Woodbury domestic politicalcampaign simulation of business management. the electoral process is simulation techniques have previouslybeen applied that student interest in foreign policy sign if icantly enhancedby participationin the mainly to international relations and the interest of the inpointisthe Woodbury simulation. Similarly, situations. A particular case class discussions of Inter-Nation Simulation, which has beenutilized student inpost-simulation voting behavior, extensively at Northwestern Universityand several political parties, pressure groups, In the field of American and the electoral process,is enhanced when frequent other universities. made to the simulation Government and politics, there is anelection game illustrative references can be experiences the students havehad. by Professor James Coleman whichhas been utilized that the group of University and in the Baltimore It is also encouraging to note at Johns Hopkins who participatedin a high schools. A nationalpolitical game has been high school students College under the demonstration simulation of aLatin American utilized at Kansas State Teachers by the authors for a and an American "golpe de estado," conducted direction of Professor Dale Garvey, directed by H. NedSeelye, Government game under ProfessorRobert Alperin at recent NDEA Workshop, heldat NorthernIllinois the University of Maryland.A simulation of a on LatinAmerica University, have requested toparticipate in the more mayorality campaign in amedium-sized American the authors are city, called the Woodburypolitical simulation, has complete simulation exercise universities and colleges. presently developing under thetitle of PSW-1. been run at a number of that political Woodbury has been run three semesters atNorthern In looking to the future, it appears simulation can be utilized forpredictive as well as Illinois University. format, called by some Probably most college professorsofpolitical teaching purposes. In this playing" as opposed science have experienceddifficultyinteaching "man-computer simulation role of American to "man simulationrole playing" ,the human college students the dynamics into which govern menta Iprocesses, such as anelectoral umpires may be replaced by a computer campaign. Previous means oftenemployed to sufficient information about thepolitical situation supplement the "dry" text included casestudies, under study has been programmed so asto enable actual political experience, such as politicalcampaign the computer to act as"umpire" in evaluating the work, required in conjunction with a coursein outcomes of various strategiesfed into the computer. training For example, utilizinginternationalrelations Political Parties, or some form of in-service various policy technique, such as a public administrationinternship simulation, one might simulate studies often seem dry alternatives for the United Statesin references to the program. Unfortunately, case judge which strategy to the student, andin-service training requires Vietnam situation, so as to prodigious quantities of time on the partof the would be least likely to encourageactive Communist Chinese intervention. The computerin this instance course instructorwho arranges positions forhis their work over a could be programmed withall available information students and then supervises factors on the Red considerable time period.Inaddition, political which was pertinent, such as

25 Chinese economy, military strength, locationsof A Head of State (HS) is appointed by the military units, transportation factors, and soforth.1 Simulation Director for each countryin the simulation. At the outset of the game the coursesof On the domestic scene, the Kennedy 1960 action open to the HS will be within the bounds presidential candidacy utilized similar techniquesin described under the country's political, economic, weighing alternative strategies.2 Thevarious and social characteristics. However, there is no rule particulars of a specific campaign situation couldbe against changing the political characteristics of a programmed into the computer, and various country during the simulation for example, alternative candidacies and strategies played against moving from oligarchy to dictatorship, or vice versa. this data. A Head of State is responsible for the government Political simulation techniques may also be principally of of his country. In PSW-1 terms, this utilized to test the effectiveness and/or accuracy means the allocation ofgovernmental funds to the various theories of political behavior, and thus may various functions of government, and carrying on be of assistance in model building.Particularly in the such foreign relations and domestic "politicking" as field of international relations with reference to the required by the unfolding of the simulation.In Inter-Nation Simulation, has this been thecase.3 countries where control of business enterprisesis in The authors are presently working on a new the hands of the government, the roleof the HS political simulation centering uponmultinational becomes, of course, more complex. political and economic executive decision-making. A Head of State may appoint such officials ashe Students of multinational business courses or those wishes (and as personnel are provided bythe of internationalrelations, or of the American Simulation Director). A minister for internalaffairs presidency rarely have much practical experience to (MIA) might be given the task of setting tax levels, bring to their studies, because they have not yet encouraging business, or overseeing state-owned worked abroad nor attained the positions of power business enterprises, or looking after governmental where decisions of political or business import are relationships with citizens. A minister of foreign made. The new simulation, termed PSW-1, is a affairs (MFA) might be given the task offoreign computer-assisted simulation which makes it possible political negotiations. A central economicdirector for students to learn vicariously through simulated (CED) might be assigned the task of preparing the participation some of the lessons which they are still national budget and directing state-owned in no position to learn in real-life situations.The enterprises, if this is not assigned to the MIA.The authors of the simulation also hope that PSW-1will MIA might be assigned the control of police and prove useful as a research toolby means of which armed forces, or a special ministry might be set up; further insights into the relations of men and control of armed forces could also be retained bythe obtained.4 governments can be HS at his discretion. Essentially, the idea of the PSW-1 simulation The Enterprise Director (ED) acts as consists of a number of hypothetical, economic, and decision-maker for his enterprise, but in the case of social parameters.5 Several political and economic state-owned corporations his freedom of action may roles are prescribed for each country, and the be restricted by the HS or MIA. The numberof role-players are allowed to make their plans and enterprisedirectors may vary from country to decisions as they wish, hampered by very few formal country at the will of the SimulationDirector. There constraints. are no rules against thefounding of business affiliates The computer programming of PSW-1 isflexible in foreign countries. enough to allow for as many countries as a The Citizen (CZ) negotiates with the ED regarding Simulation Director feels useful for his purpose (up pay for work in the enterprise.He also determines to a limit, at the present time, of 100 countries).The how much work will be expended inthe authors have provided a"design" of country procurement of food. CZ maynegotiate for characteristics, or parameters, for each of seven consumer goods from the EDof his country or, countries used in our present PSW-1 runs, although where permitted by his HS, from the EDs of other these may be altered by subsequent simulation countries. The CZ may elect the HS atregular directors under certain circumstances. The intervals in democratic countries and cannegotiate Simulation Director requires his role-players to act for arms to overthrow his HS if the situationseemi within the parameters or country characteristics to warrant such action. provided. Various measures of the effectiveness(or Probably the irreducible minimumnumber of non-effectiveness) of these various role-players are role-players per country is three: ahead of state, an provided to the participants in the data generatedby enterprise director, and acitizen.However, the the computer for each round of the simulation.Thus simulation may become so complexthat more roles there is constant feedback or informationprovided will be needed. This matter is left entirely tothe to the role-players as to "how well orpoorly" they discretion of the SimulationDirector.6 aredoing.7

26 When the simulation materials are completely 2. See Ithiel de So la Pool, Robert P. Abelson, and prepared, a prospective user will be able to acquire Samuel Popkin, Candidates, Issues, and Strategies: A a computer control programpackage.8 Simulation Computer Simulation of the 1960 and 1964 Manuals provide for the possibility of running a Presidential Elections, M.I.T. Press, 1965 (MIT No. simulation exercise with up to 100 countries, with 33). This was also the basis for a political novel by the number of countries to be activated being up to Eugene Burdick, The 480. the discretion of the SimulationDirector; the See also William N. McPhee and Robert B. Smith, Manuals also provide a number of country "A Model for Analyzing Voting Systems" in William "scenarios" which a user may adopt, or he may write McPhee and William Glaser, Public Opinion and his own (approximately two or three pages) within Congressional Elections. New York, Free Press of the parameters of one of the countries to be Glencoe, 1967. This articleis of related interest employed inthe simulation run.9 The persons although it does not refer to the 1960 Kennedy associated with the development of PSW-1 intend to simulation work. develop the simulationso as to make itas self-executing as possible, thus requiring as little 3. See the writings of Harold Guetzkow, Richard C. attention from the instructor as possible. This will Snyder, Martin Shubik, and others. Philip M. Burgess give the teacher more time to concentrate on and James A. Robinson of Ohio State University discussion of the course and the results of the have undertaken aninteresting study of group simulation with his students. coalition formation using Inter-Nation Simulation Readers should be cautioned that, although the materials; preliminary findings were reported by the reliance on computers may at first glance place this researchers at the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting of simulation beyond the usage of many smaller high the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, schools and junior colleges, further investigation May 3, 1968. revealed that the appropriate facilities are already available to many such schools. The programming for 4.Unlike previous simulations,suchas the the simulation is being developed in such a way as to Northwestern UniversityInternationalProcesses be usable on as many of these installations as Simulation, wherein participants recordedtheir possible. Then too, often arrangements can be made decisions on paper,participantsinthe P5W-1 with neighboring high schools or universities to use simulation record their decisions by means of IBM their computing equipment.Interested teachers, Porta-Cards. The participants punch out the then, are urged to investigate the possibilities in this appropriate holes in the porta-cards according to regard, and might well be advised to communicate code specifications. The cards themselves are then with the authors since they have some familiarity run through the computer against thesimulation with the availability of suitable facilities in this control program to provide the new balances for the region. participants for the next round. Simultaneously however,the computerisalsorecording on a FOOTNOTES separate computer tape a complete record of these interactions for later analysis by the simulation 1. Abt Associates, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, is directors. In sum, then, the PSW-1 simulation differs working in allied fields, including counter-insurgency from previous simulations in that the records of simulations.Professor Andrew M. Scott of the participant intereactions are recordedin University of North Carolina has done simulation machine-readable, and therefore analyzable, form, work with reference to some Latin American rather than non-machine-readable paper forms. countries (seeScott,Lucas, and Lucas, 1966). Professor Thomas Schilling, formerly of Harvard 5.Various differing combinations ofthese University, temporarily joined the State Department parameters are provided; the simulation director may as Deputy Under Secretaryfor Administration, "activate" as many of these units for the purpose of reportedly to help developa "game theory" his particular simulation run as he desires. For a approach to foreign policy (Newsweek, April 24, demonstration run before an NDEA Workshop on 1967). A computer simulation (mixed teaching about Latin America, held at Northern man-computer) relating to Vietnam has been I I linoisUniversityin AprilMay, 1968, we as undertaken by Paul Smoker, University of Lancaster, simulation directors activated one country and England, and Northwestern University, and run five quickly drafteda special"scenario" fitting the times in England. Further work with the Vietnam parameters of this country to demonstrate a Latin Simulation is projected at Antioch College and, time American "golpe de estado". permitting,at NorthernIllinoisUniversity. The English Vietnam Simulation runs are described in 6.In the NDEA Workshop demonstration run, a Smoker "A Vietnam Simulation: A Report on the considerable number ofadditionalroles were Canadian English Joint Project," in Journal of Peace specified, such as old-line military and younger Research, 1, 1967. officers, church, large land owners, defense minister,

27 1 middle class, congress, students, labor, peasants, and 9.For the demonstration runat the NDEA so forth. Workshop on Latin America held at Northern Illinois University in AprilMay, 1968, Country No. 7 only 7. A number of educators have suggested that was activated, and a special scenario prepared within frequent provision of information to students as to the parameters of this country to detail the problems how well they are doing is conducive to increased or of a Latin American country and the possiblilities of more rapid learning. For simulation purposes, this a "golpe de estado." Readers who attended the information is required by the participants so that Workshop may recallthat the golpe occurred they can formulate new decisions based on the new three-quarters of the way through Round Three. circumstances caused by their and other role-players' The computer programming provides for the actions in the preceding round. possibility of using up to 100 countries. The authors have established parameters for, and subsequently 8. The programming is being prepared torun on a used in simulation runs, seven countries. variety of computerinstallations such as those already available to a number of high schools and junior and senior colleges. For more information, contact the authors, one of whom is with IBM.

28 CHAPTER SIX

ITEM VALIDATION ANDMEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES INCULTURE TESTS

H. Ned See lye

Statistical methods for validatingtests are context of in-group approval ordisapproval, rather elaborated in numerous books on statisticsand than in terms of the frequency of the pattern.For testing, and it is not the purpose hem toreview these example, rather than ask whether Mexican menoften methods. An excellent review of this typedesigned have mistresses, the item could be phrased,"Would a especially for language teachers is available inLado Mexican politician running for office bediscredited (1 96 1).This section of the Handbook draws wereitto become known that he supported a attention to the problem of validating theindividual mistress in addition to his wife?" (A moreextended items of which a test is composed.Several methods discussion of the problems involved indesigning for documenting the accuracy of across-cultural successful items can be found in Lado[1957; 1961], situation for test purposes will bereviewed since Nostrand [1966:13-18],and in Seelye [19661.) In Validation techniques varyinrigor from the these practices affect the content of the test. subjects with the addition, a number of general techniques, ortest widespreadpollingof target the distribution of a cultural formats, for administering culture tests isdiscussed. purpose of establishing pattern, to the simple acceptanceof a generalization based on an anecdote of theclassroom teacher or Validating Test Items returning tourist. While the ultimatestrength of the It would seem to belabor theevident to observe the rigor of the that the correct response to a testitem should itself test will depend in great part on casual about validation techniques employed,there are many be correct. Yet we are whimsically of the classroom requiring documentation to back up a"right" occasions when the exigencies relegate sophisticated methods tothe realm of the answer. This is especiallyevident in tests where the from among impractical. Three quitedifferent methods for student selects the correct response documenting the validity of a cultural pattern severalchoices offered.Inspite of experience number of classroom authority, pretestingwithLatin throughout some seventeen years in a differ widely in countries of Latin America and Europeand over a Americans, and expert opinion their relevance for the classroomteacher. decade of teaching experience, thiswriter still finds himself making a few simple errors indesigning Classroom Authority. In those caseswhere the cross-cultural test situations. is wellgrounded in the target The most common errorliesin generalizing classroom teacher beyond the legitimate extentionof acultural culture, the authority of his wordusually suffices. does not take practice. Test questions which containwording such This is probably satisfactory if he have discovered as "In X situation, aLatin American would act in Y himself too seriously; most of us manner," have repeatedly beenshown to be that what is accepted with adulationin the classroom dangerous. The test designer whois drawing a often gets quite another reception at astaff meeting. solely receives situation from either personalexperience ora The usefulness of an item which is necessarily written source should attempt tobe specific in the validation by the classroom teacher expedient wording of the item. More likely of success areitems local. While this is obviously the most do X in Y technique for teachers at the battlements,itis worded "A Mexican can be expected to modesty (or a Purple situation," or better still, "A middle-classPeruvian important to recognize that do X in Y Heart) most becomes the teacher game enough to male living in Lima can be expected to documented in this situation." Little work has been done toprovide a insist on the validity of a pattern "cultural atlas" of geographical varietiesin cultural way. patterning in Latin America, so the testdesigner had Pretesting. The acid test of whether an itemforms best tread with caution. Certain patterns which have come to be regarded part of the explicit orconscious culture of Latin as "typical" offer aparticular dilemma intest Americans is to administer it to them,controlling for construction, for we want the test toavoid age,sex,residence, and socialclass differences. reinforcing cliches and half-truths. Groups areoften Although 95% agreement can be expected onthe stereotyped along the lines of several patternsof correct response to a language test,the best we can behavior which are infrequent in the group but may realistically expect on a widely-administeredculture be even less frequent in other groups.Perhaps these test is 65% agreement,and items achieving 51% or infrequent patterns can be tested best within the more agreement(with atest group of varied 29 composition) should probably be retainedif they This index of credibility could then be averaged in result significantly contrastive with the performance with the credibility index of several other sources of North Americans on the same item. The obvious reporting the same pattern, and an overall index disadvantage of quantitative methods of validation is representing the numerical average of the credThility that they are difficult to implement. (The following of these several sources could be drawn.If this chapter explores this procedure in more detail.) The numerical index would indicate both the qualitative method most accessible to teachers who want to strength of its source proximity and reporting bias document aculturalpattern by an independent and the quantitative strength of the number of source is to use the expressed opinions of specialists sources consulted, then the index should be a in Latin American culture as documentation. relatively strong measure of a particular source's reliability. Expert Opinion. As we all know, experts differ in opinion. Naroll (1962) discusses an elaborate and To obtain the values themselves, use the following highly sophisticated means of checking the outline: credibility of a reporter by a method he calls data A. Source Proximity quality control (see especially his chapters 1 and 7). a)reader's report = 1 point He suggests, for example, a six-level classification b) scholar's report = 2 points reflecting the authority of the investigator or source c)derivative report = 3 points depending on the nearness to the actual data ("source d) observer's report = 4 points proximity"): (1) datum report, "where an artifact or elparticipant report = 5 points a statement isitself the trait being studied"; (2) f) datum report = 6 points participantreport, "where an event or culture Reporting Bias: length of stay patternisdescribed by aparticipating culture B. bearer"; (3) observer's report, "where an event or a) none = 0 points b)less than 6 moriths = 1 point culture pattern is described by an eyewitness who is 6 months - 2 years = 2 points subculture c) not himself a participant in the culture or d) over 2 years = 3 points pattern involved"; (4) derivative report, "an account by a nonobserver based on a report of another which C. Reporting Bias: explicitness and generality of is no longer available for study"; (5) scholar's report, report "an account by a nonobserver, based on existing a) too vague and brief to be useful = 0 points primary sources which the comparativist does not b) vague in description and lacking genereaty = 1 find it convenient to consult directly"; (6) reader's point report, "an account by a nonobserver based onother c)fairly specific but reader has to interpret = 2 writings,in which specific passagesin primary points sources covering the data in question are notcited" d) very specific (no need for reader to interpret) = 3 points (cf.Naroll1962:31-32). The particular level of be further evaluated for source proximity can D. Reporting Bias: familiarity with language reporting bias by introducing such control factors zr; a) almost none = 0 points length of stay of the reporter in the target culture, b) some = 1 point explicitness and generality of the report, and c) fair = 2 points familiarity with the target language. d) fluent = 3 points A crude adaptation of Naroll's research technique can be developed which,while lacking the admirable preciseness of his technique, can perhaps engender an If we report the average credibility index of a appreciation of the spirit of data quality control. given cultural pattern first (12, for instance), and the (The one is not a substitute for the other. Here a number of sources consulted in this hypothetical crude makeshift index is presented as a tool for use case (-3, forexample), we are able to compare the in teacher workships concerned with the accuracy of relative strength of a variety of patterns chosen as cultural patterns.) potential test items. As a test to see Whether I have The type of report and the credentials of the made mypointclear,rate the following five reporter can be evaluated numerically, with 1 credibility indices in order of their strength, from representing the lowest rating and 15 the highest. If high to low: a) 9-2, b) 5-4, c) 12-1, d) 12-4,e) 3-10. we assign a numerical value to each factor involvedin (The answers are at the bottom of the page*.) The source proximity and reporting bias,then the total actual documenting of a pattern couldalso, of number of points earned by any particular source course, be accomplished bysecondary students while (the total would fall between 1 and 15) would afford they prepare the subject. Presumably, the testwould a numerical index withwhich to evaluate the relative measure achievement, i.e.,what has already been strength of any particular source. learned.

