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ABERRATION,SEXUAL medical pathology the term "abnormal" The notion of sexual aberration refers to conditions which interfere with had some currency in the literature of the physical well-being and functioning of psychiatry during the first half of the twen- a living body. Applied to social life, such tieth century. Although the expression an approach entails subjective judgments encompassed a whole range of behaviors about what the good life is. Moreover, regarded as abnormalities, it is probably insofar as homosexual and other variant safe to say that it was used more with lifestyles can be considered "maladjusted," reference to homosexuality than for any that assumption reflects the punitive in- other "disorder." In due course it yielded trusion of socially sanctioned prescriptions to deviation, and then to deviance-some- rather than any internal limitations im- what less negative concepts. posed by the behavior itself. In otherwords, The term derives from the Latin once the corrosive element of self-con- abenare, "to go astray, wander off." It is tempt, which is introjected by the social significant that the first recorded English environment, is removed, homosexual use of the verb "aberr" (now obsolete), by men and lesbian women would appear to John Bellenden in 1536, refers to religious function as well as anyone else. Another heresy. For nineteenth-century alienists difficulty with the concept is that the pair and moralists, theword aberration took op normal/abnormal suggests a sharp strong connotations of mental instability dichotomy. Kinsey's findings, however, or madness. Thus, in its application to suggest that sexual behavior is best under- sexual nonconformity, the concept linked stood as a continuum with many individu- up with the notion of "moral insanity," als falling between the poles and shifting that is to say, the nonclinical manifesta- position over the course of their lives. tion of desire for variant experience. The It is true but trivialthat in a purely notion of departure from a presumed sta- statistical sense homosexual behavior in tistical norm, and the prefix ab-, connect our society is abnormal, since it is not with the concept of abnormal. The prolif- practiced by most people most of the time. eration of such terms in the writings of But the same is the case with such behav- psychiatrists, physicians, moralists, and ior as opera singing, the monastic voca- journalists in the first half of the twentieth tion, medicine-all of which are valued century reveals a profound ambivalence occupations, but ones practiced only by with regard to human variation, in which small segments of the population. Label- prescriptive condemnation struggles ing sopranos, monks, or physicians abnor- with, and often overcomes, descriptive mal would be tautological-it amounts to neutrality. sayingthat amember of agroupis amember of a group. Needless to say, we are not accustomed to refer to such pursuits as ABNORMALITY abnormal because they do not, as a rule, The lay public remains much incur social disapproval. Sometimes the concerned about the question of whether matter is referred to biology, by enquiring homosexual behavior is abnormal. In as to whether animals practice it . (See 4 ABNORMALITY animal homosexuality.) Once again, such ual (which by inference is not normal). cultural activities as religion and medi- Although Kertbeny's first word, in strik- cine are not practiced by animals, but this ing contrast to the second, gained no cur- lack does not compel us to condemn them rency, it did anticipate the twentieth- as abnormal. Because of thenegative freight century contrast of normal and abnormal that has accumulated over the years, aug- sexuality. mented by numerous courses in "abnor- mal psychology," it is best that the term be BIBLIOGRAPHY. Alfred Kinsey et al., "Normality and Abnormality in Sexual used very sparingly--if at all-in connec- Behavior," in P. H. Hoch and J. Zubin, tion with sexual behavior. eds., Psychological Development in The history of the word itself Health and Disease, New York: Grune reveals an interesting, if obscure inter- and Stratton, 1949, 11-32. change between linguistic development Wayne R. Dynes and judgrnentalism. As the Oxford Eng- lish Dictionary noted (with unconscious ABOMINATION irony) in 1884, "few words show such a In contemporary usage the terms series of pseudo-etymological perversions." abomination and abominable refer in a The process that occasioned this unusual generic way to something that is detest- lexicographical outburst is as follows. able or loathsome. Because of Old Testa- Greek anomalos ("not even or level") ment usage, however-Leviticus 18:22, produced Latin anomalus-and eventu- "Thou shalt not lie with mankind as with ally our word anomalous. Then, through womankind: it is abomination" (cf. Lev- confusion with norma, "rule," the Latin iticus 20: 13; Deuteronomy 225 and 23: 19; word was corrupted to anormalis, hence and I Kings 14:24)-the words retain a French and Middle English anormal. The special association as part of the religious parasitic "b" crept in as the second letter of condemnation of male homosexual be- the modem word through scribal inter- havior. In Elizabethan English they were vention rather than the natural evolution normally written "abhomination," "ab- of speech. (Comparethe intrusive "dl1 and hominable" as if they derived from Latin "h" in "adventure" and "author" respec- ab- and homwhence "departing from the tively .) human; inhuman." In fact, the core of the It is true that classical Latin had Latin word is the religious term omen. abnormis, "departing from the rule," but In any event the notion of it did not possess abnormalis. The pres- abominatioln) owes its force to its appear- ence of the "b" in our word abnormal ance in Jerome's Vulgate translation of the serves to create an unconscious associa- Bible, where it corresponds to Greek tion with "aberrant," "abreaction," etc. bdelygma and Hebrew t62bgh. The latter To summarize, the pejorative connota- term denotes behavior that violates the tions are enhanced by the intrusion of two covenant between God and Israel, and is consonants, "b" and "r," which-the ety- applied to Canaanite trade practices, idola- mology shows-do not belong there. try, and polytheism. The aversion of the Two rare anticipations of modern religious leaders of the Jewish community usage may be noted as curiosities. In a after the return from the Babylonian cap- harangue against sodomites, the French tivity to the "abominable customs" of thirteenth-century Roman delarose (lines their heathen neighbors, combined with 19619-20) refers to those who practice the Zoroastrian prohibition of homosex- "exceptions anormales." In 1869 the ual behavior, inspired the legal provisions homosexual theorist Kkoly Mkia Kert- added to the Holiness Code of Leviticus in beny coined a word, normalsexual (= the fifth century before the Christian era heterosexual], in contrast with homosex- that were to be normative for Hellenistic ABRAHAMIC RELIGIONS 9

Judaism and then for Pauline Christianity. century B.C. and the first century, when The designation of homosexual relations the writings of such Jewish apologists as as an "abomination" or "abominable Philo Judaeus and Flavius Josephus show crime" in medieval and modern sacral and it in a fully developed form. Thus the legal texts echoes the wording of the Old negative attitude of all three faiths has a Testament. single OldTestament source; itsreception The complex web of prohibitions in Christianity is secondary and in Islam recorded in the Book of Leviticus has de- tertiary, the Islamic tradition having fied full explanation from the standpoint mainly been shaped by Nestorian Christi- of comparative religion. Recently influen- anity of the early seventh century. All tial among social scientists (though not three contrast in the most strikingmanner amongBiblica1scholars) has been the inter- with the role that homosexual behavior pretation of the anthropologist Mary and the art and literature inspired by Douglas (Purity and Danger, London, homoerotic feeling played in Greco-Ro- 1967))who views the abominations as part man paganism-+ legacy that the medie- of a concern with the boundaries of classi- val and modern world has never been able fication categories, strict adherence to fully to suppress or disavow, but which which attests one's purity in relation to has driven scholars and translators to acts divinity. of censorship and artful silence when confronted with texts and artifacts be- queathed by the ancient civilizations. ABRAHAMICRELIGIONS The claim of homophobic propa- J According to the French Catholic gandists that the prohibition of homo- Orientalist Louis Massignon (1883-1962), sexuality isuniversalrestsessentiallyupon theAbrahamicreligionsarethethreemajor its proscription in the Abrahamic relig- faiths-Judaism, Christianity, Islam-that ions, which have primarily condemned look to the patriarch Abraham as their male homosexuality. Lesbianism is no- spiritual father. In their belief systems, where mentioned in the Old Testament, Abraham ranks as the first monotheist the New Testament, or the Koran. The who rejected the pagan divinities and their passage in Romans 1:26 that has often idols and worshipped the true God who been interpreted as referring to lesbian revealed himself to him. (Modem scholars sexuality actually concerns another Old have concluded that the book of Genesis is Testament myth, the sexual union of the a historical novel written only after the "sons of God" and the "daughters of men" return of the exiles from the Babylonian in Genesis 6: 1-4. The association of captivity, and that monotheism in fact Sodom's twin city of Gomorrah with lesbi- began with Akhenaten, the heretical pha- anism is an accretion of the later Middle raoh of Egypt in the fourteenth century Ages and confined to Latin Christianity. B.C. But completely eradicated in Egypt As for the texts inLeviticus 18:22 itself after his death, Akhenaten's innova- and 20: 13, modern critical scholarship has tions left no resonance except for their identified them as part of a legal novella possible survival in the neighboringIsrae1- from the Persian period, and the entire ite monarchy, which began its rule under Mosaic Law as a document compiled by Egyptian cultural hegemony.) Ezra and the "men of the Great Assembly" All the Abrahamic religions pro- in the years 4584B.c., hence long after scribe homosexual behavior, a taboo that the return of the exiles from the Babylo- derives from the Holiness Code of the nian Captivity. The account of the de- book of Leviticus and the legend of Sodom struction of Sodom is a geographical leg- as these were received in Palestinian and end inspired by the salinization and aridity then Hellenistic Judaism between the fifth of the shores of the Dead Sea, a result of the 9. ABRAHAMC RELIGIONS lowering of the prehistoric water level that and so burdened even exclusive homo- exposed the barren vicinity to full view. sexuals with the mask of a heterosexual The book of Genesis and its later elabora- identity. Islam, even after adopting this tion in Christian and Islamic legend have part of the Abrahamic tradition, never in their totality been dismissed from his- effectively superimposed it upon the more tory, as modem scholars with access to tolerant folkways of the Mediterranean Egyptian and Mesopotamian sources now societies which it conquered and won to conclude that the authors of the Old Tes- its faith, but even allowed homoerotic tament had no knowledge of any historic literature to flourish in the languages cul- event earlier than 1500 B.C. and that there tivated by its adherents, though plastic art was nourban cultureinPalestinein the so- celebrating male beauty was restricted by called patriarchal age. dogmatic opposition to image-making. While Jewish communal life in Louis Massignon composed a Palestine laid the foundations, the prohi- work entitled Les trois prihes d'Abra- bition on homosexual behavior could not ham, II, La prigre sur Sodome (19301, in- be enlarged into a Kantian imperative for spired by Abraham's intercession for the all humanity without a Hellenic supple- Sodomites in Genesis 18, in which he ment. Some Greek thinkers had independ- professed to have discovered the "spiritual ently formulated a condemnation of causes of inversion." It is the most sophis- homosexuality on philosophical and ethi- ticated piece of theological homophobia cal grounds, the chief of which was that the twentieth century has produced. A sexuality wasintended by nature solely for summary of his ideas appears in "Les trois the purpose of procreation. But this view pribres dlAbraham, pbre de tous les remained a philosopher's dictum with no croyants," Dieu Vivant, 13 (19491, 2C-23. support in religion or mythology. It was However deep-seated and tradi- Judaism that brought to the question the tion-hallowed the prohibition of homo- uncompromising prohibitions of Leviticus sexuality in the Abrahamic religions may and the accompanying death penalty, a be, it stems in the last analysis from pre- sanction exemplified by the myth of the scientific ignorance and superstition and destruction of Sodom. The four lines of not from beliefs accredited by modern attack-philosophical, ethical, legal- reli- science and philosophy. The contempo- gious, and mythical--converged in Philo rary gay liberation movement may be Judaeus (ca. 20 B.c.-ca.~.~.451, who for- regarded as a rejection of the Abrahamic mulated in flawless Attic prose the argu- tradition in regard to homosexuality and a ments that Christianity was to adopt as return to the more tolerant and accepting the basis for the intolerance of homosexu- attitude of Greco-Roman paganism, even ality in its own civilization. though some gay activists seek to sanc- The enforcement of the taboo in tion their beliefs in the guise of pseudo- the three Abrahamic religions is quite Christian or pseudo-Jewish communities. another matter. For most of its history On the other hand, the unanimity of the Judaism lacked the state powerwithwhich three religions authorizes their adherents to impose the Levitical death penalty, but to collaborate in good faith against gay lib- could resort to ostracism and exclusion eration and other goals of sexual reform, from the Jewish community. Christianity, however much they have hated, shunned, and above allLatin Christianity, succeeded and even persecuted one another over the in creating not just a fearsome legal prohi- centuries because of their mutually exclu- bition, but also an intolerant public opin- sive claims to be the sole revealed religion. ion that mercilessly ostracized not just those guilty of "unnatural vice," but even BIBLIOGRAPHY. Guy Harpigny, Islam et christianisme selon Louis Massignon, those accused or merely suspected of it, Louvain-la-Neuve: Universitt ABUNUWAS 4

Catholique de Louvain, 1981, pp. I here also Abu Nuwas flouted social norms 79-106; F. E. Peters, Children if by describing down on the cheek as erotic- Abraham: ludaism, Christianity, Islam, ally appealing,since it preserved beauty Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1982. from indiscreet glances and gave a differ- Warren Iohansson ent flavor to kisses. The only woman who played an important part in his life was Janan, a slave ABU NUWAS girl, but, because of his libertine conduct, (CA. 757--CA.814) she never trusted the sincerity of his love. Arab poet. One of the greatest of When she asked him to renounce his love all Arab writers, Abu Nuwas was the out- of boys, he refused, saying that he was one standingpoetoftheAbbasidera(75&1258). of the "people of Lot, " with reference to Abu Nuwas al-Hasan ibn Hani al-Hakami the Arab view that theBiblica1 Lot was the was born in Al-Ahwaz; his father was from founder of homosexual love. Abu Nuwas southern Arabia and his mother was Per- was sexually interested in women or girls sian. His first teacher was the poet Waliba only when they looked like boys, but even ibn al-Hubab (died 786), a master who then he considered their vagina too dan- initiated him into the joys of pederasty as gerous a gulf to cross. As he said (symboli- well as poetry. cally): "I have a pencil which stumbles if I Abu Nuwas continued his educa- use it on the front of the paper, but which tion in theology and grammar, after which takes great strides on the back." Lesbian- he decided to try his luck as an author in ism he derided as pointless: 'lt is fat rubbed the capital city of Baghdad. Here he soon up by fat, and nothing more. And rub as acquired great fame as a poet who excelled one may, when down to bare skin, there is in lyrical love poetry (ghazal),in lampoons nothing to rise in response. There is no and satire, and in mujun-frivolous and wicked shaft that is smooth at the tip to humorous descriptions of indecent or drive itself home and sink into place." obscene matters. He became the boon Abu Nuwas was notorious for his companion of the Caliph Al-Amin (ruled mockery and satire, in which the sexual 809-8 13))son and successor of the illustri- intemperance of women and the sexual ous Harun ar-Rashid (ruled 786-809). His passivity of men were favorite themes. A irresistible humor and irony made him a lot of people, even those in high places, favorite figure in popular stories of the were verbally "buggered" by him: "Your Arab world, where he played the role of penis would not be soft if you did not court jester. (He makes several appear- widen your anus!" Such verbal abuse ances in The Thousand and One Nights.) landed him in prison twice; he was also Abu Nuwas's favorite themes jailed once for drinking wine. werewine and boys. He was one of the first He liked to shock society by writ- Arab poets to write lyrical love poetry ing openly about thingswhich transgressed about boys, and his genius brought the the norms and values of Islam. For ex- togreat heights. His preferred type of ample, he was probably the first Arab poet youth was the pale gazelle, whose face to write about the taboo subject of mastur- shone like the moon, with roses on his bation, which he declared to be inferior to cheeks and ambergris in his long curly the love of boys, but preferable to mar- hair, with musk in his kisses and pearls riage. He didnot hide his "sinful" behavior between his lips, with firm boyish but- behind a cloak of silence, as was expected tocks, a slender and supple body, and a in Islam; instead he openly boasted of his clear voice. Beardless boys held the great- love of boys and wine: "Away with hypoc- est attraction-the growth of hair on the risy.. .discreet debauchery means little to cheek was likened to that of apes-but me. I want to enjoy everything in broad daylight." Social blame only served as an Patroclus is one of the major themes of the enticement, and regrets were not to be epic. Later Greek speculation made the expected. two lovers, and also gave Achilles a pas- At the very end of his life, Abu sion for Troilus. Nuwas underwent a sudden reformation, The homoerotic elements in the and devoted his final days to the composi- figure of Achilles are characteristically tion of verses in favor of Islamic holiness. Hellenic. He is supremely beautiful, kalos Yet it is not these verses which brought as the later vase inscriptions have it; he is him his fame. ever youthful as well as short-lived, yet he See also Ghulamiyya; Islam. foresees and mourns his own death as he anticipates the grief that it will bring to BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jamel Bencheikh, others. His attachment to Patroclus is an "Pdsies bachiques d'Abu Nuwas," Bulletin #Etudes Orientales, 18 archetypal male bond that occurs else- (1%34), 7-75; William ~~~~i~Ingrams, where in Greek culture: Damon and Py- Abu Nuwas in Life and Legend, Port thias, Orestes and Pylades, Harmodius and Louis: La Typographic Modeme, 1933; Aristogiton are pairs of comrades who Ewald Wagner, Abu Nuwas: Eine Studie gladly face danger and death for and beside zur Arabischen Literatur der men Abbasidenzeit, Wiesbaden: Steiner, each other. From the Semitic world stem 1965. Gilgamesh and Enkidu, as well as David Maarten Schild and Jonathan. The friendship of Achilles andpatroclus is mentioned explicitly only once in the Iliad, and then in a context of ACHILLES military excellence; it is the comradeship Greek mythological hero. Achil- of warriors who fight always in each les was the son of Peleus andThetis, usu- other's ken: "From then on the son of ally represented as their only child. All the Thetis urged that never in the of evidence suggests that the Greeksthought Ares should Patroclus be stationed apart of him as a man1 real or imaginary, and not from his own man-slaughtering spear." as a "faded" god, and that his widespread The Homeric nucleus of the cult resulted mainly from his prominence theme of Achilles as homosexual lover lies in the Iliad. His portrait was drawn once i, his relationship with Patroclus. The and for all by Homer, and later writers friendship with Patroclus blossomed into supplied details from their own imagina- overt homosexual love in the fifth and tion or from local traditions of obscure fourth centuries, in the works of Aeschylus, origin. Plato, and Aeschines, and as such seems In the Iliad he appears as a mag- to have inspired the enigmatic verses in nificent barbarian, somewhat outside the Lycop~ron'sth~rd~centuryA~eXandIathat sphere of Achaean civilization, though make unrequited love Achilles' motive for highly esteemed for his personal beauty killing Troilus. By the fourth century of and valor. Alone among the figures of our era this story had been elaborated into Homer, he clings to the archaic practice of a sadomasochistic version in which Achil- making elaborate and costly offeringst les causes the death of his beloved by including human victims. His furious and crushing him in a loverts a ungovernable anger, on which the plot of rule, the post-classical tradition shows the Iliad turns, is a weakness of which he Achilles as heterosexual and having an himself is conscious. When not aroused by exemplary asexualfriendship with Patro- wrath or grief, he can often be merciful, clus. but in his fury he spares no one. He is a The figure of Achilles remained tragic hero, being aware of the shortness of polyvalent. The classical Greek pederastic his life, and his devoted friendship for tradition only sporadically assimilated ACTNE-PASSIVE CONTRAST 9 him, new variations appeared in pagan sold Forster's letters to the University of writings after the Golden Age of Hellenic Texas, then predeceased him by three years. civilization, and medieval Christian writ- Just before his death, Ackerley ers deliberately suppressed the homoerotic completed a memoir (My Father and My- nuances of the figure. But in the world of selfJin which he fantasized that as a youth Greek gods and heroes, Achilles remains his guardsman father had prostituted the supreme example of the warrior im- himself to rich patrons, thereby securing bued with passionate devotion to his the financial stability that was eventually comrade-in-arms. to afford his son the opportunity to rent later generations of guardsmen for mutual BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. M. Clarke, masturbation. Unfortunately, many of his "Achilles and Patroclus in Love," Hermes, 106 (19781, 38 1-96; Katherine admirers have taken this account to be Callen King, Achilles: Paradigms of the established fact. War Hero from Homer to the Middle Ages, Berkeley: University of California BIBLIOGRAPHY. Neville Braybrooke, Press, 1987. ed., The Ackerley Letters, New York: Warren Johansson Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1975; Peter Parker, Ackerley: A Life of 1.R. Ackerley, London: Constable, 1989. Stephen 0. Murray OSEPH f=,",":~; 11896-1967) ACQUIREDIMMUNE British writer and editor. In 1918 DEFICIENCYSYNDROME Ackerley wrote a play "The Prisoners of See AIDS. War" about the cabin fever and repressed homoerotic longings of his own stint in a German camp during World War 1. It was ACTIVE-PASSIVE produced in 1925, by which time Ackerley CONTRAST had become a protCgC of E. M. Forster. Common usage divides homosex- Forster arranged for him a nebulous posi- ual behavior into active and passive roles. tion with the Maharajah of Chhatarpur, These terms are ambivalent and often whose misadventures in pursuit of homo- confusing. sexual love Ackerley mercilessly lam- A truism of physics is that bodies pooned in his travel book Hindoo Holiday may be either at motion or at rest. Inert (1929). objects, however, can only respond to The frustrations of Ackerley's external attraction and repulsion. It is the own inhibited sexual encounters with property of living things that they can working-class men and men in uniforms initiate activity as well as respond (or ref- led him to concentrate his affections on use to respond] to stimuli. This last dis- his dog, an Alsatian named Queenie, who tinction is the basis of commonsense is the main romantic interest of My Dog notions of active personalities as against Tulip (1956)) and of his one novel, We passive ones. Some individuals seem to Think the World of You (1960), which expend energy freely while others con- juxtaposes the pleasures of owning a dog serve it. In addition to this expend-conserve with the difficulties of having a lower- model, the active-passive contrast corre- class beloved. After Queenie's death and sponds in large measure to those of Ackerley'sretirement from theBBC (where lead-follow and command-obey. he had been an editor of me Listener, Around such notions the popular 1935-591, he journeyed to Japan, where he morality of ancient Greece and Rome had a modicum of sexual gratification. constructed a sexual dichotomy that clas- Ackerley wrote an obituary of Forster and sified participants in sexual acts not so 9 ACTIVE-PASSIVE CONTRAST much accordingto the male-female differ- mitigate the notion that the more rapa- ence, based on body build and genitalia, or cious copulation the active male could the heterosexual-homosexual contrast of engage in the better. The Platonic tradi- object choice, both of which are familiar to tion also reserved a special place for con- modem thinking, but in a stark opposition templation, a preference which passed into of the doer and the one who is done to. The Stoicism, where it even may take the form doer (agent)is the phallic male, his receiv- of commendation of nonaction. These ing partner (patient or pathic) either a contemplative and Stoic trends migrated female or a pubescent boy. (Sometimes into Christianity, which however did break older males could enact the passive role, with classical tradition by excluding the but they were generally disprized in conse- adolescent youth from the category of licit quence, for the paradigm admits of only sexual objects, thus clearing the way for one role for the adult male.) The the male-female dichotomy that has been active-passive contrast largely corresponds dominant in Western culture ever since. to the penetrator-penetratee dichotomy. Nonetheless, the pederastic ideal never In modem sexual encounters, the penetra- completely died out, despite the winds of tor can be, with respect to overall body theological disapproval. Many medieval movement, largely passive, amounting to and Renaissance texts attest to the sur- a contradiction. The ancients avoided this vival of pederastic patterns, at least among problem by their tendency to analyze a cultivated few. oral-phallic activity as irrumation, that is, In modern heterosexual practice where the penetrator engages his partner the identification of the male with the with vigorous buccal thrusts. A common active and the female with the passive was belief in this system is the notion that only sealed by the repressive norm of the pas- the active partner experiences pleasure; sionless female and the standard injunc- the role of the passive is simply to endure. tion of the "missionary position," in which It is easy to see how such a model of the penetrating male lies atop his partner. dominator and dominated would accord Feminism has sought to combat such re- with the mindset of a slave-owning so- strictions and today a variety of sexual ciety. positions are noted in every sex manual. This contrast of activevs. passive With respect to male and female homosex- is abundantly illustrated in Greek and ual conduct, however, the notion lingers Latin sexual texts, and as these are the that sexual activity, and indeed the whole foundation of the Western tradition their relationship, must be structured around formulae have often been echoed, though the active-passive contrast. Thus gay men changed-consciously or unconsciously- and lesbians are often asked: "Are you to fit new social norms. The contrast is active or passive?" It is frequently difficult also found in medieval Scandinavia, in to persuade the interlocutor that the two our prisons, jails, and reformatories, and roles are assumed alternately, or that one to a large extent in contemporary Latin pattern may prevail in bed while the oppo- America. site occurs in everyday life. That is to say, All these manifestations stem a "butch" lesbian accustomed to take the from popular modes of thought which tend lead in social encounters may be respon- to privilege the active, even predatory male. sive rather than aggressive in bed. For a Other trends were found, however, in more time "politically correct" gay and lesbian cultivated spheres of Greco-Roman think- thinking condemned sex-role differences ing. Self-restraint is a quality much praised in couples, claiming that they were a reac- in ancient ethical philosophy, and insofar tionary mimicry of heterosexual norms, as this ideal filtered down it tended to but it is now generally recognized that ADELSWARD FERSEN, BARON JACQUES D' 9 whether these patterns are to be honored Shortly thereafter, in Central Europe or overcome should be a matter of individ- Rudolph Eucken, who received the Nobel ual choice. Prize for literature in 1906, developed his See also Pederasty; Slavery. own philosophy of Aktivismus. At this Wayne R. Dynes time many figures of Germany's political and literary-artistic avant-garde were drawn to Franz Pfemfert's periodical Die ACTIVIST,GAY Aktion (191132). Further permutations Familiar in the 1970s1 the exPres- occurred with the Flemish nationalist sion "gay activist" has become less com- ~~ti~ht~in Belgium and the Hungarian man owing to the ebbing the artistic movement, Aktivismus, that arose strenuous and utopian aspects of the gay in the aftermathof World War I. As early as liberation movement. It served to denote 1915, however, Kurt HiUer, a political someone choosing to devote a major share theorist and journalist, as wellas an advo- of his or her energies to the accomplish- cate of homosexual rights, drew several of social change that will afford a strands together in his broader concept of better life for homosexual men and lesbian ~kti~i~~~~,urging the intelligentsia to women. Its most fam0~~illstit~tional abandon ivorytower isolation and ~arti~i- embodiment, subsequently imitated in pate fully in political life. HOW the term many Parts of the world, was the Gay activist in its political (andgay movement) Activists Alliance (GAA),formed in New sense reached North America in the 1970s York City in the wake of the 1969 Stone- can only be The mediation of wall Rebellion- The group as its German refugee scholars is likely, as is symbol the Greek letter lambda, aPPar- suggestedby this 1954 quotation by Arthur ently because of its association with en- ~~~~tl~~:"he was not a politician but a ergy transformation in physics. Unlike the propagandist, not a 'theoretician' but an New Left, GAA was expressly a "one is- ~activ~t~.~(Thereference, from The Invis- sue" organization, refusing to submerge ible writing, is to wiui ~ii~~~~b~~~an the cause of gay rights in a network of energetic Communist leader in Paris in social change groups, what came to be the 1930s.) known as the Rainbow Coalition. In Eu- Wayne R. Dynes rope the term "gay militant" is sometimes found as a variant, but in North America the word militant is generally eschewed ADELSWARDFERSEN, because of its Old Left connotations and BARONJACQUES D' limitations. (1880-1923) The history of the idea of gay French aristocrat and writer. activism displays a complicated pedigree. Descended from Marie Antoinette's lover The concept is rooted ultimately in the Axel Fersen, the wealthy young baron perennial contrast between the active and wrote several volumes of poetry and fic- the contemplative life-the latter being tion in the first decade of the century, traditionally preferred. In 1893, however, including Hyrnnaire d'Adonis, Chansons the French Catholic philosopher Maurice l~g&res,Lord Lyllian, and Une jeunesse. In Blonde1 in essence turned the tables in his addition, he edited and contributed to book L'Action. Blondel, in keeping with twelve monthly numbers of a literary the vitalist currents of the day, held that periodical, Akademos (1909).At the age of philosophy must take its start not from twenty-three he was arrested for taking abstract thought alone but from the whole photographs of naked Parisian schoolboys, of our life-thinking, feeling, willing. but was allowed to go into exile on the island of Capri for several years, later re- subculture of the nineteenth century. turning to France after having visited Sri Phrenologists themselves grounded this Lanka and China. passionate friendship--which could exist The great love of his life was the between members of opposite sexes as boy Nino Cesarini, who lived with him in well as between those of the same sex-in the Villa Lysis on Capri, which was filled the brain, giving it a material base and a with statues of naked youths and which is congenital origin. Walt Whitman self- now overrun by weeds and stray cats. consciously narrowed the reference of the Adelswiird Fersen also wrote poems to a term "adhesive loveN-which he also thirteen-year-old Eton schoolboy. He was named "comradeship"-to homosexual the model for Baron Robert Marsac Lager- relationships, and in so doing coded his strbm in Compton Mackenzie's amusing writings for the initiated reader. novel Vestal Fire (1927))and was the hero Permutations of the Concept. of RogerPeyrefittels historical fiction L'ex- George Combe (1784-1 858),a middle-class ilS de Capri (1959). He died of a drug lawyer from Edinburgh, met Spurzheim in overdose in 1923, having for years been an 18 15, and soon thereafter became a leader opium and cocaine addict. He had mod- of British phrenology. His Constitution of eled his life on that of Count Robert de Man Considered in Relation to External Montesquiou, but the latter refused to Objects (1828)became the basis of ortho- have anything to do with him, for even in dox phrenology. His major contribution to Capri Adelswiird Fersen had caused scan- the understanding of adhesiveness was his dals. He was even associated with Essebac complex sense of the working of the (as the novelist Achille BBcasse was "organ" and his additions to the iconogra- known), Norman Douglas, and Baron von phy. He also contrasted the selfish side of Gloeden. The story of his sexual life is to adhesiveness with the nobler ends that be found in his own books, in the works of had to be directed "by enlightened intel- NormanDouglas, and inPeyrefittelsnovel, lect and moral sentiment." Excess of adhe- which is spoiled by a mixture of fact and siveness could, however, amount to a dis- fiction. ease. At least two of the European BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bruce Chatwin, "Self- contributors to the definition of adhesive- Love Among the Ruins," Vanity Pair, 47:4 (April 19841, 46-55, 102-6. ness may themselves have been homosex- Stephen Wayne Foster ual: Spurzheim himself, and his younger Scottish contemporary Robert Macnish (1802-1837). In discussing women with ADHESIVENESS small amativeness and large adhesiveness, The concept of adhesiveness was he said that they "prefer the society of introduced into English by the phrenolo- their own sex to that of men." Amative- gist Johann Gaspar Spurzheim (1776-1832) ness thus applied to relations between the in the meaning of "the faculty that causes sexes, while the other term was discretely human beings to be attached to one an- given the implicit meaning of "homoerotic other."It derivedultimately from theLatin attachment." Romantic passions between verb adhaerere, as in Genesis 2:24, where young people of the same sex Macnish St. Jerome's equivalent of "Therefore shall deemed an "abuse of adhesiveness." He a man. . . cleave unto his wife" is "Quam went so far as to describe a male couple obrem . . .homo.. . adhaerebit uxorisuae." whose mutual attachment was so exces- Diffusion of the concept of adhesiveness sive as to be "a disease." by the (pseudo-)science of phrenology There is no indication that Walt enabled it to became part of the special Whitman knew Macnish's writings. His vocabulary of the emerging homosexual own acquaintance with the phrenological ADHESIVENESS + tradition came from the Americans asso- Do you know what it is, as you pass, ciated with "Fowler and Wells," the to be loved by strangers? "phrenological cabinet" that distributed Do you know the talk of those the first edition of Leaves of Grass and turning eye-balls? later hired Whitman to write for their 1 Here is adhesiveness-it is not publication Life Illustrated. Owen Squire previously fashioned-it is apropos. Fowler 11 809-1887) took up phrenology with great gusto afterhearing Spunheim's The restriction to love between members lectures duringhis student days at Arnherst of the same sex-which was not borrowed College. In 1840 he published an Elemen- from the phrenologists-was Whitman's tal Phrenology in which adhesiveness was initial adaptation of the term. When later defined as "Friendship; sociability; fond- in Democratic Vistas he came to elaborate ness for society; susceptibility of forming his new vision of society, he spoke of "the attachments; inclination to love, and de- adhesive love, at least rivalling the ama- sire to be loved. . . ." When he treated tive love." For the phrenologists arnative- adhesiveness at length, as he did repeat- ness and adhesiveness had been distinct, edly in journal articles in the following but had not been so polarized, simply years, he was strong on repetitious rheto- because the opposition heterosexual: ric but weak in analysis. Little of his ser- homosexual didnot yet exist in their minds, monizing derived from exact observation although they could recognize adhesive- or rigorous debate. ness as "the fountain of another variety of Franz Joseph Gall (1758-1 8281, mental symptoms." the founder of phrenology, had classified Whitman can be seen in this light excessive adhesiveness as a "mania," as a forerunner of Hans Bliiher, who, in the which meant that it could fall within the second decade of the twentieth century, scope of the physician's interest. How- from an openly elitist and conservative ever, in the middle of the nineteenth cen- standpoint exalted the role of homoeroti- tury medical science had not gone beyond cism and of male bonding in the mainte- defining quantitative (asopposed to quali- nance of the state. For Whitman the core of tative) changes in the sexualdrive as patho- social organization was same-sex cornrade- logical. Homosexual tendencies were ei- ship, which he set at least potentially on a ther dismissed as "excesses of friendship" par with heterosexual marriage. He could or relegated to the category of "revolting now celebrate the equalizing effects of his moral aberrations." version of adhesiveness, developing it as Walt Whitman. Under the influ- the basis of social reform in Democratic ence of Fowlerian phrenology Whitman Vistas (1871). His ideal of comradeship developed his own ideas on the role of linked both his early enthusiasm for the adhesiveness in his universal scheme of promiscuous anonymity of Manhattan and things. Whitman's self-conception was his later, more or less serial monogamy powerfully shaped by the reading of his with his hopes for the future of American head done by Lorenzo Fowler, which democracy. showed him to have immense potential, Aftermath. In the remaining and in the wake of this event Whitman decades of the century, the few surviving underwent a self-transformationthat made phrenologists became painfully aware of him the bold prophet of a new vision of the moral dangers of adhesiveness and of democracy. theinjurious effectsof the "excessive desire In the 1856 edition of Leaves of for friends." In 1898, three years after the Grass Whitman wrote: disgrace of Oscar Wilde, the Phrenological Journal, now edited by Orson Fowler's younger sister, published a two-part ar- 4 ADHESIVENESS ticle that dwelt as never before on the more directly on his experiences with excesses of friendship, which "causes its patients of humbler social origin. As a possessor to seek company simply for the result they have a commonsense quality sake of being in it, whereby their time is that earned them considerable popularity wasted and they become a natural prey to in the middle decades of the twentieth the dishonest, tricky, unscrupulous, and century, a popularity that has since ebbed. vicious, who may take advantage of and Alfred Adler's thinking emphasized the link them into all sorts of obligatory con- individual's striving for power and self- cerns ruinous to their pockets and their esteem (withthe inferiority complex often morals." arising as an unwanted byproduct) and the Today discredited and forgotten, patient's lifestylea concept that, much phrenology retains a historical interest as modified over the decades, was to play a one of the disciplines that sought to ana- notable role in the ideology of the gay lyze the causal factors in personality be- movement. fore a scientific psychology had emerged Although he attained a qualified from philosophy. As such, it brought approbation of the goals of the women's Whitman and perhaps others involved in movement, he insisted on classifying the homosexual subculture of that day to homosexuals amongthe "failures of life"- a better understanding of themselves and together with prostitutes and criminals. of the potential of homoeroticurges for the His writings on homosexuality began with positive task of nation-building. The no- a 52-page brochure in German in 1917 and tion of adhesiveness as related to male continued sporadically through most of comradeship linked it to the paiderasteia the rest of his life. Possessing little inde- of Greek antiquity, with its emphasis on pendent explanatory power, Alfred Adler's loyalty to one's comrade in arms and on views on homosexuality are now chiefly of duty to the state of which one was a citi- historical interest, as instances of stere- zen-the latter being one of the sources of otyped judgmentalism and reified folk the modem democratic ideal. belief of a kind not uncommon among professionals of his day. Beginning in the BIBLIOGRAPHY. Michael Lynch, 1970s some adherents of (Adlerian) Indi- "'Here Is Adhesiveness': From Friend- ship to Homosexuality," Victorian vidual Psychology proposed a less nega-

* Studies,. 29 (19851,. 67-96. tive approach to homosexual behavior, <, Warren Johansson but their revisionism was opposed by others. ADLER,ALFRED BIBLIOGRAPHY. Alfred Adler, Coopera- (1870-1937) tion Between the Sexes: Writings on Women, Love and Marriage, Sexuality Austrian psychiatrist, founder of and Its Disorders, H. L. and R. R. Individual Psychology, commonly known Ansbacher, eds., Garden City, NY: as the Adlerian School. Like Sigmund Anchor Books, 1978; Paul E. Stepansky, Freud, Adler came from a lower middle- In Freud's Shadow: Adler in Context, class Jewish family in Vienna. A central Hillside, NJ:Analytic Press, 1983. Ward Houser figure in Freud's psychoanalytic circle from 1902 to 1911, his heated disputes with the master in the latter year led to ADULT-ADULT his seceding with several other members SEXUALITY to form an independent group. See Androphilia Adler's theories are technically less complex than those of Freud, and draw AESCHINES 4

ADVERTISEMENTS, it. The coming of the AIDS crisis in the PERSONAL 1980s led to a decline in certain appeals (as In the years before World War I for rimming), as well as more positive insertions by homosexuals began to ap- indications, such as the notation that the pear in the personal columns ("petites advertiser is "health conscious." annonces") of mainstream newspapers in As a rule American and English France and Germany. Unlike con- mainstream newspapers do not accept temporary graffiti, they avoided sexual personal ads for sex. In Europe, however, explicitness and were couched in the guise as a striking token of recent changes, they of seeking friendship. No counterpart is even appear in middle-class, "family" known in English-speaking countries of newspapers. the time. In the 1920s the homophilepress of Germany became even bolder, but it BIBLIOGRAPHY. John Preston and Frederick Brandt, Classified Affairs: A was soon snuffed out by the Depression Gay Man's Guide to the Personal Ads, and the rise of the Nazis. Boston: Alyson, 1984. In theunited States in the 1960s, the underground press represented by such Counterculture organs as 7%e Berkeley Barb and 7%e East Village Other began to AESCHINES push farther the boundaries of accepted (CA. 397--~A.322 B.c.) expression-as seen in the printing of four- Athenian orator. His exchanges letter words and graphic descriptions of with Demosthenes in the courts in 343 sexual acts in news stories. In order to and 330 reflect the relations between enhance revenue, these papers ran per- Athens and Macedon in the era of Alexan- sonal ads soliciting sexual partners. This der the Great. Aeschines and Demosthenes custom was taken over by the gay newspa- were both members of the Athenian boule pers, some of which have quite extensive (assembly) in the year 347146, and their listings. Although they are explicit and disagreements led to sixteen years of bitter oftenraunchily detailed as to the activities enmity. Demosthenes opposed Aeschines desired, to save space they tend to employ and the efforts to reach an accord with a code of abbreviations recalling that used Philip of Macedon, while Aeschines sup- by real-estate ads. The existence of these ported the negotiations and wanted to ads.has enlarged the sexual marketplace extend them into a peace that would pro- beyond the usual sphere of face-to-face vide for joint action against aggressors and meeting. These ads are generally separate make it possible to do without Macedonian from those placed by "entrepreneurs of the help. In 346145 Demosthenes began a body," models, masseurs, and escorts; for prosecution of Aeschines for his part in the their services payment is expected (gener- peacenegotiations; Aeschinesreplied with ally at a specified rate). a charge that Timarchus, Demosthenes' Analysis of the ads reveals differ- ally, had prostituted himself with other ent styles for men and women. Women's males and thereby incurred atimia, "civic ads are less explicit and are more likely to dishonor," which disqualified him from turn upon qualities of personality such as addressing the assembly.Aeschines' strata- one might seek in a friend. Male ads tend gem was successful, and Timarchus was to show remarkablenarrowness in somatic defeated and disenfranchised. tastes-height, weight, hairiness, race, etc. The oration is often discussed Age restrictions in the desired partner are because of the texts of the Athenian laws common, with parameters generally going that it cites, as well as such accusations considerably below the age of the person that Timarchus had gone down to Piraeus, who places the ad, but rarely much above ostensibly to learn the barber's trade, but + AESCHINES

in reality he was a hustler for the sailors Plato had Phaedrus point out the confu- landing at the port. The prosecution is one sion, and argue that Patroclus must have of the earliest instances of the attempt to been the older and therefore the lover, destroy a political opponent in a democ- while the beautiful Achilles was his be- racy by attacking his sexual past. The loved (Symposium, 180a). offense of which Timarchus was guilty Among Attic tragedians Aeschy- was that by prostituting himself he had in lus was followed by Sophocles, Euripides, effect put himself in the power of another and Agathon. Sophocles (496-406 B.c.), male, which was not a crime per se, but an who first bested Aeschylus in 468 and act that disqualified a free citizen from added a third actor, wrote 123 tragedies of speaking before the assembly, and had no which seven survive, all from later than relevance to a slave or aforeigner. Nothing 440. At least four of his tragedies were in the oration suggests that a general rep- pederastic. Euripides (480-406 B.c.)wrote robation of paiderasteia prevailed in Athe- 75 tragedies of which nineteen survive, nian society at the end of the Golden Age; and thelost Chrysippus, and probably some Aeschines even says expressly that both others as well, were pederastic. Euripides he and the members of the jury have been loved the beautiful but effeminate trage- honorable boy-lovers, but that the ignoble dian Agathon until Agathon was forty. ("passive") and notorious conduct of which The latter, who won his first victory in Timarchus had been guilty rendered him 416, was the first to reduce the chorus to a unfit to participate in public life. The mere interlude, but none of his works oration contrasts Timarchus' behavior survive. with the ideal of pederasty that the Greeks All four of the greatest tragedians derived from the comradeship in arms wrote pederastic plays but none survive, depicted in the Homeric poems. possibly because of Christian homopho- bia. The tragedians seem to have shared BIBLIOGRAPHY. K. J. Dover, Greek thepederastic enthusiasm of the lyric poets Homosexuality, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978, pp. 13-57, 75-76. andof Pindar, thoughmany of theirmythi- cal and historical source-themes antedated the formal institutionalization of paid- erasteia in Greece toward the beginning of the sixth century before our era. (52514-456 B.c.) William A. Percy First of the great Attic tragedians. Aeschylus fought against the Persians at AESTHETICMOVEMENT Marathon and probably Salamis. Pro- The origins of this trend are usu- foundly religious and patriotic, he pro- ally sought in the concept of "art for art's duced, according to one catalogue, 72 titles, sake," a concept that arose in France in the but ten others are mentioned elsewhere. middle years of the nineteenth century, He was the one who first added a second when a tendency to deny all utilitarian actor to speak against the chorus. Of his functions of art gained favor. However, the seven surviving tragedies, none is pederas- full development of the aesthetic move- tic. His lost Myrmidons, however, de- ment would not have been possible with- scribed in lascivious terms the physical out the background in England, for it was love of Achilles forPatroclusl thighs, alter- here that the movement in the specific ing the age relationship given in Homer's sense arose. In such writers as A. W. N. Iliad-where Patroclus is a few years the Pugin (1812-1852) and John Ruskin older, but as they grew up together, they (1819-1900) disgust with the squalor and were essentially agemateeto suggest that alienation brought by the coming of the Achilleswas the lover (erastes)of Patroclus. industrial revolution went hand in hand AFGHANISTAN 4 with a demand for thoroughgoing reform Others were attracted to esoteric novel- of society, religion, and art. This agitation ties, such as spiritualism and theosophy. called forth such diverse results as Chris- These two trends, historic ritualism and tian socialism; the Oxford movement and the occult, were combined in the eccentric bglo-Catholicism; the Gothic revival in figure of Charles Webster Leadbeater. architecture; Pre-Raphaelitism in paint- ing and poetry; and the arts and crafts BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. E. Chamberlin, Ripe Was the Drowsy Hour: The Age of movement. As this catalogue suggests, Oscar Wilde, New York: Seabury Press, these trends melded a nostalgic yearning 1977; Ian Small, ed., The Aesthetes: A for a supposed organic society of bygone Sourcebook, Boston: Routledge and days with utopian hopes for a new social Kegan Paul, 1979. and aesthetic order. The arts and crafts Wayne R. Dynes movement in particular sought to trans- form the domestic environment. The homosexual contribution to the rise of AFGHANISTAN this trend has not been adequately docu- A mountainous Islamic nation in mented, but clearly it foreshadowed the central Asia, Afghanistan is inhabited by enthusiasm of so many cultivated gay warlike tribes and their descendents. Vari- people today for furniture and antiques. ous empires rose and fell before the nation By common consent, the high of Afghanistan emerged from the ruins of priest of the aesthetic movement in the Nadir Shah's empire in 1747. The royal literary sphere was a homoerotic Oxford dynasty of the Dunanis ruled until 1973, don, Walter Pater. His Studies in the His- when a republic was declared. A war be- tory of the Renaissance (1873) was the tween the Soviet Union and Afghan guer- bible of the arty young man of late Victo- rillas began in 1978 and extended over the rian times, and his novel Marius the Epi- next ten years, devastating the country. curean (1885) offered further detail, in a Previous invasions by the British from nostalgic Roman setting. By 1881 the type India took place in 1839, 1879, and 1919. had become familiar enough to be sati- Three quotations may serve to rized by W. S. Gilbert in his musical comedy introduce a survey of homosexuality in Patience. The trend attained triumph and Afghanistan. The first is from C. A. Tripp: tragedy in the meteoric career of Oscar "almost 100 percent homosexuality in Wide, whose trials and conviction for gross Afghanistan" (Gay News, London, issue indecency tarnished the whole tendency. 118). The second is from a British soldier Many aesthetes, to be sure, were not who fought there in 1841: "I have seen homosexual, yet like Algernon Swinburne things in a man's mouth which were never and Aubrey Beardsley they could be ac- intended by nature to occupy such a posi- cused of cognate sexual sins. In the public tion." The third is an opening stanza from perception, there was also an interface the Afghan love song, "Wounded Heart" between the homosexual aesthetes and ("Zekhmi Dill'): "There's a boy across the those who were merely sissified or wimp- river with a rectum like a peach, but alas, ish. The overelegant, foppish type has a I cannot swim." history stretching back to the dandy of the Although there is as yet no evi- early nineteenth century and forward to dence of lesbianism in Afghanistan, it is the sissy of Hollywood films. safe to assume that, as in many Islamic Another manifestation lay in the lands, the harems were rife with it. sphere of religion. Many British homo- A number of Afghan poets wrote sexuals were attracted to the "aesthetic" about beautiful boys, including Sana'i emphasis of high Anglicanism with its Ghaznavi, Husain Baiqara of Herat, Bad- elaborate ritual and lavish vestments. ru'd-dinHilali, and Abu Shu'aybof Herat- 4 AFGHANISTAN the last-named famous for his love for a During the late nineteenth and Christian boy (presumably a slave). early twentieth centuries, Western sex- In the tenth century, the ologists and pornographers discovered an Ghaznavid empire was founded by audience for lurid tales of sexual hijinks in Subuktagin, who got started as a king's Asia, yielding a good deal of gamey mate- boyfriend. The great Sultan Mahmud the rial about Afghanistan and other places Ghaznavid (died 1030) loved a slave-boy that may or may not be true; there are few named Ayaz, a relationship comparable in footnotes which might allow for verifica- Islamic literature to the oft-cited love of tion of this material. This accumulation the Roman Emperor Hadrian and Anti- startedwithsir RichadBurton (1821-1890) nous in Western culture. and culminated in 1959 with what has Huseyn Mirza, who ruled from been called "a prurient wank book" (bythe Herat (1468-1506), and his vizier (prime writer of a letter to Gay News), Allen minister)Hasan of Ali, both had harems of Edwardes' TheJewelin the Lotus. Possibly boys. Babur (1483-1530), a poet who ruled referring to Abd al-Rahman, Edwardes from Kabul, became infatuated as a seven- quotes from an anonymous book a men- teen-year old with a boy known as Baburi; tion of "the Ameer of Afghanistan, insane Babur went on to found the Mughal Em- for rare handsome white youths." The pire inIndia and eastern Afghanistan, while reader is unable to determine the author, Herat fell to the Persians. the book's title, the name of the "Arneer", During a war of the early nine- nor the date of the reference. The scholar teenth century, Dost Mohammed Khan is tempted to dismiss all such data, but fled to the Amir of Bukhara, the pederast then one finds authentication in other Nasrullah, who kidnapped his guest's works for such items as the "boy across fourteen-year-old son, Sultan Djan. Dost the river" song. Mohammed Khan went back to Afghani- From various reliable and dubi- stan, where he captured Kabul and annihi- ous sources, we can construct a picture of lated a British army east of there in 1842. pederasty in Afghanistan over the past This was thk background for the "things in hundred years. Homosexuality was com- a man's mouth" quotation. mon in early adulthood. The aristocrats Herat once again became capital and frontier chiefs had harems of dancing of a kingdom under the pederast Karnran boys and eunuchs dressed as women. (ruled 1829-1 842). King Abd al-Rahman Camel caravans included "travelingwives" (ruled 1880-1901) and his sons were ped- (zun-e-suffuree)who were boys dressed as erasts. King Amanullah Khan (ruled women. 1919-1 929) was also homosexual. There was a street in Kabul, the Page boys had been executed for original "gay ghetto," known as Bazaar-e- sodomy, however, and the Penal Code of Ighlaum, "the bazaar of male lust." Ed- 1925 established the death penalty for wardes states without attribution that sodomy. If the culprit was under 15, how- "Greek" (probably Circassian) boys with ever, he was not executed. These laws blond hair and blue eyes were especially were not applied to the royal family. prized by pederasts in Kabul. The popular In those days, Afghan soldiers of writer James Michener mentions the danc- the regular army were in the habit of gang- ing boys in his novel Caravans, which is raping boys and sometimes foreign diplo- set in 1946. More recently, the long war mats. In later decades, more fortunate against Soviet troops has probably led to foreigners could find willing boys at a an increase in homosexuality, as large certain restaurant on the aptly-named numbers of women fled to Pakistan. Chicken Street. See also Islam. AFRICA, NORTH O