* d, c, a, b, e. 30 Participants of workshops on culture might find which would assist the subjectinhandling the this exercise in validating cultural patterns for test inevitable "cultural fatigue" of residence abroad. purposes tohave some distinct advantages:it Preparation and standardization of tests of this type involvestheteacherwiththebibliography;it will require a lot of work. strengthens the content of culture tests; it increases sophistication in the area of cultural interpretation; Objective. Although objective tests are somewhat and it stimulates the teacher to define precisely what difficult to compose, their ease in correction is it is that he wants to teach (and test). especiallyappreciatedwhenlargenumbers of subjects are tested. Once thetestis designed, (A less rigorous method of validation along the correction iscompletely objective and can be lines of the technique just mentioned would be tc accomplished by practically anyone--and without document the accuracy of a cultural pattern with prejudice (something which cannot be said for essay three independent sources, but without an elaborate questions). The major drawback with tests of this assessment of source proximity and reporter bias.) type is that they are unsuited for non-literate or semi-literate groups. This means that representation Testing Techniques of Latin American rural and urban-poor classes is Just as there is a need for culture tests to be more often difficult to document with objective tests. All rigorously documented than is presently the case, in all, it is the conviction of many testers that there there is a corresponding advantage to be gained from is very little which cannot be adequately measured in experimentation with the format of culture tests. highly-literate groups by a good multiple-choice test. There are at least five limitations imposed upon any testing program by chance and circumstance: the Visual. Suppose a short story has been read in aim of the examiner limits the test content; the clalss and a lottery vendor figures in the plot. In validation techniqueemployedfurtherlimits testing recognition of a lottery vendor several slides content; the time available for testing limits both of Latin Americans can be projected: one of a corner content and format of the test; the format of the test candy vendor; another of a businessman; a third of a limits both content and testing situation; and finally, boy selling chewing gum; and a fourth slide picturing theimaginationofthetestdesignerslimits a lottery vendor. The student would indicate the everything.Focusingontestformats, such as latter response on his answer sheet.Or, more simulation, objective, audio, visual, oral, and tactile economically, the student would be asked to identify will provide different approaches to constructing all of a series of images for which he had been given culture tests. some context from which to deduce the answers. Any pictoralimagewilldo, of course, slides, Simulation. Ideally, the best way to test the drawings, magazine clippings, etc. ability to operate in a second culture would be to place the testee in the target culture and then Audio. Here the principle is the same as for visual observe him in a series of "foreign" situations. But tests, except the student responds to audio stimuli. A this method lacks economy and, in addition, would taped section might contain a portion of the lottery be fatiguing for the middle-aged examiner sentenced vendor's spiel, a brief section of a radio announcer's to observe the fleet-footed young at work and play. reading of the Articles which herald in a State of Simulating certain controlled situations would seem Siege,or a humanely brief portion of a radio to offer a viable alternative to placing the testee in commercial. Needless to say, the content of the test the target culture for test purposes. A role is assigned would depend on what the teacher wanted to the subject, such as Latin American student leader, measure; here the concern is with test technique, not president of Guatemala, peasant, businessman, or content. Nostrand develops the audiovisual Peace Corps volunteer. A series of problem-solving possibilities for the teaching of cultural content in situations are then presented for resolution in a form language courses in a brief article replete with ideas consistent with Latin American reality. This method (Nostrand 1966b:4-6). becomes more feasible the longer the time available for testing. While it can only test a few subjects Oral. The interview, or oral exam, has long been a concurrentlyduringa30-minute period, when deviceforeliciting information from a subject. extended over several days it can be administered to Structured interviews have the advantage of being a large number of subjects much on the same scale as easiertocode andevaluatethanopen-ended a military bivouac. (The simulation of a golpe de interviews and are, consequently, more objective. On estado mentioned in the chapter on simulation used the other hand, what the structured interview usually 25 students and lasted four hours.)In the longer amounts to is a multiple-choice test administered form,thetestitself,ifintensely oriented to orally. Open-ended interviewsoften produce problem-solving situations, can afford an experience unexpected information, but sooner or later the mass

31 of information collected has to be codedfor half of their original questions due toweaknesses appraisal. Then, too, the interviewers of open-ended which become apparent in pretesting.) exams have to be articulately awareof the object of The nature of each specific test itemdetermines their search, for unless the interview is recordedthey the kind of inquiry it might besubjected to, but willconsciously or unconsciously be eliminating some general questions canbe asked of most test much data (most of which might well be extraneous items to assess their strength: to the purpose of the interviewanyway). 1. To what extent is the cultural pattern evident to a Latin American? (Does it Tactile. Object-using tests confront the subject represent an implicit or explicitpattern?) directly with some aspect of the target culture, thus To what social, sex, residential, and age avoiding the abstract artifices which relegate Latin 2. apply? America, in the senses of many students, to the groups would the pattern 3. Are the limitations implied in the above limbo of the lifeless. The student could be given a two qustions reflected in the waythe lotterytickettocheckagainstanewspaper containing the winning numbers. Or, in another item is worded? situation, he might be given a knife, fork, spoon, 4. Is the source proximity and reporter bias of the documents used to validate the item plate, and instructions to eat a Mexican taco which is thoughtfully providedhim.(He would, tobe authoritative? culturally authentic, eat it with his fingers.) Primary 5. Is the answer to the question either too and secondary teachers have used tactile devices difficult or too facile for the intended (often curios of the airport "variety" with but testees? limited potential) more than have college dons, but 6. What is the pedagogical justification for few teachers have explored the possibilities of tactile testing the item? 7. Can the item be recast to test a skill rather tests. than a fact? (We are often forced toclarify is we have taught when it Testing Skills vs. Facts just what it comes time to test theskills the students At first glance, to advocate teaching skills rather than facts, but then to suggest testing facts seems have supposedly developed.) disparate.I am unaware of any study, except my Teachers can prepare for workshops on culture by own (to be reported in a forthcomingarticle), which has attempted to correlate knowledge of Latin developing (for subsequent demonstration) American cultural "facts" with skill in living within a imaginativemini-tests which employ uncommon Ifthe facts are chosen techniques to measure cultural understanding of one Latin value structure. Language carefully, the correlation should be high between specific point. The State Foreign Supervisor can act as a clearinghouse for ideas and fact and skill.Inactual test construction, the test items which emerge from localworkshops and difference between thetwooften--butnot as well as for the alwaysseems to be more sematic than real. The individual teacherinitiative, "culture capsules" suggested by the Taylor and difference oftenlies more in the orientation or wording of the question than in its substance. But Sorenson article. before the question of testing skill vs. fact can be resolved, we have to clearly delineate the skills we want to teach in the area of Latin American studies. This remains to be done. REFERENCES CITED

A Call to Action Lado, R. Linguistics Across Cultures. U.of Mid 7gan NDEAforeign language andsocialstudies P., 1957 workshops might profitably devote time to having

each participant compose a mini-test of from one to .Language Testing. McGraw-Hill, 1961. five items on some aspect of culture. An animated discussion of test aims should precede the actual Nero II,R. Data Quality Control: A New Reseam fabricationoftestitems,andtheparticular Technique. Free Press, 1962. measuring technique(s)should be chosen as an outgrowth of the tester's aims and resources. Some Nostrand,H. L."Describing and Teaching the workshops might want to specialize in one particular Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language technique. Documentation of each item should be and Literature," In: Valdman, A., Trendsin required. The strength of these participant-designed Language Teaching, McGraw-Hill,1966, test items should be subjected to friendly analysis. 1-25. (Professional test designers usually plan to eliminate

32 Nostrand, H. L. "Audio-VisualMateria ls for Teaching Seelye, H.N."FieldNotes on Cross-Cultural the Social and CulturalContext of a Modern Testing," Language Learning 16 (1/2), 1966, F oreignLanguage:Their Bearing Upon 77-85. Pre-Service Education," The DFLBulletin 5 (3), May 1966b.

33 CHAPTER SEVEN

MEASURING THE ABILITY TO FUNCTION CROSS-CULTURALLY

H. Ned Seelye

Introduction the cultural stranger expects.But how isit determined whether the theoretically novel pattern Knowledge comes in many shapes and sizes. A test really does contrast? The one practical way of designed to measure knowledge of the implicit, deciding this--and is a procedure which hitherto has unconscious patterns of a culture will differ in its not been applied to the development of rationale from a test designed to gauge knowledge of cross-cultural testsis to pretest the item and see if it the historical heritage of a culture. Likewise, the is capable of statistically discriminating between the particular technique chosen to measure test performance (knowledge) of the target subjects knowledgewhether objective, s!mulation, (Latin Americans) and cultural strangers (North audiovisual,oral,or tactilelimits the situation Americans). If not, the item should be eliminated; if wherein the testing can be accomplished. This it does prove capable of discrimination, it should be chapter will attempt to present a rationale limiting retained (if it meets the other criteria outlined in this the universe to be tested when the tester's aim is to chapter). measure the ability of a North American to function Determining whether the item statistically in a second culture." discriminates North Americans fromLatin Previous research which attempted to organize the Americansisthe empiric& way of discovering universe of target cultural patterns into a manageable whether it can measure the ability of a North matrixhas tended to concentrate on thematic American to functioninthetargetculture. categories which vary according to the theoretical Otherwise, the selection of test items to be included construct of the investigator (Hall and Trager 1953; in the final test version rests on the shaky grounds of Metraux and Mead 1954; Op ler 1945; Nostrand intuition. This chapter argues the advantage in basing 1960, 1966; Upshur 1966; to name just a few). The a test on its ability to difkrentiate Latin Americans advantage of this approach is that once the universe from North Americans as an alternative to building a has been defined, the adequacy of a test can be test to fit into some arbitrary model construct. (Test evaluated in terms of the categories it samples. A models based on categories of knowledge are weakness of this approach--besides the lack of satisfactory fortestingliterature or some such agreement concerning the theoretical framework to "non-functional" area, but do not readily lend be employed to delineate the categoriesis that it themselves to measuring ability of a North American does not offer a viable method of item (question) to function in Latin America.) The chapter further selection. That is,it tells the investigator what the argues that a random collection of cultural patterns test item should be about, but it does not enable him which adventitiously happens to discriminate can be to select good items from poor ones. Consequently, capable of measuring the ability of a North American past attempts to measure cultural understanding have to function in a second culture, and a certain amount produced largelysubjective instruments, such as of evidence is advanced to support this assertion, i.e., self-assessmentpolls.This chapter argues an correlation between the results of an objective test alternative,innovative approach to measuring and a set of interviews which both probed the cultural understanding. biculturation of North Americans in Guatemala. It has been assumed, by analogy to linguistic practices (Lado1957, for example), that only Function as Need Gratification patterns which contrast with the pattern of the The ability to functionin acultureis cultural stranger should be tested. Stimulated by demonstrated by the degree to which one can satisfy Upshur's discussionof cultural mislearning3 one's needs through the culture. These needs, in (1966:188) and a desire to avoid testing intelligence turn, are those "requirements of which the person and general knowledge on culture tests, I suggest that becomes aware when he acquires values that demand only patterns which the cultural stranger does not he should strive for a certain end or comport himself expect to encounter in the target culture should be in a given fashion in a given situation" (Hartung tested, whether in fact the pattern is contrastive or 1964:462). Needs arise out of the basic values of a not. When atest designer wants toinclude culture and are themselves, consequently, derivative contrastive patterns in the test universe, he has to (Lee1959:70-77). Within this framework, mere theorize which items will contrast with the patterns biological survival, or endurance, is not a need.

34 To function inLatin America, the North topped by a flat roof. The meaning of the concept American must satisfy his needs through social "house" depends on a number of cultural patterns which the target culture offers. But this is circumstances which do not have exact equivalents in true whether the North American retains his own other culture areas. These culturally determined native needs or whether his needs become those the rnea nings are ethnosememes. target culture inculcates.If the North American The second type of cultural patterning differs wants a hamburger and a coke, he must function from ethnosememes in that it has both its referent within the patterns of the target culture to obtain and origin in non-linguistic data. Hand clapping and them, although hamburgers and cokes may well whistling are examples of this type of patterning. I represent "needs" which the target subjects do not have found it convenient to call these patterns of share. extra-linguistic origin ethnomorphs. The distinction While we can observe the extent to which a North between ethnosememes and ethnomorphs is drawn American satisfies his own needs in Latin America, because the linguistic relationship is different in the how can this afford an index of his biculturation, or two cases and because many testingprograms assimilation, into a Latin value system? Obviously, confine their testing to one or the other type of the test universe should include only those items pattern, rather than to both equally. My testing in which represent Latin American needs. Moreover, in Guatemala, for instance, consciously limited itself to cases where the needs of the North American and the ethnomorphic patterns inorder to avoid testing needs of the Latin American coincide, testing those fluency in Spanish, which was measured separately. needs would not enable the investigator to determine Whether a pattern of either type--ethnosememe or whether the North American had become bicultural ethnomorph--is contrastive to the value system of the or not. Items which do not discriminate between cultural stranger is largely a matter of empirical these two types of needs--native and target--should determination. be excluded from the universe to be tested. But how does the examiner determine whether a need does Implicit vs. Explicit Patterns discriminate between the two value systems? To If the purpose of the test were simply to measure discriminate, a pattern must differ in some manner an American's generalknowledge of Latin America, either with the native pattern of the North American then any item which measures this could be included or with the pattern which he expects to encounter in in the test universe. But if the aim is to measure Latin America.4 Discriminating patterns are those knowledge as it is relevant to the ability to function whose meaning is recognized by the target subject at in a target culture, then items in the test universe a level which differs to a statistically significant which belong to the unconscious level of target degree from the recognizance of the cultural understanding,ratht.than to the conscious or stranger. For example, if 70% of the Guatemalans explicit level, should be excluded from the test included in a sample grasp the satirical intention of universe. There are two reasons for this:(1) it is an annual Guatemalan student parade, while only possible to function in a culture without being aware 30% of the North Americans sampled realize its of the implicit principles governing the patterns, and significance, one might conclude (after the proper (2)itis possible for ,:ultural strangers to be more statistical computations and checks to ascertain the aware of this level of patterning thanthe target representativeness of the sample) that knowledge of su bjects. the pattern of student parades differs significantly Where North Americans are able to perform better from the one group to the other. The cultural on a cross-cultural test than the targetsubjects, the pattern would, in other words, discriminate target test has failed miserably to discriminate knowledge subjects from cultural strangers. of the two cultures. This kind of test would be, for the purposes of measuring the extent to which a North Linguistic and Extra-Linguistic Cultural Patterning American can function within the Latin American Cultural patterns can be divided into two classes: value structure, useless. Indeed, a measure which those whose originis linguistic, and those whose forces us to conclude that North Americans know originisextra-linguistic.The former are called more about functioning in Latin America than do ethnosememes and are directly tied to linguistic Latin Americans strikes me as not without humor. units.(1 n an alternateclassification,Lado This is not to say that an American cannot become [1964:27-28] calls these patterns EMU's, a generic aware of implicit patterns of Latin culture which acronym which includes sememes, episernemes, and elude the average target subject, but it is to say that macrosememes.)If the word "house" to a New items of this nature are useless in a cross-cultural test Englander generally means a wood-frame building of designed to compare the ability to function of a several stories, topped by a steep-slanting roof, the North American with that of a Latin American. word case to a northern Mexican might evoke images Since a North American can learn to accurately of cement or adobe constructions of one story, interpret implicit target patterns of which a Latin

35 American is not consciously aware, knowledge of the fund of many toponyms, street markers, implicit patterns of a culture does not in itself enable monuments, surnames, and other mnemonic one todifferentiate North Americans and Latin situations,historical knowledge occasionallyfalls Americans. In short, ability to function in a culture within the "functional" universe to be included in is not dependent on a conscious understanding of the the test instrument. underlying principles or valuesofthe culture Traditionally, "culture" has been associated with (Kluckhohn 1964:145; Lado 1961:280-81).5 "U" values rather than with the less prestigious "Non-U" standards. Achievement in the fine arts, False Patterns knowledge of the heroes of Western history, and skill Besides implicit patterns of whichLatin in food ingestion are all examples of "culture." This Americans are not consciouslyaware,cultural kind of culture is sometimes referred to as Culture patterns which are part of their consciousness but are with a capitalC. to distinguishit from manifestly false need not be included in the universe anthropological usage which earns a minuscule letter. to be tested, although they may be. That is, while it The Educational Testing Service at Princeton reports may be desirable to test the Latin American's that most criticisms of the contents of their Foreign "concept of self," in cases where this concept is Language Proficiency Tests "...have concerned the obviously false, it can be excluded from the test civilization and culture test, where the profession universe on the pedagogical grounds that, in effect, cannot seem to agree on what should be the the"right" answer to the item is,objectively proportion of little c to big C..." (Bryan 1965:6). speaking, the wrong answer. False patterns can be In a test designed to measure ability to function, the defined as those beliefs which are held in the face of large majority of test items should, clearly, reflect a general body of opposing scientific research. That a cultural patterns.6 university degree in political science assists one in An Englishman who devised and widely becoming president of Guatemala is an example of a administered a test to measure Culture defines it as false cultural pattern (see below). To include this "a broad intellectual awareness founded on informed type of pattern in a test, the item can be worded in opinion" (Richmond 1963:8).However, he such a form that the testee is asked to identify concludes the study by indicting the academic elite "ideal" patterns of self-concept. for their "modest accomplishments." Richmond states that "...only one person in a hundred will Dysfunctional Patterns have a clean bill of health" (p.175). This one Another category which should be excluded from percent level of target concurrence would hardly the test universe is that of dysfunctional patterns. A validate the item for cross-culturalpurposes. patternis dysfunctionalifit"detracts from the Although I did not include "historical" items in the integration, effectiveness, etc., of the [value] system" Guatemalan test referred to earlier, items from the (Parsons 1954:217). While on the one hand, the popular culture can be identified which would be concept of dysfunctional patterns flies in the face of adequate for cross-culturalpurposes,i.e.,easy evolutionary theory, the dual selective system--both enough for the majority of Latin Americans to individual and group--of human beings gives rise to identify while,at the same time,capable of patterns which are dysfunctional to some members discriminating the testperformance of North of a group while functional to others of the same Americans.Itis this type of"historical" group, as well as patterns which are functional to one knowledge--that which belongs to the popular group but dysfunctional to another group (Campbell culture--which can be included in tests measuring and Le Vine 1965:74-76). Since "[t]he only way a ability to function in Latin America. dysfunctional feature can be maintained is if it is inextricably tied to a more important functional Patterns Related to Testee's Employment feature" (Campbell and Le Vine:74), the testing of Intesting the ability to function in a target dysfunctional patterns should be avoided in favor of culture, itis not necessary to include in the test the "more important" pattern to which they are universeculturalpatterns which are specifically bound, unless the purpose of the item is to require related to what will be the testee's profession or the testee to contrast dysfunctional patterns with particular job assignmentinthe targetculture functional ones. (Cleveland, Mangone, Adams 1960:294).

"Historical" Patterns Establishing Cultural Boundaries Since knowledge of the history and heroes of a The main variables of a core culture--age, sex, target culture facilitates acceptance into the culture residence, social class--should be controlled to limit by providing evidence of interest in the target people, testing to cultural items common to a wide variety of by affording raw material for conversation, and by sub-cultures within the larger, more heterogeneous assisting the ability to function in the target culture cultureof,say, urban Guatemala.Ifthe items through conditioning the cultural stranger to the designed to be tested are not submitted to pretest

36 groups diff:ving in these variables,then there would that it does not enable the tester to feel reasonably be little to support the universality of the items. The secure that the universe has been representatively larger the corecultureis claimed to be-- Latin sampled. To judge from my experience with the America vs. Guatemala, for instance--the broader the Guatemalan test, though, the security which comes demands of the pretest sample. from having designed items to represent a wide range An advantage in having the patterns validated by a of cultural categories will probably be short lived: youthful group of target subjects, besides their many items will not survive pretesting. availability in schools, is that ". ..the culture traits For example, I chose to describe the content of inconsistent with the core culture willbe most the test items in the Guatemalan instrument in terms resisted and...the core culture is typically learned of a theoretically neutral classification, Murdock's early and firmly" (Berelson and Steiner 1964:654). Outline of Cultural Materials (1950). Of the 88 major categories listed in the table of contents, about Testing the Adequacy of the Test Universe half were represented in the original pretest version It can be tentatively assumed that in the absence of the test (some items were classified under several of a representative sample of the universe of categories).But when the pretesting had been discriminating patterns, an approximate measure of accomplished and half of the items had been cultural knowledge can be obtained from a test based eliminated out of statistical considerations, only 30 on a loosely random sampling of theuniverse.7 The major categories remained in the test, and only six adequacy of the random sampling of the universe of categories contained five or more items. It is possible test items included in my Guatemalan test was that some of the eliminated categories were not probed by seeking correlations with an independent contrastive to the North American patterns of that measure of cross-cultural involvement.Based on the category and, therefore, should not haveappeared on results of the original test, it was predicted that those the test in the first place. it is also probable that a Americans who scored highest on the test were more greater number of categories werecontrastive to involved in Guatemalan life than were those who North American patterns, but the specific situation scored lowest. The accuracy of this prediction was tested had been ill chosen or poorly worded(see tested by an independent set of interviews with the below). The number of pretest items that it would be high and low scorers of the objective test, along with necessary to accumulate in order to haveenough a control group who had not beenpreviously tested. remaining for a final test to represent a wide range of The difference in proportions between the high and categoriesisprobably very great. The cost of low scorers on the objective test, when compared pretesting would, conservativelyspeaking, be with their performance on the interviews which doubled. One category (interpersonal relations) was probed acculturation, reached astatistical represented on the pretest version by 29 items--only significance of .01. When the individual test scores three of which survived pretesting. Another category (rather than group scores) and the interview scores (social stratification) was represented on the pretest were compared, a correlation of.53 was obtained. version by nine items, none of which survived (When the interview questions which represented pretesting. conflicting theories of acculturation or items which Certainly, the descriptive range of the test content are shown to be irrelevant aredisregarded, a higher should be indicated, but a test which successfully correlation can be expected.) samples the whole range of discriminating cultural patterns is still in the future. Statistical validity as Statistical Validity and Content Validity outlined earlier in this chapter presently remains the While itis clear that a cross-cultural test which strongest measure of the adequacy of a cross-cultural does not achieve statistical validity is not a valid test. A second important considerationis the range measure,itis not immediately obvious just what of patterns included in the test. This area of the constitutes validtest content. This chapter has thematic character of the testuniversewill argued that (1) the test items should be authentic, undoubtedly have to be developed more. Meanwhile, i.e., that they represent patterns which are accepted a test developed alongthe lines this chipter suggests by a majority of the subjects of a given cross-section will not include much that should be excluded from ofLatin America, and (2) the adequacy of the the universe, but it might have its predictiveability content of the test can be appraised by seeking limited by what it excludes from the test universe. A correlations with other independent measures of the graphic summary of what should be included on and ability to function in a second culture. excluded from the test universe is contained in Table On the other hand, it is reasonable to suppose that 1. the better the predictive power of the test instrument, the broader itwill have sampled the universe of items capable of discrimination. This Developing Test Items. brings us back to the problem of a model construct. It will be helpful, perhaps, to use several items A weakness of the empirical approach argued here is which were unsuccessful in pretest versions of the

37 TABLE 1

THE TEST UNIVERSE

Patterns Capable of Discrimination at the .01 level

. T and Native -" ,i4istpricat ++ -74ionomic. hist-040i; 'history of art, Ousig; literature:eta

-!" Patterns Peripheral to the Com Culture 'ileeithan.50% target agramtment in each "controiled" stibaroi44-

White Area:Patterns to be included in the test universe. Shaded Area: Patterns to be excluded from the test universe.

+ products of cultural mislearning or other such factors leading native subjects (Ss) to expect a contrastive pattern where one does not exist.

++ historical knowledge which fulfills two requisites: (1) general agreement among target Ss from native Ss. That is, knowledge which is part of the popular culture, as opposed to the shaded portion representing knowledge which is associatedI? :th the upper intellectual classes.