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Annette S. Beveridge,-. 1 The Christian horror was not uni- trans., The Babur-Nama in English, versal. Some Europeans captured by the London: Luzac, 1922; Allen Edwardes, Turks saw no reason to return to the fold The /ewe1 in the Lotus, New York: Julian Press, 1959. of Christendom; other Europeans simply Stephen Wayne Foster emigrated (or fled the law]. These "rene- gades"- became an important subclass in North Africa. It was frequently remarked AFRICA,NORTH that some of the "renegades" became the This term generally denotes worst enemies of Christianity; frequently Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, a better educated than the local citizenry, region which the Arabs term the Maghrib, they often held the reins of power. When or "West." Formerly the Maghrib also Moorish Spain fell in 1492, a large number embraced Muslim Spain-including the of new recruits joined the "renegades." kingdom of Granada-which are discussed Four hundred Franciscan friars left the separately. Spain of Isabel the Catholic and embraced General Features. Pederasty was Islam rather than "mend their ways," as virtually pandemic in North Africa during she had commanded them to do. the periods of Arab and Turkish rule. Is- During the Turkish period, the lam as a whole was tolerant of pederasty, bazaars or suqs of North Africa had special and in North Africa particularly so. (The sections devoted to the sale of Christian Islamic high-water points in this respect slaves, both male and female, who had may tentatively be marked out as Baghdad been captured by pirates on the Mediterra- of The Thousand and OneNights, Cairo of nean to face the proverbial "fate worse the Mamluks,Moorish Granada, and Algi- than deathu--consignment to the sera- ers of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- glios of the ruling classes of the notorious turies.] The era of Arabic rule in Noah Barbary Coast (themost beautiful captives Africa did, however, witness occasional were frequently reserved for the harems of puritan movements andrulers, such as the Constantinople).This trade in white Chris- Almohads and a Shiite puritanism cen- tians, kidnapped and raped on the Mediter- tered in Fez (Morocco]. This puritanism ranean, gradually supplanted the previous continues with the current King Hassan I1 trade in Negro slaves. ofMorocco, who is, however, hampered by Universal throughout pre-colo- an openly homosexual brother. nial North Africa was the singing and Islam was a slave society, and one dancing boy, widely preferred over the of the chief commercial activities of North female in cafe entertainments and subur- Africa was the vast trade in slaves from ban pleasure gardens. A prime cultural sub-Saharan Africa. Slavery dated back to rationale was to protect the chastity of the Roman times, but during this era it reached females, who would instantly assume the very large proportions-sometimes assum- status of a prostitute in presenting such a ing almost the character of a mercantile performance. The result was several cen- trans-Saharan kingdom. turies of erotic performances by boys, who The Ottoman Turks, who fol- were the preferred entertainers even when lowed the Arabs, were even more notori- femaleprostitutes wereavailable, and who ous as adepts of pederasty. If one is to trust did not limit their acts to arousing the lust the reports of scandalized European visi- of the patrons. A North African merchant tors, the "vice" was everywhere, and no could stop at the cafe for a cup of tea and a social class was "uninfected." The simple hookah, provided by a young lad, listen to tolerance of same-sex eroticism was a the singing, and then proceed to have sex source of endless Christian horror. with the boy right on the premises, before returning to his shop. + AFRICA, NORTH

The French conquest of the area also, for the general populace, a quasi- drove much of this activity underground. clandestine pederastic trade, with the older Although the French penal code, since the males in automobiles and the younger on time of Napoleon, had no legal sanction for the sidewalks, where money is exchanged same-sex activity, and the colonists were for quicksatisfaction of lust. Neither Libya thus largely restricted to shocked horror nor its neighbor, Egypt, has a strong tradi- and verbal scorn when confronted with tion of hedonism. the behavior of the "natives," the French Tunisia. A small and impover- did put a stop to slave-trading, piracy, and ished country of some four million, Tuni- much prostitution, which effectively elimi- sia's high birthrate keeps the country very nated the old romance and terror of the young-about half the people are under Barbary Coast. eighteen. Although it is common to see Its apparent benefits notwith- men walking hand-in-hand (as in all Is- standing, colonialism seems to have had lamic countries), it would not be wise for an immensely destructive effect through- a foreigner to adopt the practice with a out much of the world, as people every- male lover. Tunisians can easily tell the where suddenly desired to be modern, difference between two friends of approxi- Western, and European-certainly not to mately equal status (where hand-holding be "backwaid~."The European supersti- is expected)and a sexual relation (which is tions about homosexualitywere swallowed "o£ficially" disapproved of and therefore entire, and adopted as if they had always not to be made public). The "official" been in force. The present writer has spo- disapproval means that hotels will fre- ken with a Tunisian supervisor of schools quently not allowTunisianvisiton in hotel who firmly believes in the death penalty rooms occupied by foreigners. In the heart- for all homosexuals. Thus, in their rush to land of homosexual tourism (theHamma- modernism, Third World leaders often met-Nabeul area), when summer is at its adopt the sexual standards of medieval peak, squads of police have occasionally Christendom, even as Europe and Arner- been posted to keep the boys out of the ica are moving toward legalization and luxury beach hotels. They are not always tolerance of same-sex activity. Such, at successful. least in part, is also the plight of modern Homosexual behavior in Tunisia Notfh Africa. goes back for hundreds or even thousands Libya. Libya is almost entirely of years. In the days of Carthage, the city desert: the Sahara takes up at least 90% of was known for its perfumed male prosti- the country's surface area. The coastal tutes and courtesans. After Carthage was towns support some agricultural produc- destroyed in the Punic wars, Tunisia be- tion, but the major export comes from the came a Roman colony. The country did desert4il. not regain its independence until modem Early reports from Libya include times. The Romans were supplanted by the famous oasis of Siwa located near the the Vandals, who in turn surrendered the Libyan-Egyptian border, but since the country to the Byzantine Empire. The rise accession of Mu'ammar Gaddafi and his of the followers of Muhammad swept purportedly revolutionary regime, the Tunisia out of Christendom forever, and country has not been generally accessible the country eventually passed into the to foreigners. However, numerous and Turkish Empire, where it remained until independent travelers' reports indicate that the French protectorate. In the Islamic at least one highly-placed Libyan author- period, Tunisia was centered on the town ity is addicted to blond European lads, of Kairouan and known as '?friqiya." whom he flies in for weekend trysts and Algeria. Algeria is different from decorates with gold and silver. There is Tunisia, principally because of the savage AFRICA, NORTH + war of independence against the French, Africa: Europeans report the omnipres- and the subsequent drift of Algeriainto the ence of behavior which was thought to be socialist camp. Marxist societies abomi- an act against nature, or a temptation of nate homosexuality, and this influence the Devil. The loss of Azzamur on the has had a chilling affect on Algeria. The Moroccan coast was blamed on "the hor- passing tourist will see nothing of such rible vice of Sodomie," in a parallel to the activity, although residents may have a original tale of the destruction of Sodom different experience. Another fact is that itself. The bathhouses (hammams)of Fez Algerians do not like the French (because were the object of scandalous comments of the war) and this dislike is frequently around 1500. extended to all people who look like Two factors assume a bolder re- Frenchmen, though they may be Canadian lief in Morocco, although they are typical or Polish. It is a strange country, where of North Africa as a whole. One is a horror you can spot signs saying "Parking Re- of masturbation. This dislike, combined served for the National Liberation Front" with the seclusion of good women and the (thestalls are filled with Mercedes Benzes), diseases of prostitutes, leads many a and also the only place in all of North Maghrebi to regard anal copulation with a Africa where the present writer has even friend as the only alternative open to him, seen a large graffito proclaiming "Nous and clearly superior to masturbation. It voulons vivre fran~ais!"("We want to live also leads to such behavior being regarded as Frenchmen!"). as a mere peccadillo. The adventures of Oscar Wide The other, more peculiarly Mo- and Andri: Gide in Tunisia and Algeria roccan tradition is that of baraka, a sort of before the war are good evidence that this "religious good luck." It is believed that a modem difference between the two coun- saintly man can transmit some of this tries was in fact caused by the trauma of baraka to other men by the mechanism of the war. There is better evidence in the anal intercourse. (Fellatio has tradition- history of Algiers long before. During the ally been regarded with disgust in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Algi- region, although the twentieth century ers was possibly the leading homosexual has been changing attitudes.) city in the world. It was the leading Otto- The Frenchman responsible for man naval and administrative center in establishing the French protectorate over the western Mediterranean, and was key Morocco in 1912, Resident General Louis- to Turkey's foreign trade with every coun- Hubert-Gonzalve Lyautey, was an aristo- try but Italy. Of the major North African cratic pederast, who in his youth was al- cities, it was the furthest from the en- ready working with clubs of Catholic emy-Europe. It was the most Turkish workingmen, andalwayspaid attention to city in North Africa, in fact the most the welfare of his men. It is universally Turkish city outside Turkey. reported that Lyautey showed great re- Morocco. Almost nothing is spect for local Moroccan institutions. A known of homosexuality in Morocco prior member of the French Academy and a to the end of the fifteenth century. It is Marshal of France, Lyautey was a soldier/ possible that the Carthaginians introduced pederast of great distinction. (Hisown love the religious prostitution of boys to the was directed toward his aristocratic French indigenous Berbers. In the impressive aides.) remains of the Roman/Moroccan city of The city of Tangier was notorious Volubilis, a large bas-relief stone phallus during the period 1950-1980, when num- testifies to a phallic cult. When Morocco bers of American and European celebrity does appear in written history, however, it homosexuals made the city their second has the same guise as the rest of North home. (They had the same motivations as 9 AFRICA, NORTH the composer Camille Saint-SaEns, who ties and quite complex state formations spent his declining years in Tangier.) Visi- before European conquest. In a number of tors and residents included Jane Bowles, the latter, such as the Azande of the Sudan Paul Bowles, William Burroughs, Truman (see Evans-Pritchard), the taking of boy- Capote, Allen Ginsberg, Jean Genet, brides was well-established. Tennessee Williams, and other notorie- Clearly, gender-crossing homo- ties. The British playwright Joe Orton's sexuality also existed from Nubia to Zulu- Moroccan vacation was shown with great land on the East Coast of Africa (and off- panache in the biographical film Prick Up shore on Madagascar as well). In many Your Ears, and was fully described in his societies it was related to possession cults diaries (published posthumously).In more in which women have prominent roles recent years, there have been some indica- and male participants tend to transvestitic tions of apuritan backlash developing, and homosexuality. Cross-gender homosexu- the city has lost much of its celebrity ality not tied to possession cults has been glitter, although pederasty remains a con- reported in a number of East African socie- stant of the Moroccan cultural scene. ties. Folk fear of witches is widespread in Islamic cultures, although a link between BIBLIOGRAPHY. Malek Chebel, witchcraft and pederasty is unusual in L'Esprit de sbrail: Perversions et marginalitb sexuelles au Magreb, Paris: existing ethnographic reports of Islamic Lieu Commun, 1988. cultures. Geoff Puterbaugh Nadel(1955)did not mention any such link in contrasting two other Suda- nese peoples: the Heiban in which there is no expected corollary of homosexual acts AFRICA,SUB-SAHARAN (i.e., no homosexual role), and the Otoro Africa south of the Sahara pres- where a special transvestitic role exists ents a rich mosaic of peoples and cultures. and men dress and live as women. Nadel Scholarly investigations, which are con- (1947) also mentioned transvestitic homo- tinuing, have highlighted a number of sexuality among the Moro, Nyima and patterns of homosexual behavior. Tira, and reported marriages of Korongo Male Homosexuality. Recurrent londo and Mesakin tubele for the bride- atfempts have been made to deny any price of one goat. In these tribes with inindigenoushomosexuality in sub-Saharan "widespread homosexuality and transves- Africa, at least sinceEdwardGibbonwrote, titicism," Nadel (1947)reported a fear of in The Decline and Fall of the Roman heterosexual intercourse as sapping viril- Empire (1781), "I believe and hope that the ity and a common reluctance to abandon negoes in their own country were exempt the pleasures of all-male camp life for the from this moral pestilence." Obviously, fetters of permanent settlement: "I have Gibbon's hopewas not based on even casual even met men of forty and fifty who spent travel or enquiry. Sir Richard Burton, who most of their nights with the young folkin a century later reinforced the myth of the cattle camps instead of at home in the African sexual exceptionalism by drawing village." In these pervasively homoerotic the boundaries of his Sotadic Zone where societies, the men who were wives were homosexuality was widely practiced and left at homewiththewomen, i.e., werenot accepted to exclude sub-Saharan Africa, in the all-male camps." Among the Mossi, was personally familiar with male homo- pages chosen from among the most beau- sexuality in Islamic societies within his tiful boys aged seven to fifteen were dressed zone, but had not researched the topic in and had the other attributes of women in central or southern Africa, where there relation to chiefs, for whom sexual inter- were "primitive" hunterlgatherer socie- course with women was denied on Fri- AFRICA, SUB-SAHARAN 4 days. After the boy reaches maturity he group. . . . A boy may take the other 'as a was given a wife by the chief. The first woman,' this being called galglo, homo- child born to such couples belonged to the sexuality. Sometimes an affair of this sort chief. A boy would be taken into service as persists during the entire life of the pair." his father had as a page, a girl would be Of course, this last report shows the insuf- giveninmarriageby the chief (asher mother ficiency of the native model. Among the had). nearby Fanti of Ghana and Wolof of Sene- Among the Bantu-speaking Fang, gal there are also gender-crossing roles for homosexual intercourse was bian nku'ma, men and for women. a medicine for wealth, which was trans- Among the Bala (sometimes re- mitted from bottom to top in anal inter- ferred to as the Basangye in older litera- course, according to Tessmann, who also ture) in Kasai Oriental Province of the mentioned that "it is frequently heard of Democratic Republic of the Congo, there that young people carry on homosexual is a role at variance with the conventional relations with each other and even of older male role in that culture (particularly people who take boys." Even more re- patterns of dress and of subsistence activ- markable than Fang medical benefits of ity) with expectations of unconventional anal intercourse is Gustave Hultsaert's sexual behavior. Although it seems kitesha report that amongtheNkundo the younger is a gender-crossing role, rather than a partner penetrated the older one, a pattern primarily homosexual role, a possible quite contrary to the usual pattern of age- reconciliation of the seemingly contradic- graded homosexuality. tory views that there is no homosexual Besmer discussed a possession behavior among Bala men and that bitesha cult among the (generally Islamic) Hausa are homosexuals is that the Bala do not strikingly similar to New World posses- consider bitesha to be men, i.e., that the sion cults among those of West African Bala afford another example (compare the descent. As in the voudou(n)of Haiti, the North American berdache, South Asian metaphor for those possessed by spirits is hijara, Polynesia mahu) of a folk model horses "ridden" by the spirit. In patriar- of third sex given by nature rather than chal Hausa society, the bori cult provides volition. a niche for various sorts of low status In an earlier report on another persons: "women in general and prosti- Kongo tribe, the Bangala, mutual mastur- tutes in particular . . . Jurally-deprived bation and sodomy were reportedly "very categories of men, including both deviants common," and "regarded with little or no (homosexuals) and despised or lowly- shame. It generally takes place when men ranked categories (butchers, night-soil are visiting strange towns or during the workers, menial clients, poor farmers, and time they are fishing at camps away from musicians) constitute the central group of their women." possessed or participating males" plus "an In the old kingdom of Rwanda, eIement of psychologically disturbed indi- mde homosexuality was common among viduals which cuts across social distinc- Hutu and Tutsi youth, especially among tions." young Tutsi being trained at court. In the Herskovits reported the native neighboring kingdom of Uganda, King view in Dahomey (nowBenin) that homo- Mwanga's 1886 persecution of Christian sexuality was an adolescent phase: when pages was largely motivated by their rejec- "the games between boys and girls are tion of his sexual advances. Junod (1927: stopped, the boys no longer have the op- 4923) vacillated between attributing portunity for companionshipwith thegirls, elaborately organized homosexuality and the sex drive finds satisfaction in close among the South African Thonga to the friendship between boys in the same unavailability of women and to a homo- 4 AFRICA, SUB-SAHARAN sexual preference. The nkhonsthana, boy- Macmillan, 1927; S. F. Nadel, The Nuba, wife, "used to satisfy thelust" of thenima, London: Oxford University Press, 1947; idem, "Two Nuba Religions, " American husband, received a wedding feast, and his Anthropologist, 57 (19551, 661-79; elder brother received brideprice. Junod Giinter Tessmann, Die Pangwe, Berlin: mentioned that some of the "boys" were Wasmuth, 1913. older than 20, and also described a trans- Stephen 0. Murray vestitic dance, tinkonsthana, in which the nkhontshana donned wooden breasts, which they would only remove when paid AFRICAN-AMERICANS to do so by their nima. See Black Gay Americans. Female Homosexuality. Contro- versy continues about the purported chas- AGEISM tity of woman/woman marriage in three This new term encompasses a East African and one West African culture. cluster of attitudes that have become in- Other mentions of lesbian sex from the creasingly common in modern industrial East Coast of Africa include discussion of societies. Ageism is prejudice of young a woman's dance, lelemama, in Mom- people against the old expressed in the bassa, Kenya (which variously serves as a perpetuation of stereotypes; ridicule and cover for adultery, prostitution, and re- avoidance of older people; and neglect of cruitment into lesbian networks without their social and health needs. Such atti- the husband's knowledge) and the wasaga tudes frequently appear among male (grinders) of Oman. An Ovimbundu (in homosexuals, much less among lesbians. Angola) informant, told an ethnographer, The word ageism, which came into use "There are men whowant men, and women about 1970, is modeled on the older terms who want women. . . . A woman has been racism and sexism. known to make an artificial penis for use CulturalAnalogues. The ancient with another woman." Such practices did Greeks divided the course of human life not meet with approval, but neither did into stages, the simplest scheme being one transvestic homosexuals of either sex that still lingers: childhood, maturity, and desist. Among the Tswana (in addition to old age. Although one may assign precise homosexuality among the men laboringin boundaries to these stages-and add inter- th; mines),it was reported that back home, mediate ones such as adolescence that "lesbian practices are apparently fairly may seem needed-age may also beviewed common among the older girls and young relatively and subjectively. A youth of 21 women, without being regarded in any may regard someone who is 38 as old, way reprehensible." Use of artificial pe- while the latter considers himself still nises was also reported among the'Ila and young. Naman tribes of South Africa. Among the Tribal cultures and traditional much-discussed Azande of the Sudan, sis- societies usually valued age as arepository ters who are marriedlretained by brothers of experience. This custom of honoring were reported to have a reputation for the elderly balanced the tendency, found lesbian practices. among males through most of the world, to experience sexual attraction toward BIBLIOGRAPHY. Fremont E. Besmer, younger people. In an era in our own soci- Horses, Musicians, and Gods, South ~~dl~~,MA: ~~~~i~ carvey, 1983i E. ety when social security income was not E. Evans-Pritchard, "Sexual Inversion yet the rule, the younger, productive Among the Azande," American members of a family acknowledged- a duty ~nthr&ologist,72 (19701, 142834; to look after elderly retirees. Now younger Melville Herskovits, Dahomey, New people, with the assurance that their par- York: Augustine, 1937; Henry lunod, Life of a south ~f~i~~~Tribe, London: ents are provided for economically, often AGEISM 4 feel free to neglect them socially. Another advertisements (personals columns] of factor upsetting the traditional balance is today's gay press will show that most gay the fact that the virtues of youth itself men seek younger partners. Indeed the came to be idealized and celebrated, begin- advertisers often place an upper limit--40, ning in the nineteenth century. Thus in 30 or even as low as 21 years of age-on 1832 Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-18721 ral- partners they are willing to accept. Gay lied his supporters in the campaign for slang stigmatizes older men as "aunties," Italian independence under the banner of "dogs," "toads," and "trolls," who congre- GiovaneItalia (YoungItaly]. Hence Young gate in "wrinkle rooms." Ireland, Young Poland, the Young Turks, Eroticization of youth produces and so forth. At the turn of the century various secondary manifestations among innovative artists in Germany created the gay men: preference for youthful clothing Jugendstil (literally "Youth Style"; a vari- styles; adhesion to the latest trends in pop ant of art nouveau),whileRussian painters music; dieting and exercizing so as to formed the Union of Youth, echoing the maintain a slim body; and adoption of title of a play by Hendrik Ibsen (De unges voguish hair styles, including bleaching to forbund [The League of Youth]; 1869). keep a boy's towhead look. Indisputably, Increasingly, youth was identified with the erotic imagination of the gay male political change and artistic innovation, community privileges youth; geronto- and journalists habitually contrasted its philia, attraction to older men, is rela- energy with the inertia of the old fogies. tively rare. This pattern of preference Beginning at the end of the nineteenth contrasts with that of the lesbian commu- century, the enormous growth of interest nity where older persons aremore likely to in competitive athletics made young bod- be prized. The difference between gay men ies the image of st~ngthand accomplish- and lesbians may mirror that of the larger ment, a notion relentlessly promoted by (heterosexual) society, where older men Madison Avenue in the interests of con- typically marry younger women. sumerism. In aperiod of rapid social change In the 1960s and 70s the cult of youth became synomous with progress, youth that had long flourished in the gay age with reaction. male community was reinforced through Homosexual Aspects. The youth syabiosis with the Counterculture. As a ~hltamong homosexuals has deep roots. mass movement the Counterculture was In classical Greek pederasty, the charac- made possible by post-World War II pros- teristic dyad was an adult man and an perity, which gave younger people a dis- adolescent. Yet this youth-age nexus is posable income in amounts that could less significant for the origins of ageism only be dreamed of by their forerunners. than it seems, because in such couples the The confidence born of such newfound relative (though temporary) inferiority of economic power, and the reaction against the boy partner was always recognized. It rule by the old that was perceived as toler- was precisely to promote his education ating racism and war, led to open procla- and training in manly virtues that the mations of ageist prejudice, witness the relationship existed.In pederasty the youth slogan "Don't trust anyone over thirty." was not an equal partner; when he became As a result of the confluence of all so, the liaison ended. With the rise of these factors, psychological counselors androphilia (homosexual unions of two report seeing gay men, some as early as adults] in Europe in the eighteenth and their mid-thirties, who have internalized nineteenth century, this pattern shifted, ageism, regarding themselves "as over the for both partners were adults in the sense hill." As would be expected, this subjec- that both had attained puberty. But age tive phenomenon of "accelerated ageing" differentials did not vanish. A glance at the is not common among lesbians, though it 4 AGEISM is found among heterosexual women, who als, in adjusting to midlife and old age. are subjected to a barrage of commercial More recently, a middle position has been messages for products that purport to keep taken: homosexuals obviously differ in them looking young. some aspects of aging, but on such key The negative effects of ageism issues as psychological health, income, have not been ignored in today's gay friendships, satisfaction with life they do community. In the 1980s some younger not differ significantly from heterosexuals gay men and women, recognizing that in (Brecher; Lee). due course old age awaits them as well, This article supports the middle joined such social organizations as San position-that homosexual elders are no Francisco's GLOE (Gay and Lesbian Out- less likely to live happy, healthy and reach to Elders) and New York's SAGE comfortable lives than theirnongay neigh- (Senior Action in a Gay Environment), in bors. The focus is on interesting aspects of order to befriend and assist older people. contemporary homosexual aging, espe- Over the years gay churches and syna- cially those which provide generally use- gogues have also done much to achieve ful insights, whatever the person's sexual interaction of people of various age groups. orientation. Wayne R. Dynes Accelerated Aging. For many years it was argued that homosexuals experienced the effects of aging sooner AGING than nongays. Homosexual culture was Gerontolog~~the social science considered "obsessed with youth," thus of aging, began well before World War & theloss of youthful appearancemade thirty experienced rapid growth after the warl the threshold of "middle age." Recent and has recently bc~omea major field, as studies indicate that most homosexuals an ever larger ~ro~ortionofthe population do not feelor act older at 30 or 40 than their reaches many years# geronto- nongay peers. However, they do think that logical research assumed that all older homosexuals viewthem and treat people were heterosexual, even though them as if they were further advanced in upwards three million North age. Thus, while feeling young and active cans over sixty are lesbian or gay. This at 40, homosexuals may lie about their age scientific blindness was hardly acciden- because they fear other homosexuals con- tal. The social science of "deviant behav- sider 40 uover the hd1.u appears that ior" knew that olderhomosexuals existed, homosexuals still suffer a mutual misun- but it propagated the myth that "old derstanding, rather like that of a male auntie" and "aging dykes" lived lonely, teenage virgin who lies about his sexual miserable lives1 shunned by a hoIlIosexua1 conquests because he concludes from his subculture obsessed with youth. Not until boasts that they are already the year of Stonewall (1969) did Martin experienced. Weinberg publish the first study showing Earlier Socialization and Later that homosexuals adjust well to age. Only ~dj~~~~~~~to A~,~~.A young in the late 1980s did gay gerontology be- II~~~~~~up faces much the same come established as a field of research. learning tasks as a nongay classmate, but A theme gay liberation' there is an essential difference, which the as of black liberation and feminism, was a gay youth has in common with other new positive emphasis ("gay pride") which minority how to handle stigma- pushed the pendulum of gay gerontology tized status. Unlike most minority st&- to the opposite extreme. Some research in mas, the young homosexual can decide to the 1970s argued that homosexuals actu- remainsecret ('{in the closeto) yet enter a ally enjoyed "advantages" overheterosexu- subculture (flthe gay worldu) which pm- AGING +3 vides numerous facilities and opportuni- disclosing their private lives, which they ties for contact with others of the same regard as "nobody else's business." minority. Prior to "gay liberation1' this Even a decision to invite a speaker was the only attractive option for all from, or cooperate with, nongay senior homosexuals except the few who deliber- citizens groups, or government agencies ately chosea "flaunting" role (e.g., Quentin for the aged, may be opposed by closeted Crisp) or found work and friends in a toler- gay elders. Older homosexuals who have ant, low-status occupation (e.g., restau- been married for many years to unaware rant waiter; hairdresser). spouses, or who have prestigious positions One of the major themes of gay in the work world, are especially fearful liberation is "taking pride in one's chosen that someone who believes them to be lifestyle." In this light, gerontology now heterosexual, may see them at a gay meet- distinguishes several forms of adjustment ing. Thus, groups tend to attract more in gaytlesbian aging: (1)the stereotypic or homosexuals who have little or nothing to self-oppressing gayllesbian elder, who has lose by being there, and have less resources internalized the heterosexual world's to contribute to the group's growth. hatred of homosexuals, and is ashamed In spite of thesespecial problems, and guilt-ridden; (2)the passing elder, who the number of organizations of older gay at least partially accepts the validity of men and lesbians is slowly growing in homosexuality as alifestyle, but fears those North America. The most successful and who do not, so admits to beinggayllesbian enduring organization, SAGE of New York only among those who can be trusted not City, has contactwith about 60 other elder to betray the secret; (3)the gay-positive gayllesbian organizations in the USA and elder, who has "come out of the closet" to Canada. Many gay community listings at least some nongay persons in the fam- (such as The Gay Yellow Pages in Los ily, workplace, and other social contexts, Angeles), now include one or more gay participating in the gay community with- elders' groups. There is a National Asso- out fear of being discovered. ciation of Lesbian and Gay Gerontology at There is no agreement yet among 1290 Sutter St., San Francisco. gerontologists about the ways and extent The Gay Generation Gap. Differ- to_which each of these forms of adjust- ences in adaptation to stigma among gay m:nt affects psychological health or hap- elders have contributed to a "generation piness of the gayllesbian elder. At least gap" in the gay world different from that some fearful and self-oppressinggay elders between young and old in the nongay lead successful and productive lives and population. Even if not active in the gay enjoy satisfying friendships, both gay and community and gay liberation, many nongay. There is certainly no evidence to younger lesbians and gay men have grown persuade any homosexual, whether very up in a society which tolerates, and in open or very hidden, that the elder years some cases legislatively protects, their must be less satisfying merely because of lifestyle. This profound difference in expe- sexual orientation. rience adds to the difficulty of younger and Older GayslLesbians in Their older gays understanding each other. Community. Variations in socialization The "generation gap" affects gay and adaptation to homosexualstigma pose individuals and communities by restrict- serious problems for organizations at- ing the supply of suitable role models of tempting to develop a place for elders in aging for younger gays and lesbians. Most the new gay communities. These groups heterosexual young people have at least must cope with the tension between pub- some positive images of middle and old lic and politically active members, and age among their family, or in the media, thosewho wishgay socialcontact without but there are very few models of happy +:* +:* AGING homosexualagingavailable to the younger but rather to the classic mentorlprotCgC gayllesbian. Even within the best-devel- relationship as epitomized by the 33-year oped urban gay communities there is still partnership of Christopher Isherwood and little contact, and often a good deal of Don Bachardy, who met when Christo- deliberate avoidance, between younger and pher was 48, Don 18. older gays, and this is often true even Gay liberation has tended to within gay liberation organizations offi- undermine the age-stratified pattern, both cially opposed to "ageism" (Berger). In- through its emphasis on social equality deed, the generation gap has probably (the mentorlprotCgC partnership must contributed to the sometimes passionate begin with some recognition of inequali- disputes between "essentialists" and ties), and through the development, in llsocial constr~ctionists~~over the history urban gay communities, of facilities where of gay people. (See social construction.) young gays and lesbians can easily meet Age-Stratified Relationships. each other without requiring (or wanting) Many human societies are age-stratified; the mediation or resources of older homo- they portion out roles and rewards accord- sexuals. Many gayllesbian elders who grew ing to the individual's age, with appropri- up in a pre-liberation gay subculture largely ate markers ("rites de passage" lilze pu- organized and financed by their elders, berty and retirement) to indicate that the looked forward to a time when they would individual has successfully passed from talze over leadership positions, and hope- one age strata to another. Although there fully find their own young protCg-6. The remain many social distinctions between new gay communities have reduced or age levels, North American society has eliminated these opportunities, and many tended to emphasize equal liberty of each gay elders are finding it difficult to adjust individual; it now opposes most forms of to a gay life largely restricted to age-peers. discrimination, including "ageism." Intimacy and Sexuality in Gay/ One of the least predictable con- Lesbian Old Age. In an era which first sequences for the homosexual minority made sexual pleasure practically equiva- has been the decline of age-stratified inti- lent to the enjoyment of life itself, and macy as a key structure in the gay commu- then (sinceAIDS)almost synonymouswith nity. From ancient times to the Victorian the courtship of death, any consideration erwa familiar pattern of relationship in of happiness in homosexual old age must the-gayllesbian subculture was the part- include sexuality. One should begin with nership of an older and a significantly great scepticism of self-reported data such younger person. This pattern provided as that of Berger's respondentswho claimed stability, resources and leadership in the not to experience a decline in sexual op- gay underworld. It had its most eloquent portunity and outlet with the onset of old defense by Oscar Wilde at his second trial, age. Elders are no more lilzely than teenage as the partnership of youthful beauty, vigor male virgins to openly admit that sexual and hope, with mature intellect, confi- gratification is lacking. dence, and social resources. More reliable studies, such as The age-stratified pattern also observed behavior in gay baths, studies of provided upward social mobility in the gay advertising for partners, and participant world, by which a young man or woman of observation in gay communities, all sug- poor economic and educational background gest that sexual happiness in the gay older could acquire polished manners, dress and years, asin heterosexual old age (Brecher), language, and favorable economic oppor- involves learning to cope with changing tunities. The reference here is not to the circumstances. Lesbians, who tend to place "lzept boy" and "sugar daddy," though more emphasis on nonorgasmic intimacy these also existed and continue to exist, from the onset of a relationship, are more likely to make sexual adaptations to age, Sharing old age with a partner "doubles including more frequent celibacy than the joys and halves the sorrows." reported by gay male elders. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Marcy R. Adelman, Coping mechanisms among gay Long Time Passing, Boston: Alyson, males includewillingness tovalidate sexu- 1986; Raymond M. Berger, Gay and ality as pleasurable without orgasm; an ~rai: he Older ~orn~sexualMan, increased reliance on pornography as Urbana: University of Illinois Press, stimulant to release (an important factor 1982; Edward M. Brecher, et al., Love, in both gay and nongay populations, as all Sex and Aging, Boston: Little, Brown, 1984; John A. Lee, "What Can Homosex- moralists and censors should be reminded j, ual Ahg- - Studies Contribute to and an improved ability to use purchased / Theories of Aging!" Iournal of Homo. sex safely. sexuality 13:4 (1987),43-71. At least until the possibly reduced 1ohn Alan Lee income of retirement, seniority in our society generally brings rising income, and AIDS thus resources to purchase sexual gratifi- Acquired Immunodeficiency cation. But a particularly dangerous form Syndrome is a condition that of ageism may be found among gay bus- produces a radical suppression of the tlers. It is built into the social structure of human immune system, permitting the the hustler, who reaches occu~ational body to be ravaged by a variety of oppor- obsolescence long before a lloclce~player, tunistic diseases. It is believed to be caused and is translated into disdain, exploita- by the Human Inlmunodeficiellcy Virus tion, and sometimes violence directed at (HIV),which can exist in the body indefi- the older customer. nitely before symptoms emerge. In ad- Anotherllotable adaptationmore vanced industrial countries and in Latin typical of gay males than lesbians (butthis America, AIDS occurs mainly among male is changing in recent years) is the elabora- homosexuals and intravenous (w]drug tion of sexual foreplay, and reduced em- users; in Africa it is found primarily among phasis on genital contact and orgasm, heterosexuals. through such means as sexual toys, bond- The Emergence of an Epidemic. age, uniforms, and scenarios. In most large The as-yet-unnamed syndrome first came ur5an gay communities, there is a marked to the attention of the medical commu- drfference in average age between the nity through a report released in June 198 1 "twinkle" or "disco" gay crowds, and the by the Centers for Disease Control, a "leather and denim1' places. As beauty Federal agency, concerningfive California fades, older hon~o~exualsmay learn to cases. Because the first cases studied were continue attracting partners by conveying in homosexual men, the syndrome be- messages of sexual self-confidence and came associated with homosexuality it- experience through leather, accessories, self. In fact one of the first suggestions for and body stance. a name was GRID (Gay-Related Immu- It is quitepossible to be single and nodeficiency). Although this was shortly happy in heterosexual old age, but overall, changed to AIDS, a ceaseless flow of media satisfaction with life (and even life expec- reports about gay men affected by the tancy itself) is generally correlated with disorder served to fix the connectionin the intimate and enduring partnership. Like- public mind. wise, gay gerontology indicates that hav- For the first few years the number ing an intimate partner (not necessarily a of cases in the United States doubled "lover" or even a gay person) in homosex- annually, and about half as many of those ual old age is a reliable predictor of general already infected died. Not only was the adjustment and satisfaction with life. disease spreading very quicltly but it was 9 AIDS highly lethal. While it appears that the A few medical experts have ex- earlier idea that it is invariably fatal is pressed doubts that the HJY virus is the mistaken, it is avery difficult disease for a culprit, but they are in a great minority. If patient to cope with, and even with the not a cause, HIV is at least a good indicator most determined and successful strategy of exposure to whatever is the cause. There no cure is effected-the disease is simply has also been discussion of a variety of kept at bay. At first the American cases potential "cofactorsfffbut none has been were largely confined to New York City convincingly isolated. and environs, the San Francisco Bay Area, The majority of persons infected greater Los Angeles, and Miami. Although with HJY show no symptoms, and it re- AIDS subsequently was found in nearly mains uncertain how many will develop every state, this pattern of concentration AIDS itself. The emergence of the condi- in these metropolises on the two coasts tion is signaled by night sweats, loss of has continued. Foreign physicians found weight, and other signs of physical dis- AIDS in Canada, Europe, and Latin Amer- tress. In some cases a diagnosis of ARC ica, though the incidences are generally (AIDS-RelatedComplex] is made; many of lower than in the United States. (In most these patients will progress to full-blown countries the American acronym has been AIDS. The patient will usually develop used, but French-speaking nations prefer either Kaposi's sarcoma-apreviously rare SIDA [Syndrome dfImmunodCficience type of cancer producing numerous le- Acquise]; SIDA is also the Spanish acro- sions on the outside or inside of the body- nym.] By 1988 over 65,000 AIDS cases had or pneumocystis carinii (PCP], a form of appeared in the United States, 64% of the pneumonia that is devastating to the pa- reported total world-wide. However, reli- tient. PCP usually requires hospitaliza- able figures for incidence in Africa are not tion with intensive care and the admini- available; they are said to be high in a stering of a variety of drugs prescribed by number of countries of equatorial Africa. the physician. However, many patients Transmission and Symptomatol- can return home after the first crisis has ogy. AIDS cannot be transmitted by any been met-if there is a home to return to. form of casual contact, but must go from Response. Members of the gay blood to blood or from semen to blood. con~munityhave charged government Blod-to-blood transmission occurs when agencies with inadequate response to the intfdtenous-drug users share narcotics epidemic. An expression of genuine con- needles, or occasionally through acciden- cern, these complaints are valid only in tal needle-sticks among health-care giv- part. It was the first time in many years ers. It may also occur that a surgeon will that advanced countries had to deal with nick him or herself with a scalpel, which the outbreak of a hitherto previously may cut through gloves. Sexual transmis- unknown disease, and the initial recogni- sion occurs when a seminaldischarge of an tion of the problem could not have oc- infected person passes into the bloodstream curred immediately. Moreover, a few dec- of another. The sexualcontact that is most ades earlier, when prudery and censorship at risk is anal penetration; oral and vaginal kept the whole issue of homosexuality contacts are unlikely to transmit AIDS from being discussed publicly at all, the uhless there is a lesion in the affected part official response would have been either of one or both partners. If it is believed that helpless or schizophrenic, as the social infection may have occurred, tests can be locus of the epidemic would have been a performed for the presence of the HIV taboo subject. Still, there is no doubt that virus in the blood, though they are not bureaucratic red-tape, as well as jealousies absolutely reliable. among physicians and ofiicials eager for AIDS *:* the glory of being identified with break- spread of the epidemic. This manifold throughs, have been a handicap. Again, response contrasted with the apathy of the because the disease was new and because IV-drug user community, which remained therewas no treatment, it inspired awhole unorganized, without media of its own, set of amateur, politically motivated, at and therefore almost entirely dependent worst paranoid explanations of its etiol- on public health advocates and facilities. ogy-and corresponding quackmethods of Gay men and lesbians (the latter treatment by special diets and medical little affected by AIDS) rallied to apply regimes of the hndheld out as a last resort pressure on politicians for more funding to dying cancer patients. By contrast, the and to deal with some of the backlash that self-medication movement, which has was developing. In the panic-laden years of placed possibly effective drugs in the hands the mid-1980s some religious and right- of people with AIDS, bypassing govern- wing leaders obtained support in their calls ment tests that can take years, may be a for quarantine or drastic treatment of those positive development. Patients abroad, who might be infected. Although these where much of the research and testing calls generally fell on deaf ears, the general was being done, had access to drugs that public, which had previously been show- Americans did not. Here too dangers exist, ing increasing tolerance of homosexuals but the situation has highlighted a serious as measured by opinion polls, now regis- dilemma of public policy. tered a moderate tendency to move in the Locally some communities other direction. Often insensitive reports handled the crisis better than others. on the nightly television news, supple- Nonetheless, real progress was made in mented by rumor and a flood of malicious the middle years of the 1980s against a AIDS jokes, served to spread dismay even very cunning viral adversary. Thegay press among those who had formerly offered a carried warnings of thelethalconsequences modicum of support for gay rights. The of unsafe sex practices, and others were publicity had the side effect of acquainting reached by leafletting and word of mouth. otherwise cloistered souls with some These campaigns had a noteworthy effect explicit realities of oral and anal sex. People as measured by the decline in cases of all even suspected of having AIDS found sexually transmitted diseases, including themselves harassed on the job and denied syphilis and gonorrhea, among gay men. insurance coverage, while dentists and Theclimate of the 1970s, characterized for doctors became wary of treating persons some by a seemingly limitless horizon of with the disease. On the whole, however, sexual experimentation, yielded to a new the late 1980s showed a decline of these sense of caution, and many sought long- pressures as better information became term, essentially monogamous relation- available and gay organizations showed ships. that they would not bow to hostile pres- Gay self-help groups specifically sure. concerned with AIDS sprang up, involving CulturalResponses. Several plays, many people who in the previous decade notably As Is (1985)by William Hoffman had turned a deaf ear to the call for move- and The Normal Heart (1985) by Larry ment work. By the end of the 1980s there Kramer, an early passionate advocate of were several hundred of these organiza- group action by thegay community to stop tions in North America, and many others the disease, have been successfully pre- in Europe. Other groups were formed of sented in the United States and abroad. people with AIDS [PWAs, the term pre- Fictional responses are more numerous ferred by those who have the condition). and varied, ranging from the serio-comic Gay andlesbianlawyers mobilized tomeet fable Tweeds (1987)by ClaytonR. Graham a host of legal problems triggered by the to the probing stories in The Darker Proof 4 AIDS

(1988 J by Adam Mars-Jones and Edmund BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ronald Bayer, Private White. The poet and novelist Paul Mon- Acts, Social Consequences: AIDS and the Politics of Public Heulth, New York: ette has written Borrowed Time:An AIDS Free Press, 1989; Douglas Crimp, ed., Memoir (1988), an eloquent account of a AIDS: Cultural AnalysislCultural decade of living with Paul Horowitz, who Activism (October, 43, Winter 1987); died in 1986. Other memoirs include a Harlon L. Dalton and Scott Burris, eds., mother's story, The Screaming Room AIDS and the Law A Guide to the Public, New Haven: Yale University (1986)by Barbara Peabody, that of a wife, Press, 1987; Elizabeth Fee and Daniel M. Good-bye, I Love You (1986) by Carol Fox, eds., AIDS: The Burden of History, Lynn Pearson, and those of several persons Berkeley: University of California Press, with AIDS, including Mortal Embrace: 1988; Victor Gong, ed., AIDS: Facts and Living with AIDS (1988) by the French- Issues, New Brunswick, NJ:Rutgers University Press, 1986; H. Robert man Emmanuel Dreuilhe. In 1985 NBC Malinowski and Gerald J. Perry, AIDS Television presented a drama, An Early Information Sourcebook, Phoenix: Oryx Frost, with Aidan Quinn, which offered a Press, 1988; Eve K. Nichols, Mobilizing sensitive exploration of the emotional Against AIDS: The Unfinished Story of effects of the disease on a person with a Virus, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986; Sandra Panem, AIDS and his family. Bill Sherwood's inde- The AIDS Bureaucracy, Cambridge, pendently made film Parting Glances MA: Haward University Press, 1988; (1986)focused on a relationship between Cindy Ruskin, ed., The Quilt: Stories two men, one of whom has AIDS. Several from the NAMES Project, New York: leading contemporary photographers, in- Pocket Books, 1988. Ward Houser cluding Nicholas Nixon, Rosalind Solo- mon, and Brian Weil, have produced moving portraits of people with AIDS. The Names Project Quilt began early in 1987 with a single cloth panel to French theologian and poet. A commemorate one person who died of prolific writer in Latin, Alan was a leading AIDS. In a little over a year the project figure in the "Renaissance" of the twelfth grew to over 5000 panels, which were century. His surviving works include dis- exhibited in a national tour. The colorful quisitions in practical and speculative pads are rectangular and contain the theology; sermons; a preaching manual; a name of the deceased which is painted on theological dictionary; a guide for confes- or appliqued. The victim's survivors who sors; an attack on heretics; a book of versi- make the quilts often add other appliques fied parables; and two substantial poetic of cloth, sequins, and the like to suggest allegories, Anticlaudianus and T'he Com- favorite residences and avocations of the plaint of Nature. departed. The quilt, which takes up a long- In the last-named work Alan of- established American folk tradition, con- fered originalvariations on the Early Chris- stitutes a collective work of anonymous tian polemic against homosexual behavior art. Not only has it provided a moving as a sin against nature. These animadver- experience for visitors, it may serve as a sions were prompted by the prevalence of salutory challenge to existing elitist no- sodomy among the clergy of his day, which tions of art itself. Alan opposed. In a series of ingenious, if None of this cultural activity can bizarre comparisons, Alan likened sexual be construed as a "silver lining" that in inversion to grammatical barbarism. This any way compensates for the enormous allegory of grammatical "conjugation," sufferingthat AIDS has caused, but it gives licit or illicit, was to have many successors evidence of a real effort to confront the throughout the Middle Ages. In a more problem rather than to hide it or to hide general sense, Alan is a link in a chain of from it - ALBERTINE COMPLEX 4 antihomosexual argument based on the BIBLIOGRAPHY. Paul Nacke, "On claim that it is unnatural. Homosexuality in Albania," Interna- tional Iournnl of Greek Love, 1:l (19651, BIBLIOGRAPHY. Richard H. Green, 39-47. "Alan of Lille's De Planctu Naturae," Speculum, 31 (1956),649-74; Jan Ziolkowski, Alan of Lille's Grammar of Sex, Cambridge, MA: Medieval Acad- emy of America, 1985. ALBERTINECOMPLEX Wayne R. Dynes In Remembzance of Things Past, MarcelProustls female character Albertine ALBANIA contains elements taken from the person- Until recent decades, remoteness ality of the novelist's chauffeur Agosti- and a distinctive language permitted this nelli, with whom Proust was in love. Balkan country to retain, more than its Accordingly, it has been suggested that the neighbors, cultural traits from the past. habit of gay and lesbian novelists-once a Travelers in the nineteenth and early necessity--of "heterosexualizing" rela- twentieth century noted that Albanian tionships by changing the sex of the char- men showed a particular passion for hand- acters be called the "Albertine complex." some youths, so much so that they would In W. Somerset Maugham's Of Human even kill one another in disputes over Bondage (1915) the waitress with whom them. Albanians would also contract the main character is in love is surely a malsmale pacts which were blessed by man in disguise. A different device appears priests of the Orthodox church; these, it in Willa cather's ~~~ntonia(19181, where was claimed, were Platonic. Yet this asser- the choice of male authorial persona, Jim, tion of purity seems to be contradicted by allows the writer to express interest in a common term for the pederast, biithar, various female characters. literally "butt man." Among the Muslim It must be granted that this criti- Sufis some held a belief in reincarnation; cal procedure can be reductive if it simply having lived a previous life as women, seeks to "restore the true sex" to a charac- they believed, it would be natural for some ter that is a composite product of the men to be attracted to male sex objects. It literary imagination. It may also falsely is.&emptingto regard these customs as a imply that gay and lesbian novelists are provincial relic of Greek institutionalized incapable of creating convincing charac- pederasty, or even (followingBernard Ser- ters of the opposite sex. Nonetheless, E. M. gent) of some primordial "Indo-European" Forster gave eloquent testimony of his homosexuality. Sometimes the Albanians dissatisfactionwith the procedure by aban- attributed the custom to a Gypsy origin. doning writing novels in mid-career. After Yet Turkish Islamic influence is a more writing five published books simulating likely source, supplemented by theByzan- heterosexual relationships (and one, Mau- tine custom of brotherhood pacts. Of fur- rice, on a homosexual's quest for love, ther interest is the fact that many Janissar- whichForster believed was unpublishable), ies and Mamluks were recruited among he declined to play the game any longer. the Albanians. A related, though different phe- Since 1945Albania has been ruled nomenon appears in the disguise dramas by a puritanical and repressive Marxist of the Renaissance. La Calandria (1513), regime. Although homosexuality is not by Bernardo Dovizi da Bibbiena, concerns mentioned in the Penal Code, elementary two twins, one male, one female. The prudence requires that relations between twins appear on stage four times, once "hiends" be conducted with the utmost both dressed as women, once both dressed discretion. Foreign tourists report sexual as men, once in reverse attire, and once (at contacts-but only with other tourists. the end) in the appropriate dress. These 4 ALBERTINE COMPLEX permutations allowed the dramatist to pher, and a member of the Academy. The explore for comic effect the confused initials on the title page could be resolved emotions induced in other characters who as "Di Padre Antonio." It is likely that are attracted to them. In less complete Loredan, a noble Venetian, had a hand in form the device spread into Spanish the printing of the little volume. and Elizabethan drama, including While the obscenity of the story Shakespeare's familiar As You Like It. At is quite explicit, it must be understood in the end of these plays the sexual arnbigui- the context of similar texts of the trend of ties are resolved, to the relief of the audi- libertinism, using the term in its original ence-or at least of the censor. Thus the senseof a sceptical philosophical tendency. effect of such dramas contrasts with that The colloquy is conventionally set in of the later novelistic Albertine complex ancient Athens and the teacher is modeled where the device is not meant to'be de- on Socrates, as suggested also by the deri- tected. In both cases, however, preserva- vation of the literary form from the Pla- tion-or apparent preservation-of nor- tonic dialogue. Having conceived a un- mality is the aim. quen9ble passion for his pupil, the in- structor resolves to overcome his charge's BIBLIOGRAPHY. Justin O'Brien, every objection to consummation of the "Albertine the Ambiguous," PMLA, 64 (December 1949), 933-52. relationship. Through astute marshalling of argument, as well as rhetorical skill, the preceptor is successful, thus demonstrat- ing also the value of education. The per- ALCIBZADEFANCZULLO suader uses examples from Greek mythol- ogy and culture, which had become famil- A SCOLA? L' According to the notation on the iar to many Italians through the Renais- title page, this spirited dialogue in defense sance revival of classical antiquity. He of pederasty ("Alcibiades the Schoolboy") rebuts counterarguments of later prove- was published anonymously at "Ginevra nance, such as the Sodom and Gomorrah [Geneva], 1652"-though it was probably story. Anticipating the eighteenth cen- actually printed in Venice. In 1862 a new tury, he appropriates the argument from limited edition of 250 copies appeared in naturalness for his own ends, saying that Paris; it is almost as rare as the original. Nature gave us our sexual organs for our However, an Italian critical edition ap- pleasure; it is an insult to her to refuse to peared in 1988 (Rome: Salemo). employ them for this evident purpose. The identity of the author long BIBLIOGRAPHY. Laura Coci, "L'A1. remained mysterious. The title page of the cibiade fanciullo a scola: nota first edition bears the initials "D.P.A." bibliografica," Studi secenteschi, 26 which has been interpreted as "~ivinipeiri (1985),301-29; Giovanni Dall'Orto, AretiniU-an unlikely attribution to "Antonio Rocco and the Background of His 'L'Alcibiade fanciullo a scola' Aretino. In 1850 Antonio Basseggio gave (1652),"Among Men, Among Women, it, on stylistic grounds, to to Ferrante Pal- Amsterdam: University, 1983, pp. lavicino (1616-1644)) a freethinker who 224-32. was a member of the Accademia degli Giovanni Dall'Orto Incogniti in Venice. Finally, an article of 1888 by Achille Neri solved the puzzle. Neriincluded the text of aletterby Giovan ALCIBIADES BattistaLoredan, founder of the Accademia (CA. 450-404 B.c.) degli Incogniti, which revealed that the Athenian general and statesman. author was Antonio Rocco (1586-1652)) a Reared in the household of his guardian "libertine" priest, Aristotelian philoso- and uncle Pericles, he became the erom- 34 ,',',.#.. . : " ' C"' ALCOHOLISM 9 enos and later intimate friend of Socrates, while the comedian Pherecrates declared who saved his life in battle. Hi3 brilliance that "Alcibiades, who once was no man, is enabled him in 420 to become leader of the now the man of all women." He gained a - bad reputation for introducing luxurious extreme democratic faction, and his impe- !!! rialistic designs led Athens into an alli- practices into Athenian life, and even his ance with Argos and other foes of Sparta, a dress was reproached for extravagance. He policy largely discredited by the Spartan combined the ambitious political career- victory at Mantinea. He sponsored the ist and the bisexual dandy, a synthesis plan for a Sicilian expedition to outflank possible only in a society that tolerated Sparta, which ended after his recall in the homosexual expression and even a certain capture of thousands of Athenians, most amount of heterosexuallicence in its public of whom died in the salt mines where they figures. His physical beauty alone im- were confined, but soon after the fleet pressed his contemporaries enough to reached Sicily his enemies recalled him on remain an inseparable part of his historical the pretext of his complicity in the muti- image. lation of the Hermae, the phallic pillars marking boundaries between lots of land. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Walter Ellis, Alcibia- des, New York: Routledge, 1989; Jean He escaped, however, to Sparta and be- Hatzfeld, Alcibiade: Etude sur l'histoire came the adviser of the Spartan high d'Athhnes d la fin du Ve sikle, Paris: command. Losing the confidence of the Presses Universitaires de France, 195 1. Spartans and accused of impregnating the Warren Johansson wife of one of Sparta's two kings, he fled to Persia, then tried to win reinstatement at Athens by winning Persian support for the ~/LCOHOLISM city and promoting an oligarchic revolu- The linkage of alcoholism and tion, but without success. Then being homosexuality has produced a long and appointed commander by the Athenian fascinating body of literature. Both share fleetat Samos, he displayed his military similar characteristics: they are stigma- skills for several years and won a brilliant tized behaviors, are subject to legal and victory at Cyzicus in 410, but reverses in moral sanctions, have etiologies that are bttle and political intrigue at home led to "Ot understood, are often his downfall, and he was finally murdered concealed from others, have inconsistent in Phrygia in 404. definitions, and are dealt with in a variety T~oug~anoutstan~ingpo~iticianof conflicting ways. How homosexuality and military leader, Alcibiades cornpro- and alcoholism are perceived is typically a mised himself by the excesses of his sexual function of the theoretical position taken. life, which was not confined to his own The shifts from a more ~s~choanal~tic sex, but was uninhibitedly bisexual, as model1 to a learning theory approach, to a was typical of a member of the Athenian socioc~lturalviewpoint illustrate the aristocracy. The Attic comedians scolded varied attitudes toward these stigmatized him for his adventures;Aristophanes wrote behaviors by the dominant culture. Each a play (now lost] entitled Tripholes (the school, however, St?ems to accept that the man with three in which Alcibia- rate of alcoholism among homosexuals is desl erotic exploits were satirized. In his significantly higher than in the rest of the youth, admired by the whole of Athens for population. his beauty, he bore on his coat of arms an The Psychoanalytic Model. The Eras hurling a lightning bolt. Diogenes earliest connections evolved from the Laertius said of him that "when a young school of Ps~choanal~sisfounded by man, he separated men from their wives, Sigmund Freud. Emphasizing the idea of and later, wives from their husbands," latent homosexuality as the etiology of 4 ALCOHOLISM problem drinking, neo-Freudians sought a on oral aspects of homosexuality, thereby causal model to explain what they per- ignoring the range of sexual practices and ceived as sexual pathologies. Alcohol use the emotional-love dimensions of same- was seen as the cause of regression to a sex relationships. It is also assumed that level of psychosocial development in which only homosexuality has these oral dimen- latent homosexuality, sadistic and maso- sions to it, while implying that heterosex- chistic tendencies, and lewdness are re- ual practices do not. Furthermore, the leased (Israelstamand Lambert).Excessive psychoanalytic approach does not account alcohol use, therefore, was the means of for lesbians, for the repressed homosexu- overcoming the repression of homosexu- als who are not alcoholic, for the open gays ality and other sexual inhibitions. and lesbians who are not alcoholic, and for The connection between homo- the open gays and lesbians who are alco- sexuality and alcoholism stressed the oral holic (Small and Leach). dimensions. Using such phrases as "oral While repression of fundamental neurotics" and "oral diseases," the psy- characteristics of self can often lead to choanalytic school focused on only cer- destructive behavior, the focus of psycho- tain aspects of drinking behavior and analytic perspectives is of particular rele- homosexuality. Alcoholics were seen to vance here. The relationship between be fixated in the oral stage, to be anxious latent homosexuality and alcoholism about masculine inadequacy and incom- assumes that learning to overcome one's pleteness, to have experienced traumatic repressed homosexual feelings and to love weaning, or to have an irrational fear of heterosexually is the best "cure" for alco- being heterosexual (Nardi).Similar phrases holism. Thus, the focus of therapy is on were used to describe the etiology of one's sexuality, not on the drinking or the homosexuality. Oral frustrations were repression. The pathology is the homo- linked to both homosexuality and alcohol- sexuality, not just the alcoholism. ism. Tennessee Williams' play Cat on a During the 1960s and 1970s, Hot Tin Roof (1955)reflects the prevalence however, the psychoanalytic models of the psychoanalytic argument: Brick's started losing favor. With the introduction alcoholism is linked to his frustratingrela- of humanistic Rogerian psychology, the tio~shipwith his wife Maggie and his existential models of R. D. Laing, and the rez~essedhomosexual feelings about his sociologicalapproaches of labeling theory, dead friend Skipper. the link between hon~osexualityand alco- Much of the early empirical re- holism took on different emphases (Israel- search on the linkage between homosexu- stam and Lambert). With the rise of gay ality and alcoholism emphasized the psy- and lesbian rights movements, research choanalytic assumptions. However, rather began to look at a newer link: the relation- than studying alcoholism among homo- ship of homophobia and alcoholism. The sexual populations, researchers tended to tone was no longer on sexual repressions look for homosexuality among alcoholics. and regressions to oral stages, but on the Unfortunately, their definitions about social contextual dimensions of gay life- what demonstrated homosexuality were styles. The theories now emphasized faulty. Numerous studies used behavior and the role drinking played in masculinity-femininity scales with the integrating people into a subculture or in belief that high femininity scores indi- reducing stresses caused by hostile social cated homosexuality in the male. settings. Alcoholism was seen as a re- Clearly, then, a problem with sponse to situational factors, not as a cor- these early studies is the faulty assump- relate of homosexuality. While some ar- tions underlying the empirical and theo- gue for the dominance of biological and retical models. There is an overemphasis genetic explanations for alcoholism (and ALCOHOLISM 4 homosexuality as well), most researchers alcoholism, searching for a single link to believe that the social context plays an explain all drinking by homosexuals is a important part in understanding the con- misguided task. For some open gays, a nections. pleasure-seeking explanation is probably a The Learning-Theory Approach. more accurate learning model. For others Social learning theory has contributed just "coming out," a tension-reduction much to our understanding of the link approach may serve as a clearer explana- between context and deviant behaviors. tion. For those still "in the closet" and Alcoholism is seen as a learned behavior repressingtheiridentity, alcoholmay serve resulting from reinforcement of pleasur- as a means to disinhibit their feelings or to able experiences and the avoidance of deny them further. Whichever is used, all negative ones. Tension reduction, relaxa- illustrate a learning model, stressing the tion, peer approval, and feelings of power importance of the situation for understand- have all been connected to alcohol con- ingproblem drinking. The shift away from sumption. Thus, a learning model expla- pathologies and oral fixations represented nation of excessive drinking among gay a major step in the theoretical understand- men and lesbians stresses tension-reduc- ing of the linkage between homosexuality tion and the positive reinforcement of and alcoholism. participation in an open gay lifestyle of Sociocultural Perspectives. The bars and other alcohol-relatedsocialevents. approach to studying the linkage took The tension, anxiety, and guilt feelings another direction with the growing em- generated in thecontext of a society which phasis in the 1970s of a gay lifestyle and does not condone homosexual behavior subculture. From this viewpoint, drinking are reduced by increased alcohol use. For patterns are a function of a group or sub- some, the resultant feelings of power al- culture's norms, values, and beliefs. How low gay people to make sexual contacts a culture defines drinking and drunken- and overcome social resistances. ness, what meanings are construed for The role of the gay bar becomes behavior while "under the influence," and an important component of this approach. what situational factors are relevant, all The emergence of gay bars as a common affect drinking rates. The whole lifestyle institution for introduction into a gay must be taken into account: the connec- *- community derives from their history of tions between drug use, alcohol consump- 5.permissiveness and protectiveness. Gay tion, and sex; the value placed on attend- bars provide some anonymity and segrega- ing bars; the laws and norms directly tion from the dominant culture while related to alcohol consumption in that contributing to and maintaining a gay geographic area; and the attitudes of the identity for its patrons. The positive as- larger social context toward the stigma- pects of belonging to a gay community tized group. tend to reinforce drinking patterns. Heavy This theoretical approach focuses drinking, in this model, is not used to on the social context in which gay people escape from some latent fears or to fulfill find themselves, how they define reality oral needs, but as a way to participate in a and perceive their situation, and what group. Initial socialization into a gay so- symbols and values they hold with respect cial network often occurs by attending gay to alcohol use. Understanding the linkage bars, cocktail parties, and meals involving between homosexuality and alcoholism, alcohol. Achieving a gay identity, for some thus, requires understanding how certain people, necessitates learning roles which gay individuals manage and control their include an alcohol component. feelings in an oppressive social context. In Since there are many different other words, homophobia is seen as a types of homosexuals and many forms of contextual explanation as to why some 9 ALCOHOLISM gay men and lesbians drink excessively. holics (such as low self-esteem, difficulty Being a homosexual is not the pathology in expressing onefs feelings, having an leading to alcoholism; alcoholism is the alcoholic parent, ethnic and religious response to a homophobic environment. background, and other drug use), it is the Alienation, low self-esteem, and morally unique aspects of establishing and main- weak labels are maintained by the social taining a gay identity in a generally hostile system, thereby increasing vulnerability environment that has become the focus of to addictive behaviors. To study alcohol- attention in recent research. ism and homosexuality now means The theoretical approaches dis- researching the subculturally approved cussed (psychoanalytic, learning theory, responses to perceived and actual homo- and socio-cultural perspective] represent phobic situations. Gay men and lesbians specific sociological and psychological become the focus of study; their thoughts, viewpoints. Other models can, and have, behavior, and perceptions are the data. been developed to assess alcoholism using Rather than looking at alcoholics and economic, political, biological, and genetic assessing whether they are latent homo- variables, and explanations. Each of these sexuals or high scorers on a femininity can be used to further an understanding of scale, current research, under the socio- the linkage between homosexuality and cultural model, goes directly to gay alco- alcoholism. holics and studies their views andresponses Treatmen t and Prevention. to their social situations. Which model one adopts can have impor- Research Problems and Pros- tant implications for the development of pects. Unfortunately, the reliability about treatment and prevention programs. Some the extent of alcoholism problems in the people define alcoholism as a disease, gay community has suffered from faulty thereby invoking a medical model with research methodology. Small sample sizes, very different consequences from a learned lack of control groups, non-random behavior model adopted by others. Those samples, inconsistent definitions of alco- stressing the psychoanalytic approach holism and homosexuality, and anecdotal focus on curing the pathology of homo- information typify much of the recent sexuality, while the socio-cultural model research in this area. Generalizations to leads to the emphasis on getting the client the Zversity of homosexuals are very dif- to act on one's homosexual feelings. In ficult to make. Not only are those "in the general, most practitioners today believe closet" impossible to study, but generat- that treating the alcoholism is the first ing non-middle-class samples of open gays priority. This, however, typically requires and lesbians is not an easy task. In addi- a climate in which the patients can feel tion, asking people to relate their drinking comfortable about discussing their iden- patterns with honesty and accuracy be- tity openly. Being honest about oneself comes problematic the more they drink and one's feelings is essential for recovery. excessively. This cannot be attained in a homophobic Despite these problems with context. Some, therefore, strongly encour- current research, the move away from the age homosexual clients to seek treatment neo-Freudian, psychoanalytic models is in gay and lesbian facilities. When these an important step in understanding the are not available, it is very important that linkages between alcoholism and homo- treatment programs and therapists can sexuality. Results from many of therecent accept and encourage gay and lesbian studies seem to indicate an alcoholism clients to be themselves. While the tech- rate at two to three times that of therest of niques for treatment may be the same for the population. While some of this is due everyone, the importance of establishing a to the same factors that affect other alco- climate in which the clients can express ALEXANDER THE GREAT 4 themselves openly becomes of prime Dutch article of 1897 that homosexuality importance. ("uranism") could occur in otherwise per- Similarly, while prevention and fectly normal and healthy individuals, and education programs have messages rele- in later works he campaigned for the end of vant to all people, some specific tailoring the legal and social intolerance that still to the needs, issues, and language of gays oppressed the homosexuals of early twen- and lesbians is essential. For example, tieth-century Europe. recent evidence on the role alcohol and At the fifth congress of criminal drugs play in lowering immune system anthropology in Amsterdam in 1901, his functioning has important prevention defense of the homosexualbrought a storm implications for AIDS. There are also some of abuse on his head from the psychiatrists indications that excessive alcohol use can and criminal anthropologists who accused lead to higher risk taking, especially in him of "defending immoralityu-the first sexual situations, thereby increasing the harbinger of the later antipathy of the possibilities of engaging in practices with medical profession to the gay rights move- a higher probability of contracting the ADS ment. Down to the end of his life he con- virus. Prevention and education prbgrams tinued to collaborate with the initial pio- aimed at the gay and lesbian populations neers in enlightening the general public on must, therefore, take into account the the subject, and was involved in the found- unique dimensions of their lifestyles and ing of the Dutch branch of the Scientific- sexuality. It is in prevention and treat- Humanitarian Committee in 1911. His ment programs that the link between literary compositions still keep his mem- homosexuality and alcoholism becomes ory alive in the Dutch-speaking world. an important aspect. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Maurice van Lieshout, BIBLIOGRAPHY. Stephen Israelstam "Stiefkind der Natuur: Het Homobeeld and Sylvia Lambert, "Homosexuality as bij Aletrino en Von Romer," Homojaar- a Cause of Alcoholism: A Historical boek, 1 (19811, 75-106. Review," International Iournal of the Warren [ohansson Addictions, 18:8 119831, 1085-1 107; Peter M. Nardi, "Alcoholism and Homosexuality: A Theoretical Perspective," IournaI of Homosexuality, ALEXANDERTHE GREAT *,. 7:4 119821, 9-25, reprinted in Thomas (356-323 B.c.) Ziebld and JohnMongeon, eds., Gay King of Macedonia and conqueror and Sober, New York: Harrington Press, of much of the civilized world of his day. 1985; Edward Small and Barry Leach, "Counseling Homosexual Alcoholics," The Hellenizing aspirations of his father Iournal of Studies on Alcohol, 38:11 Philip II caused him to summon Aristotle (19771, 2077-86. from Athens to tutor his son. On his suc- Peter M. Nardi cession to the throne in 336 Alexander immediately made plans to invade Asia, ALETRINO,ARNOLD which he did two years later. In a series of (1858-1716) great battles he defeated the Persian king Dutch criminal anthropologist and took possession of his vast empire. and literary figure. Of Sephardic Jewish Unwisely extending his expedition into ancestry, Aletrino published works on India in 327-325, he returned to Babylon homosexuality in Dutch and French. A where he died. follower of the school of Cesare Lombroso, Historians still debate the signifi- who had sought to explain criminality cance of Alexander's plans for the empire: with reference to inherited degeneracy of it now seems unlikely that he intended a the central nervous system, Aletrino broke universal culture melding the diverse sharply with his teacher by asserting in a ethnic components on an equal footing. 4 ALEXANDER THE GREAT