Guatemalan testtoillustratethe problems of Some questions brought out the differing social preparing cross-cultural tests (more examples can be orientations of the subjects due to six differences. found in Seelye 1966). The following is an example One example will illustrate this: of a pattern reported by an anthropologist which was then cast into question form (Hall 1964:160). The president of Guatemala offers Mr. Sdnchez the position of Minister of The most appropriate place for two Education, but he declines the offer businessmen to conclude abusiness because transaction is a)the salary of public servants is very a)a prestigeous bar low b)an intimate soft-drink stand in the b)he fears assassination central market c)traveling would absent him from c)the home of one of the businessmen home too often d)the stadium during a soccer game d he fears permanent identification with the government in power Guatemalans were expected to answer a, and North Americans c. As it developed, however, three It was expected that Guatemalans would answer d times as many Guatemalans answered c as a. The and North Americans would be spread over the other writer believes that, in spite of this, the reported three choices, with aconcentration on b. patternis accurate, that Latins do not transact Guatemalan males did, in fact, generally answer as business in the home, and he attributes the failure of expected, but the females had a strong tendency to the question to two factors. First, the wording is answer b. The reason for women answering as they probably faulty. Perhaps a stem such as "What kind did would seem to be lack of political sophistication: of atmosphere would Latin American businessmen although some of the ministryposts are look for to close a big business deal?" might have dangerous--Minister of Defense, for elicited abetter response. Secondly, thereis example--Ministers ofEducation have met with difficulty finding a group of sufficient size who are controversy but not death as an occupational hazard. sophisticaed in the ways of businessmen to test the The understandable impulse to see things as they pattern. should be ideally rather than as they are in reality

38 was exemplified by several questions. For example: American's knowledge of Guatemalan cultural patterns. The results of this will be reported in a A young man has political ambitions. He forthcoming article. The effects of attitudes and would like, in fact, to become president of personality on achievement in foreign language study the country some day. In choosing a career has been probed by Pimsleur, Sundland, and to help realize his ambitions, he would McIntyre (1966:22-28). Pimsleur's study did not probably choose to go to find them relevant.Howard Lee Nostrandis currentlyplanning aprobe of the attitudinal a)the seminary and become a priest adjustment of Americans in France. b)the university and study medicine c)military academy and become an Summary officer The primary concern in developing a cross-cultural d)theuniversity and studypolitical test designed to measure the ability of a cultural science stranger to function in a target culture is to identify items which are capable of discriminating cultural The history of Guatemala consists of a stranger from target subject. This is an empirical way preponderance of military governments. In the last of saying that the item tested should represent a 136 years, only two constitutionallyelected target need which differs in some way from the presidents have completed the period for which they needs of the cultural stranger. Implicit patterns and were elected. On the other hand, one military eruditeliterary and historical knowledge of the dictator was in power 13 years this century. There target culture are not usually capable of have been only a few civilian heads of state. But, in discrimination. Two other types of items usually spite of this, Guatemalans overwhelmingly answered should be excluded from the universe to be tested d-and the university curriculum does not even offer regardless of whether they prove capable of a degree in political science. In fact, there is not even discrimination or not: false patterns and a department of political science. dysfunctionalpatterns.Pretesting with target Social classes occasionally replied differently to a subjects enables identification of those items which question. The upper clags, for example, tended to see form part of the particular sub-mIture the public school teachers as members of the upper-low investigator wants to test, while pretesting with class, whereas the low class saw them as cultural strangers facilitates identification of those middle-middle class. items which are capable of discrimination. Following the rationale suggestedinthis chapter,a Traits Influencing Biculturation cross-cultural test can be-and has been--developed It certainly should be assumed that cross-cultural which apparently measures the ability of a North achievement isrelated to something-attitudes, American to function in a second culture. personality structure, biographicaldata,I.Q., motivation, ztructure of the learning REFERENCES CITED situation--something. A practical method of uncovering such a relationship is to administer a Berelson, B., and G. A. Steiner. Human Behavior: An measure of the hypothesized factor affecting Inventory of Scientific Findings. N. Y., 1964. cross-cultural achievement along with a measure of cu !tura!achievement, and then to statistically Bryan, M. M. "The MLA ForeignLanguage compute the degree of correlation.Validated Proficiency Tests." DFL Bulletin, October measures of many traits which might be relevant to 1965. cross-cultural understanding have been developed by psychologists and sociologists but hue yet to be Campbell, D.T., and R. A. LeVine. Propositions systematically applied to this area. The work in About Ethnocentrism From Social Science personality structure being done by psychologists Theories. A working-draft monograph, seems especially interesting. Berelson and Steiner Northwestern University, March 1965. (1964) and Shaw and Wright (1967) offer general introductions into what social scientists and test Cleveland, H., G. J. Mangone, and J. C. Adams. The designers have accomplished. Overseas Americans. N. Y., 1960. I n an attempt to probe the relevance of environmental and geographical mobility, type and Hall,E.T."Adumbration as aFeature of level of education, and certain other biographical Intercultural Commcmication," In: Gumperz, data such as age, sex, and occupation, to J. J., and D. Hymes (eds.), The Ethnography achievementincross-culturalunderstanding, the of Communication, a special publication of questionnaire shown in Table 2 was administered American Anthropologist 66 (6), Part 2, p. concurrently with the objective test of a North 160, December 1964.

39 TABLE 2 PERSONALDATA INFORMATION Name:

approximate your situation in the In answering the following personaldata questions, write thenumber of the response or responses which most closely blocks provided in the left-hand margin. Use one digit per box: 0

A. Sex: (1) male (2) female (7) 51-65 (8) over 65 B. Age: (1) 10-14 (2) 15-20 (3) 21-26 (4) 27-32 (5) 33-40 (6) 41-50 (5) teacher C. Occupation: (1) housewife (2) business (3) government (4) student LI (6) missionary (7) retired (8) agriculture (9) other (6) None (7) Other D. Religion: (1) Catholic (2) Protestant (3) Jew (4) LDS (5) Agnostic (2) liberal (3) middle-of-theroad E. Within your religion, or religious philosophy, do you consider yourself: (1) conservative (4) 3-4 yrs. F. Length of time you have resided in Guatemala: (1) less than 6 mo. (2) 6 mo.-1yr. (3) 1-2 yrs. (5) 5-8 yrs. (6) 9-15 yrs. (7) 16-20 yrs.(8) over 20 yrs.

If you were raised abroad, or in Guatemala, what nationality do you consideryourself? G. (5) have not decided (1) was not raised abroad (2) U.S.A. (3) Guatemalan (4) other experienced before coming to Guatemala (or H. Estimate, roughly, the contact with different ethnic groups, races, nationalities, etc., you if you were raised in Guatemala, during your school days there.): (1) none (2) very little (3) a fair amount (4) quite a lot (5) very much What contact with foreign languages did you have before coming toGuatemala (or if you were raised in Guatemala, while in Guatemala)? (2) studied one or two languages in high school or college, but not for more than two yearsper language and I an not fluent (1) none foreign language was spoken in any of them (3) studied for four years or more (4) , at home but I did not speak it. Speak/spoke the following language(s) at home: (5) occasionally (6) extensively (7) Fluent in (other than Spanish) (3) one year of college K. Check the highest level of education obtained: (1) primary (2) high school (4) 2 yrs. of college (9) 3 yrs. of college (6) 4 yrs. of college (7) 5 yrs. of college (8) 6 yrs. of college (9) 7 or more years of college (6) over 6 L How many different colleges have you attended: (1) none (2) one (3) 2-3 (4) 3-4 (5) 5-6

M. What type of college(s) have you attended for at least one year?(Use as many responses as needed): (01) none (02) small (less than 2000 students) (03) medium-small (2-5000) oobo (11) liberal arts (04) medium-large (6-12,000) (05) large (over 12,000) (12) technical (21) private (22) public (41) coed 2iiii2 2 2 (31) denominational (32) junior college (42) non coed (51) Eastern (52) Southern 3 3 3 3 (53) Mid-western (54) Western 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 (3) social sciences (4) mathematics N. What type of college courses did you major or minor in? (1) none (2) humanities II (5) science (6) secretarial (7) technical (8) other 0. What special training in comparative cultures did you receive prior to, or shortlyafter your arrival in Guatemala? (or training you received in Guatemala if you were raised there). (1) none (2) studied a social science course (3) took a number of courses in an- thropology or area studies) (4) overseas orientation of les than 50 hours in conjunction with job (5) overseas orientation of more than 50 hours in conjunction with job

P. To what extent have you engaged in job mobility withinthe past 10 years? (That is, how many different positions have you had with separate concerns?) (1) none (2) 1 (3) 2-4 (4) 5-7 (5) 8-10 (6) 11-13 (7) over 14

Q. To what areas of the world have you traveled, in addition to Guatemala? (Do not count earlychildhool travels)

(01) none (02) 1 or 2 states of the U.S. (03) Asia (04) Middle East (05) Europe (06) some eastern states (U.S.A.) (07) Mexico, Caribbean, C.A. (08) South America (09) Africa (10)some southern states (U.S.A.) (11) Oceania (12) some mid-western states (U.S.A.) (13) some western states (U.S.A.) R. How long have you lived abroad (other than in the U.S. or a Spanish-speakingcountry)? (1) none (2) less than 6 mo. (3) 6-12 mo. (4) 1-2 yrs. (5) 3-4 yrs. (6) 5-6 yrs. (7) 7-10 yrs. (8) 11-15 yrs.(9) over 15 yrs.

S. How long have you lived in a Spanish-speaking country other than Guatemala? (1) none (2) less than 6 mo. (3) 6-12 mo. (4) 1-2 yrs. (5) 3-4 yrs. (6) 5-6 yrs. (7) 7-10 yrs. (8) 11-15 yrs.(9) over 15 yrs. T. How fluent are you in Spanish? (1) very little or none (2) can get along in simple conversations with the maid and in stores (3) fairly fluent in general conversation which is not too rapid or complex (4) fluent in general conversation and in a few technical areas (i.e. agriculture, bible study, etc.) (5) very fluent. Can express myself well on most subjects, and am able to follow newspaper editorials and news broadcasts on the radio (6) speak it natively and without an accent.

U. Are you married to a native speaker of Spanish? (1) no (2) yes (3) I am not married

40 Hall,E.T., and G.L. Trager. The Analysis of R ichmond,K.Culture and GeneralEducation. Culture. Prepublication edition, Washington, London, 1963. Quotes taken from paperback D. C., 1953. edition, 1964.

Hartung, F. E. In: Gould, J., and W. L. Kolb (eds.), Seelye,H.N."Field Notes onCross-Cultural A Dictionary el the Social Sciences. N. Y., Testing," Language Learning 16.(1/2), 1964. 1966, 77-85.

Kluckhohn, C. "Universal Categories of Culture," In: Shaw, M.E., and J.M. Wright. Scales for the Anthropology Today, Chicago, 1953, Measurement of Attitudes. N. Y., 1967. 507-523. Upshur,J.A."Cross-Cultural Testing: What to .in: Gould and Kolb, op cit 1964. Test," Language Learning 16.(3/4), 1966, 183-196. Lado, R. Linguistics Across Cultures. Ann Arbor, 1957.

Language Testing. London, 1961 (N.Y., FOOTNOTES 1964). 1. This posited test universe is the outgrowth of Language Teaching. N. Y., 1964. research undertaken in Guatemala with an objective, multiple-choice measure of cultural understanding. Lee,D.Freedom and Culture. Englewood Cliffs The research was financed by grants from the (N.J.), 1959. Colegio Americano de Guatemala, La Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, and El Programa Interamericano Metraux,R., and M. Mead. Themes inFrench de InformaciOn Popular (Costa Rica). The limited Culture. Stanford, 1954. purpose of devising this objective instrument was to develop a measure of the knowledge of Guatemalan Murdock, G. P., et al. Outline of Cultural Materials. culturalpatterns of which asample of North New Haven, 1950. Americans living in Guatemala was aware. A relation between knowledge of Guatemalan cultural patterns Nostrand, H. L. "The Description of Cultures," In: of the variety tested and the ability of North Analysis of the Modern CulturalCrisis. Americans to functioninGuatemala was University of Washington (mimeographed), hypothesized. 1960, 300-325. 2. This particular testing aim is one which might "Describing and Teaching the interest social scientists, professional test designers, Sociocultural Context of a Foreign Language and N DEA Institute directors more than the and Literature," In: Valdman, A., Trends in classroom teacher of social studies or language who LanguageTeaching.McGraw-Hill,1966, would finditimpossible to implement without 1-25. researchfacilities.Nevertheless,the classroom teacher may be interested in the distinction drawn Opler,M.E. "Themes as Dynamic Forcesin between culture as it is relevant to functioning in a Culture," American Journal of Sociology 51. second culture and culture that is not necessary to 1945, 198-206. functioning.

"Component, Assemblage, and Theme in 3. An example of cultural mislearning might be the CulturalIntegration andDifferentiation," erroneous deduction that since men in a polygynous American Anthropologist 61. December society must usually demonstrate a level of economic 1959, 955-964. solvency necessary to sustain the number of wives to which they aspire; therefore, the wives must be Parsons, T. Essays in Sociological Theory. Rev. ed., economically dependent upon their husbands. This Glencoe, 1954. simplistic deduction ignores such factors as the independent cultivation of food by the wife, the Pimsleur, P., D. M. Sundland, and R. D. McIntyre. economic backing of the wife's family to whom a Under-AchievementinForeignLanguage bride-price may have beenpaid,the need for Learning. The Modern Language Association, economic power to be invested in the wife while the N. Y., 1966. husband is periodically absent visiting other wives. In

41 other words, by observing the subservientposition of but the North American mistakes the difference for wives in a given situation, a cultural stranger maybe similarity,it would appear that the item might not misled to assume that this principle of subserviency be capable of discrimination and, therefore,probably obtains in situations where in fact it does not. Thisis should be excluded. It is of little avail to say that the cu ltural mislearning. American should have perceived adifference Whether acceptance of contrastive patternsfor between his "ideal" and "re patterns or that he testing purposes forces one to assume that"the should have blundered because the two patterns are 'culturalstranger' will not learn to do anything really different. In this situation, because his "ideal" wrong or to misunderstandanything in the target pattern happens to coincide with the Guatemalan's culture" (Upshur 1966:188) depends on whether the "real" pattern, the test performance for the two test items are selected from a model constructof the subjects is the same: the item is not capable of test universe or are selected empiricallyaccording to discrimination, for whatever reason. their ability to discriminate. Culturalmislearning might operate in the direction of augmentingthe 6. Knowledge which a student of Latin American discriminatory strengthofa theoretically culture haslearned from a textor classroom n on-contrastiveitem or of diminishing the situation would not, by definition, prove capable of discrimination of a contrastive one. In either case,if discrimination. However, since anything that might the criterion for item retention is based onits ability be taught in a "culture" course would systematically to discriminate targetsubject from cultural stranger, disqualify itself because once it was taught it would then whether cultural mislearning hasoccurred is a bei ncapable of discrimination,in some moot point. The importantconsideration is whether circumstances the discriminatory power of a pattern the North American thinks the patternis different might be documented on a group which had not from what it really is, and not whether the patternis, been trained in "target functions." A measure of the in fact, contrastive. North American achievement in understanding Latin "functional" patterns could then be obtained. 4. Lado defines a contrastive pattern as acultural practice which differs in either meaning,form, or 7. Still, the idea of defining the test universe in cultural distribution from the societal pattern of the terms of categories of behavioral patterns is enticing. is an stranger (1957:110-123). A cultural pattern Upshur belabors the need for cross-cultural tests to whichis arbitrary symbol, or set of symbols, contain items representing "(1) the set of observed which structured to convey a predictable meaning behaviors (or behavior patterns) to be understood, example of a the culture has established by usage. An ofbehavioralpatternstit)be non-linguistic and (2)the set simple patternisa wink, or the appropriately performed" (Upshur1966:180). referent of a "cool cat." A more complex pattern Upshur consequently divides the universe tO be which might consist of the many adumbrative cues tested into two major categories: "the understanding are exchanged duringcourtship to communicate and performance .domains."While both the approbation. practicality and necessity of this dichotomy as a 5. Upshur maintains that patterns which are requisite of the test universe in the case of objective, common to both cultures and have the same meaning machine-scored test instruments is questionable, the in both cultures should be excluded from the test investigator is forced to assume the existence Of a universeifthey are viewed accurately by relationshipbetween the ability to recognize a Guatemalans but inaccurately by Americans (Upshur pattern and the ability to perform it, Nor isit 1966:191-4). In this situation--the pattern has the necessary to assume an exact one-to-onerelationship same meaning in both cultures but the American between observation and performanceonly that a does not realizeit--it appears that the pattern is positiverelationshipexists. To use alinguistic capable of discrimination and should be included in analogy as an example, our ability to observe (as the test universe. That this discrimination comes evinced by our passive vocabulary) is greater than about as a result of ignorance on the part of the our ability to perform (as demonstratedby our cultural stranger in no way invalidates the item. It is active vocabulary). Still, we may posit a relationship just thisignorance in the cultural stranger (coupled between active and passive vocabularies: the larger with agreement among target subjects)--which gives the active vocabulary, the larger the passive an item its power of discrimination. Upshur also vocabulary. The ability to perform can be tested maintains that patterns which are common to both more directly with simulation tests than with Written cultures and have different meanings in each culture, formats However, most testing is indirect, and this and are viewed accurately by Guatemalans but fact alone should not unduly preoccupy us as long as inaccurately by North Americans should be included periodic checks employing different techniques are in the test universe.In this situation, where the conducted to test the reliability of the measure in pattern has different meanings in the two cultures question.

42 Upshur parcels the universe to be tested into a should be noted at this point, however, that these number of categories which are logically deduced classes are not of equal size, and that in actual test from aconsideration of dichotomies, suchas construction one should, ceteris paribus, select items observed vs. performed patterns, familiar vs. novel, to test from each class proportionally to class size" accurate vs. inaccurate. Upshur states: "According to (p. 191). Bien. But how is one to determine the this complete formal description there are eighteen appropriate classsize?There are myriads of classes of items in the cross-cultural universe" (p. conceptual constructs which can be applied to a test 191). Nevertheless, Upshur himself points to the universe, but the worth of a construct is seen in the crux of the problem which this description poses: "It economy it affords and in the information it yields.

43 A SELECTED, ANNOTATEDBIBLIOGRAPHY ON LATIN AMERICA

Annotators:

Gilbert D. Bartell C. Daniel Di Oman Roland T. Ely Edward W. Glab, Jr. Roderick T. Groves Jorge Armando GutierrezPadilla Benjamin Keen Joseph A. Martellaro E. Craig Morris Rosendo R. Rivera Peter A. Roman Anthony Scaperlanda H. Ned See lye Margaret G. Smith A. Manuel Vazquez-Bigi Charles R. Wicke

some of theannotators preferredbooks which viaw The core of this bibliography wasdeveloped in the the future of socialjustice and political s:abilityin following rnanner: adozen Latin American optimistically (usually citing different disciplines, were Latin America rather specialists, representing six Mexico as examples), they thought central Venezuela, Puerto Rico, and asked to choose the ten sources the eve-of-revolution Latin America. Duplications were while others were partial to to a study of school of interpretation. resolved and several otherLatin Americanists were the editor were rather usually in a specific Some of the selections by invited to review publications, which otherwise duplication of arbitrarily chosen to represent areas area. In aneffort to avoid unnecessary the bibliography(Leaf published guides for teachers, would have had no voice in other handbooks and example). Some omissions, asked to give priority to recent 1962, Buckley 1963, for the annotators were due to not having reviewcopies of the publications publications and to avoidincluding pre-1960 entries unavoidably given the opinions expressed in the in our hands on time, were whenever feasible. The able to anticipate of the specialist modest amount of time we were annotations are the responsibility of this Handbook. Excellent parenthesis at the end of the the publication deadline whose name appears in publications also haveundoubtedly been omitted review; the unsigned annotations wereprepared by also" entries were usually through oversight on our part. the editor. The "see A partial bibliographicalindex organized under six interpolated by the editorand do not necessarily found in the latter part of signed annotator. major categories can be carrythe approbation of the Latin American Studies" criterion from each the chapter "Pertinency in Rather than request a uniform Handbook. The full names entries, the annotators contained earlier in this specialist for the inclusion of herein and their addresses are to rely on their owncredentials, and of the publishers cited were left provided at the end of thebibliography. diversity of opinion wasencouraged. For example,

44 Abt (see Scott 1966) represent the major obstacle to communism, retains much ofits currency Adams, Richard N., J. P. Gil lin, A. R. Holmbert, today.(Groves) 0. Lewis, R. W. Patch, and C. Wag ley. Social Change inLatin America Today:Its Alexander, R. J. Today's Latin America. Anchor, Implications for United StatesPolicy. 1962; 263 pp., 95 cents. Bibliography, index. Vintage, 1961: 353 pp., $1.45. Index. A concise, balanced survey of the many An outgrowth of efforts to ascertain in and varied aspects of Latin life, written by an what manner politicalanalysts and historian. (Glab) policy-makers can best utilize recent findings of anthropologists on social change. Contains Alexander,R.J.Prophets of the Revolution. a lengthy introduction. (Dil !man) Macmillan, 1962; $4.95. Bibliography, index. Viewing the achievements of statesmen in Alba, Victor. The Mexicans: The Making of a Nation. other nations of the world, the student will Praeger, 1967; 268 pp., $6.95. Index. probably conclude that there is a great An excellent, readable account of the deficiency of them in Latin America. But social and politicalstruggles which give Latin America has had.great leaders who have Mexico its present character. had a lasting impact on the area. Presents a series of biographical sketches of some of the Anderson,R.J.Politics and Change inLatin most influential political figures of recent America. Van Nostrand,1967; 388 pp., Latin American history. While not a .$4.95. Notes, index. substitute for studies of real depth, provides A study of economic and social revolution. an ideal introduction for studentsconcerned Ferrets out some of the pertinent political with leadership as a general need. Gives influences which are determinants of greatest emphasis to political figures of the economic policy.Rejects--and correctly democratic left (Cirdenas, Betancourt, Haya so--the popular rationale which calls for a delaTorre, Figueres, etc.), butitalso drastic metamorphosis of present day Latin includes Fidel Castro, Getulio Vargas, Juan institutions in order to achieve economic Per On and Arturo Alessandri. (Groves) development and growth.Instead, pragmatically suggests the possibility of Alexander,R.J.The Venezuelan Democratic economic revolution taking place within the Revolution: A Profile of the Regime of framework of the present-day Latin societies Reimulo Betancourt. Rutgers U. P., 1964; by conbiningpoliticalinstitutions and $9.00. Bibliography, index. scientific technology imported from abroad Describes and evaluates the achievements with native imagination and resources. See of and challenges to the epochal regime of also:Schmitt, K. M., and D.D.Burks. Betancourt by one of his admirers. The Evolution or Chaos: Dynamics of Latin transformation of Venezuelan political life American Government and Politics. Praeger, under this government from the traditional 1963; 308 pp., $2.50. (Martel laro) militarism and dictatorship to a popular-based,participant democracy has Andreski (see Burnett) made this era extraordinarily influential in Latin America. (Groves) Alexander, R. J. (see also: Martel laro)