1-5s concessions to his new subjects were to contain over 100,000 (perhaps even probably intended to secure their l.oyalty, 700,000 scrolls)where Callimachus, Apol- while preserving Greek supremacy. His lonius, and Theocritus vied with one romantic figure has exercised an unceas- another in editing classical Greek texts ing fascination over the centuries, though and in composing pederastic verses. From usually with minimal acknowledgement 300 B.C. until 145-when Ptolemy W of his bisexual appetites, which supreme Physcon expelled the scholars-and again rule allowed him to gratify to the full. after order was restored, Alexandria was Although he entered into a state also theliterary center of Hellas. Thegolden marriage with the Sogdian Roxane and had age of Alexandrian poetry lasted from ca. relations with other women, all his life 280 to ca. 240 with an Indian summer in Alexander was subject to unbounded pas- the early first century B.c., when Meleager sions for beautiful boys (Athenaeus, produced his Garland, so important a part Deipnosophists, XIII, 603a). From child- of the Greek Anthology, and his contem- hood Alexander had been closely bonded poraries wrote other works that soon be- with his friend Hephaistion, whose death came popular in Rome and influenced Latin in 324 he mourned extravagantly, report- literature. edly devastatingwhole districts to assuage Imitating the elegists and lyri- his grief. His relationship with a beautiful cists who had flourished in the Aegean ca. eunuch Bagoas, formerly the favorite of 600 B.c., the Alexandrians of the golden king Darius, is the subject of Mary Re- age enthusiastically composed pederastic nault's novel The Persian Boy (NewYork, verse. The seven greatest Alexandrian 1972). tragedians were dubbed the Pleiad. In the second century B.C. Phanus, Moschus, and BIBLIOGRAPHY. Roger Peyrefitte, Bion continued the traditions of Callima- Alexandre le Grand, Paris: Albin Michel, 198 1; idem, Les conquites chus, Apollonius, and Theocritus with d1Alexandre,Paris: Albin Michel, 1979; archaic fastidiousness and recondite allu- idem, La jeunesse d'Alexandre, Paris: sions of the earlier librarians there. Big city Albin Michel, 1977. inconveniences produced a longing for the Warren Johansson rural life expressed in pastoral poetry. Whether idealor sensual, lovc+especially " ALEXANDRIA pederastioheld a central position. ' ' C' Ptolemy I, Alexander the Great's The luxurious gymnasia, temples, successor in Egypt, transferred the capital and baths erected by the Ptolemies, of from Memphis to the city near the Nile's whom the seventh kept a harem of boys, western mouth, which had been founded surpassed those of the homeland. A local by Alexander after he conquered Egypt to peculiarity was the Serapeurn, a temple accommodate large fleets and thus secure which attempted to fuse Dionysiac with his communications with Europe. Ptol- Egyptian religion. emy I1 and Ptolemy 111 made Alexandria This commercial port linked the center of Hellenic learning by endow- Europe with Africa, and via the canal built ing (1)the Museum, whereHerophilus and by the ancient Pharaohs that the Ptol- his younger contemporary Erasistratus emies reopened between the Mediterra- conducted vivisection on condemned nean and the Red Sea, also with India, for slaves to advance surgery, anatomy and the Greeks learned to follow the monsoon physiology, while Eratosthenes calculated to complete the periplus there and back. the circumference of the globe; and (2)the Its great Pharos (lighthouse) symbolized Library, arranged by Aristotle's pupil its maritime dominance, and Ptolemaic Demetrius of Phalerum according to the fleets often ruled the Aegean. Alexandria, Master's cataloguing system, which grew whose synagogues overshadowed those in ALEXANDRIA 4