Alexander, R.J. Communism in Latin America. Arciniegas, Germin (McVicker and Soto,eds.). Rutgers U. P., 1957; $9.00. Bibliography, Latinoamérica: el continente de siete colores. index. Harcourt, 1967; 315 pp., $6.50. Suplemento Thislargelyhistorical treatment was cronolOgico, vocabulario. written before the Cuban revolution and, An historical, literary, and cultural survey consequently,is today somewhat dated. by a Colombian. The 18 chapters offer too Nonethellss,its description of much information and not enough concepts. "traditionalist" communismisusefulin Lots of engaging photos but no excercises; understanding the rivalries and animosities suitable for the 3rd year secondary or college that today exist between the Fidelistas and student. The author's opinions (sometimes the "old-line" Communist parties. facetious)lend themselves to discuion Alexander's major thesis, that indigenous ("Matthews, en misiOn de periodista en Cuba, political movements of the democratic left descubriO un d6 que Castro estaba vivo,

45 cuando todos lo creran muerto.El define territories possessing uniformity in entusiasmo que le produjo el descubrimiento patterrs and problems of resource use and le hizo, para siempre, castrista" [p. 263-41]). other cultural phenomena, a more realistic A paperback by the same publisher and image would be expressed by five cultural editors (Temas de Arciniegas: invitacitin a complexes. Proposes division of South conversar,leer y escribir,1967; $3.50) America intogeneralized culture spheres presents brief essays about this hemisphere, disregarding existing territorial borders. The followed by drills and exercises; not culture spheres are:( 1) illustrated. European-Commercial, (2) Tropical Plantation,(3)I ndo-Subsistence,(4) Asturias, Miguel Angel (tr, by Partridge) El Señor Mestizo-Transitional, and (5) Presidente. Atheneum, 1963; 287 pp., $5.00. Undifferentiated. See also: West, R. C., and Asturias has written of the legend and J. P. Augelli. Middle America: Its Lands and poetry of the Guatemalan Indian, for which Peoples (Prentice-Hall, 1966; 482 pp.). he is savored in intellectual circles, and also (Dillman) has written 5 novels of social protest, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature (1967). This English translation of Balassa (see Dell) his first and best protest novel restores the Latin America and the original Spanish title in this 1967 printing Bayitch, S. A. (ed.). it The Caribbean: A Bibliography of Works in (the earlier English editions called English. Oceana, 1967; 943 pp., $30.00. President).Historically the firstLatin American novel to use terror as a central I ndex. Most complete bibliography of its type; motif, the translation offers apoignant not annotated; "...selection of topics experience of life--and death--under favors...those dealing with economic, legal, dictatorship. The translator has abbreviated and political matters. .." More suitable for some of the tiresome sound reduplication of college rather than secondary reference. the original and offers English equivalents to the nicknames. This English version, unlike Benham, F., and H. A. Holley. A Short Introduction the difficult Spanish, can be recommended to to the Economy of Latin America. Oxford U. students. P., 1964; 169pp., $4.00. Bibliography, index. Asturias' other protest novels are Both a descriptive survey of the region's published in Spanish by Editorial Losada resources, industrialprogress,chronic (Buenos Aires): Weekend en Guatemala, a inflation, and international trade role and a protest of the U.S. intervention of 1954; and consideration of specific cases (Argentina, the anti-imperialistic trilogy, Viento fuerte, Brazil,Chile, Colombia, Peru, and El papa verde, and Los ojos de los enterrados, Venezuela). An excellent introduction and a which attacks the United Fruit Co. good door-opener to other books in the operations in Guatemala. Oxford series which focus upon individual countries, e.g., Argentina by Pendle, Bolivia Auge!li, J.P. The Controversial Image of Latin by Osborne, Lilo Linke's Ecuador, Owens' America: A Geographer's View. Professional Peru, and Cline's Mexico. (Martellaro) Paper No. 24. Published by the National Council for Geographic Eduntion, March, Benjamin, H. R. Higher Education in the American 1963; 10 pp., 25 cents. Map. Available from: Republics. McGraw-Hill,1965; 224 pp., Publication Center of the National Council $8.00. Index. for Geographic Education,Illinois State Good introduction to problems in University, Normal, Illinois.) comparative case studies of representative Demonstrates that accurate teaching of the countries. See also: Comparative Education cultural complexities can be achieved only if Review (monthly), 525 West 120th St., N. the myths that warp the popular image of Y., N. Y. 27; Kazamias, A. M., and E. H. this vastarea are debunked. The most Epstein. Schools inTransition:Essays in disturbing of the myths are: (1) uniformity Comparative Education (Allyn, 1968; 421 and homogeneity mistakenly associated with pp., Bibliography, index). Also . ' fol lowing Latin American cultures, and (2) stigma of 3 occasional publications from The Center of environmental impossibility frequently given Latin American Studies,U.ofKansas, to much of the area's climate and land Lawrence:Viewpoints on Education and surface. Because national boundaries seldom Social Change in Latin America (No. 5,

46 1965); Mitchell, W. H. CSUCA: A Regional superficially turistic. Worth showingas an Strategy for Higher Education in Central introduction to country,but not worth America (No. 7, 1967); Sanchez, L. A., and I. lingering over. Barrientos.La formaci6n del estudiente universitario (No. 11, 1968). (Gutierrez) Burnett, B. G., and K. F. Johnson (eds.). Political Forces in Latin America: Dimensions of the Bernstein, M. D. (ed.). Foreign Investment in Latin Quest for Stability. Wadsworth, 1968; 587 America. Knopf, 1966; 305 pp., $2.50. pp. Bibliography, index. Contributions by a number of leading Each chapter deals with a geographicarea. authorities (such as H. A. Ferns, John F. Excellent1 2-page review of the Gallagher, and Dean Rusk). Consists of a stability-instability contiuum (p. 511). See composite of case studies of foreign also: Andreski, S. Parasitism and Subversion: investments. Offers insightinto the The Case of Latin America. Random, 1966; economic, political, and social impact of 303 pp., $5.95. Index. f oreign investment and abetter understanding of the basis of the conflicting Burns (see Wagley 1963) attitudes of Latin people vis a* vis foreign investors and the nations they Burr, R. N. Our Troubled Hemisphere: Perspectives represent. (Martellaro) on United States-Latin American Relations. Brookin7,Inst.,1967; 256 pp.,$6.75. Bierck (see Pendle 1963) Bibliography, index. Views inter-American relations as an Boorstein (see Zeitlin 1963) extremely complex area where "adjustment [s]in power Boxer, C. R. The Golden Age of Brazil, 1675-1750: relationships.. _affect many sectors whose Growing Pains of a Coionial Society. U. of relationship to the original problem may have Calif. P., 1962; $8.50. been but dimly perceived if at all...[T] he An illuminating survey by an English problems in United States-Latin American historian who has made the study of the relatio ns assume an essentiallypolitical Portuguese colonial empire his solution" (p. 228). Feels that the United lifework. (Keen) States will have to abandon coercion in favor of winning "the support of weaker nations Brand, D. D. Mexico: Land of Sunshine and Shadow, by reconciling their interests with those of Van N ostrand,1966; 159 pp.,$1.75. the United States...[through] ...painstaking Selected bibliography, index, 5 maps. a rrangements, discussions, and Not only captures the diversity that is the compromises.. ." (p. 230). geography of Mexico, but provokes further Presents a"rightist" American view of exploration of other works on the individual solutions, but sees the problems well. Some topics presented. "Because most people in would say Burr offers ahard-headed, the United States tend to form their opinion practical view of the complex problems of of Latin America in terms of...Mexico," Latin America; others might criticizehis initial study of the country might well begin optimism founded on an American model of with this work. Use of an atlasis compromise.Believes the United States indispensble for identification of the welter should manipulate "progress"inLatin of places mentioned.Land, people, and America (cf. 234-6). See also: Wood, B. The history are treated with affection by one who Making of the Good Neighbor Policy has studied Mexillo for 40 years; result is an (Norton, 1961; 438 pp., $2.45. Bibliographic incisive understanding ofthe nature of notes, index ); and Augelli, J. P. (ed.). The Mexico and its problems. (Dillman) Community in RP vlutionary Latin America (U. of Kansas: Center of Latin American Buckley,P.The Hispanic World:El mundo Studies, 1964; 36 pp.); Rodgers, W. D. The hispinico. Holt, 1963. 18 sets of filmstrips, Twilight Struggle: The Alliance for Progress tape (one side English, other Spanish),text on and The Politics of Development in Latin tape. America (Random, 1967; 301 pp., $6.95. Very uneven in quality. Ranges from bad I ndex). (Guadalajara) to fairly good (Guatemala). Pictures usually artistic but oftci not chosen Bushnell, G. H. S. Peru. Praeger, 1957; $3.45. Charts, to illustrate any overall cultural point; rather photographs, line drawings.

47 A conspectus of the whole of Peruvian useful tothe student as to the professional history, summarizing all that is known about historianoranthropologist. Von Hagen's prehistoricPeru, from thefirsthunting extensiverearrangement of the original texts culture, thousands of years B.C., to the Inca to forma single and continuous storyis empire conquered by the Spanish.(Bartell) logical. His footnotes, however distract.(Morris) Castro, Americo. lberoamerica. Holt, 1954; 322 pp., Cline (see Benham) $5.60. Vocabulary. Well-illustrated, overly-ambitious historical Clissold,S.Latin America: A Cultural Outline. reader designed for intermediate or advanced Harper, 1965; 160 pp., $1.45. Index. Spanish classes with no previous knowledge of area. A very superficial description and Discusses topics such as "the Aztec and appraisal of the history and culture of all the the Inca outlook on life and the violent countries of Latin America. For example, im pact of Spanish and Portuguese civilization,to the achievements of the Brazil is discovered, invaded, subdued, given colonial period and the emergence of the independence, and has her racial problems, distinctive and sometimes consciously religious, economic, and political life, natural mestizo culture of the modern republics," resources and fine arts exposed in twenty from the point of view of the pensadores. pages--allthis with photographs included. F i nal chapter is on Hispanic-American Asks acute, perceptive questions, and quotes freely fromLatin American intellectuals. culture, whichisCastro's synonym for Divided into four sections: The Indian Mind, literature. ( Rivera) The Spanish Imprint, A Mind in the Making, Chang-Rodriguez, E., and H. Kantor. La America and Brazil. Bibliography lists 32 works of Latina de hoy. Ronald, 1961; 366 pp., $4.50. Latin American literature appearingin Designed as background for classes in 3rd English translation. The author says many year conversational Spanish.Consists of engagingthings. (Forinstance:"To be essays,speeches, and documentswith anti-American seems to be the hallmark of questions by the editors following each most Latin Americans today,asbeing selection.Readings treat topics such as anti-Spanish was the hailmark ofan earlier disarmament, land reform,continental generation" [p. 11-12] ). unification, and other cultural and political Students interested in the literature of commentaries common to most of area. intellectual history of Latin America would Writings of educators, authors, and statesmen find this paperback to bea cultural approach ( including 3 ex-presidents)offer a to the subject. contemporary view. A rubric, vaitten in English, introduces each author and Coe, M. D. Mexico. Praeger, 1962, $3.45. Brief subject. ( Rivera) bibliography, maps, charts,drawings, photographs. Chevalier, Francois.(tr. by Eustis; ed. by L. B. A distinguished archaeologist has given us Simpson). Land and Society in Colonial abrief,authoritative survey of Mexican Mexico: The Great Hacienda. U. of Calif. P., archaeology from the late Pleistocene to the 1963; $8.50. coming of the Spanish. Carefully covers the A model study of one ofthe most early cultures and the rise of the great important ofcolonialinstitutions by a civilizations. See also:Coe. The Maya French scholar who combines great learning (Praeger, 1966; 252 pp., $3.45. Illustrated, with lightness of touch. (Keen) index).(Bartell)

Cieza de Le6n, Pedro de. The Incas of Pedro de Cieza Columbus, Christopher. Four Voyages to the New de Le6n. U. of Oklahoma P., 1959, $5.95. World. Citadel, 1961; 240 pp., $1.75. Index. I ndex. A reprint of one published a century ago, Written by perhaps the most sensitive and with the addition of an excellent six-page accurate of the Spanish chroniclers who introduction by John Fagg. This pocket wrote about Peru when its native life was still edition is bilingual (Latin and English for the intact. This translation is both faithful to the first voyage; Spanish and English for the original and pleasant to read. A firsthand other three), with the English occupying the account and one of the best in print; its top half of each page. The print is rather relativelylight narrative style makes it as small, and the edition not too attractive.

48 Comparative Education Review (see Benjamin 1965) Considine, J. J. (ed.). The Religious Dimension in the New Latin America. CICOP, 1966; 238 pp., $2.95. Index. Condorito No. 15,Santiago de Chile: Editora Zig-Zag Third in a series of studies by Catholic (DistributedbyExtracurricularPrograms, scholars. The other two, also edited by Fr. University Station, Provo,Utah),1965. Considine: Social Revolution in the New ($1.00).Notas y ejercicios ($1.25); Latin America: A Catholic Appraisal (1965); Vocabulario( 2 5cents); Libreto The Churchin the New Latin America correspondiente a ejercicios orales (25 cents); (1964). See also Shapiro 1967.(below). Tapes ($30.00). The basic unitis the first mentioned above, which is a comic book worthy of the Covarrubias,Miguel.Indian Art of Mexico and attention of Spanish teachers of intermediate Central America. Knopf, 1957; $17.50. and advanced sections. Probably the best way Ancient regional cultures are described in to use the set is in a language laboratory or in terms of the great art styles they produced. the classroom with a tape recorder in front of The author was one of Mexico's areat the class. The students follow the taped muralists as wellas a student of sequence, then refer to the Notas to do the anthropology. Thus the artist's feeling for exercises. The Libreto contains the taped style and problems of execution are script and can be used as reinforcement aftee combined with the objectivity and cultural the work has once been done in class. The relativism of the anthropologistin Vocabulario is a duplication of the glossary Covarrubias' study. The illustrations by the at the end of Notas and can be dispensed author are magnificent. (Wicke) with. Crawford, Condorito presents a number of cultural R. W. A Century of Latin American advantages: (1) the speech and accompanying Thought. Rev. ed., Praeger, 1961; 322 pp., drawing are authentic, (2) while the humor is $2.50. Bibliography, index. Latin, American students have no trouble A classic dealing with intellectual history "getting" it, (3) through the use of "vos" and from emancipation to the Mexican Revolution. Among the figures treated are: localidioms, the studentis drawn into greater appreciation of dialectical differences, Echeverria, Alberdi, Sarmiento (onthe (4) sections can be skipped without injury to subject of independence and nationhood); the student's future success. Then, too, the Bello,Lastarria, and Bilbao (from the fact that the materials are obviously generation of 1942 and after); Jose E. Rod& Chilean--and very few of us can pretend to and Vaz Ferreira (representing a reactionary know much about Chile--allows the teacher wave); Montalbo, Gonzalez Prada, and Marri to relax into the role of student: he can not Tegul (representing the rebellious spirit or be expected to know all of the modismos, fighters for justice and liberty); Brazilian etc. This reviewer has used Condorito on the thinkers such as Da Cunha, Manuel Bomfim, second- and third-year collegelevels and and Freyre, and Mexican thinkers such as found the students especially enthusiastic on Mora, Ramirez, Vasconcelos, and Ramos are the 2nd level. also represented. (Gutierrez) Crow, A. Spanish American Life. Rev. ed., Holt, 1963; 294 pp., $5.80. Vocabulary, maps. Connell-SmithG. The Inter-American System. Illustrated reader for first-year Spanish OxfordU.P.,1966; 376 pp.,$8.75. classes. A general introduction into each Bibliography, index. country ofLatin America along with a The best book that has been published on superficial view of the spirit and customs of the Inter-American system (OAS) in recent the Spanish American people. Many of the years. Part is a well-balanced historical review selections are taken from works by native of the system as it has evolved; the remainder authors,e.g.,Dario, Palma, and Quiroga. is a discussion of its activities and structures Reading aids, exercises and tapes for each and the uses to which they have been put. chapter facilitate use of the text.(Rivera) The author makes short shrift of the usual platitudes and partial truths that have been Current History. Current History Inc.: 95 cents per used to defend the system, but at the same copy. timeisfairin giving credit foritsreal This monthly usually devotes one of its achievements andpotentialities. (Groves) twelve annualissues toLatinAmerica.

49 Recommended for students who already of foreign enterprises and the attitudes of know something of Latin America. (Glab) nationalism and continentalisminthe integration process. Da Cunha, Euclides (tr. by Putnam). Rebellion in the Offers an objective, lucid, comprehensive Back lands (Os SertOes). U. of Chicago P., analysis of economic integration. See also: 1944; 532 pp., $2.95. Bibliography, glossary, Scaperlanda, "EconomicI ntegration, index. Institutional Change, and Economic Deals with the Brazilian peasant resistance Development," Duquesne Review 11(1), of 1896-97. Part One is a detailed description Spring 1966, 65-73; Mitchell, C. "Common of the land and the man of Northeastern Market: The Future of a Commitment: Punta Brazil.Part Two consists of the rise of delEste and After,"I nter-American Antonio Conselheiro (leader of the rebels) Economic Affairs 21(3),Winter 1967, and the reasons for his great success. The 73-87; Balassa, Bela. Economic Development author links the propensity for fanaticism and Integration (Mexico, D. F.: Centro de and rebellion with biology. This book, which Estudios Monetarios Latinoamericanos, has been compared with T. E. Lawrence's 1965; 157 pp.). (Scaperlanda) Seven Pillars of Wisdom, is very interesting and readable but limited by the author's del R lc),Angel.Clash and Attraction-,f Two oversimplified view of race and Cultures: The Anglo-Saxon Worlds in resistance. ( R ivera) America. Louisiana State U. P., 1965; 127 pp., $5.00. Debray, Regis. Revolution in the Revolution? Grove, Examines historicalrelation of 1967; 126 pp., 95 cents. Anglo-Saxon world with Spanish colonial Debray, the French journalist now in jail empire, then studies how the Spanish in Bolivia, has written a defense of guerrilla Americans see theU.S.--areality totally warfare as the means to achieve successful separated from the old vision such as in revolution in Latin America. He dismisses the Rodo.'s Ariel. For del Rio, there are presently more classic means of violent revolution, i.e., no basic discrepancies between the proletarianrevolt in the citiesled by a conceptions of the world and man in the bolshevick-type party, as largely irrelevant in English and Spanish sides of America; the Latin America. The revolution does not differences lie in resources and the way they require aparty(expecially not an have .been developed. (Vazquez-Bigi) urban-based or urban-directedparty), nor extensivepoliticalwork--support for the Denton, C. F. "Interest Groupsin Panama and the revolutionaries will come from the peasants Central American CommonMarket," in the armed struggle itself. For a provocative Inter-American Economic Affairs21(1), review of the problem of counter-insurgency (Summer 1967), 49-60. research and the socialscientist,see: Economic integrationcannot occur in a Horowitz, I. L. (ed.). The Decline and Fall of vacuum. National pressure groups must exist Project Camelot(M.I.T.,1967; 385 pp., to influence national policy to theextent a $3.95. Index). (Roman) nation becomes involvedin such multi-national schemes. Analyzesthe various Dell, S. A Latin American Common Market? Oxford pressure groups in Panama, which hasyet to U. P., 1966, 336 pp., $10.00. Bibliography, join either of the Latin Americaneconomic index. integration efforts, suggestingthe internal After developing the case for the necessity changes required if Panama isto become a of integration, examines the Latin American participant in either of theLatin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA) and the economic integration Central American Common Market. The organizations. (Scaperlanda) present problems of the LAFTA, the problems of transport and communications, DiazdelCastillo,Bernal. The Discoveryand the problems of special dispensations for the Conquest of Mexico (1517-1521)Noonday, least developed member nations,the 1956; 478 pp., $2.95. Index. connection between integration and Eminently readableaccount of Cortes' economic planning, the problems resulting adventuresome conquest toldby one of the from reciprocity requirements and the lack soldiers who accompanied himthrough the of a regional payments union are considered whole campaign. Has relativelylarge type and in sequence. Concludes by evaluating the role is generally pleasant, butnot illustrated.