Palestine, attracted diaspora Jews even scholars discussed pederasty as well as before the Seleucid Antiochus IV began to fine foods and wines, and pagan learning persecute them and the Diaspora began in continued in Alexandria until Hypatia, a earnest, continuing during and after the female mathematician and Neo-Platonist, Maccabean uprisings. In Alexandria sev- was tom limb from limb by a mob of enty Jewish scholars were believed in later Christian fanatics incited by their bishop legend to have translated the Pentateuch St. Cyril in 415, afterwhich pagan learning into the koine, as the Hellenistic Greek of declined. The neglected Library repeat- the newly acquired colonial regions was edly suffered from fires, book burnings, styled. Riots often occurred among the and other catastrophes, perishing in the ethnic groups, especially against the Jews, Arab conquest of 641. who had their own quarter in the capital. Christianity, too, flourished in Resembling New York, with a true ca- Alexandriafromthe time the ApostleMark cophony of languages, Alexandria became introduced it there. Combining Platonic the largest Greek as well as the largest with Biblical homophobia in the tradition Jewish city and certainly the richest in the of Philo Judaeus, Clement, Origen, Arian, world. Philo Judaeus, who clearly judged and Athanasius and other Patristic writers the homosexual behavior of the Sodomites shaped Orthodox dogma. responsible for the destruction of the Cit- As the center of learning of the ies of the Plain, synthesized Old Testa- Hellenistic world and therival of Rome for ment homophobia with Greek philosophi- wealth and population, it was naturally cal condemnation: the Mosaic prohibition the home of the most erudite Christians. with Plato's notion of "against nature," They were as shocked as the Jews by the while the Ptolemies married their sisters las~iviousnessof the pagans with whom and nude Greek men chased eromenoi in they rubbed shoulders in the cosmopoli- gymnasia or hired poor boys in the teem- tan streets of the metropolis. "Nothing," ing streets or bazaars. it was said, "was not available in Alexan- Lavishing the wealth for which dria except snow." This applied to sex the Ptolemies were famous, Cleopatra where the vices, like the merchandise, of married first three of her brothers (Ptol- Asia, Africa, and Europe met and were myXIII, XN, and XV), then Julius Caesar exchanged amid great wealth and extreme (if she was not merely his mistress], and poverty. The Patriarch of Alexandria, like finally Mark Antony. She committed sui- that of its Hellenistic competitor Antioch, cide to avoid gracing the triumph of Octa- rivaled the one Constantine appointed at vian, who annexed Egypt for Rome, as the new capital in 330 and the one at Augustus, administering it as a special, Jerusalem-all of whom vied with the incomparably valuable province. Trade bishop of Rome. with India via Alexandria reached such a Alexandria was scarcely affected height during the Pax Romana (31 B.c.-A.D. by the Germanic occupation of the West. 180)that the Empire was drained of specie Arab hordes newly inspired by the religion to pay for Eastern luxuries. The later of Islam, however, invaded Egypt in 638 "Alexandrian" Latin poets of the first and captured Alexandria in 641, the grief century B.c., of whom Catullus is the only of the loss causing the death of the Em- surviving exemplar, wrote bisexualverses, peror Heraclius (610-64 1). Although the like those of their models. In the early Moslems removed the capital to Fustat Empire, even more than in the last century (Old Cairo], near ancient Memphis, Alex- of the Republic, things Egyptians were the I andria remained a vital port as long as they rage. Athenaeus of Naucratis, another 1 dominated the Mediterranean, a Moslem seaport at a mouth of the Nile, ca. A.D.200 lake from about 700 to about 1100, when wrote of an elaborate syn~posiumwhere the crusaders regained dominance of that 4 ALEXANDRIA sea for Christendom. With its women BIBLIOGRAPHY. E. M. Forster, Alexan. secluded even more than in the Ptolemaic dria: A History and a Guide, London: Whitehead Morris b Co., 1922; P. M. and Byzantine epochs, Moslem Alexan- Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria, 3 vols., dria, now called al-Iskandariya, continued Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977; Jane the tradition of pederasty. Lagoudis Pinchin, Alexandria StilL Dynasties followed one another, Porster, Durrell, and Cavafy, Princeton: the Shiite Fatimids (965-1 171))the Sun- Princeton University Press, 1977. William A. Percy nite Ayyubids (1171-1250), whose Saladin fought Richard1 theLionhearted, followed by the Mamluks, a group of unmarried, ALGER,HORATIO, JR. often castrated Slavic bodyguards known (1832-1899) for pederasty, one of whose number was American novelist. The son of a chosen Sultan from 1250 to 1519. Under clergyman, he sought to emulate his fa- the Mamluks Cairo completely outshone ther's career in a church in Brewster, Alexandria, which declined to little more Massachusetts. In 1866, however, he than a fishing village. abruptly left the ministry and went to In 18" the British a New York City, where he devoted therest protectorate Over Turkish of his life to grinding out an enormous eignty being purely Thereafter number of books for boys, most of which Alexandria became the center of a cosmo- have the same plot, the legendary to politan blend of Eastern and Western civi- riches" tale about a poor boy who makes lization known as Levantine. With its good. The most famous of these books languid sensuousness and sexual promis- were Ragged Dick (1868) and Tattered cuit~/ Other like Levantine Tom (1871). The total number of Alger peas! attractedga~writers and books sold, both before and after his death, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. is estimated at being anywhere from one The modern Greek poet Cavaf~~the Rus- to four hundred million. Alger became sian writer Mikhail Kuzmin, Lawrence known as the inspiration for many of the Durrell and Others put the city perma- American boys who in real life went from nently On the literary map Of the In poverty to wealth, and even today it is said his lyric poems Constantine Cavafy in obituaries that a was like a (18c3-1933) evoked themoods andmemo- Horatio Alger story.,, ries' of Hellenistic Alexandria at its ze- Alger's status as a wholesome nith-as the capital of the cosmopolitan legend was ironically the cause of his civilization his ancestors had created. E. eventually being found out. In meAmeli- had a loveaffair with an Egyp- can ldea of Success (1971),Richard Huber tian tram-conductor~Mohammed told how he had discovered in the archives in '9l7, during Healso wrote of the church in Brewster evidence that a guide to the city, and introduced Ca- Alger had charged with im- vaf~'spoems to English-s~eakingreaders. morality and amostheinous crime, a crime The Arab and Egyp- of no less magnitude than the abominable tian nationalism spelled the death of the and revolting crime of unnatural familiar- "colonial," Levantine Alexandria by forc- ity with boys.,, Alger had gone to New ing most Of the permanent forei@ York to escape the wrath of the parents of dents to emigrate. Now the premier beach BrewstereThis bombshelllay dormant until resort Of the abounds in a journalist read HuberJs book and broad- summer with homosexual activity in spite cast the news across the United States. of the revival of Moslem puritanism. Alger was included in Jonathan Katz' Gay American History (1976)and is now a standard member of everybody's list 42 4 ALLSTON, WASHINGTON 4 of famous homosexuals. The story of Al- Fuseli. They imbued the aspiring artist ger's life has been the subject of several with the spirit of romantic classicism biographies both before and after theHuber which was to become his stylistic hall- bombshell, and this is a story in itself. One mark. During his first European sojourn, early biography was a pack of lies in which Allston traveled extensively, settling by Alger has relationships with various 1804 in Rome. There he first met Samuel women, and other early biographies had Taylor Coleridge and Washington Irving. also invented episodes here and there, and He insinuated himself into the circle of these false "facts" were repeated inno- Rome's German colony, which centered cently by later biographers. Even in these around the Prussian consul, Wilhelrn von early biographies, however, it was possible Humboldt, and the habitues of the Cafft to read between the lines--or between the Greco. There he got to know Wilhelrnls lies--to see that Alger was attracted to homosexual brother, Alexander von Hum- boys. He spent a lot of time around the boldt, and such neoclassical sculptors as Newsboys Lodging House in New York, a Thorvaldsen and Canova, together with sort of hotel for homeless boys and a para- the artists Asmus Jakob Carstens, Got- dise for any pederast who could succeed, as tlieb Schick, and Joseph Anton Koch. Then Alger did, in winning the confidence of the in 1808 he left Rome precipitously, owner and the young residents. The great- sailoring for Boston, where he married est love of Alger's life was a ten-year-old Ann Charming, a socially prominent New Chinese boy named Wing, who was later Englander who had been affianced to All- killed by a street-car. All of this informa- ston for nine years. tion was reported by the early biographers, With his new wife, Allston trav- but nobody seemed to understand what it eled to England again in 181 1. This time he meant until Huber found the evidence. secured the patronage of the influential Sir George Beaumont. His painting of "The BIBLIOGRAPHY. Michael Moon, "'The Dead Man Revived" won a prize of two Gentle Boy from the Dangerous Classes': Pederasty, Domesticity, and Capitalism hundred guineas at theBritish Institution. in Horatio Alger," Representations, 19 In the Annals of the Fine Arts in 1816, he (Summer 1987), 87-110; Gary Scharn- was listed as one of the principal history horst and Jack Bales, The Lost Life of painters in England. The illness and death d. Horatio Alger, Bloomington: Indiana of hiswife, in 1815, was the one ostensibly , . University Press, 1985. Stephen Wayne Foster disturbing interlude of these very success- ful years. But a second time, giving his friends no warning, he decamped for ALLSTON,WASHINGTON America in 18 18. (1779-1 843) Back in Boston, Allston fixed his American artist. The slave-own- attentions on a Boston Brahmin spinster, ing Allstons of South Carolina enjoyed a Martha Dana, whom he married in 1830, life of near baronial splendor. Tradition- after a courtship strung out over ten years. ally families such as his have demonstrated The course of his professional life matched their appreciation of art only through pa- that of his private life in its failure to find tronage, since artists, like all craftsmen, a focus and locate a goal. Ensconced in a must workwith their hands. Allston chose studio in the suburb of Cambridgeport, the to deny his family's inculcated values artist manifested behavior we would now when, having graduated from Hanard, he perceive as highly neurotic. He habitually insisted on pursuing his muse. abandoned major, multifigured canvases In 1801 Allston sailed for England by his ownreport of 1836,five in 18months. to study for several years at the Royal Over the years, he managed to disappoint Academy with Benjamin West and Henry the Boston Hospital, the Pennsylvania 9 ALLSTON, WASHINGTON

Academy, the State of South Carolina, the eyebrows; but since Allston's adoring United States government, and private nephew removes the word, and so ineptly, individuals as highly placed as the Duch- we may conclude that family tradition ess of Sutherland. None of his undertak- wanted something hushed up. ings, however, provided him with a better Next, there is the matter of those excuse for a dilatory performance than the courtships of unusual length even for the never-to-be-finished "Belshazzar's Feast." nineteenth century. Collectively, they After a visit to his studio in 1838, the provided a cover for a total of nineteen English art critic Anna Jameson observed years. But the most telling circumstance that his sensitivity on the subject of his involves the cause for Allston's second unfinished "Bel" did "at last verge on departure from England. insanity." The period of Allston's sojourn in Why did Washington Allston live England followed years in which England in a state of psychic imprisonment which instituted harsh penal measures against paralyzed his will to create and made him homosexuals. Nobles were exiled, mem- guilt-ridden? To cast his dilemma into bers of the working class hanged. Under perspective, we must acknowledge that these conditions, blackmail became a some of the most puzzling moments of his common practice; and we have it from life begin to make sense only on the hy- Allston himself that he was continuously pothesis that he was a closeted homosex- importuned by beggars who were literate, ual. During his lifetime, family and friends since they petitioned through the mails. shielded him or pretended not to know, as Accordingly, he wished his new address evidenced in his official biography written in America kept secret. After his return, by his reverential nephew, Jared Flagg. he instructed his pupil, C. R. Leslie, to Scholars in this century have perpetuated forward no more correspondence: the subterfuge when they failed to evalu- "I know, my good fellow, you will excuse ate the documented evidence. this, for you know what I have already In chronological sequence, the suffered. . . . There are letters of this un- first document-mitted in the modern pleasant kind I have had from Bristol and biographies-is a letter of Allst on's, quoted other places. Tell Mr. Bridgen never to in the first comprehensive history of take out any letter to me from the Dead- ArnEcan art. Here Allston reminisced Letter Box. If any should be there let them abodt his earliest patron, a South Carolin- remain; for I do not want them." Leslie ian named Bowman. The latter offered to would be just the person to sympathize the handsome scion of the Allston family with his teacher's predicament, since his an annual stipend of 100 pounds for the own sexual orientation made him equally period of his study abroad. The stipend susceptible. His liaisons with some of the declined, Bowman upped the ante by vol- London actors whose portraits he painted unteering to send him away with "a few fell short of discretion. Flagg, who was tierces of rice." "His partiality was not of probably ignorant of Leslie's proclivities, the everyday kind," the mature artist applied to this former pupil for further observed. And in truth Bowman's partial- information about his uncle's seemingly ity was not, since the gift of a "few tierces inexplicable decision. Leslie, in his writ- of rice" was a highly negotiable commod- ten reply, elided the truth; and his explana- ity of great value. Not surprisingly, in tion, as redacted by Flagg, reads like a Flagg's recycling of the incident, the word fairytale: "Leslie gives as his belief that "partiality" was suppressed, leaving the one cause for his leaving England was the inserted pronoun without antecedent: "it result of his open-handed charity to street was not of the everyday kind." In context, beggars in LondonH-as though Allston the suppressed word would not have raised were a soft-hearted American, helpless to AMAZONIA 9 resist out-stretched palms and needing to demonstrations and caresses characteris- put an ocean between unlettered beggars tic of conjugal relationships." Although and his own purse. maintaining that "the brother is acting as a temporary substitute" for his sister, he BIBLIOGRAPHY. H. Gerdts and admits: "On reaching adulthood, the broth- Theodore E. Stebbins, Jr., 'A Man of ers-in-law continue to express their feel- Genius ":The Art of Washington Allston (1779-1843), Boston: Museum of Fine ings quite openl~."Stephen Hugh-Jones Arts, 1979; Phoebe Lloyd, "Washington similarly reported, "A young man will ~llston:American Martyrl" Art in often lie in a hammock with his 'brother- Ameria (March 198411 145-551 177-79; in-law,' nuzzling him, fondling his penis, E. P. Richardson, Washington Ahton, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell CO., and talking quietly, often about sexual 1948. exploits with women." About the Yana- Phoebe Lloyd mamo, Chagnon wrote: ltMost unmarried young men having homosexual relations with each other have no stigma attached to this behavior. In fact, most of these AMAZONIA bachelors joked about it and simulated In addition to holding the world's copulation with each other in public." largest tropical rainforest, the Amazon Alves da Silva reported public mutual basinof South America hasremaineduntil masturbation by boys, although officially, recently the home of many tribal peoples homosexuality only occurs in the puberty scarcely touched by Western civilization. rites for boys. Initiation and Joking Behavior. Other Aspects. Nimuendajd and As in the Melanesian cultures of the Pa- Lowie noted formalized, intense, but ap- cific, initiation, more than marriage, is parently non-sexual friendships among indispensable in northwest Amazonia to another Ge tribe, the Ramko1kamekra. the transition from the asexual world of Wagleyts 1939 of the Tapi- childhood to the sexual world of adults. In rape- southem Am-n tribe with a these customs, anthropologists have been Tupi-Guarani rather than Ge language, struck by the commonness of joking sex- who were thereforelikely pushed from the ual play among initiated but ~r~married coast rather than being traditionally jungle men. "Missionaries working in the Pira- dwellers prior to 15wincluded reports perand are frequently shocked the ap- of males in the past who had allowed parent homosexual behavior of Indian men. themselves to be used in anal intercourse However, the Barasana distinguish be- by other men. "They were treated as favor- tween this playful sexual activity and ites by the men, who took them along on serious male homosexuality. This play, hunting trips. Kamairaho gave me the rather than stemming from frustration of names of five men whom he had known normal [sic] desire, is regarded as being during his lifetime or about whom his normal behavior between brothers-in-law, father had told him 'had holes.' Some of and expresses their close, affectionate, and these men were married to women, he supportive relationship" (Hugh-Jones]. said, but at night in the takana [men's Claude LCvi-Straus?, who had reported house] they allowed other men to 'eat "reciprocal sexual services" by classifica- them' (have anal intercourse). His father tory "brothers-in law" among the Nam- told him of one man who took a woman's bikwara in 1943, added: "It remains an name and did women's work. . . . Older openquestionwhether the partnersachieve men had said that the "man-woman" had complete satisfaction or restrict them- died because she was pregnant. 'Her stom- selves to sentimental demonstrations, ach was swollenbut therewas no womb to accompanied by caresses, similar to the allow the child to be born."' None of 9 AMAZONIA

Wagley's informants could recall a case of difficult to know whether the concern that a woman who had taken the male.role or imputations of accepting homosexuality who preferred sex with another female. will stigmatize their tribe are the result of Gregor added a muddled account Western acculturation or more venerable of conceptions of homosexuality as (1) cultural concerns. inconceivable, (2)situational, and (3)for- gottenfortheMehinaku of theXinguRiver. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Alcionilio B. Alves da Silva, A Civilisa~doIndfgena do Uapes, Soares de Souza asserted the Tupinamba SZo Paulo: Centro de Pesquisas, 1962; were "addicted to sodomy and do not Napoleon A. Chagnon, Yanomamo consider it a shame. . . . In the bush some Warfare, Social Organization and offerthemselves to allwhowant them."In Marriage Alliance, Ph.D. dissertation, the upper Amazon, Tessmann found that University of Michigan, 1967; Thomas Gregor, Anxious Pleasures: The Sexual "while there are no homosexuals with Life of an Amazonian People, Chicago: masculine tendencies, there are some with University of Chicago Press, 198.5; extreme effeminacy. My informants knew Stephen Hugh-Jones,The Palm and the of two such instances. One of them wears Pleiades, Cambridge: Cambridge woman's clothing. . . . [The other] wears University Press, 1979; Claude Uvi- Strauss,Tristes Tropiques, New York: man's clothing, but likes to do all thework Atheneum, 1974; Curt Nimuendaj6 and that is generally done by women. He asked Robert H. Lowie, "The Social Structure one member of our expedition to address of the Ramko'kamekra (Canella)," him with a woman's name and not with American Anthropologist, 40 (1938), his masculine name. He lives with a set- 5 1-74; Gabriel Soares de Souza, "Tratado Descriptive do Brasil em tler and prostitutes himself as the passive 1587," [Instituto Hist6rico e Geogrhfico partner to the settler's workers. He pays do Brasill Revista, 14 (1851, [1587]); his lovers. He never practices active sexual Arthur P. Sorenson, "Linguistic intercourse." A more extended descrip- Exogamy and Personal Choice in the tion of widespread homosexual play and of Northwest Amazon," Illinois Studies in Anthropology, ( 1984), 18043; Giinter fairly-enduring but "open" relationships Tessmann, Die lndianer Nordost-Perus, is provided by Sorenson: "Young men sit Hamburg: De Cruyter, 1930; Charles around enticingly sedate and formal in all Wagley, Welcome of Tears, New York: their finery, or form troupes of panpipe- Oxford University Press, 1977. plafig dancers." Occasional sex is re- Stephen 0. Munay garhd as expectable behavior among friends; one is marked as nonfriendly- AMAZONS, enemy-if he does not join, especially in AMERICANINDIAN the youth 'age group' (roughly 15-35)." A distinct gender role for mascu- Homosexual activity was limited neither line females was accepted in many Ameri- to within an "age group" nor to unmarried can Indian tribes of North and South men. Moreover, inter-village homosexu- America. This role often included a mar- ality was encouraged and some "best riage between such a female and a woman. friends" relationships developed. That the Though sometimes mistakenly referred to "best friend" is more likely later to many by anthropologists as "female berdaches," a sister of his "best friend" is implied in this term historically was applied only to Sorenson's report. males and does not account for the special Some of the denials that homo- character of the amazon role. Even though sexual behavior among "my people" is the Indians did not live in separate all- "really homosexuality" say more about female societies, the earliest historic refer- the observer than the observed. In other ences to such masculine females referred cases, denials of what can be observed to them as "amazons" rather than as come from natives. In such cases, it is "berdaches," and the Portugese explorers AMAZONS, CLASSICAL O

in northeastern Brazil named the large would sometimes participate in male river there the River of the Amazons after occupations on the hunt or in warfare, but the female warriors of the Tupinamba this did not imply an alternative gender Indians. role since they continued to be defined as The extent to which this gender women. Still, there were some amazons role was socially accepted in aboriginal on the Plains, the most famous of which cultures is unclear, owing to the lack of was Woman Chief, a leader of the Crow attention paid to women in the male-writ- Indians in thenineteenth century. She was ten documents of the early European ex- the third highest ranked warrior in her plorers. It is also unclear to what extent tribe, and was married to four women. these females were "gender-crossers" who For those who were socially de- were accepted as men, or as "gender mix- fined as women, it was more important ers" who combined elements of masculin- that they reproduce the population than ity and femininity with some other unique that they be exclusively heterosexual. traits to become an alternative gender. Motherhood was highly valued, and a There was probably variation between woman's status was usually related to her tribes and among individuals. role as a mother more than as a wife. As Such females were noted for their long as a woman had children, to whom masculine interests from early childhood, she was married was of less concern to and as adults they often famed for their society. Since the amazon was not seen as bravery as warriors and skill as hunters. In feminine, and was not socially defined as some tribes, parents who had no son would a woman, she was able to gain status based select a daughter to raise as a hunter, and on her hunting and military abilities. this child would grow up to do all the roles of a man, including the taking of a woman BIBLIOGRAPHY. Paula Gunn Allen, The Sacred Hoop: Recovering the as a wife. The amazon's avoidance of sex Feminine in American Indian Tradi- with a man would protect her from preg- tions, Boston: Beacon Press, 1986; nancy, and thus insure her continued ac- Evelyn Blackwood, "Lesbian Behavior in tivity as a hunter. Kaska Indians of the Cross-Cultural Perspective," M.A.thesis westernCanadian subarctic explained that in Anthropology, San Francisco State University, 1984; idem, "Sexuality and - if such a female had sex with a man, her Gender in Certain Native American . luck in finding game would be destroyed. Tribes: The Case of Cross-Gender Her sexual affairs and marriage with a Females," Signs, 10:4 (1984),2742; woman were the accepted form. Walter L. Williams, The Spirit and the Some tribes, like the Mohave, held Flesh: Sexual Diversity in American Indian Culture, Boston: Beacon Press, the view that the true father of a child was 1986. thelast person to have sexwith themother Walter L. Williams before the baby's birth. This meant that an amazon would easily claim paternity to the child of her wife, if this wife had been AMAZONS,CLASSICAL previously impregnated by a man. There- Greek mythology includes refer- fore, these marriages between an amazon ences to alegendaryraceof femalewarriors. and a woman were socially recognized Homer's ILiad offers only scanty indica- with their children as families. tions of them, and the name given to them Because of their uniqueness, is antianeirai, later interpreted as "man- amazons often had the reputation for spiri- hating" or "man-like." The main features tual power and a gift of prophesy. This was of the later Greek Amazon legend are as sometimes shared by another form of follows. Coming from the east, they female gender variance among Plains tribes, founded a commonwealth of women in known as Warrior Women. Here, women the northeast of Asia Minor on the Ther- + AMAZONS,CLASSICAL modon, between Sinope and Trapezus, with in the direction of a primitive, predomi- Themiskyra asits capital. They honor Ares nantly female and matrilineal society, but as their ancestor and Artemis. For breed- admit that Amazonism and lesbianism are ing purposes they live during two months distinct phenomena, however they may of the spring with a neighboring people. coincide in time and space. The male children are killed (or rendered Warren Johansson unfit for military service or returned to the fathers).The girls are brought up as warri- ors; they remain virgins until they have AMERICANINDFANS slain three foes. Their weapons are bow See Indians, American. and arrow and a sword hanging from a band that runs over the breast; they are mostly mounted. In their genealogies they do not count the father. The major sources of this The anus is the posterior opening legend are Didorus Siculus and the geogra- of the alimentary canal. The actual closing pher Strabo of Alexandria. Herodotus and opening is effected by a muscle known connects the Amazons with the Scythians as the sphincter, beyond which lies the and makes the Sauromates (Sarmatians) rectum, leading to the sigrnoid colon. For descend from them. There is a pseudo- many in our society, the anus is either a etymology that derives the name from a- neutral part of the body, or one that can privative and mazos, "breast," with the induce pain, through hemorrhoids or other explanation that they cut off one of their disfunctions. While a majority of the popu- breasts so as better to aim their arrows; the lation seems to have experimented in some artistic depictions of them always show way with anal stimulation, many decline both breasts. to practice anal sex regularly, whether The legend is sometimes inter- heterosexually, homosexually, or au- pretedas theechoof historiccombatswith toerotically. It has been asserted that this matriarchal Asiatic tribes combined with reluctance reflects deep-seated cultural fairy tale motifs such as the abduction of taboos, which is undoubtedly part of the women. The Amazons were a favorite explanation for avoidance. It is also likely, theme of ancient art and sculpture; par- however, that many people simply find ti