50 Diegues Ainior, Manuel, and B. Wood (eds.). Social 1826-1867; 1867-1907), published between Science in Latin America. Columbia U. P., 1927 and 1937. (Smith,$4.50; $8.00; 1967; 335 pp., $4.50. Chapter bibliographies. $7.00.) (Ely) Excellent recent review written by Latin Americans. For an earlier review written by Draper (see Zeitlin 1963) North American social scientists, see Wag ley, C. (ed.). Social Science Research on Latin Educational Media Council. The Educational Media America (Columbia U. P., 1964; 333 pp.). Index: Vol.6,Foreign Languages. McGraw-Hill, 1968; $6.70 with Supplement. Disselhoff, H. D., and S. Linne. The Art of Ancient America. Crown, 1961; $6.95. The Educational Media Index: Vol. 12, When the Spaniards arrived in the Western Geography and History. McGraw-Hill, 1968; hemisphere they foundcitiesof great $7.45 with Supplement. splendor and civilizationthatin some Valuable reference guides to non-book respects outstripped their own. The sacked ruins have been rediscovered by materials. archaeologistsinrecent times and their Englekirk, J.E.,et al(eds.). An Anthology of splendid art brought to the attention of the Spanish AmericanLiterature.Rev.ed., world. Describes the broadhistorical, Appleton, 1968; 864 pp., $8.95. sociological and religious backgrounds of the; This title is included among works devoted cultures which produced these art works and to cultural themes for the following reasons: includes 60 striking color plates of the work it is the literary anthology best suited for a itself. (Bartell) study of the cultures of different zones and theirhistorical development; a sizable Di Tel la, Torcuato S., et al. Argentina, sociedad de portion deals with the important field of masas. Buenos Aires: Editorial Universitaria Latin-American essay--sociological, historical, (EUDEBA), 1965; 287 pp., $4.00. political--with names like Sarmiento An excellent,highly technical though (Facundo), Marti" (Nuestra America), Rodó readable work for anyone wishing to advance (Ariel), Vasconcelos (La raza ceismica). Even in the study of Argentine history, sociology, if their ideas are not always based on facts, and economics, after reading works like the and at times verge on myth, they were ones by Whitaker, Scobie, and Martel laro, influential. A poem like Echeverr6's La annotated in this bibliography. cautiva, for instance, is an excellent lesson in These studies, and others which have been the history and culture of the southern appearingingreat nuenbersinArgentina Pampas; book also contains an enlightening lately, import a healthy reaction against the analogy to our "Wild West" literature as it romantic orientation of essayists earlier in was seen by Sarmiento. For alarger this century and a return--with up-to-date treatment of the sociologicalessay,see scholarly methods and style--to the Ripoll, Carlos (ed.), Conciencia intelectual de pesitivistic attitudesof two and three America (Las Americas, generations ago eminently represented by 1966). (Vizquez-Bigi) sociologists such as Jose Ingenieros and Rail Orgaz. ( Vizquez-B igi) Espinosa, Aurelio M., Jr., R. L. Franklin, and K. A. Mueller. Cultura conversación y repaso. Dozer,D. M.(ed.). The Monroe Doctrine:Its Heath, 1967; 325 pp. Modern Significance. Knopf, 1965; 208 pp., Beautifullyillustrated and designed for $2.50. Bibliography. intermediate or advanced Spanish classes, it Anthology of articles, speeches, editorials, unfortunately equates culture, for the most and statements of official policy, as well as part, with literature. About a third of the excerpts from 1962 Senate debate on Cuban book concerns itself with Latin America, the m issilecrisis,preceded byeditor's own rest with Spain. The pedagogical mechanisms 35-page introductory survey of Monroe ("precticas orales," "aspectos gramaticales," Doctrine from 1823 to 1962. Thrcughout 26 "ejercicios escritos," etc.) are not designed to selections, succeeds inpresenting major emphasize non-literary cultural items. interpretations of the Doctrine and principal attitudes toward it throughout the Americas, Ewing,EthelE.Latin American Culture. Rand Europe andAsia. Seealso:Perkins,D. McNally, 1958; 65 pp. Index, Pronouncing Monroe Doctrine. 3 vol:(1823-1826; Vocabulary.

51 This handsome bookletis a metropolis through a socialist revolution. See disappointment. Although it offers a brief, also: Magdoff, H. Economic Aspects of U.S. simplywritten panoramic view of Latin Imperialism (Monthly Review, America, itis written from a rather naive 1966). (Roman) American point of view: "The United States had abandoned its role of policeman for the Freyre, Gilberto. The Masters and the Slaves.Knopf, hemisphere by 1930.. ."; "[Latin America's] 1966; 432 pp., $2.95. Extensive glossary of interestin freedom and law has generally Brazilian, Portuguese, American Indian, and placed them on the side of the United States African Negro expressions,including in the struggle against the Soviet bloc." Many botanical and zoological terms. of the photographs are too obviously from Studies the sexual, social, and economic officialsources (StandardOil, American behavior of the Portuguese colonizerof Airlines, United Nations, etc.). Although the tropical northeastern Brazil. Freyre vividly book's most recent copyright is 1967, it does portrays theever-influentialpatriarchal not show signs of having been brought up to system which produced,through date. miscegenation, the elasticity in the gradual "blurring of the colorline" and which Fagg (see Martin) brought about,relatively speaking,a "balance" between the masters and the Faron (see Lewis 1951) slaves, the intellectuals and the illiterates. Freyre's main thesis:that the culture of F lorit,Eugenio, andB. P. Patt.Retratos de Brazil emanates from the patriarchal system. Hispanoamerica. Holt, 1962; 246 pp., $5.40. Although it is an over-simplification to claim A reader with studies on archaeology, such a vasthistorical and sociological architecture,plasticarts, and music, and inheritance from modern Brazil, the colonial chapters on representative Spanish-American traditions are deep-rootedinthe men through the centuries including their ,psychological makeup of its people, rulers, original writings. Has a questionnaire and a and main culturalinstitutions. A sharp vocabulary at the end. "Culture" in most of criticism of the Freyre-Tannenbaum thesis is this book is understood in the connotation of available in M. Harris, Patterns of Race in the that which is exceilent in historical deeds, in Americas (Walker, 1964; the arts, letters, scholarly pursuits, etc. The $1.95).(Gutierrez) choice of materials reflect the most typical (ifthereis such acategory) or perhaps Fuentes, Carlos (tr. by Hileman). Where the Air is frequent or consecratedLatin-American Clear. Obolensky, 1960; 376 pp., $4.95. tastes, and the high school teacher with an This novel,reminiscent of John Dos affinity for the same tastes and attitudes may Passos' U.S.A., attempts to reduce Mexico to findinits pages abundant material and 376 pages of mosaics of society fro n which inspiration for his classes.(Vgzquez-Bigi) the reader is to construct an idea of what it means to be a Mexican. The story line Form and Blum (see Urquidi) follows the rise and fall of Federico Robles, a fictional composite ofa former revolutionary. The author keeps the reader Frank, A. G. Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America. Monthly Review, 1967; 298 jumping from within the characters to the exterior point at which a new character pp., $7.50. Attacks several myths. Argues that the entersRobles'life.Fuentes places each character in his social niche in terms of what countries arestructurally underdeveloped and are getting poorer; that they are poor his life means to others. The tone of the novel reflects the anguish and seemingly loss because the devePoped nations are rich; that their poverty is not due to any feudalism of purpose the Mexicans have felt since the Revolution. This English translation of La sinLe a l I of Latin America is part of the world region ma's transparente (Mexico City: Fondo capitalist system; that the so-called national de Culture Econ6mica, 1958), can easily be bourgeoisieisneither dynamic nor adopted as supplementary reading in courses independent, but rather a compromised class, dependent finanr:ially,politically, and other than Spanish literature. (Rivera) militarily on the U. S.; and that for Latin America to develop it will have to break out Gibson, C. The Colonial Period in Latin American ofthesatelliterelationshipwiththe History. Washington, D. C.: Service Center

52 for Teachers of History, Pub. No. 7, 1958; 24 . Che Guevara Speaks. Merit, 1967; 159 pp., 75 cents. Bibliography. pp., $1.95. Guide to recent changes of historical interpretations of period. Prepared primarily .Che Guevara on Guerrilla Warfare (ed. by for secondary school teachers,it proceeds H. C. Peterson). Praeger, 1961; $3.95. from general works to such topics as the structure and operation of the Spanish . Reminiscenses of the Cuban Empire inAmerica, the BlackLegend, Revolutionary War. Monthly Review, 1968; cultural history, Portuguese Brazil, and the 287 pp., $6.95. independence movements. (Ely) A samplingof theseisessentialto understanding what guerrilla warfare is, who Gibson, C. Spain in America. Harper, 1966; $1.95. are the participants, what are their goals. For Annotated bibliography. anhistoricalperspective,see also: A masterful synthesis of the subject, based Humphreys, R. A., and J. Lynch. The Origins on the most recent findings, by a scholar who of the atin American Revolutions, himself has made important contributions to 1808-18..., (Knopf, 1966; 308 pp., $2.50. his field. Highly readable, clear. (Keen) Bibliography). (Roman)

Gil,Federico. Tin.PoliticalSystem of Chile. Gunther, J.Inside South America. Pocket Books, Houghton Mifflin, 1966; 323 pp., $2.95. 1967; $1.25. Maps. Bibliography, index. I nformati3n and statistics on every A highly readable study; one of a very few country in South America, laced liberally nation studies in the Latin American area with stories and opinions of the 722 people devoted to an evaluation of the political that Gunther interviewed. Over a year of system rather thantopoliticalhistory. travel and research went into the book and it Written after 1964, it contains an extensive isup to date. An extensive bibliography discussion of the electoral outcome of the scattered throughout the text.(Bartell) presidential race of that year and of the Christian Democratic Party. The best part of Guetzkow (see Scott 1966) the book is certainly the chapter on political parties. The Chilean party structure has been Hall, E. The Silent Language. Premier, 1959; 192 influential and has evolved with a great deal pp., 60 cents. Bibliography, index. of continuity over the years, and as such it A must on the reading list of those who has particular importance. (Groves) want to understand the culture of any society. Points out how people "talk" to one Gordon, W. C. The Political Economy of Latin another without the use of words--whether America. Columbia U. P.,1965; 401 pp. they be North Americans or Uruguayans. The Bibliography, index. spoken languageisonly one means of An international economist presents in this communication. Our manners and behavior his second book on the Latin American often speak more plainly than words. economy, a comprehensive, refined, survey Tradition, taboo, environment, habits and of economic behavior andinstitutions. customs which are powerful influences on Included are analyses of private and public character and personality vary greatly from market organization;of economic welfare countr; to country. This, then, is a colteul and relatedactivities(socialsecurity and provocative excursion into anthropology legislation,labor movement); of economic as itpertains to day-to-day life and the development industrialization,capital culture patterns of our own and other formation; and of trade and finance (foreign countries. (Glab) exchange, public finance; banking, business cycles). Hamill, H. M., Jr.(ed.). Dictatorship in Spanish Unless the concepts contained in the first America. Knopf,1966; 244 pp.,$2.50. two chapters which trace the evolution of Bibliography. Latin America's "economic system" are well Editor's 22-page introduction places understood, oneislikely to substantially dictators in wider frame of misjudge contemporary reference--namely, "more impersonal social, events. (Scaperlanda) economic, intellectual, and, even, psychological forces in the history of Latin Guevara, Ernesto "Che". GuerrillaWarfare. Monthly America." His 18 selections are intended to Review: $3.50. explore and explain the caudillo, "one of the

53 major historical phenomena of the region." Hanke,L.Spanish Struggle for Justicein the Beginning with some modern theories of Conquest of America. Little, 1966;$1,95. personalism and dictatorshipinHispanic Classical 1949 study. Hanke'sresearch in culture,the essays then trace Spanish Spain and Spanish America led him torefute American strongmen and theirevolution the so-called "black legend"concerning the from the early19th century down to bad treatment of natives inthe Spanish conspicuous but somewhat different types in colonies.For Hanke--notwithstandingthe recent decades.(Ely) abuses committed in practice bySpaniards in the New World--no nation in historymade a "Handbook on Latin America," Intercom 8 (5). more sincere effort thanSpain to defend the Foreign Policy Assoc., Sept-Oct 1966; 24-88, Indiansof America.Represents a major $1.00. Several bibliographies. turning point in the interpretationof Spanish Combines a wealth of qcneral information history.(Thereisa Spanishtranslation, not easily foundinbooklet form and Madrid: Aguilar, 1959.)(Wzquez-Bigi) information on how to obtain materials on institutions and agencies, an annotated list of Hanson, E. P. Puerto Rico: Ally forProgress. Van readily obtainable films about Latin America, Nostrand, 1962; 136 pp.,$1,45.Brief not tu mention an 11-page bibliographyof bibliography, index. recent publications. (Ely) Traces the means by which Puerto Rico has been transformed from a poorhouseof the Caribbean to the highest percapita Handbook of Latin American Studies, No. 28 income level in Latin America becauseof its (Humanities). U. of Florida P., 1966; 424 pp , unique affiliation with the United Statesand $20.00. by sheer determination of its"bootstraps." Contains 5,000 annotated selections culled See also:Hill, R., J. M. Stycos, and K. W. from an initial corpus of 50,000 articles and Back. The Family and Population Control:A books in the fields of art (15%), history Puerto Rican Experiment in Social Change (25%), language (5%), literature (35%), music (New Haven:College & Univ.P.,1959 (5%), philosophy (10%), and bibliography [paperback1 9651; 481pp.,$3.45. (5%). See directly below. Bibliography, index).(Dillman) Handbook of Latin American Studies; No. 29 (Social Sciences). U. of Florida P., 1967; 720 pp., Hanson, E. P. "New Conquistadors in the Amazon Jungle." Americas 17 (9) 1965, 1-8, 35 cents. $25.00. Thousands of annotated selections of Plans for gaining access to the suspected publications on anthropology, economics, abundant wealth of the Amazon Basin are education,geography, government and now a reality. The Basin,almost as large as the United States (minus Alaska and Hawaii), internationalrelations,law, and sociology. Each section begins with a brief surveyby has been a socio-economic vacuumloosely the editors. The 1968 edition will review the attached toBrazil,Venezuela, Colombia, humanities again, and the 1969 edition the Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. The six countries, have social sciences, and so--one hopes--alternately with varying degrees of emphasis, forever. turned their attention toward development For the teacher who wants to be able to of the long-neglectedregionacross the refer advanced students to relevant literature Andes. Capstone of future development is a (contained, perhaps, in a near-by university forest-edged highway along the eastern slopes library),these volumes are compact and of the Andes, beginning in Venezuela and indispensable. terminatinginBolivia. The road,with auxiliary routes, will open millions of acres Hanke,L. Modern Latin America, Continent in for settlement providing a possible safety Ferment. Vol.I:2nd ed. Mexico and valve for rapidly-growing population. Caribbean. Vol. II: 2nd ed. South America. Moreover,industrialraw materialswill Van Nostrand, 1959; 256 pp. each, $1.45 become available to the "Amazon" countries, each volume. Bibliography. and the cultivation of new lands could ease Good general introductions, followed by food supply problems.Forhistorical short sections onregions and major perspective, see Morse,R.M. T he countries, and selections from authorities on Bandeirantes: The Historical Role of the special problems. Can be advantageously used BrazilianPathfinders(Knopf, 1965; 215 in conjunction with Keen's pp., $2.50).(Dillman) Readings.( Wzquez-Bigi) 54 Haring,C.H. The Spanish Empirein America. $2.25. Bibliography, index. Harcourt, 1963, A classical study. History of ideas, cultural A great Harvard historian sums up the movements, representative personalities. Also researches of alifetime. Indispensable for in Spanish: Historia de la cultura en America i nstitutionalhistory.Should supplement hispanica(Mexico:Fondo deCultura Gibson(see above) for the teacher or student EcOnomica,1947). (Vgzquez-Bign who wishes additional information. (Keen) Herring, H. A. A History of Latin America. 2nd ed., Harris (see Freyre) Knopf, 1961;845 pp.,$8.00. Biblio7aphy, index. H auch, C. C. The Current SituationinLatin One of the better orpnized and more American Education.U.S.Government readable general histories. Stronger on wars Printing Offices,1963; 30 pp., 15cents. of independence and national period than Selected references. precolumbian and colonialeras.Quite This pamphlet deals in general with the effective when used in conjunction with educational administration, organization, and Keen's Readings (see below). Helpful--and structure of the representative systems .of legiblemaps sprinkled throughout text, education. The statements made in this short which is followed by tables giving useful comparative study are accurate but ought to statistics for individual countries.(Ely) be documented inthelightofrecent statistical changes. The reader should refer to Hirschman, A. 0. Latin American Issues: Essays and pamphlets on individual countries published Comments. Twentieth Century, 1961; 201 by the Superintendent ofDocuments, pp., $1.45. Government PrintingOffice,Washington, The book is made up of seven independent D.C.: Education in Peru, 1964, 30 cents; components.First, the ideologiesof Education in Chile, 1964, 20 cents; The economic development are considered. There Development of Education in Venezuela, is a short essay by ViCtor Alba on the "Latin 1963,55cents. (Gutierrez) American Style and the New Social Forces." An anonymous note on Inter-American Heath, D.B., and R. N. Adams (eds.). Contemporary relations and two comments on the note (one Cultures and Societies of Latin America: A by Lincoln Gordon) is next in sequence. For Reader in the Social Anthropology of Middle those who have a "unitary" view of inflation, and South America and the Caribbean. the next several papers analyze the "causes" Random, 1965; 586 pp. Bibliography. of inflation in Latin America and the related Contains 28 articles written by different "monetarist-structuralist" controversy. experts, organized under 4 major entries: The Economic integration as analyzed by both a delineationofculturalentitiesinLatin U. S. economist and a Mexican economist America; Land, agriculture, and economics; ( Victor Urquidi)precedes the last essay Social organization; and Views of the world. which analyzes the land reform issue in Latin Each of the 4 sectionsbegins with an America. (Scaperlanda) introduction by one of the editors.

Heilbroner, R. The Great Ascent. Harper, 1963;158 Horcasitas, Fernando. De Porfirio Diaz a Zapata: pp., 95 cents. Index. memoria nahuatl de Milpa Alta. Universidad Deals with the problems of economic Autonoma de Mexico,I nstituto de development faced by the underdeveloped I nvestigacionesHistoricas,Mexico,D.F. world. Short, cogent, highly readable. Brings (Serie deH istoria Moderna y the "dismal science" of economics alive with Contemporanea, No. 8),1968; 155 pp. brilliant treatment of the problems facing The storyof the Mexican Revolution any nation wanting to develop economically. (1910-17) told for the first time from the Deals with the problems of development in viewpoint of a Mexican peasant speaking in general, but one can learn a great deal about the Nahuatl language. The noted Mexican the problems of economic development in anthropologist Fernando Horcasitas worked Latin Americainparticular by reading with a native informant to produce a stirring it.(Glab) eye-witness account of the revolution as it affected the hillside village of Milpa Alta in Her ftinuez-Ureña, Pedro. Concise History of Latin the Valley of Mexico south of Mexico City. merican Culture. Praeger, 1966; 214 pp., The original Nahuatl text is presented side by

55 sidewith matching pages ofHorcasitas' America are thoroughly covered as well as translation into Spanish. Introductorynotes problems relating to.Jrans-Pacific contacts, to each chapter and a glossary round out the culturalconnection§ between North and unique story. (Wicke) South America, and linguistic similarities and differences. (Wicke)

Johnson, J. Horowitz (see Debray) J. The Military and Society in Latin America. Stanford U. P., 1964; 308 pp., $2.95. Bibliography, index. Focuses attention on thehistorical development. By "the military," Johnson Humphreys and Lynch (see Guevara) means the elite officers of the armed forces, principally the army which has most frequently imposed its will on Latin societies. Describes the various means,direct and Humphreys, R. A. Latin American History: A Guide indirect, employed by the military in their to the Literature in English. London: Oxford dictation of economic and political policy. Two main themes emerge from this study. U. P., 1960; 197 pp., $4.00. Two indices. Contrary to the pattern of military leaders in Essential reference work for student and other areas of the world, Latin officers tend generalreaderalike.Invaluable guide to monographic and periodicalliterature,in to be followers, not leaders. More addition to printed source materials and importantly, as products of their environments, the decisions of Latin officers traveller's accounts. Has over 2000 entries are not always based on objectivity; more with appropriate cross references divided into 14 major categories.(Ely) often than not judgments are preconceptional in origin. For this reason, the social-economic background of military leaders is made a focal point of exploration by the author. Related to this is Johnson's Hyde, D. The Troubled Continent: A New Look at contention that in the future, the attitudes Latin America. Pflaum,1967; 220 pp., and reactions of the officers to social change $5.95. Index. will prove most instrumental in shaping the A journalist and former Communist destiny of Latin nations. regards Latin America as a tinder box. One of Whether or not one can fully concur that his conclusions: "...democratic Christian Latin officers tend to be followersis organizations...are successfully operating in debatable, for although ample evidence f ields whichinthe past wereleftto supports this thesis, one can convincingly Communists..! these are permitted to argue to the contrary.(Martellaro) continue their activities unimpeded by the government, a genuinely non-Marxist Johnson, J. J. Political Change in Latin America: The progressive movement may in time emerge" Emergence of the Middle Sectors. Stanford (p. 206). Quite readable. U. P., 1958; 272 pp., $2.95. Bibliography, index. One of the most influential books in the James (see Leyburn) field of Latin American politics, it analyzes the development and character of the largely urban, nationalisticnon-elite element in Latin Americanpolitics.This cannot be Jennings, J. D., and E. Norbeck (eds.). Prehistoric called a middle class for it lacks the economic Man in the New World. U. of Chicago P., homogeneity of a middle class. Johnson calls 1964; $10.00. it the middle "sector." In certain nations of The quality and profusion of recent Latin America this element of the population research has greatly altered our ideas about has assumed a size and political importance the ancient aboriginalcultures of the that has made itthe dominant factor in Americas. The implications of very recent nationalpoliticaldevelopment. Johnson investigations areset forward by 18 covers the middle sector development in each archaeologists, each an expert inhis own of these nations separately. In aIi nations of area. Sub-areas of North, Central, and South Latin America the urban, non-elite (inthe