duction of some inert but flexible imple- wall of the colon, which includes the anus ment, such as a dildo. In all these practices and the rectum). In the case of dildos and lubrication of the inserting agent is re- other anal toys, care must be taken that quired. In older writings penile penetra- they are not inflexible, contain sharp tion of the anus is sometimes termed angles, or are provided with internal wires pedication (from the Latin pedico), not to that could emerge and tear the lining of the be confused with pederasty. The most passageway. No small objects that are common positions for penile penetration capable of being "lost" should be inserted. are standing, with the receptive partner Dildoes should be carefully washed before usually bending forward; lying, with both use, especially if shared. Finally, engaging partners prone, the penetrator reclining in such activities while under the influ- with his abdomen on the receptor's back; ence of drugs is doubly risky. As a general and lying, with the receptive partner su- rule, the riskier the activity, the fewer pine on his back with his legs drawn up chemicals are advisable. against the other's chest so that the two Popular perception holds that in are face to face. In this last position the anal sex only the insertor derives pleasure, seeming discomfort is balanced by the while the receiving partner simply agrees resultant elevation of the anal opening, to bear it to please his or her partner. If this facilitating entry, and the ease of kissing. were the case, autoerotic stimulation Anonpenilevariant, apparently introduced would not be practiced. In fact the walls of relatively recently in our society, is fisting the lower alimentary canal are lined with or handballing. In this practice the hand, nerve endings, or proprioceptors, which with nails carefully trimmed, is the insert- transmit the pleasurable sensations. In the ing implement. Because of the danger of male, stimulation of the prostate is often puncturing the colon, which may lead to found to be enjoyable, and may lead to fatal peritonitis, fisting should be avoided. ejaculation on the part of the receptor. Folk belief holds that in male Historical Aspects. Descriptions couples practicing anal intercourse one, of homosexual anal copulation are abun- the "active" partner, will aways take the dant from ancient Greece. In Greek soci- insertor role, while the other, the "pas- ety, as to a large extent in traditional sive" partner, will always be the pene- China, Japan, and Islam, the practice was . tratee. Surveys show that this role polari- agegraded, with the older man penetrating zation is not in fact common in advanced his adolescent partner. Adult men who industrial countries such as the United took the insertee role tended to be scorned. States, though it lingers in Latin America Among the North American Indians the and among prison populations. berdache commonly was the receptor in Recent medical studies have in- anal intercourse. In medieval and early dicated that use of a condom is indispen- modem British texts, anal copulation is sable in anal intercourse. For the receptive sometimes termed buggery or sodomy, but partner unprotected anal copulation with these terms are confusing as they can also an infected companion has been shown to refer to other forbidden modes of sexual be a high-risk practice for Acquired Im- gratification such as bestiality and oral- mune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS].This penile sex, which were also subject to risk may be primarily due to the fact that criminal sanctions. Some of the concep- the rectal mucosa is easily torn, with re- tual confusion is probably grounded in the sultant bleeding and access of AIDS-virus- horror that the practices engendered, inas- infected sperm to the receptive partner's much as they were associated in the popu- bloodstream. Moreover, it is possible that lar mind with diabolism, heresy, and un- the virus may directly infect the cells of cleanness in general. In the view of some, the colonic mucosa (the inner lining or these acts were crimes that could not even 9 ANALSEX be named, at least in the vernacular. In (such as the church). State power has fre- more recent legal texts the two major quently been used to persecute homosexu- crimindized practices are commonly des- als: thus homosexuals and anarchists have ignated more precisely by the Latin terms often shared a common enemy. Anarchism "per as" (oral] and "per anum." Modern as a philosophy and as a movement has methods of sanitation, and the influences offered legitimation to homosexuals and of other cultures, made the Anglo-Saxon homosexuals have contributed much to world more tolerant of anal sex in the anarchism. twentieth century. Forerunners. Etienne de la Boktie From early times anal copulation (1530-1563) and William Godwin has also been practiced heterosexually, (1756-1836) wrote two proto-anarchist the male penetrating the female. This has classics. BoCtiels Discours de la servitude been done mainly for contraceptive rea- voluntaire (1552-53) (translated as The sons, though some men also hold that it is Politics of Obedience and as 'The Will to more pleasurable because the anal sphinc- Bondage] is still read by anarchists. Mon- ter is tighter than the vulva. Recently, taigne dedicated his essay on friendship to some heterosexual men have discovered Boetie after the young man's death. that dildo stimulation by their female William Godwin's Inquiry Con- partner produces a pleasant sensation in cerning Political Justice (17931provided a the prostate. philosophy for his circle which included Mary Wollstonecraft (his wife), Mary BIBLIOGRAPHY. Morin, Jack Anal Wollstonecraft Shelley, and Percy Bysshe Pleasure and Health: A Guide for Men and Women, 2nd ed., Burlingame, CA: Shelley (who translated Plato's Sympo- Yes Press, 1986. sium); another daughter of Godwin's bore Ward Houser a child of Byron's. Their whole circle devi- ated wildly from conventional sexual stan- ANARCHISM dards. Among the followers of Godwin's The Russian thinker Peter Kro- philosophy was Oscar Wilde. potkin 11 842-1 921) defined anarchism as Diffusion of Anarchism. Pierre- "a principle or theory of life and conduct Joseph Proudhon (1809-1865) first used under which society is conceived without the term anarchie to designate a political gov&nment-harmony in such a society philosophy (ratherthan a form of disorder); beirig obtained, not by submission to law, like his famous "property is theft," or by obedience to any authority, but by Proudhon's anarchism challenged conven- free agreements concluded between the tion. His De la Justice duns la Rkvolution various groups, territorial and professional, et duns I'Eglise (1858; untranslated] cele- freely constituted for the sake of produc- brated the Greeks and denounced the tion and consumption, as also for the sat- Roman Catholic Church. He interpreted isfaction of the infinite variety of needs Anacreon's poems as gay and praised So- and aspirations of a civilized being." While crates for his linkwith Alcibiades. "We all anarchists agree in abhorrence of govem- want to see," he wrote, "to caress attrac- ment, there are many schools of anar- tive young boys. Pederasty comes not so chism, with some emphasizing the rights much from lack of marriage bed as from a of private property and individualism (lib- hazy yearning for masculine beauty." ertarianismj, others the necessity for vol- Max Sther's individualist classic untary cooperation and community self- Der Einzige und sein Eigentum (1845; The control. Ego and His Own] awakens a cry of recog- Anarchists agree in opposing the nition in every lesbian or homosexualwho regulation of sexual behavior by govem- has ever felt she or he was the only one. ments and other powerful organizations The boy-lover John Henry Mackay ANARCHISM 9

(1864-19331, who wrote widely on both Socialism in 1891, Wilde signed petitions pederastic (under the pseudonym "Sag- for the Haymarket Martyrs (1886) and ittal,) and anarchist topics, prepared the publicly identified himself as an anarchist. first (and only] biography of Stirner in ThomasBell, agay secretary of FrankHarris 1898. and a trick of Wilde's, has written a book MikhailBakunin(l814-1876)and on Wilde's anarchism, available only in Sergei Nechaev (1847-1882) are the most Portuguese. famous anarchist pair of friends. After During the Third Republic leaving Russia, Bakunin agitated across (1871-19401, Paris became a center for Europe in the revolutions of 1848, was those celebrating their political, artistic, captured, shipped to Siberia, escaped (via and sexual unorthodoxy. Stuart Merrill San Francisco, London, New York, and (who had met Walt Whitman] wrote Paris] and played a major role in organizing Symbolist poems and supported the anar- the First International (a federation of chist paper Les Temps Nouveaux. Apolli- working-class political organizations, naire's sexuality was as boundaryless as 1864-76 1, where he engaged in a prolonged his poetry, his nationality, and his politics. struggle with Karl Marx. Using a word The Surrealists have a real but unclear tie learned in San Francisco, Bakunin nick- to anarchism and to homosexuality, but named Nechaev "boy." George Woodcock they welcomed Sade, Lautr&unont, and maintains that the fascination that Jean Lorain into their pantheon. Nechaev "wielded over Bakunin reminds In Spain during the Civil War one of. . . Rimbaud and Verlaine, or Lord (1936-39), anarchists fought against both Alfred Douglas and Oscar Wilde" (Anar- the fascists and the communists, and for a chism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and time dominated large areas of the country. Movements, New York: Meridian, 1962). Many gay men and lesbiansvolunteered to Karl Marx and Frederick Engels fight in the war, while others worked as had a personal disgust for homosexuality ambulance drivers and medics. Jean Genet, (Engelstold Marx to be grateful that they who was in Barcelona in 1933, described a were too old to attract homosexuals]. Marx demonstration of queens ("Carolinas") published full-length diatribes against after their favorite pissoir fell in a battle: Proudhon, Stirner, and Bakunin. He used "in shawls, mantillas, silk dresses and Bakunin's relationship to Nechaev as an fitted jackets" they deposited on the fallen excuse for expelling the anarchists from urinal "a bunch of red roses tied together the International in 1872. Lenin later with a crepe veil." denounced anarchists as politically "in- American and Contemporary De- fantile," just as Freudians argued that velopments. In the United States, Emma homosexuality was an arrested infantile Goldman (1869-1 940)and AlexanderBerk- (or adolescent] development. man (1870-19361 both supported homo- In the late nineteenth and early sexual freedom. Goldman herself preferred twentieth centuries, anarchism became passive cunnilingus with either a man or popular among painters, poets, and bohe- woman to other forms of sexual inter- mians as it likewise spread among workers course. She is unquestionably the first and farmers in Italy, Spain, Greece, and person to lecture publicly in the United other countries where homosexuality was States on homosexual emancipation; she less persecuted than in Germany, Eng- firmly supported Wilde against his perse- land, and the United States. In England, cutors. Berkman wrote appreciatively in Oscar Wilde went to prison for his "love his Prison Memoirs (1912) of men who that dare not speak his name," but his loved men. Whether from choice or neces- anarchist leanings are less publicized. sity, anarchists have written extensively Besides writing the Soul of Man Under against prisons and in favor of prisoners, 4 ANARCHISM many of whom either from choice or ne- gay anarchists, S/M groups, gay atheists, cessity have experienced prison homosexu- NAMBLA, Fag Rag and others all marched ality. William Godwin opposed punish- together with banners as individual ment of any kind and all anarchists have members drifted back and forth between opposed any enforced sexuality. all the groups. Among the American anarchists, Enlivened by the nascent French Paul Goodman wrote prolifically on anar- gay liberation movement, Daniel GuCrin chism and homosexuality. Robert Duncan (1904-1988) showed the interconnections published his 1944 essay on homosexual- between Homosemaliti et rivolution ity in Politics, an anarchist publication, (Paris: Le Vent du Ch'min, 1983); GuCrin and he first met Jack Spicer at an anarchist also advanced the notion that interclass meeting. Goodman, Duncan, and Spicer homosexuality promoted revolutionary had reservations about the Mattachme So- consciousness. In 1929 he wrote a novel, ciety because of its conservative positions La vie selon la chair (LifeAccording to the during the late fifties and early sixties. Flesh), in which he mocks the apostle While not always formally recog- Paul; in 1983 (in an article in Gai Pied) he nized, much of the protest of the sixties attacked a Communist party official and was anarchist. Within thenascentwomen's poet who publicly denounced homosexu- movement, anarchist principles bcame so ality but privately maintained a harem of widespread that a political science profes- boys. sor denounced what she saw as "The A major question is whether Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several homosexuals are inherently attracted to groups have called themselves "Amazon anarchism or whether homosexuals have Anarchists." After the Stonewall Rebel- been equally attracted to democracy, lion, the New York Gay Liberation Front communism, fascism, monarchy, nation- based their organization in part on a read- alism or capitalism. Because of the se- ing of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writ- crecy, no one can ever figure what percent- ings. The Living Theater embodied many age of homosexuals are anarchists andwhat of the countercultural drives of the sixties. percentage of anarchists are homosexual. Julian Beck, who directed the group with But only among anarchists has there been his wife, Judith Malina (both active in a consistent commitment, rooted in basic anarehist organizations), had a male lover; principles of the philosophy, to build a the theater collective included people of society in which every person is free to every gender and sexual orientation. express hirn- or herself sexually in every During theseventies, Tom Reeves way. and Brett Portman were active both as Charley Shively anarchists and as homosexuals. Ian Young of the Catalyst Press in Toronto combined poetry and anarchism in his speeches and ANDEANCULTURES writing. In New York, Mark Sullivan ed- The northwestern coast of South ited the gay anarchist magazine Storm and Americawasnotoriousfor "shameless and organized the John Henry Mackay Society, open sodomy" according to the chroni- which has undertaken publication of clers of the Inca and Spanish conquests Mackay's out-of-print works. Both anar- (fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, respec- chists and gays can be found in the Punk tively]. The Inca empire and those con- Rock movement. Since many anarchists quered by and absorbed into it lacked do not really believe in organizations, they writing, so that what is known about ear- can often be as hard to identlfy as homo- lier societies derives hom chronicles of sexuals once were. During the early eight- the conquerors' conquerors, supplemented ies at the New York Gay Pride marches, by archeological and linguistic evidence. ANDEAN CULTURES 4

Chroniclers' Reports. The con- especially since Garcilaso could not have quistador historian Pedro de Cieza de known directly what words were in com- Le6n1s Chronicle, written between 1539 mon use more than a century before. and 1553, mentions that Guayaquil men Attributions of sodomy to par- "pride themselves greatly on sodomy." ticular tribes or areas conquered by Inca Continuing south, Cieza recorded cross- armies are more reliable than the resem- dressing males on the island of Puna, re- blances Garcilaso adduced between Catho- ported that both there and on the main- lic and Inca ideology. The practice of sod- land (Tumbezor Puerto Viejo)sodomy was omy was not attributed to all conquered rife, andrelatedaMantamyth of the origin tribes, and open practice of sodomy was of an all-male world. Cieza reported per- attributed to still fewer, so charges of sonally punishingmale temple prostitutes sodomy do not appear to be a general in Chincha (south of modem Lima near purpose rationale for Inca conquests. One Pisco on the coast) and in Conchucos (near should not assume that sodomy only oc- Hulnuco in a highland valley]. The Incas curred in the areas in which explicit and other mountain peoples (serranos), mention is made, but can accept that it specifically including the Colla (Aymara) wasrecognizedrather than invented in the and Tarma, he judged free of the nefarious areas for which mention was made. The sins so common on the coast, especially in tenth Inca, Capac Yupanqui, who reigned what had been the Chimu empire, con- from 1471 to 1493, vigorously persecuted quered by the Incas less than a half century sodomites, according to Garcilaso. His before the arrival of the Spaniards. (Pedro general Auqui Tatu burned alive in the Pizarro is the only chronicler who claimed public square all those for whom there was that Cusco's nobility ever engaged in sod- even circumstantial evidence of sodomy omy--during times of drunken celebra- in the [Hlacari valley (south of Nazca), tions in the precincts of Inca gravesites or threatening to burn down whole towns if huecos. J anyone else engaged in sodomy. Again in Half a century later Garcilaso de Chincha, Yupanqui burned alive large la Vega in his Comentarios reales (written numbers, pulling down their houses and between 1586 and 1612 and drawing on any trees they had planted. Unlike Cieza, oral history from his Inca relatives and Garcilaso attributed sodomy to theTarma considerable invention of his own) aimed and Pumpu, but followed Cieza in men- to show the virtuousness in Christian tioning the notorious and (embarrassingly] terms of Inca society. Counter-Reforma- serrano sodomites of Callej6n de Huaylas. tion Catholicism and the Inca theocracy CapacYupanquils son, Huayna Capac, who apparently concurred in their abhorrence reigned from 1493 to 1525, appears to have of sodomy and attempts to extirpate sodo- been less zealous in attempting to extir- mites. Speaking of coastal peoples (Yun- pate sodomy from the lands he added to gas), Garcilaso wrote that before Inca the Inca empire. He merely "bade" the conquest they had prostitutes available for people of Tumbez to give up sodomy. sodomy "in their temples, because the Garcilaso did not record any measures Devil persuaded them that their gods de- taken against the Manta, who he said lighted in such people." Clearly there was "practiced sodomy more openly and a sacred role for sodomites in the coastal shamelessly than all the other tribes." tribes the Incas conquered. In contrast, The giants of Santa Elena, whose sodomy was "so hated by the Incas and legend fascinated the conquistadors, also their people that the very name was odious purportedly practiced open/public sodomy. to them and they never uttered it." This According to Garcilaso, this all-male race formulation seems to be a projection of was destroyed in a fire while everyone was "the sin not named among Christians," engaged in a society-wide orgy of sodomy. 9 ANDEAN CULTURES

This legend is clearly a parallel to that of University of Texas Press, 1966; Stephen the destruction of Sodom. In the ,indige- 0. Murray, ed., Male Homosexuality in nous myth "a youth shining like the sun" Central and South America, New York: Gay Academic Union, 1987 (Gai Saber descended from the sky and fought against Monograph 5);Pedro Pizarm, Relaci6n the oppressors of the Indians, throwing del descubrirniento y conquista de 10s flames that drove them into a valley where Reinos del Penf, Lima: Pontificia they were all finally killed, and where Universidad Catblica, 1986; John H. what were believed to be their bones were Rowe, "The Kingdom of Chimor," Acta Americana, 6 (1948),26-59; Augustin de found by a Spanish captain in 1543 (Ziratej. =rate, The Discovery and Conquest of Other Evidence. In addition to Peru, London: Penguin, 1968. mention of sodomy in the chronicles, Stephen 0. Munay archeological excavations have produced evidence of coastal homosexuality, espe- cially Mochica ceramics. Modern anthro- ANDERSEN,HANS pologists have also attributed tolerance for CHRISTIAN(1805-1 875) male and female homosexuality to the Danish writer of fairy tales. The modem Aymara on the basis of vocabulary son of a shoemaker and an almost illiterate relating to masculine women, effeminate mother, Andersen came to Copenhagen at (castrated?]men, and fellatio in an early the age of 14, and there found protectors seventeenth century dictionary. Although who sent him to grammar school and then there are no reports of homosexual behav- to University. His fame rests upon the 168 ior or roles among the contemporary fairy tales and stories which he wrote Aymara, most of the vocabulary has sur- between 1835 and 1872. Some of the very vived (Murray). first became children's classics from the South of what was the southern moment of their appearance; the tales have end of the Inca Empire (and south of the since been translated into more than a modem Chilean capital of Santiago], so- hundred languages. Some are almost child- cially respected third gender (gender-cross- like in their simplicity; others are so subtle ing homosexual) shamans have been re- and sophisticated that they can be prop- ported among the Araucanians from the erly appreciated only by adults. report of "the happy captive," Nlifiez de A lifelong bachelor, Andersen PXeda, in 1646 through fieldwork done in traveled extensively in almost every coun- thgearly 1950s (Murray).Hardly anything try in Europe. He considered Italy his sec- is known about the social structures and ond homeland, but his ties with German cosmologiesof the indigenous peoples who culture were much closer. He developed lived between the Aymara and the Arau- an intense affection for Edvard Collin that canians (such as the Atacameno, Chango, peaked in the years 183546, when he Lipe and the Chilean Diaguita), whose wrote a letter to Collin asserting that "Our cultures did not survive for twentieth- friendship is like 'The MysteriesI1itshould century fieldwork, and whose populations not be analyzed." To describe his feelings werenot as large and concentrated as those for Collin he used expressions like "my on the northwest coast of South America. half-womanliness," "as tender as awoman Late marriage ages for the Argentine Di- in my feelings," "I long for you as though aguita probably indicate elaborate initia- you were a beautiful Calabrian girl," and tion rites, but nothing is known of their "The almost girlish in my nature." The content, homosexual or otherwise. lettersreflect the farthest acceptable limit to which a tender friendship between two BIBLIOGRAPHY. Pedro Cieza de Lebn, males could extend at that time. Collin The Incas, Norman: University of himself did not reciprocate the affection, Oklahoma Press, 1959; Garcilaso de la Vega, The Royal Commentaries, Austin: and after Andersen's death he wrote that ANDERSON, MARGARET 9 his inability to do so "must have inflicted beyond I may be reunited with the one to suffering on a man of Andersen's nature." whomIgave my whole heart." The "Little In the novel O.T., written in the Mermaid" was thus a monument to his autumn of 1835, Andersen seems to have unconsummated friendship with Edvard attempted to escape his frustrations in the Collin, which still probably rested upon relationship with Collin by describing a his homosexual love for a heterosexual tender friendship between two students, who had no way of returning it. Thus if one of whom consents to intimacy with Andersen was not an "overt homosexual" the other and joins him on a long trip in the modern sense, he seems to have abroad. His own feminine qualities are been aware of his orientation and the in- transferred to the character modeled on soluble conflict with nineteenth-century Collin, while his alter ego is a capable and sexual morality that it entailed. wealthy student who nevertheless has a self-perception as a deviant and stigma- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wilhelm von Rosen, "Venskabets mysterier" [Mysteries of tized person-to a far greater degree than Friendship], Anderseniono, 3d ser., 3:3 warranted by his actual social background [1980], 167-214 [with English summary]. and by the attitudes of the people sur- Warren Johansson rounding him. An attempt has been made to deny Andersen's homosexuality with ref- ANDERSON,MARGARET erence to the fact that the concept ap- (1886-1373) peared only late in his lifetime, yet a cru- American publisher, editor, and cial component of the homosexual "iden- memoirist. With her lover Jane Heap, tity," particularly after the trial of Oscar Anderson edited the Little Review in New Wilde in 1895, was the feeling of member- York (1915-27), which-despite its tiny ship in a stigmatized and ostracized mi- circulation-was one of the best literary nority. While it is impossible to look into journals of the time. Under the banner of the mind of the novelist to determine "Life for Art's sake," she charted a course whether he understood that the physical of "applied Anarchism, whose policy is a consummation of his passion was socially Will to Splendor of Life." With Ezra Pound unacceptable, it is remarkable that the as its foreign editor, the magazine pub- villain of the novel uses the secret of the lished James Joyce's Ulysses in install- hero's (Andersen's] childhood for black- ments. In July 1920, however, a reader mail-a Damocles' sword over the head of complained about a section of the novel every homosexual in those days-and is containing Leopold Bloom's erotic mus- made to drown "accidentally" on the last ings. The editors were arrested but, un- page of the work. It has also been specu- daunted, they continued with the series. lated that the the fairy tale "The Little Later when she had moved to Paris with Mermaid," completed in January 1837, is the magazine, Anderson concluded that based on Andersen's self-identification Pound was lacking in understanding for with a sexless creature with a fish's tail women, especially lesbians. Clearly the who tragically loves a handsome prince, 1 continuing success of the Little Review but instead of saving her own future as a depended on the close bond between mermaid by killing the prince and his Anderson and Heap. As Anderson later bride sacrifices herself and commits sui- remarked, "my greatest ambition in [the cide-another theme of early homosexual magazine] was to capture her talk, her apologetic literature. In lines deleted from ideas. As she used to say, I pushed her into the draft of the story, the mermaid is al- the arena and she performed to keep me lowed to say: "I myself shall strive to win quiet." an immortal soul . . . so that in the world 4 ANDERSON, MARGARET