56 sacrifices or the status of women inLatin traditionalist sense) groups have had arapidly American society today.(Ely) expanding influence in the 20th century,and lies the importance of this therein Kenny, M. A Spanish Tapestry: Town andCountry work.(Groves) in Castile. Harper, 1961; 243 pp.,$1.75. Bibliography, index. Johnson, J. J. (ed.). Continuity andChange in Latin An anthropological study ofthe America. Stanford U. P.,1964; 282 pp., rural-urban contrast in modern Spanish life. $2.95. Notes, index. After an excellent introductionby See also Pitt-Rivers. Johnson, the subsequent 9 chapters concern Kosok, B. Life, Land and Water inAncient Peru. (Wag ley), rural themselves with the peasant Long Island U. P., 1965; 263 pp.Index. (Ellison), the labor (R. N. Adams), the writer This beautifuland expensive book is artist (Chase), the military(MacAlister), the probably more suited to librarypurchase worker industrialist (Strassmann), the urban than individual ownership. Its valuelies more (Bonilla), the university student (Silvert), and in its illustrations than in its text,which (Dore). Latin America and Japan compared often goes so far in its attempt to entertain Students might be directed to a specific Its excellent already that it becomes uninformative. chapter on an area that they had collection of well-printed air photographs become interested in. effectively conveys the significanceof the the Euphemisms. U. of Andean achievements in urbanism, and Kany, C. E. American-Spanish large format of the book makes it usefulfor Calif. P., 1960; 249 pp., $5.00. Bibliography, classroom demonstration. As awhole, it index. achieves its purpose of giving the average This scholarly work focuses on the of the decent and reader an understanding of many varieties of words and gestures, qualities of the important relationships indelicate, used to discuss superstition, and financial between the ancient Peruvian societies delicacy, mental and moral defects, the land and water they sothoroughly status,offenses and consequences, and inclusion controlled in building their corporal and sexual decency. The (Morris) of so much data of intrinsic interest to civilizations. students makes this study worthyof Samuel Matti the Kurath, Gertrude Prokosch, and consideration as a library acquisition by Dances of Anahuac: The Choreographyand student teacher who wants to introduce the Music of Precortesian Dances. Aldine,1964; in Latin to the many dialect:1 varieties extant 251 pp., $10.00. Bibliography, index. America. Two other works by the same Handsomely illustrated in black and white. author develop otherlesscontroversial Mostly reconstructs ancient Aztec andMaya American-Spanish phases of dialect: dances. Semantics (Univ. of Calif., 1960;352 pp., (Univ. $6.50) and American-Spanish Syntax Laguna Language Series. KenworthyEducational of Chicago, 2nd ed., 1951; 467 pp.,$7.50). Service, Inc., Buffalo, N. Y. La Caperucita Raja; Los Tres Osos; Los Cuatro Cantantes Kazamias and Epstein (see Benjamin1965) de Guadalajara; El Flautista de Jamelin;Dotia Cigarra y Doña Zorra y Dotia CigUeña. inLatin American Keen,B.(ed.). Readings Starter set per title: $14.50; classroom set Civilization: 1492 to the Present. Houghton $4.95. per title: $37.25. Mifflin, 2nd ed., 1967; 533 pp., F LES materials consisting of recordings, Glossary. cartoon booklets, filmstrips,teacher's guides. First and still broadest selection of source While only Los Cuatro Cantantes. ..has Latin American history. Can be reading in illustrations which are peculiarly Latin, allof used alone or adopted to standard textssuch popular Prefaces to major these stories belong to the as Herring (see above). child-culture of Latin America (as well as the crisp sections and individual chapters present U. S.) and as such deserve attention.These summaries of special periods or topics,and sets are rather well done withdrills, etc. each of the readings is introduced bysuccinct explanatory remarks initalics.Editor's skillfultranslations preserve original vigor Lanning, E. P. Peru Before theIncas. Prentice-Hall, and charm of contemporary and eyewitness 1967; 287 pp., $2.95. Index. accounts, whether describingAztec human The most recent synthesisof Andean

57 prehistory, and excellent both in terms of its the otherhalf contains excellent survey inclusion of newly collected data and its articles, often followed by commentaries by presentation. Coverage is somewhat uneven, other specialists. devoting much moro space to the pre-agricultural and early agricultural peoples Lavine, H. and Editors of Life. Central America. than to thelater urban societies Time, 1964; 159 pp. Index. undoubtedly the resuk of the author's own Perhaps the most painless,interesting interests and research but itis useful in introduction; beautifully illustrated. Pictures filling a serious gap in the previous literature lendthemselves toanalysisin terms of regarding the early periods. More useful as varia bles ofage,sex,socialclass,and up-to-date background material for teachcrs residence. Handles the political issues. than for students, but not so technical as to be beyond the understanding of the serious Leaf, M. El Cuento de Ferdinando. Viking, 1962; 68 student. (Morris) pp., $2.00 Also available inEnglish: The Story of Ferdinand. LP recording of Spanish, Latin American Curriculum Project. Teaching About with drills, available from EMC Corp., 180 Latin America '.n the Elementary Schcol: An East 6th St., St. Paul, Minnesota 55101. Annotated Guide to Instructional Resources. In spiteof an Anglo-sweetened Bulletin No. 1, U. of Texas (Austin), 1967; personification ofaSpanishbull,this 40 pp.(stenciled).Available from: The wonderfullyillustratedstory and fine National Cash Register Co. (NCR), 4936 recording make delightfulreading and Fairmont Ave Bethesda, Md. 20014 ERIC listening for the elementary school teacher. document ED 012 832. Leal,Luis.Mthcico:civilizaciones y cultures. .Teaching About Latin America in the Houghton Mifflin,1955; 205 pp., $4.25. Secondary School: An Annotated Guide to Bibliography, index, vocabulary, exercises, Instructional Resources. Bulletin No. 2, U. of illustrated. Texas, 1967; 71 pp. (stenciled). Available An excellent compendium of the history, from: NCR. ERIC Document ED 012 833. cu ltu re,customs of theLatin-American nation closest to us geographically and . The Social Scientists Look at Latin historically. Has a still valuable "bibliografia America: Six Position Papers. Bulletin No. 3, selecta" covering bibliographical materials, U.of Texas, 1967; 174 pp.(stenciled). anthologies,history, geography, sociology, Available from: NCR. ERIC Document archaeology, pre-Hispanic cultures,plastic ED 012 365. arts, music, folklore, popular art. Suitable for classroom use if the teacher wants to center . Key Ideas About Latin America. on a country which is a first-magnitude focal Bulletin No. 4, U. of Texas, 1967; 33 pp. area, rather than giving an extended (and, (stenciled). Available from: Latin American perhaps, not veryprecise)view of the Curriculum Project, U. of Texas, Austin. continent.Its language levelis appropriate for3 rd year high school and The Treatment of Latin America in upward.(Vgzquez-Bigi) Social StudiesInstructional Materials. Bulletin No. 5, U. of Texas, 1968; 41 pp. Leonard, J.N., and Editors of Time-Life. Ancient (stenciled). Available from: Latin American America. Time, 1967; 191 pp. Bibliography, Curriculum Project, U. of Texas, Austin. index. These excellent studies offer much Magnificentlyillustratedtreatment of assistance andinsightinbuilding sound pre-Hispanic Indian cultures south of the Rio content; they do not discuss methodological Grande. techniques. Highly recommended. Le6n-Portilla, Miguel. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Latin American Research Review. (LARR Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon, 1962; 168 pp., $5.00. Bibliography, index. Subscriptions, U. of Texas P., P.O. Box 7819, A collection of moving excerpts from Austin, Texas 78712 [$9.00 per year for Indian historical accounts that reveal the rich individuals].) culturalheritage of Published 3 times a year (beginning with Indian America and record the pathos of its destructions by the 1965), this journal devotes half of each issue Spanish Conquest. (Keen) to brief reports of research in progress, while

58 Lewis, 0.Life in a Mexican Village: Tepoztlin making up perhaps as much as 95% of the Restudied. U. of III. P., 1951; 512 pp., $2.95. population; at the top theelite, which Bibliography, index. dominates the governmental apparatus and Excellent studyby a team ofsocial all national institutions. These two segments scientists.Although the comprehensive of society differ,in Leyburn's view, in all portrait of the villager which emerges is less important regards: level of income, source of sympathetic than that of the later studies by income, education, language, religion, social Lewis, it can still be highly recommended. forms, values and attitudes, andall The paperback edition not nearlyas 'Ilse.. .Leyburn was so impressed by the gap handsome as the hardcover; afine Nhich separated yeomanry and elite that he abridgement is available in paperback (Holt: chose to label these social segments castes Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology series, rather than classes" (p.viii). See also: James, 1960; $1.95). See also, from the same Holt C. L.R. The 13:ack Jacobins: Toussaint series: Faron, Louis C. The Mapuche Indians L'Ouverture and San Domingo Revolution of Chile. 1968; 113 pp. (2nd ed. rev., Vintage, 1963; 426 pp., $2.45. Index)for an historicalaccount of the Lewis, 0. Five Families: Mexican Case Studies in the engrossing War of Independence. Culture of Poverty. New Am. Lib., 1959; 95 cents. (Basic book, $6.50). Lieuwen, E. U. S. Policy in Latin America. Praeger, Essentialtounderstanding forces for 1965; 149 pp., $1.75. Bibliography, index. change inLatin America todayisan An excellentintroduction.Gives a appreciation of the poor in both the cities balanced and objective account of tne area, and the countryside. Offers a sympathetic beginning with theearliestdays of the portrayal of Mexicans of diverse North American colonies and tracing policy backgrounds:rural and urban, lower and up to the present decade.(Glab) middle class.Lewis' methods of research using the tape recorder for capturing actual Lieuwen, E. Arms and Politics in Latin America. conversations as well as his concept of "the Praeger, 1965; 335 pp., $2.50. Bibliography, culture of poverty" have aroused index. considerable controversy among social Using primarily the tools of an historian, scientists.Perhaps his approachis overly Lieuwen examines the role the military has pessimistic. Nevertheless, Lewis has produced played and continues to play in politics. The a fascinating document. His sequels, The author shows an anti-military bias but this Children of Sanchez (Random, 1961; $2.50) does not color hisdescription of the and Pedro Martinez (Random, 1964; $8.75) important position of themilitary.Of focus on individual families in the original su bstantialinterest to theintroductory book. La Vida (Random, 1966; $7.00) uses student would be the second part of the the same field techniques to describe the book which examines U. S. policy toward the Puerto Rican poor of San Juan and N.Y.C. Latin American military. Analyzes the role of (Wicke) the military in the Cas`ro regime of Cuba. In general,the author condemns the U.S. Leyburn, J. G. The Haitian People- Rev. ed., Yale policy of military aid to Latin America on U.P.,1966; 342 pp., $2.45. Annotated the ground that it has encouraged military bibliography, index. intervention in politics. (Groves) This sympathetic,eminentlyreadable amount of the history and sociology of Haiti Linke (see Benham) was first published in 1941 and is brought nicely up to date with a 32-page Introduction Upset, S. M., and A. Solari (eds.). Elites in Latin by Sidney Mintz and an annotated America. Oxford U. P., 1967; 531 pp., $2.95. bibliography of recent relevant publications. Chapter notes, index. Mintz says that It] he central thesis of Reports much empirical research. Essential Leyburn's book is that Haitian societyis for an understanding of the Latin American sharply divided into two segments, and that power structure. the nationalinstitutional structure is such that no significant alteration in that division Loprete, Carlos A., and McMahon. lberoamerica: has occurred in the entire course of Haiti's Siiitesis de su civilización. Scribner's, 1965; history as a sovereign nation. At the base of 369 pp.,$5.50.Bibliography,index, the society is the rural agricultural sector, vocabulario, four-pagelistofimportant dates.

59 Comprehensive survey completelyin anthropological study. Its readability makes Spanish for 2nd year language classesas a it appropriate for secondary students as well supplement to a grammar. Very well as scholars. illustrated objective presentation of subjects which range from primitive men, flora and Magdoff (see Frank) fauna, to the future of Latin America. A "cuestionario" and suggested topics for Martellaro, J. A. The Argentine Economy. Praeger, composition and conversation follow each approximate release date: November 1968; chapter.Offersthose with no previous about 225 pp. Bibliography. knowledge ofarea; asuperficial Presents a penetrating study of several panorama. ( R ivera) principal intertwined economic, political, and social factors, past and contemporary, which MacEoin, G,, and Editors of Life. Colombia and have frustrated the economic development Venezuela and the Gui3nas. Time, 1965; 159 and growth of a Latin nation which in a pp. Index. number of ways displayed much potential to Same laudatory comments made of Lavine achieve self-sustained growth. Seealso: (see bibliographic entry) are applicable here, Alexander,R.J.Labor Relationsin too. Argentina, Brazil, and Chile (McGraw-Hiii, 1962; 411 pp. Notes, index). McAlister, L. N. "Recent Research and Writirgon the Role of the Military in Latin America." Martin, M. R., G. H. Lovett, and L. R. Hughes (eds.). Latin American Research Review 1 (1). Fall Encyclopedia ot Latin American History. 1966, 5-36. Bobbs-Merril, 1968; 348 pp., $10.00. Well-written article reviews the literature Within the limitations of space, this is a on the military in Latin America and is the useful classroom orlibraryreference.It logical source to begina study of them. would exceed the claims e the book to Probably the most informative single brief regard it as 100% accurate. See also: Fagg, J. source on the subject. E.Latin America: A General History (Macmillan, 1963; 1070 pp. Further readings, Macaulay, N. The Sandino Affair. Quadrangle, 1967; index.) 319 pp., $6.95. Extensive notes, index. WI-en a popularly elected governmentwas Martz, J. D. (ed.). The Dynamics of Change in Latin overthrown by a military coup in Nicaragua America. Prentice-Hall, 1965; 283 pp., $6.00. in 1925, armed revolt sprangup in different Thirty of the finest readings on Latin parts of the country. This became Americ:2 written by leading authorities in the "institutionalized" by 1927 when the field, among them GeorgeI.Blanksten, guerrilla leader Sandino launcheda campaign Albert Hirschman, John J. Kennedy, Kalman against the U. S. marines in Nicaragua. The H. Silvert, and Theodore Wychoff. Analysis, first 4 pages of the preface offera concise rather than being done on a introduction into 20th centuryguerrilla country-to-countrybasis,isaccording to warfare in Latin America. The author, who subject matter. As a consequence, the reader served 5 months fighting alongside Castro's encounters adiversity of topics: church guerrillasin1958 beforebreaking with dichotomies, communism,ideologies of Castro over communism, has writtenan economic development, labor and politics, engaging politico-military account of this trends in social thought, etc. Despite the 7-year"affair."Although Macaulay's variety, the main thread which stitches the sympathies lie with Sandino, the book is various contributions togetherisa essentially objective and not a polemic tract. pronounced emphasis on "dynamic action Recommended to teachers and students and change."(Martellaro) who enjoy interesting accounts of military engagements or who are interestedin Mecham, J. L. Church and State in Latin America: A guerrilla warfare. Also affordsa fascinating History of Politico-Ecclesiastical Relations. account of U. S. meddling in the internal Rev. ed., U. of North Carolina P., 1966; 465 affairs of Latin America. pp., $8.50. Bibliography, index. R evised edition of a standard1933 reference work updates the coverage through Madsen, W. The Mexican-Americans of South Texas. 1063 and reshapes the emphasis (which in Holt, 1964; 112 pp. the earlier edition was heavily Mexican) to be B est introduction available;

60 more hemispheric.Uses anhistorical, State ofResearch," (Latin American chronological approach to explain and Research Review 1 (3), Summer 1966, interpretthepoliticalrelations of the 17-44). Church.First 3 chapters deal with Latin America globally from colonization through Morse (see Hansen 1965) independence; subsequent 12 chapters organized around a country or culture area. National Council of Catholic Women. Focus: Latin Concluding chapter offers a concise review of the political role of religion in Latin America, America. Nat. Assoc. of Catholic Women, and is vigorously written. A major source of 1312 Mass. Ave. N.W. Wash., D.C., 1962. information for the teacher, its usefulness for Consists of a brief introduction for the the secondary student is limited as a result of discussion leader, followed by 9 illustrated the academic language with which the author pamphlets of about 10 pp. each which probe burdens the reader (e.g.,"This omission Mexico's cocial revolution, the slow rate of contributed to subsequent acrimonious change in Indian America, land reform, urban arguments as to whether the Federal or State explosion, economic growth andone-crop governments controlled pavonage" [p. 311; economies, communist inroads, democracy "The clerics...gave utterance to most and the Latin, U. S. aid, and the role of the fanatical language and sowed alarm among Catholic Church in the struggle between the people" [p. 3111. A paperback dedicated democracy and communism. Unfo tunately, this useful kit is almost mit of print. to Mecham (Pike, F. B. [ed].The Conflict Between Church and State in Latin America. Needier, M. Latin American Politics in Perspective. Knopf, 1964; 239 pp.) contains an anthology Van Nostrand, 1963; 192 of brief essays by Latins and foreigners, pp.,$2.40. 6ibliography, index. organized around the colonial, national, and contemporary periods. Surveys the historical and social background, political parties, the military, political violence, governmental structure and Mitnell, C. (see Dell) public policy. A topical,rather than country-by-country approach,. Mitchell, W. H. (see Benjamin) Will make fascinatingreading for anyone seeking a general understanding. Moog, Vianna (tr. by Barrett). Bandeirantes and (G lab) Pioneers (Bandeirantes e Pioneiros). Braziller, 1964; 316 pp., $6.95. Bibliography, index. A well-annotated provocative volume Nye,J.S.,Jr."Central American Regional attempting to explain why there are such Integration," International Conciliatittn 672. great differences between the United States Carnegie Endowment, 1967; 66 pp., 50 of America and the United States of Brazil. cents. Refutes the theory that the black race and Writtenf rom apoliticalscientist's miscegenation are the causes of a retarded viewpoint, this is a concise, comprehensive culture and civilization. Instead, suggests the and technical survey of Central American differences lie in the character and motives of economic integration. The initial the settlers. Presents an eclectic outlook to examination ofa"political-economy" the question of the backwardness of Brazil as (Functionalist) theory of economic compared to the U. S. A. Moog's technique integrationis followed by asurvey of of citing a theory, giving examples to refute integration attempts in Central America. The the premise, then posing questions is very role of the political culture in the integration effective. ( R ivera) process is examined. The domestic political costs of integration and the relationship Mörner, Magnus. Race Mixture in the History of between these costs and integration's Latin America. Little, 1967; 178 pp., $2.50. progress are considered. Concludes with an Bibliography. analysis of the influence of external factors Compact, excellent study. For an even in economic integration's progress. The most briefer review of the work done by historians important of these external factorsare to reconstruct and analyze the role of the identified as the Economic Commission for Indian and Negro in colonial Latin America, Latin America and the UnitedState-s. see Mörner, "The History of Race Relations R eferences to many other worksare in Latin America: Some Comments on the contained in the footnotes. (Scaperlanda)

61 Nystrom, J. W., and N. A. Haverstock. The Alliance quality of statistical tables make this a very for Progress. Van Nostrand, 1966; 126 pp., useful volume. (Scaperlanda) $1.45. 4 maps, chronology, notes, index. Relates the origins of the Alliance and Parry, J. H. The Spanish Seaborne Empire. Knopf, summarizes the development programs of 1966; $6.95. international, regional, and domestic agencies Particularly good for routes and ways of in Latin America. Subsequent to discussion trade and imperial rivalry, but also treats, in of the physical and human geography of richer detail than Gibson, social, economic, Latin America, the program's evolution is and political arrangements in the Spanish presentedclearly to complementlater Empire in America. (Keen) analysis ofits mechanics and operational difficulties. The goals, Hccomplishments, and Payne, J. Labor and Politics in Peru. Yale U. P., failures of the Alliance are reviewed for each 1965; $6.75. Index. country supplying, thereby, a useful The analysis is suggestive of much broader interptive source for those unacquainted application than the title indicates. Attempts with theintentand workings ofthis to view labor unions and the government in f ar-reaching development theirpoliticalsetting and, asaresult, scheme. (Dillman) provides a good introduction to Peruvian political life. The central thesis is that the process of bargaining by labor unions is Osborn (see Benham) infinitely more political than that in our own country. Suggests that the unions constantly Owens (see Benham) and deliberately provoke governmental intervention in the bargaining process, often Padgett,L.V. The Mexican PoliticalSystem. with the use of strategic violeace. While HouGhton Mifflin, 1966; 244 pp., $2.75. writtenatafairly advanced level,itis Bibliography, index. invaluable in demonstrating that processes An excellent treatment of poliucs and that seem outwardly similar to those in our politicalstructures.Devotes only passing own country,infact,arelikelyto be attention to the governmental institutions, essentially different under conditions that preferring instead to focus on such things as prevail in Latin America. (Groves) the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), the President as a political leader, and the Paz, Octavio. Labyrinth of Solitude. Grove, 1962; revolutionary past as a source of political 212 pp., $1.95. legitimacy. The Mexican political system is An interpretive, analytical essay on the distinctive in many respects from others of psychology of the Mexican man by one of Latin America, but it has achieved stability the best contemporary Mexican poets. (El and remarkable material progress for the laberinto de la soledad. 2nd rev. ed., Mexico: country. This book amply describes the Fondo de Culture Economica, 1959; 191 system and, as such, provides much valauble pp.) (Vazquez-Bigi) insight into the Mexican success story. See Pearcy,G.Etzel. The West Indian Scene. Van also: Scott, R. E. Mexican Government in Nostrand, 1965; 136 pp., $1.45. Statistical Transition (Rev. ed., U. of Illinois P., 1964; data,b ibl iography,indexofplaces, 5 345 pp., $2.25). Bibliography, full-page maps. index. (Groves) Successfully surveys the major processes that have influenced the development of one Pan American Union. Latin America: Problems and of the world's three great tropical Perspectives of Economic Development, archipelagos (the others being the East Indies 1963-1964. Johns Hopkins, 1966; 242 pp., and the Philippines). The West Indies differs $6.50. Tables, index. from the others by its heterogeneous political This authoritative analysis begins with a entities and diversified cultural traditions. current (1961-64) appraisal of the Latin Emphasis is placed on the common problems American economic development situation. arising from the tangentialpolitical, In successive sections, export problems of economic, language, religious, and cultural external financing for development, and patterns in addition to factors of isolation various domestic problems are related to and limited resource aase.(Dillman) economic development prospects. In addition to the clear, concise analysis, the number and Pendle, G. A History of Latin America. Pelican,

62 1963; 249 pp., $1.25. Bibliography, index, 5 the poor with their struggle to subsist under maps. intolerable conditions. On the other hand, An historical introduction. Makes a good Petras and Zeitlin, have selected essays which "first book" on Latin America for both high_ get to the crux of the valid generalizations school and college students.Not these countries have in common the role of recommended for anyone who already has imperialism, the role of the class struggle, the some knowledge of the area. See also: Bierck, role of revolution initiating the rewriting H. A. (ed.).Latin American Civilization: of Latin American history. (Roman) Readings andEssays (Allyn, 1967; 438 pp.).(Glab) Pic6n-Salas, Mariano (tr. by Leonard). A Cultural Pend le (see also: Benham) History of Spanish America: From Conquest to Independence.U. of Calif.P.,1962; Perkins (see Dozer') $1.95. A highly readable, imaginative synthesis by Perrone, Vito. Image of Latin America: A Study of a Venezuelan man of letters whose immense American School Textbooks and School erudition does not interfere with his capacity Children Grades Two Through Twelve. for fresh, sprightly writing.(Keen) Marquette: Northern Michigan U., 1965; 183 pp., (stenciled). Bibliography. Pike (see Median) Concludes that the amount of space in elementary and secondary textbooks devoted Pitt-Rivers, J. A. The People of the Sierra. U. of to Latin America is adequate, quantitatively, Chicago P., 1961; 232 pp., $1.95. Glossary, but "they contain much that could not help index. at all and possibly could hinder" (p. 118). Excellent study by a noted anthropologist Specificallymentions as questionable the of a town in Southern Spain. See also Kenny "Black Legend withitsexcessive 1961 (above). concentration on the brutality and ineptness of the Spanish...[and]the aura of Poblete and Burnett (see Urouidi) condescensionrelating toinstitutional elements of Latin America." The author Pohl, lmgard, and Josef Zepp (K. E. Webb. [ed.]). emphasizes importance Of the textbook (over Latin America: A Geographical Commentary. supplementary aids)in student button, 1967; 315pp., $2.35. Bibliography, u nderstanding. statistical data, index. I ntended as an introduction froma Petras,J., and M. Zeitlin (eds.). Latin America: geographer's view. More attention is paid to Reform or Revolution? Fawcett, 1968. physical geography than usual, a reflection of Asks the importanthistorical and German influ3nce; yet, the writing also shows economic questions and sets up relevant a cultural-determinist approach whichis models of political control. more French or American than German or Most books written on Latin American British.Refreshinglydirect and realistic politics begin with the solemn declaration approach to many problems makes thisa that Latin America is composed of so many valuable work. Many photographs andmaps diverse nations that it is extremely difficult enable meaningful geographic appraisal to be to make generalizations; thenthe authors made and lend substance to the editor's proceed to make generalizations which have concluding preface statement: "Area study is nothing to do with the reality of power and a field to which the geographer brings unique povertyinLatin America, which hardly concepts and talents. In today's world.. .the attempt to peek behind the"democratic" complexity of area problems and problem paper constitutions,which talk of areas [allows] the geographer [to contribute development in an area in which the poor importantly]tothe understanding and grow poorer, which speakof the harmony of interpretation of the earth's surface." interestwith the U.S. rather than the One criticism is the small type employed; depraving effects of U. S. domination, which also page size hampers clarity ofsome maps. speak of stability and order in an area in See also:Robinson, H. Latin America: A which the only hope is revolutionary change, Geographical Survey (Rev. ed., Praeger, 1967; which forget that the real violence taking 4 9 9pp.ll lustrated, place in Latin America today is in the livesof bibliography). ( D i l I rnan)

63 Ponce de Le On,Jose LuisS.Elarte dela Reed, Alma. Ancient Past of Mexicc. Crown, 1964; conversaukin: Harper, 1967; 187 pp., $5.25. $7.50. Tapes. Excellent guide to all the archaeological This handsome book has15 chapters sites in Mexico, with maps of their location, which develop a different aspect ,if Spanish cultural and historical background of the (not Latin American) culture, induding the people,details of theirdiscovery and university, politics, military service, movies, restoration, and pictures of the sites as they anti-Americanism, juvenile delinquency. Each stand today.Also giveslocationof the chapter begins with a photograph relating to artifacts found with pictures. (Bartell) the topic and ends with patternand substitution drills. The "Sheila and Pi lar" Reed, N. The Caste War of Yucatan. Stanford U.P., approach is a little mickey mouse but many 1964; 308 pp., $2.95. Bibliog;aphy, index. of the reviewer's advanced Spanish students In1848 the Maya Indians waged war found the book enjoyable. Lends itself to against their "white masters." The actual giving the students a "fondo de military campaigns subsided after 7 years, conversacion" for themes of real interest. but the rebels, using guerrilla tactics, held control of the jungles for the rest of the Prescott, W.H. History of the Conquest of Mexico. century."Occasionalraids brought them (many paperback editions). food, guns, alcohol, and prisonerswhite men and women who ended their days as History of the Conquest of Peru. (many slavesinMayan villages."Interestingly paperback editions). written. These classic works remain unsurpassed for breadth of conception and literary charm, Ripell (see Englekirk) althoughtheir romantic attitudesclearly reveal their age. (Keen) Robertson, W. S.Rise of the Spanish-American Repubiics as Told in the Lives of Their Redfield, R. The Folk Culture of Yucatan. U. of Liberators. Free Press, 1965; $2.95. Chicago P., 1941; $7.50. The best brief introduction to such key A University of Chicago anthropologist figures as Bolivar, San Martin, and Hidalgo, describes differing world-views among the by one of the founders of Latin American inhabitants of ,the Yucatan Peninsula in Historyinthe UnitedStates,a former Mexico. For Merida, capital of the State of p rofessor at the University of Yucatan, he delineates the heterogeneity, Illinois.(Keen) secularism andsocialstratificationsthat characterize the urban view. A contrasting Robinson (see Pohl) folk view is pictured for a tribal village in Quintana Roo showing homogeneity, Rodgers (see Burr) religiosity, and egalitarianism. Two intermediate communitiesa town and a Ross, S.R. (ed.). Is the Mexican Revolution Dead? village arefittedbetween the ends of Knopf, 1966; 225 pp., $2.50. Bibliography. Redfield's folk-urban continuum. One of the Provocative anthology of contemporary latter, Chankom, receivedparticular and recent interpretations of the Revolution attention in a follow-up study 17 years later of 1910, edited and organized by a leading (Redfield, A Village That Chose Progress: U.S.specialistin20th-century Mexican Chankom Revisited, U. of Chicago P., 1950; history. Ratio of 18 selections from Mexican 187 pp., $1.50). authors to four by North Americansaffords The urban concept of progress was non-Spanish speaking readers an unusual introduced into Chankom by American opportunity to probe (in translation) some of archaeologists during two decades work at the best minds in Mexico and gain a better the nearby ruin of Chichen ltd. Redfield's understanding of what Latin America's first optimism in Chankom's going "forward with successful economic and social revolution has technology"isbelied by today's empty meant for their nation and for the United village abandoned by success-oriented States. (Ely) villagers who migrated to the cities in search

, of "progress." (Wicke) Sanchez and Barrientos (see Benjamin)

64 Sarmiento, DomingoF.Lifeinthe Argentine Scott,A. M., W. A.Lucas, and T. M.Lucas. Republic in the Days of the Tyrants; or Simulation andNationalDevelopment. Civilization and Barbarism (tr.). Collier, 2nd Wiley, 1966; 177 pp., $5.95. printing,1966; 288 pp.,$1.80.Private The authors describe eightdifferent indexing under way, with consent of the simulates, each illustrating a different type, publisher. and discuss their theoreticalimplications. No book, to this annotator's knowledge, Four of the examples are based on Brazilian gives a more vital reading experience of the and Chilean models. A must for teachers forces of violence and education. Had there interested in simulation as a technique for been af ew more Latin American teaching complex issues. The authors cite Sarmientos,perhaps today there would be SimulationinInternationalRelations: less opportunity (dare we say need?) for the Developments for Research and Teaching by Castros and the Guevaras to come to the Guetzkow, et al (Prentice-Hall, 1963) as rescue of their countrymen. Mary Mann put having influenced their thinking. Scott's last it quite neatly a hundred years ago: "Their chapter, "The Procedures and Uses of wild cry of agony now summons him to their Simulation," offers a thought-provoking aid." (Emphasis nine; cf. p. 20.)(Smith) review of the potentialities of simulations as an educational technique. See also: Abt, C. Scaperlanda (see Dell) C. Games for Learning. Occasional Paper No. 7.(Cambridge Mass.01238): Educational Schmitt and Burks (see Anderson) Services, Inc., 1966; 24 pp.

Schurz, W.L. Brazil: The Infinite Country. Dutton, Senior (see Sexton) 1961; 346 pp., $5.95. Supplementary reading list,pronunciation and spelling guide to Sexton, Patricia Cayo. Spanish Harlem: Anatomy of Portuguese, index. Poverty.Harper,1965; 208 pp.,$1.60. Those who would understandLatin Index. America's largestnation-state should not A compassionate look at one of our slums ignore this book. Brings into perspective the by a Ph.D and former labor union activist. diverse elements of people and land that Quotes from children and adults alike help constitute the emerging giantofBrazil. enliven this perceptive and sprightly written Presents material in three basic categories: paperback. For another excellent study, see the scene, the characters, and the action. An Senior, C. The Puerto Ricans: Strangers, approach that is mainly topical in nature Then Neighbors (Quadrangle, 1961; 128 pp., tends to obscure the importance of $3.50. Bibliography, index). regionalism in Brazil. The regional character of man-land relationships antecedent to Shapiro, S. (ed.). Integration of Man and Society in present conditions suffers from Schurz's Latin America. CI COP, 1967; 356 pp., $3.25. treatment. This criticism should not detract Index. from the book's value, rather it underlines Contains the edited papers of the fourth the difficulties inherent in an effort of such annual Catholic Inter-American Cooperation magnitude.(Dillman) Program (CICOP) conference; especially but not exclusively appropriate as an Schurz, W. L. Latin America: A Descriptive Survey. introduction for Catholic students or for Dutton, 1964; 373 pp., $1.55. Glossary, teachers who want to learn more about a reading list, index. wide range of subjects, many of which are True to its title, a survey of the geography, developed with Catholic insight The papers history,people, economy, customs, and of the 1968 CICOP conference on "Cultural politics of the lands south of the Rio Grande. Factors inInter-AmericanRelationships: This revised work concentrates on the recent Bond or Barrier" will be available in the fall changes in the political and economic scenes. of 1968. See also Considine 1966. Useful for the specialist or the general reader, the book might serve as a companion to Pohl Simpson, L. B. Many Mexicos. 4th ed., U. of Calif. 1967 because ofits wider P., 1967, $1.95. spectrum. ( Di Ilman) By now a classic, has been rewritten and brought up to date four times sinceits Scobie (see Whitaker 1964) originalpublicationin1941.It remains, however, a uniquely comprehensive Scott 1964 (see Padgett) one-volume h istory.Manages to cover 65 everything from the geological beginnings of Bibliography. Mexico up to 1966, with a few forecasts for One of the Americas' most distinguished the coming years and Mexico's history to rural sociologists brings together 19 examples be. ( Bartel l) from significant Latin American sources individual essays, speeches, and government Smith, Margaret G. (ed.). Thoughts on the "New documents to illustrate different views of Theology" of Violence in Latin America. the agrarian reform issue from mid-19th Available from: Sister Margaret G. Smith, century down to 1960's. Of particular value RSCJ, Assistant Professor ofHistory, is editor's comprehensive and lucid analysis Maryville College, 13550 Conway Rd., St. (pp.3-59)of both general and specific Louis, Missouri 63141, 1968. Available at aspects of the problems, based on personal cost $3.50, two for $6.00. (First supply observations and research in Brazil, Bolivia, limited to 100.) Bibliography. Chile, Cuba, Mexico, and Venezuela. See This small, privately duplicated (xeroxed) also: Smith. The Process of Rural packet is a collection of some of the current Development in Latin America (U. of Florida religious thought on the possibilityof a P., 1967; 87 pp.).(Ely) necessary and justified recourse to revolutions of physical violence. An Steward, J. H., and L. C. Faron. Native Peoples of anthology of articles from professional and South America. McGraw-Hill, 1959; $9.95. popular periodicals, with an introduction by A condensation of the 7volume classic the editor. Handbook of South American Indians; strong A striking,underlying thought seems of emphasis on environment in accounting for common to all: the fearful inevitability the wide differences among South American violence as 14e only way to break through natives. All cultural levels are treated, from the socialstructures which themselves the elaborate socialistic Inca Empire to the exercise a cruel form of physical violence in hunters and gatherers of Tierra del Fuego. the form of oppression, with consequent Post-European changes in regard to the native misery and death due to unalleviated hungei, populations received analytical poverty, and health conditions, attention. (Wicke) under-utilization of resources, wealth of the few at the expense of the many, etc. The Szulc, Tad. The Winds of Revolution. Praeger, 1963; concept of necessary physical violence as a 308 pp., $5.95. I ndex. form of legitimate self-defense against the physical violence of oppression is especially Former chief South American evident in the extreme positions taken by the correspondent for the New York Times (1956-1961), Szulc critically examines the guerrilla padres and their reasons for current economic, social and guevara-debray-brethern. politicalinstabilityinLatin America. He points out that: "A violent reassessment of Sm!ih, R. F. (ed.) Background to Revolution: The the old values is under way, as the new Latin Development of Modern Cuba. Knopf, 1966; American generations, which no longer have 224 pp., $2.50. Bibliography, glossary. any use for the past,are moving into For readers wondering what happened to positions of intellectual, economic, and Cuba during the four-and-one-half centuries political leadership." The spirit of revolution separating Columbus from Castro, the editor has a host of origins among which are provides quite a few of the answers in this exploding populations, misdirected use of the anthology of 25 excerpts from the writings land's wealth,feudal conditions inrural of U.S., Cuban, and European authors. areas, urban misery and overcrowding, and Healthy antidote to last decade's deluge of lack of progressive, democratic governments. usually subjective and didactic publications An informative analysis of the development of instant "experts" bemused by Castro's of revolutionaryideologies coupled with charisma or alleged international warnings and suggested guidelines for the conspiracies.Places events since 1959 in future makes this one of the best recent proper historical perspective, tracing roots of journalistic contributions to Latin American present situation far backinto Cuban affairs.(Dillman) past. (Ely) Tannenbaum, F. Mexico: The Struggle for Peace and Smith, T. Lynn (ed.). Agrarian Reform in Latin Bread. Knopf, 1950; 293 pp., $4.95. Index, America.Knopf,1965; 206 pp., $2.50. maps.

66 Here in another region, and in a later Tomasek, R.D. Latin American Politics: Studies of period than Sarmiento's, the same themes in the Contemporary Scene. Doubleday, 1966; Latin American history confrontus: 585 pp., $2.45. regionalism and cataclysm. Organized An anthology that contains many topically (14 chapters in all):land, people, interesting selections that have previously an exciting survey, revolution,politics and appeared in books and periodicals of recent government, preblems concerning property, date. The first part examines the "problems, labor,agrarianism,church-staterelations, power groups, processes and forces affecting education, U.S. relations; and 3 chapters on Latin American politics"; the second "The Conditions of Economic describes and analyzes the politics of separate Progress." (Smith) countries. While the book suffers from the usual weaknesses of anthologies (substantial Tannenbaum, F.Ten Keys to Latin America. variation in the quality of the selections and Vintage, 1966; 237 pp., $1.65. Index. lack of much continuity),it has a broad Popular surveyof various challenges coverage rind should acquaint the student confronting peoples of Latin America today with many of the similarities and differences by one of the Hemisphere's foremost Latin that exist between the political practices of Americanists. Reflects author's the nations of the region. Few of the articles preoccupation with problems of peasant are written at a level that could not beeasily societies (above all the Indian), as well as his grasped by introductory level intimate contacts with Mexico and the students. (Groves) Mexicans between the two World Wars. UNESCO. Problems and Strategies of Educational Despite thin coverage and somewhat Planning: Lessons from Latin America. (R.F. simplistic approach to such complex Lyons, ed.). Paris: Librairie de L'UNESCO, questions as industrialization and Place de Fontenoy, Paris 7, France. 1965; urbanization, the work has genuine merit as 117 pp., $2.00. an introduction to someof the principal Social-economic oriented, considers problems besettingLatin America in the education as an essential force in the growth second half of the 20th century. Author's of thenation-state. Major problems in "ten keys" are: The Lan.d and Its People, educational planning brought into focus are: Race, Religion, Regionalism, The Hacienda, land tenure, rural educational policies, Leadership, Politics, The United States and training for agricultural development, Latin America, and, finally, Castro and Social regional cooperation at the university level, Change. (Ely) and the role of cost analysis in educational planning.(Guti6rrez) Textor, R.B. (ed.). Cultural Frontiers of the Peace Corps. M.I.T., 1966; 363 pp., $3.45. Chapter Urquidi, Victor L The Challenge of Development in bibliographies, index. Latin America. Praeger,1964; 209 pp., While only 100 pages directly treat Latin $1.95. Index. America, the book as a whole, by examining A Mexican economist provides problems encountered by the Peace Corps comprehensive coverage of economic abroad, provides an excellent introduction to problems. Aside from analyzing selected "culture fatigue." See especially Guthrie and general structural problems, monetary Szanton on the Philippines, Friedland on problems, institution and political Tanganyika, and Comitas, Doughty, Palmer, requirements, the "so-called" social aspects and Heath on Latin America. of economic growth are included in the analysis of the domestic economy. As one Fall of Maya would expect, there is substantial emphasis Thompson, J.E.S. The Rise and on international problems. Included in this Civilization. U. of Oklahoma P., 1954; $5.95. category are international trade trends, A distinguished scholar of the Maya tells stabilization of export prices, foreign capital of the accomplishments of America's most and its "contribution" (including the transfer elaborate pre-Columbian civilization. of technology), economic integration, and .Sophisticated systems of writing, calendarics, the Alliance for Progress. If one holds that astronomy and architecture are described. one must be part of a saziety to really The mysterious ending of the Maya understand its problems, Urquidi is "must" civilization is discussed and possible reasons reading. He knows the problems, describes for the sudden change put forward.(Wicke) them vividly, and offers positive policy

67 recommendations. For an emphasis on labor, Furtado, "Political Obstacles tothe see Form, W.H., and A.A. Blum (eds.). Economic Development ofBrazil"; and IndustrialRelations and Social Change in Navarro, "Mexico the Lopsided Latin America (U. of Florida P., 1965; 177 Revolution."(Roman) pp. Bibliography, index.) and Poblete Troncoso, Moisis, and B.G. Burnett. The Veliz, Claudio(ed.).Latin America and the Rise of the Latin American Labor Movement Caribbean: A Handbook. Praeger, 1968; 840 (College & Univ. P., 1960; 179 pp., $.1.75. pp., $25.00. End ofchapter bibliographies, Bibliography, index.).(Scaperlanda) tables, plates, maps. This invaluable reference is divided into 5 Valiant, G.C. The Aztecs of Mexico. 2nd ed., parts: a political history and economic survey Penguin, 1966; $2.95. Illustrations. of ea:1h country; political affairs within the The classic ethnological reconstruction of continent and foreign relations; economic the life way of the pre-conquest Aztecs of affairs; the people and social institutions; and Central Mexico.(Bartell) contemporary arts. Selections by 82 specialists are up-to-date, readable, biting. Vernon, R. (ed.). How Latin America Views the U.S. Investor. Praeger, 1966; 177 pp., $10.00. Wagley 1964 (see Digguez) Notes. Wagley, C. An Introduction to Brazil. Columbia U.P., This volume aims at giving us the unusual opportunity to see ourselves as we appear to 1963; 322 pp., $2.25. Bibliography, index. the outsider. The first paper manifests the This book is just what the title says, and conflicting views of North Americans and certainly one of the best available in any Latin Americans relative to foreign language for The non-specialist. Since more people in South America speak Po.-tuguese investment. Following a brief account of regional today than Spanish; and since Brazil is the development and foreigninvestment are only other nation in the Western Hemphere with the potential to become a world rather three additionalpapers.Garcia Vazques writes on the Argentine view, the Braziiian than a continental power (Argentina, Mexico, and Canada), intelligent U.S. readers owe it viewisadvanced by Jaguaribe, and the editor, Vernon, gives his interpretation of the to themselves to become more familiar with the Colossus of the South. Explains how Mexican view. Not particularly recommended for climate, topography, industrialization, bedtime reading. The writers' objective economic development, ethnic origins, reality tends to disquiet a North American historical accidents, and ecological factors into a mental state of provocation or at least have shaped the Brazilian nature and to the point of wanting to defendhimself character over four centuries of growth; examines elements which have united and with what he views as appropriate divided its inhabitants. Concludes with a rebuttal.(Martellaro) fascinating essay entitled"IfIWere A Brazilian." See also: Bums, E.B. (ed.). A Vg liz, Claudio. Obstacles to Change in Latin America. Documentary History of Brazil (Knopf, Oxford U.P., 1965; 263 pp., $6.75. 1966; 398 pp. $2.95), and Horowitz, I.L. Revolution in Brazil: Politics and Society in .The Politics of Conformity in Latin a Developing Nation (Dutton, 1964; 430 pp. America. Oxford U.P., 1967; 291 pp., $7.00. $7.50.Bibliography,index), and Wagley. These collections of essays present what is Amazon Town: A Study of Men in The essentially the United Nations' Economic Tropics (Knopf, 1953 [Epilogue written Commission for Latin America line: the need 19621 ; 315 pp., $2.50. Brief bibliography, for structural changes, the need to shift from index). development directed toward the outside to (Ely) development internally. Especially good are the following articles: Nun, "The Middle Wagley, C. The Latin American Tradition: Essays on Class Military Coup," which argues the the Unity and the Diversity of Latin reactionary nature of the Latin American American Culture. Columbia U.P., 1968; 242 -middle class; Thomas, "Middle Class Politics pp., $6.75. Bibliography, index. and the Cuban Revolution," which attacks An excellent introducion filled with the thesis that the Cuban Revolution was valuable information and stimulating m iddle classinnature or composition; thoughts: " Everywhere in the countries of

68 Latin America [the Spanish conquest and the Whitaker, A.P., and D.C. Jordan. Nationalism in introduction of Negro slavery]created a Contemporary Latin America. Free Press, peasantry that is analogous to the European 1966; 229 pp., $5.95. Bibliography, index. and even the Asian peasantry only in a Examines the different kinds of formal sense" (p. 120); "In most countries [a nationalism which have emerged since 1930, new sector of industrialistsand businessmen] varieties which prevail not only from country are today more important inthe national to country but also those which compete power structure thanthe traditional within national boundaries. Attention is also landholding and rural based elite" (p. 194). focused upon the sources and uses of Secondary students will find some difficulty nationalism. with the social scientific vocabulary The case studies(Argentina,Bolivia, ("endogamous," "consanguineous") and the Brazil,Chile,Cuba, Peru, Uruguay, and liberal inclusion of Spanish and Postuguese Venezuela) have been selectively chosen words. because these nations, in the light of their cultural and economic development, Wag ley, C., and M. Harris. Minorities in the New collectively project the full spectrum of Latin World: Six Case Studies. Columbia U.P., nationalism. Besides the political aspects, the 1958; 320 pp.Bibliography, index. authors give due attention to ethnic and After an introduction to the area, drawing social factors which have played a role in the freely from many ethnic examples, discusses struggle to achieve national the Brazilian and Mexican Indians, treating identity.(Martellaro) each separately. Second section discusses Negroes of Martinique and the U.S. Both of Whitaker, A. P. Latin American History Since 1825. these sections are introduced by 5-10 page Service Center for Teachers of History, surveys placing theIndian or Negro in a Publication No. 42, 2nd ed., 1965; 23 pp., 75 hemispheric frame of reference. The rest of cents. Bibliography. the book (from p. 161) treats the European Like Gibson's companion piece on the immigrants (French Canadians and Jews in colonial period, thisis indispensable for the U.S.), and offers a conclusion("An secondary school teachers. Mentions texts Anthropological View of Minority Groups") available in English, weighing advantages of which is verbose and jargonistic. The first traditional approach (encyclopedic, national half of the book can be recommended to history) and more analytical or interpretative works arranged on a topical and/or regional teacher and student alike. basis. Calls attention to present concern with the interrelationships of economic, social and West and Augelli (see AugeHi) culturalhistory, counterbalancing earlier emphasis on purely political, diplomatic, and Whitaker, A.P. Argentina. Prentice-Hall, 1964; 184 military history. Discusses developments in pp., $4.95. Index. such fields as the Mexican Revolution of Itis"normal" to stereotype foreign 1910, class and caste, church and state, cultures, but in the case of Argentina the democracy and dictatorship, and non-specialist usually applies stereotypes international relations.Lists a number of which correspond to different realities. The standard bibliographical guides.(Ely) Argentines themselves, with their favorite national symbol of the Gauchohowever meaningful it may bedo not help us or Wilgus, A. C. (ed.). The Caribbean: Current United anybody else to identify them (there States Relations. U. of Florida P., 1966; 243 probably are more Jews than descendants pp., $7.50. Index. from properly called Gauchos in Argentina Articles by 21authors on monetary, nowadays). This country constitutes one of business, trade,cultural, and diplomatic the two most important cultural focal areas relations. (the other being Mexico) in Spanish speaking America. This is a good introduction to the Wionczek, Miguel S. "The Latin American Free history and character of Argentina, especially Trade Association," International readable on account of its clear style. Also Co n ci I iation 551. Carnegie Endowment, recommended: Argentina, A City and A 1965; 79 pp., 50 cents. Nation by R. Scobie (Oxford U.P., Survey of the history of movement toward 1964).(Vizquez-Bigi) economic cooperation; both complete and

69 accurate. Concludes with an evaluation of Wood (see Burr) prospects for LAFTA. Regarding the negative attitude toward regional monetary cooperation which has Zeit lin, M. Cuba: Tragedy in Our Hemisphere. Grove, been maintained by theInternational 1963; 316 pp., 95 cents. Monetary Fund, it is useful to note that the The best sympathetic account of the causes and process of the CubanRevolution. U. S. alone possesses approximately 30% of the vote in IMF decisions.In such See also: Zeit lin, M. Revolutionary Politics and the Cuban Working Class (Princeton U. circumstances it is not difficult tO imply that P.,1967; 306 pp.,$8.50), whichisa a negative the U.S. policy is sociological study comparing the attitudes of one. (Scaperlanda) workers inCuba before and after the Revolution from a Marxist point of view. See Wolf, Eric. Sons of the Shaking Earth. U. of Chicago also: Boorstein,E. The Economic P.,1959; 303 pp., $1.50. Bibliographical Transformation of Cuba (Monthly Review, notes, index. 1968; 303 pp., $7.95). For an unsympathetic A history of Middle America, Mexico and attack of Castro, see Draper, T. Castro's Guatemala, written by an anthropologist who Revolution (Praeger,1 962; 211pp., is almost unique in his ability to express $1.75).(Roman) himselfin flowing narrative and poetic speech. Not any the less concise or accurate, ( Forthcoming publication:Walsh,D.D.(ed.). it gives reading pleasure and a deep insight Handbook for Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. into the people of these countries.(Bartell) Heath, spring 1969.)

70 NAMES AND ADDRESSES OFPUBLISHERS LISTED IN BIBLIOGRAPHY

64 East Van BurenStreet, Chicago 5, Aldine. Aldine Publishing Company, Illinois Rockleigh, New Jersey07614 Allyn. Allyn and Bacon, Incorporated, Incorporated, 501 FranklinAvenue, Garden Anchor. Doubleday and Company, City, New York 11531 122 East 42nd Street,New York, New Antheneum. Antheneum Publishers, York10017 440 Park Avenue, South,New Appleton. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Incorporated, York, New York10016

Street, Boston, Massachusetts02108 Beacon. The Beacon Press, 25 Beacon 4300 West 62nd Street,Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Indiana Incorporated, One Park Avenue,New York, New Brazil ler. George Brazil ler, York10016 1775 Massachusetts Avenue,N.W., Brookings Inst. The B rookingsInstitution, Washington, D. C.20036 Institute of Technology,Pittsburgh, Carnegie Endowment. Carnegie Press Publishers, Carnegie Pennsylvania 15213 Cooperation Program, Latin AmericanBureau, CICOP. Catholic Inter-American USCC Tower Building, Mezzanine,14th and K Streets,N. W. Washington, D. C.20005

Avenue, New York, New York 10003 Citadel. The Citadel Press, 222 Park Press, 263 Chapel Street,New Haven, College & Univ. Press The College and University Connecticut06513 Collier Books, 866 ThirdAvenue, New York, New Collier. (Macmillan) York10022 West 110th Street, New York,New Columbia U.P. Columbia University Press, 440 York10025 Avenue, New York, New York10003 Crown. Crown Publisher, 419 Park 1822 Ludlow Street,Philadelphia, Current History, Inc. Current History, Incorporated, Pennsylvania 19103 Incorporated, 501 FranklinAvenue, Garden Doubleday. Doubleday and Company, City, New York 11531

71 Dutton. E. P. Dutton and Company, Incorporated,201 Park Avenue, South, New York, New York10003

Editorial Losada. Editorial Losada, Buenos Aires, Argentina

Editorial Universitaria. Editorial Universitaria (Eudeba), Buenos Aires, Argentina

Graenwich, Fawcett. Fawcett Pu blishers,I ncorporated,Fawcett Place, Connecticut Palo Alto, Fearon. Fearon Publishers,Inc. 216 5 Park Boulevard, California94306

Fondo de Cultura Econcimica. Fondo de Cultura Econcimica, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico, D.F.

Foreign Policy Assoc., Inc. Foreign Policy Association, Incorporated,345 East 46th Street, New York, New York10017

Free Press. Macmillan Company, Sub. of Crowell, Collier & Macmillan,866 Third Avenue, New York, New York10022

Grove. Grove Press, 315 Hudson Street, New York, New York 10013

Harcourt. Harcourt, Brace and World, Incorporated, 757 3rd Avenue, NewYork, New York10017

Harper. Harper and Row Publishers, Incorporated, 49 East33rd Street, New York, New York10016

Heath. D. C. Heath and Company, Boston, Massachusetts

Holt. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Incorporated, 383 MadisonAvenue, New York, New York10017

Houghton-Mifflin. Houghtan-Mifflin Company, 110 Tremont Street,Boston, Massachusetts02107

John Hopkins. The John Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland21218

Knopf. Alfred Knopf, Incorporated, New York, New York

Kenworthy Educational Service Kenworthy EducationalService,P.0. Box 3031, Buffalo, New York 14205

Las Americas. Las Americas Publishing Company, 152 East 23rdStreet, New York, New York10010

Little. Little, Brown and Company, Incorporated, 34 Beacon Street, Boston, Massachusetts02106

Long Island U.P. Long Island University Press, Zeckendorf Campus, Brooklyn, New York 11201

Louisiana State U.P. Louisiana State University Press, Hill Memorial Building, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana70803

72 Macmi I Ian. The Macmillan Company, 866 3rd Avenue, New York, New York10022

McGraw-Hill. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Princeton Road, Hightstown, New Jersey 08520

Merit. Merit Publishers, 5 East Third Street, New York, New York10003

M.I.T. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts02142

Monthly Review. GrovePress,Incorporated, 80 University Place, New York, New York10003

New Amer. Lib. The New AmericanLibrary,Incorporated,1301Avenue of the Americas, New York, New York10019

Noonday. Noonday Press, Incorporated, 19 Union Square, West, NewYork, New York10003

Norton. Norton Publishers, 55 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10003

Obolensky. Obolensky, Ivan, Incorporated, 1117 First Avenue, New York,New York 10021

Oceana. Oceana Publications, 40 Cedar Street, Dobbs Ferry, NewYork10522

Oxford U.P. Oxford University Press, Incorporated, 1600 Pollitt Drive,Fair Lawn, New Jersey 07410

Pelican. Pelican Publishing Company, Incorporated, 924 Maritime Building,New Orleans, Louisiana 70130

Pflaum. Pflaum Press, Dayton, Ohio

Pocket Books. Pocket Books, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, New York 10020

Praeger. Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers, 111 Fourth Avenue, NewYork, New York10003

Premier. Premier Printing Company, 2120 McKinney Avenue,Houston, Texas77003

Prentice-Hall. Prentice-Hall, Incorporated, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey07632

Princeton U.P. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey08540

Quadrangle. Quadrangle Books, Incorporated, 180 North Wacker Drive,Chicago, Illinois60606

Rand McNally. Rand McNally and Company, Box 7600, Chicago,Illinois60680

Random. Random House, Incorporated, 457 Madison Avenue,New York, New York 10022

Ronald. The Ronald Press Company, 79 MadisonAvenue, New York, New York10016

Rutgers U.P. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NewJersey

73 Service Center for Teachers Service Center for Teachers ofHistory, 400 A.Street,S.E., of History. Washington, D. C.20003

Smith. Smith, Peter,6 Lexington Avenue, Magnolia, Massachusetts01930

Stanford U.P. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California94305

Time. Time,I ncorporated, 540 North Michigan Avenue,Chicago, lilinois60601

Twentieth Century (Fund). The Twentieth Century Fund, 41 East 70th Street,New York, New York 10031

U. of California P. University of CaliforniaPress,2223 Fulton Street,Berkeley, California94720

U. of Chicago P. University of Chicago Press, 5750 Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois60637

U. of Florida P. University of FloridaPress,15 N.W. 15thStreet,Gainesville, Florida32603

U. of Illinois P. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois61801

U. of Kansas P. University of Kansas Press, 358 Watson, Lawrence, Kansas66044

U. of North Carolina P. University of North CarolinaPress, Box 510, ChapelHill, North Carolina27514

U. of Oklahoma P. University of OklahomaPress,Universityof Oklahoma Faculty Exchange, Norman, Oklahoma73069

U. S. Gov't. Printing Office. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.20402

Van Nostrand. D. Van Nostrand Company, Incorporated, 120 Alexander Street, Princeton, New Jersey08540

Viking. The Viking Press, Incorporated, 625 Madison Avenue, New York, New York10022

Vintage. Vintage Books, Incorporated, 457 Madison Avenue, New York, New York10022

Wadsworth. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Incorporated Belmont, California94002

Walken. Frank R. Walken Company, 5030 North Harlem Avenue, Chicago, Illinois60656 .

Wiley. John Wiley and Sons, Incorporated, One Wiley Drive, Somerset, New Jersey08873

Yale U.P. Yale University Press,149 York Street, New Haven, Connecticut06520

74 SKETCH OF HANDBOOK CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. GILBERT D. BARTELL is an assistant professor Mr. JORGE ARMANDOGUTIgRREZ PADILLA in the Department of Anthropology at Northern was born in Peru, South America, andearned an M.A. Illinois University. He has spent about a third of his inIntellectualHistory from Northern Illinois time over the past ten years doing field work in University. Mr. Gutie'rrez has experienced teaching Mexico, mostly with the Yaqui Indians. Spanish at both secondary and college levels. At present he is working toward a doctorate in the Dr. C. DANIEL DI LLMAN taught geography at Department of Secondary Professional Education at WesternIllinoisUniversity and Wisconsin State Northern Illinois University. University before coming toNorthernIllinois University in 1966. He has been a consultant on Dr. BENJAMIN KEEN is aspecialist inLatin Latin America at several NDEA Summer Institutes American colonialhistory at NorthernIllinois and has lectured widely on aspects of Northern University. His publications include Life and Labor Mexico. He has published articles in a number of in Ancient Mexico: The Brief and Summary Relation geography journals and is the author of A of the Lords of New Spain by Alfonso de Zorita Laboratory Manual for Earth Science (1965). (1963), and the widely used college text, Readings in Latin American Civilization, 1492 to the Present Dr. ROLAND T. ELY is a specialist in the national (2nd ed., 1967). Dr. Keen has traveled frequently to period of Latin American history at Northern Illinois Mexico in recent years in connection with his current University. Dr. Ely has traveled widely in all of the research project, The Aztecs in Western Thought. He Latin American countries, lectured at more than 30 has also published a recent history of Latin America universities in Latin America, and has appeared on called Americans All (1966). public-service television programs in 10 national capitals of the area. His published works include numerous books and articles. Fcrcontributions to Dr. JOSEPH A. MARTELLARO is a specialist in the the cause of inter-American understanding, he has economic development of underdeveloped countries, been decorated by the governments of Argentina, with aconcentration on SouthernItaly and Brazil, and Ecuador. Argentina. Dr. Martellaro has been awarded three Fulbright grants and has lectured in two universities Dr. OYARA P. ESTEVES is a Brazilian educator of Argentina. He is listedin Who's Who in the who has taught on alllevels frot3 primary to Midwest, Contemporary Authors, Dictionary of graduate school in Brazil and the United States. She International Biography (London), and American has published a book on tests and measurements. Dr. Men of Science Since 1960. He has published Estevesisa professorinthe Department of numerous articles, and his forthcoming book,The Education at Northern Illinois University. Argentine Economy, is scheduled for publication, fall 1968. Mr. EDWARD W. G LAB, JR. has recently returned from Peru, where he lived as a Peace Corpsman in a barriada of Lima. Mr. Glab is currently a graduate Dr.E. CRAIG MORRIS isaprofessor in the assistant in the Department of Political Science at Department of Sociology and Anthropology at Northern Illinois University. Northern IllinoisUniversity.Dr.Morrisis an archeologist with field experience in Latin America. Dr.R OD ERICK T. GROVES is anassistant professor of Political Science at Northern Illinois University. He spent over a year of residence in Dr. HOWARD LEE NOSTRAND is professor of Venezuela during 1963 and 1964 doing research on Romance Languages at the University of Washington, an aspect of Venezuelan government.He has traveled where he has served as department head from in other Latin American countries also. His major 1939-64, Professor Nostrand's wealth of experiences research interests at present are Latin American includes a Guggenheim fellowship, appointment as legislative systems and the development of political culturalrelations attach6 with the United States institutions in general. Dr. Groves has had several Embassy in Lima, Peru, and presidency of the AATF article-length studies published. from 1960-62. He is listed in Who's Who in America.

75 Mr. JOHN R. PARKER is a systems analyst with directorof the SocialSciences Department of I.B.M., Inc., in the Aurora, Illinois, office. He is a GeneralResearch Corporation(SantaBarbara, graduatein politicalscience from Northwestern California). University. Mr. CLIFFORD NEAL SMITH is a professor in the Mr. ROSENDO R. RIVERA has studied and taught Department of Management at Northern Illinois at New Mexico State University, the University of University. He has resided in Venezuela for ten years Connecticut, TulaneUniversity,and, Northern and has livedin Europe. He has publications in Illinois University. He has traveled in Mexico and various journals. Spain andispresently an assistant professor of Spanish at Cedar Crest College,Allentown, Pennsylvania. Sister MARGARET G. SMITH isanassistant professor of history at Maryville College in St. Louil, Mr. PETER A. ROMAN, of the Northern Illinois Missouri. She has resided in Uruguay and Puerto University Department of Political Science, received Rico, and specializes in the role of the Church in his A.B. from Berkeley and his M.A. from Princeton. periods of revolutionary change. Mr. Roman is now working on a doctoral dissertation on the Chilean New Left. He has recently returned Dr. H. DARREL TAYLOR was chairman of the from over two years in Chile where he had an OAS Department of Foreign Languages at Brigham Young grant to study leftist movements. Mr. Roman has University when he wrote "Culture Capsules." He also spent some timeinArgentina,Peru, and died in 1962. Uruguay. Dr.A. MANUEL VAZQUEZ-BIGI was born in Dr. ANTHONY SCAPERLANDA's specialization is Argentina, received his doctorate in Law from the international economics, and his publications include Universidad Nacional, and practiced law in Argentina articles on Latin AmericainThe American for 10 years. Dr. Vizquez-Bigi came to the United Economist, Duquene Review, and Land Economics. States in 1952 and subsequently earned a Ph.D. in He is currently doing research in the European Romance Languages from the University of economic community andLatinAmerica at Minnesota. He is a professor at Northern Illinois Northern Illinois University. University and has published numerous articles.

Mr. H. NED SEELYE has lived ten years in Mexico, Mr. MARSHALL H. WHITHED is completing work Guatemala, and the Caribbean. He has studied at the toward a doctorate in political science at Tufts University of the Americas in Mexico City, Brigham University. Until recently an instructor at Northern Young University, Tulane University, and earned an IllinoisUniversity,heiscurrently anassistant M.A. in Latin American studies from the Universidad professor in the Department of Political Science at de San Carlos de Guatemala. He has taught in Rensselaer Polytechnic I nstitute, Troy, New York. secondary schools and universities in both Latin America and the United States. Beginning with the Dr. CHARLES R. W1CKE has conducted 1968-69 academic year, Mr. See lye will be on leave anthropological fieldworkinMexico, Peru, and of absence from Northern Illinois University while he Paraguay. Formerly co-chairman of the fillsthepositionof StateForeignLanguage Anthropology Department of the University of the Supervisor, Title III, NDEA, with the Office of the Americas inMexico City,heis now associate Superintendent of Public Instruction (Illinois). professor in the Department of Anthropology at Northern Illinois University. In the academic year Dr. JOHN L. SORENSON was an assistant professor 1966-67, he taught at the Universidad Nacional de of anthropology at Brigham Young University when Asunci6n in Paraguay under the Fulbright Program. he collaborated with Dr. Taylor on the article H isbook, Olmec: anEarly Art Style from reprinted in this Handbook. Since 1964 he has been Precolumbian Mexico, is soon to appear.

76