In France Anderson and Heap- what we would now call the heterosexual. together with Heap's ward Fritz Peters, Other ancient writers use the term to refer who later became a homosexual novel- to an anatomical intermediate between ist-became adherents of the mystic the two genders, synonymous with her- GeorgeIvanovich Gurdjieff, who was then maphroditos. From this practice stems at the height of his influence. Anderson the modern conflation of the meaning of spent most of her later years in semi- the two terms, which is unlikely to disap- seclusion in London, where she wrote her pear. memoirs, which are an important source Basic Concepts. Modern lan- for the literary history of the period. guages use "androgynous" in a variety of senses. First, identifying it with the her- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Margaret Anderson, maphrodite category, it may denote a 7'he Piezy Pountains, New York: Hermitage House, 1930; idem, My somatic intermediate. In fact, the pure Thirty Years' War, New York: Covici type with fully developed genitals of both Friede, 1930; idem, The Strange sexes is clinically so rare as to be virtually Necessity, New York: Horizon, 1970; nonexistent in the human species. The Hugh Ford, Pour Lives in Paris. San individuals known as [pseudo-)hermaph- Francisco: North Point Press, 1987, pp. 227-86. rodites generally haveincompletely formed Evelyn Gettone genitals of one of their two sexes or both. That is to say, an individual may have a fully formedvaginatogetherwithastunted, ANDROGYNY unfunctioning penis, or a well developed An androgynous individual is one penis with a shallow, nonuterine vagina. who has the characteristics of both sexes. Of course, in the plant and animal king- Ideally, this quality should be distinguished doms there are many fully hermaphroditic from hermaphroditism in the strict sense, species that are androgynous in this sense. whereby the fusion of male and female is Secondly, nineteenth-century writers ex- anatomically expressed through the pres- tended the physiological concept to apply ence, or partial presence, of both sets of to those whose genitals are clearly of one genital organs. There is a tendency to sex but whose psychic orientation is expe- consider androgyny primarily psychic and rienced as primarily of the other: Karl constitutional, while hermaphroditism is Heinrich Ulrichs' "female soul trapped in anatomical. In this perspective most [psy- a male body." Since Ulrichs and others chic)androgynes are not strictly hermaph- were primarily interested in same-sex rodites in that anatomically they are no behavior, the term often carries the conno- different from other men andwomen; some tation of "homosexual," even though such hermaphrodites may not be androgynous, usage begs severalquestions. Thirdly, with that is to say, despite their surplus organ reference to male human beings "androgy- endowment, they behave in an essentially nous" implies effeminacy. Logically, it masculine or feminine way. should then mean "viraginous, mas- The term androgyne stems from culinized" when applied to women, but the Greek androgynos, "man-woman." this parallel is rarely drawn. Thus there is The famous myth recounted in Plato's anunanalyzed tendency to regard androgy- Symposium presents three primordial nization as essentially a process of soften- double beings: the man-man, the woman- ing or mitigating maleness. Stereotypi- woman, and the man-woman. The first cally, the androgyne is a half-man or in- two are the archetypes of the male homo- complete male. sexual and lesbian respectively; the third, In addition to these relatively the androgynos, is-paradoxically from specific usages there is a kind of semantic the modem point of view-the source of halo effect, whereby androgyny is taken to ANDROGYNY 9 refer to a more all-encompassing realm. able influence on Symbolism in the visual Significantly, in this broader, almost arts . mystical sense the negative connotations In the twentieth century the fall away, and androgyny may even be a psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1 96 1) prized quality. For example the figures in was preoccupied with androgyny, which the Renaissance paintings of Botticelli and he illustrated through his ingenious, but Leonardo are sometimes admired for their eccentric interpretations of alchemical androgynous beauty. It comes as no sur- imagery. Some of his followers have sug- prise that these aspects of the artists were gested that androgyny is a way of overcom- first emphasized by homosexual art critics ing dualism and regaining a primal unity; of the nineteenth century. the half-beings of man and woman as we Permutations of theAndrogynous know them must yield to the complete Ideal. Cross-cultural material bearing on man-woman. Thus androgyny points the androgyny is very extensive, especially in way to a return to the Golden Age, an era the religious sphere. InHinduism and some of harmony unmarred by the conflict and African religions there are male gods who dissension of today which are rooted in an have female manifestations or avatars. A unnatural polarization. strand of Jewish medieval interpretation Contemporary Perspectives. In of Genesis holds that Adam and Eve were the field of academic psychology, the re- androgynous before the Fall. If this be the searches of Sandra L. Bem and others have case, God himself must be androgynous sought to present empirical evidence that since he made man "in his own image." the androgynous individual enjoys better Working from different premises, medie- mental health and can function better val Christian mystics found that the socially. Significantly, it is usually "an- compassion of Christ required that he be drogynous" women who score higher on conceived of as a mother. Jakob Bohme such psychological tests than men. Thus (1575-1624), the German seer, held that these findings may be an artefact of the all perfect beings, Christ as well as the strategic situation in which a career- angels, were androgynous. Heforesaw that minded women finds herself: to succeed in ultimately Christ's sacrifice would make a male-defined professional world an possible arestoration of the primal androg- ambitious woman will find it expedient to yny. Contemporaneously, the occult dis- incorporate some male qualities. cipline of alchemy presented androgyny as The androgynous ideal had con- a basic cosmic feature. siderable appeal for feminist and homo- After a period of neglect, interest sexual thinkers in the 1970s. It was in the theme resurfaced among the Ger- pointed out, no doubt correctly, that the man romantics. Franz von Baader straitjacket of the masculine role tended (1765-1841), who interpreted the sacra- to keep men from expressing their feel- ment of marriage as a symbolic restitution ings, as through kissing or crying. Men can of angelic bisexuality, believed that pri- practice a wider range of expressiveness, mordial androgyny would return as the and therefore lead more satisfying lives, if world neared its end. In France the eccen- they will discard the extreme polarization tric Evadist (Eve W AdamJ thinkers advo- inherent in the traditional masculine cated the equality of man and woman; one role. Science fiction writings, notably the of their leaders, Ganneau, styled himself Left Hand of Darkness (1969) by Ursula Mapah. The occultist and decadent writer LeGuin, explored what complete androg- Josephin PCladan (1858-19183 was a tire- yny might mean. In popular culture there less propagandist for androgyny; through was a kind of "androgyne chic," as exem- his Rose + Croix society he had a consider- plified by such rock stars as David Bowie and Boy George. 4 ANDROGYNY

As the initial enthusiasm cooled, gloss over the fact that it was pre- however, it was perceived that, applied to dominantly pederastic (though not pedo- present day society, the androgynous ideal phile in the narrow sense of attraction to might lead to a disregard of the inherent prepubertal boys). strengths of male and female, whether In the early years of the present these be culturally or biologically deter- century, the great German sexologist mined. Thus some feminist thinkers to- Magnus Hirschfeld offered a three-fold day emphasize nurturing and cooperative classification of homosexuals: (1) ephe- behavior as distinctive and desirable fe- bophiles, who prefer partners from pu- male traits. Despite some exaggerations, berty to the early twenties (in current recent discussions have had the merit of usage, from about 17 to about 20); (2) helping bring into question earlier popular androphiles, who love men from that age negativedismissals of androgyny, promot- into the fifties; and (3)gerontophiles, who ing a more supple concept of the relation seek out old men. between sex roles and gender. Contemplating this scheme from the standpoint of an individual of, say, BIBL1OGRAPHY. Sehnsucht thirty years of age, it is evident that the nach Vollkommenheit, Berlin: Reimer, 1986; Sandra L. Bem, "The Measure- first and third categories of sex object ment of Psychological Androgyny," constitute differentiation, the second rela- Iournal of Counseling and Clinical tive similarity. Psychology, 42 (1974), 155-67; Mircea The shift to dominance of andro- Eliade, Mephistopheles and the philia, in which the two partners are of Androgyne, New York: Harper and Row, L. S. A. M. R(imer, t,Ueber die comparable age, occurs only with the rise androgynische Idee des Lebens," of industrial society in Europe and North Iahrbuch fiir sexueUe Zwischenstufen, 5 America in the eighteenth and nineteenth (19031, 709-940: June Singer, Androg- centuries; in Mediterranean countries the yny: Toward a New of Sexuofit~, shift remains incomplete, and in much of Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/ Doubleday, 1976. the world has barely begun or has not Wayne R. Dynes occurred at all. Attempts at explaining the new homosexual pattern include keying it to a ANDROPHILIA change in heterosexual marriage, which This rarely used term serves to led the way by becoming more compan- focus attentionon thosehomosexuals who ionate and less asymmetrical; to the rise of are exclusively interested in adult part- the democratic ideal; to demographic ners rather than adolescents and children. changes such as increased life expectan- In our society such a focus would seem cies; and to changes in the social treat- self-explanatory, inherent in the defini- ment of youth which made the young less tion of homosexuality itself. Yet in other available as sexual partners. Nevertheless, societies, such as ancient Greece, China, the dynamics behind this fundamental and Islam, and in many tribal groups, age- transition remain historically mysterious, graded differences were or are the norm in a major challenge to any attempt to draw same-sex conduct in contradistinction up a reasonably comprehensive history of with androphilia, which is most familiar homosexuality. to us. Because of the prevalence of andro- Wayne R. Dynes philia in modem Western culture, its as- sumptions are sometimes unwittingly or deliberately imported into other settings; ANGLICANISM some discussions of homosexual behavior Anglicanism, or Episcopalianism in creece,for example, tend to as it is also termed, is a worldwide Chris- tian religious fellowship, stemming from 58 .....'....*.;>. . ANGLICANISM 9 the state-supported Church of England. was a member of the Church of England's Generally regarded as a form of Protestant- Moral Welfare Council, the predecessor of ism, Anglicanism (especially in its High the Board for Social Responsibility. This Church variety) may also claim to repre- work of these bodies was part of the back- sent a third path between Catholicism and ground of the successful decriminaliza- Protestantism in the strict sense. tion of male homosexuality in Britain and The Church of England and Wales in 1967, a legal change strongly homosexuality began on an antagonistic supported by the archbishop of Canter- footing, stemming not only from the in- bury, Michael Ramsey. At the pastoral herited homophobia of Christianity as a level, Anglican clergy offered counseling whole, but from the reformers' polemical and support to British gay people. In 1979 critique of Catholic monasteries as dens of a Board for Social Responsibility working corruption and sexual indulgence. It has party, chaired by the bishop of Gloucester, also been argued, though the matter is produced Homosexual Relationships, a disputed, that Henry VIII's law of 1533 on report that acknowledged the possibility buggery was linked to his "smear cam- of permanent gay relationships. The ap- paign" against the monasteries. In ensuing pearance of the report was indicative of a centuries it was a commonplace of English new atmosphere in which many homo- antihomosexual propaganda to attribute sexuals in the church felt free to proclaim the presenceof sodomy to the complaisant their identity. customs of Catholic Europe, whence the Yet counterforces were gather- infection is supposed to have spread to the ing. A new breed of militant evangelical- otherwise untainted British Isles. Several ism regarded homosexual behavior as a notable scandals, including those of John corrupting influence. This kind of reli- Atherton, Bishop of Waterford and Lis- gious intolerance accorded with the rise of more (1640],Reverend John Fenwick ( 17971, Margaret Thatcher within the Conserva- ReverendV. P. Littlehales (1812) andPercy tive Party and the growth of New Right Jocelyn, bishop of Clogher (18221, show economic and political ideas. Local coun- that members of the Anglican clergy were cils in Britain's cities that were seeking to by no means exempt from the "vice." promote positive images of gay people In the latter decades of the nine- came under heavy attack from the right teenth century a more comfortable rela- and from the tabloid press. In this context tionship developed, at least de facto, be- the 1987 General Synod was presented tween homosexuals and the Church of with a motion by Tony Higton, leader of England. This rapprochement was due to the Alliance for Biblical Witness to Our the High Church or Oxford movement, Nation, calling in effect for the removal of which favored an aesthetic approach to "practicing" gay clergy. Although thereso- religious ceremonial. This atmosphere lution was rejected in favor of a compro- appealed to homosexual aesthetes, who mise one, no serious theological debate were welcomed, as long as discretion was took place. The popular press seized the observed, to the churches practicing the occasion to run stories under such head- High Church liturgy. Conversely, adher- lines as "Holy Homos Escape Ban" and ents of the opposing faction, the Broad "Pulpit Poofs Can Stay." Under these cir- Church, were tempted to pillory their ritu- cumstances Anglican gay clergy felt in- alist opponents as sissies or worse. timidated. Then in May of 1988 the Les- In 1955 Canon D. S. Bailey's book bian and Gay Christian Movement was Homosexuality and the Western Chris- evicted from its home in St. Botolph's tian Tradition appeared, influencing both church in London, where it had been lo- secular and ecclesiastical thinking. Bailey cated since 1976. O ANGLICANISM

Gay Anglicans have fared better darling. While the Old English word had a in the United States. In the era of gay general sense of a beloved person or thing, liberation, the lay Episcopal group Integ- it was also used more specifically to label rity was formed, encounteringthe benevo- a minion, a youth favored because of his lent support of many Anglican clerics. In sexual attractiveness. 1976 the General Convention of the Prot- At the present stage of research estant Episcopal Church in the U.S.A. further data about homosexual behavior passed a resolution stating that "homo- in Anglo-Saxon times (that is, from ca. 500 sexual persons are children of God, who to 1066) remains elusive. For its part, have a full and equal claim with all other however, the word baeddel survived, turn- persons upon the love, acceptance, and ing eventually-through a process of pastoral concern and care of the Church." semantic expansion-into the general Reverend Paul Moore, bishop of New York, English adjective of pejoration, "bad." The has been outspoken in his defence of gay word also forms part of two place names in people, whom he has also ordained. To be England: Baddlesmere ["baeddells lake") sure, his positive attitude is not univer- in Kent and Baddlinghame ("the home of sally shared among American Episcopali- the baedlings"] in Cambridgeshire. ans, but on the whole their church has The broadening of the meaning of borne the stress of the age of AIDS with the word baeddel in the direction of gen- calmness and compassion eral desparagement ["bad"] has several historical parallels. The first, from another BIBLIOGRAPHY. David Hilliard, Germanic sphere, is the shift from old "'Unenglish and Unmanly': Anglo- Catholicism and Homosexuality," Scandinavian argr, cowardly, effeminate, Victorian Studies, 25 119821, 181-210; to modem German arg, bad, wicked. Then James Wickliff, ed., In Celebration, Oak early medieval France seems to have wit- Park, IL: Integrity, 1975. nessed the creation of felolfelonis, evil Wayne R. Dynes person (theetymon of our legal term felon) from Latin fellare, to fellate. It is also possible that Russian plokhoi, bad, is ANGLO-SAXONS cognate with Greekmalakos (withchange Our information about homosex- of the initial labial from m to p], as the ual behavior in Anglo-Saxon England is Polish plochy has the meaning of "timid, chiefly linguistic. The word baedling, a fearful," another of the nuances of argr. diminutive of baeddel, occurs in an Old English glossary as the equivalent of the Latin terms effeminatus and mollis, desig- nating the effeminate homosexual. A synonym is the word waepenwifstere ANIMALHOMOSEXUALITY A body of evidence has accumu- (approximately: "male wife"]. Evidently, lated showing homosexual behavior among these words reflect an Anglo-Saxon stere- many species of animals- behavior that otype of the homosexual as an unwarlike, has been observed both in the wild and in womanish type. In all likelihood, this captivity. While this evidence suffices to negative concept derives in part from a dispel the old belief that homosexuality is common Germanic archetype, attested by unknown among animals, more extended a passage in Germania (12)by the Roman comparisons with human homosexual historianTacitus-where death by drown- behavior remain problematic. ing is stipulated for such individuals--but Examples and Characteristic Pea- probably modified in the early Middle Ages tures. In the 1970s the well-publicized by Mediterranean-Christian influences. reports of the German ethologist Konrad Similar in form to baedling is deor- Lorenz drew attention to male-male pair ling, the source of the modern English ANIMAL HOMOSEXUALITY 4 bonds in greylag geese. Controlled reports possibleamonganimals, of course, but it is of "lesbian" behavior among birds, in very unlikely-and in any case there is - which two females share the responsibili- no way of studying an animal's con- ties of a single nest, have existed since sciousness except on the basis of its overt 1885. Mounting behavior has been ob- behavior. served among male lizards, monkeys, and Human homosexuality is a com- mountain goats. In some cases one male plex interaction of physiological response, bests the other incombat, andthenmounts socialpatterning, and individualconscious- his fellow, engaging in penile thrusts- ness. For many, homosexuality in human though rarely with intromission. In other subjects demands the complete suppres- instances, a submissive male will "pres- sion of the dialectic of sexual polarity-it ent" to a dominant one, by exhibiting his involves the masculine in the male seek- buttocks in a receptive manner. Mutual ing the masculine in another male, or the masturbation and fellatio have been ob- feminine in the female seeking the femi- served among male stump-tailed ma- nine in another female. It can be doubted caques. During oestrus female rhesus that homosexuality,by this definition, ever monkeys engage in mutual full-body rub- occurs in animals; the mechanisms that bing. trigger sexual arousal and activity would Those who have observed these not allow it. same-sex patterns in various species have In the light of this complexity, a noted, explicitly or implicitly, similarities simple identification of human homosex- with human behavior. It is vital, however, ual behavior with same-sex interactions not to elide differences. Mounting behav- among animals isreductive, andmay block ior may not be sexual, but an expression of or misdirect the search for an understand- social hierarchy: the dominant partner ing of the remaining mysteries of human reaffirms his superiority over the present- sexuality. Still, for those aspects to which ing one. In most cases where a sexual they have relevance, animal patterns of pairing does occur, one partner adopts the homosexual behavior help to place human characteristic behavior of the other sex. ones in a phylogenetic perspective-in While this behavioral inversion sometimes somewhat the same way as animal cries occurs in human homosexual conduct, it and calls have a relation to human lan- is by no means universal. Thus while (say) guage, and the structures built by birds and Roman homosexuality, which often in- beavers anticipate thefeatsof human archi- volved slaves submitting to their masters, tecture. may find its analogue among animals, ClassicalAntiquity andAnirnali- modern American androphilia largely does tarianisrn. The observational powers of not. This difference suggests that the cul- the Greeks encompassed the question of tural matrix is important. Human sexual same-sex behavior among animals, which behavior, whether heterosexual or homo- some affirmed and others denied. There sexual, has a vast expressive dimension were also folkloric beliefs, such as the which has both sociological (group) and notion that males of the partridge species psychological (individual) aspects. Cross- are so highly sexed that in the absence of cultural study reveals wide variations in females they readily assault each other the social organization of homosexual sexually. Early Christian writers associ- behavior. In the psychological realm, we ated theharewith pederasty because of the know of persons, such as some members of fantastic belief that it grows a new anus monastic orders, who-because of their each year. Moreradically, the hyena sym- erotic fantasy life-regard themselves as bolized gender ambiguity because it completely homophile yet have never had changed its sex each year. Finally, the a homosexual experience. Such a thing is weasel, which was supposed to conceive HOMOSEXUALITY

.r through the mouth, stood for the practice In statements by contemporary of fellatio. To be on the safe side, the antihomosexualpropagandists, itisreveal- author of the Epistle of Bamabas forbade ing that they will sometimes first insist eating the flesh of any of these creatures. that homosexuality must be unnatural, These "bad examples" from the since "even the lowest animals don't do animal kingdom, are exceptional andatypi- it," and then when confronted with ethol- pFcal. The contrasting notion that the con- ogical evidence to the contrary exclaim k'tzi . duct of animals is in key respects superior with outrage that same-sex relations drag 7. , -, to that of human beings, and therefore man down to thesubhumanlevel. "behav- ,z/ serves as a yardstick to determine our ing like a filthy swine." Such dodges sug- kc4-J-3;

~"5 "naturalness," has been dubbed "animali- gest that moral distinctions are first pos- +'. +'. , tarianism" by thehistorianof ideas George ited and then superimposed on interspe- Boas. The Greek writer Plntarch (second cies comparisons, instead of being derived century of our era) has a fanciful essay, from them in any consistent way. From ""3-'+.%a l'Gryllos,ll in which a talking pig asserts - .. time immemorial human beings have used that animaIs are betterthanhuman beings animal comparisons as criticism (dumb as because they do not practice pederasty. an ox, scared as a rabbit) and as praise [bold (Thisideawas in fact adumbrated by Plato as alion, far-sighted as aneagle); the choice in the fourth century B.C. J As been noted, depends upon the presuppositions of the recent evidence shows that in fact animals speaker. ., . do engage in homosexual behavior, Every species has patterns of but of a circumscribed kind: perhaps sexual behavior unique to itself, so that anirnalitarians could now argue that less claiming on supposedlymoralgrounds that , is better ("A little homosexuality is man should imitate the lower animals is - acceptable, but. . .I1). absurd. Moreover, social control of human Since the Greeks, the anirnaIitar- sexual activity can only be justified on the ian gambit has enjoyed a longrun of popu- grounds that the policy promotes the higher larity, answering to a sentimental hanker- interests of mankind-incluctng the evo- ing for a pastoral life without pressures lutionary progress of the species--rather and ambiguity, for a never-never land of than following the lead of the instinctual the "state of nature," which the life of life of creatures far lower on the evolution- anqds-guided solely by instinct-is ary scale. A.ll living things exist in a world suppped topreserve. The beast standard in which-as Darwin showed-they must is, of course, selective, inasmuch as its compete for scarce resources; but while advocates are not apparently willing to nature confronts scarcity with redundance, discard a host of convenience+from cbth- man confrontsscarcltywith foresdt. That ing to computers-not available to ani- is to say, lower forms of organic life sur- mals. Nor .are these persons inclined (as vive by engendering such myriads of young Aristophanes pointed out when the thesis that at least a minimal number will reach was first broached) to perch on roosts at adulthood and thereproductive stage; but night like birds, or to throw .feces as a man survives by economic and demo- lriendly way of gainingattention like apes. graphic measures that seek to proportion Human belngs use a wide variety of soaps his numbers to the resources available for and deodorants to reduce or mask smells consumption. Especially given the absence which their bodies produce. The argument of superfetation in the human female, the that animal ways are best, then, rests on a notion that "hbmosexuality means race kind of selective amnesia which makes it suicide" is preposterous. All human sex- possible to ignore some types of human ual activity, homosexual and heterosex- departure from the animal model, while ual, occurs in a context of economic and focusing moral indignation on others. social values that removes it entirely from ANTHOLOGIES 4 the genetically programmed coupling of Weltliteratur, Berlin, 1900). This collec- animals, even though such behaviors as tion, with its interspersed commentary, competition and courtship anticipate the was almost immediately imitated, by sexual rivalry andmating of human beings. Edward Carpenter in his Ioliius: An An- Finally, the prolonged phase of education thology of Friendship (London, 1902), through which members of civilized soci- which had many subsequent editions. ety must pass-with the need for men- Despite Carpenter's cautious discussion toring and initiation into the world of of the matter in terms of friendship, this adulthood-lends a significance to homo- volume was dubbed the "bugger's bible." sexual bonds between adult and adoles- After Carpenter's time the cus- cent that could find no parallel in the tom largely lapsed. On the European con- social life of animals. tinent periodicals, some of which pub- lished contemporary and older fiction, BIBLIOGRAPHY. Frank A. Beach, ed., largely took up the slack, while in the Human Sexuality in Pour Perspectives, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University English-speakingworldthesubject became Press, 1977, pp. 306-16; JamesD. more taboo than ever. In 1961, however, Weinrich, Sexual Landscapes, New Carpenter found a successor, albeit a timid York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1987, pp. one, in Eros: An Anthology of Friendship, 282409. edited by Alistair Sutherland and Patrick Ward Houser Anderson (London, 1961). This had been preceded by the American Donald Web- ANONYMOUSSEX ster Cory's short story collection Wenty- See Impersonal Sex. one Variations on a Theme (New York, 1953).With the easing of censorship in the United States, however, pulp publishers ANTHOLOGIES undertook to produce various soft-core An anthology is a collection of specials--some aimed at gay men, others selected literary pieces or passages, usu- seeking to exploit a broader interest in ally by several authors. The selection may lesbianism; since they includelittle that is be determined by considerations of qual- now hard to find, they are now justly ity, period, or subject matter. The first forgotten. homosexual example is Book XII of the The rise of militant gay liberation collection known as the Greek Anthology, after 1969 created a need for new collec- a collection of poetry that spans a thou- tions such as those edited jointly by Karla sand years. Jay and Allen Young, as well as the two With the establishment of Chris- Gay Liberation Anthologies, mainly of tianity as the state religion such same-sex nonfiction, made by Len Richmond and gatherings became impossible-at least Gary Noguera (San Francisco, 1973-793. none is known until after the French revo- The importance of periodicals was recog- lution. Heinrich Hoessli, the pioneering nized by anthologies assembled from the homosexual scholar, included a good many pages of The Ladder, Christopher Street, selections from ancient and Islamic verse The Body Politic, and Der Kreis. Ambi- in his Eros: die Miinnerliebe der Griechen tiously, David Galloway and Christian (Glarus, 1836-38), which makes him a Sabisch created an international anthol- forerunner. However, the first true anthol- ogy of male homosexuality in twentieth- ogy of male homosexuality was created century literature: Calamus (New York, during the efflorescence of homosexual 1982). A wide span of mainly French studies that occurred in Germany by the material appeared in Les Amours mascu- artistically inclined Elislu von Kupiier lines (Paris, 19841, while Joachim S. (Lieblingminne und Freundesliebe in der Hohmann issued several useful antholo-

3.. . I.'.:.:..... gies of German material. Other collec- as ethnocentrism. To be sure, even today a tions gather Dutch, Italian, and Latin few diehard absolutists maintain that Americanwritings. Another development homosexual behavior has been despised of this period is the creation of anthologies and condemned everywhere, but compara- on aparticularsector of gay experience and tive studies have shown this notion to be writing, as bIack gays, Chicano lesbians, utterly false: it tells us something of the lesbian nuns, older people. Genes were wishes of those who propound it, but also singled out: poetry, plays, science nothing about humanity. Cultural atti- fiction and fantasy. Some of these new tudes toward homosexualityrun thegamut anthologies, especially those produced by from outright condemnation to manda- lesbians, tend to emphasize personal expe- tory participation in same-sex rituals. The rience rather than "fine writing" in the cultural relativism inherent in the anthro-

usual sense. , a* $- , ,. '. pological enterprise has served not only to enhance our understanding of the range of human capabilities, but has fostered the growth of tolerance in our own society. ;:' ...... According to an old, but service- HistoricolPrecedents.The Greek able tradition, anthropology has two main traveler and historian Herodotus (ca. branches, physical and cultural Interfac- 480-ca. 420 B.c.) is rightly regarded as the ing with biology, physical anthropology founder of a comparative approach to focuses on reconstructing the evolution human societies. Avoiding overt ethno- and structure of the material embodiment centrism-the kind of parochial glorifica- of humanity. Cultural anthropology, the tion of their own culture that was rife discipline of interest in the understanding among the ancient Greeks-he examines of sexual behavior, studles the hfeways the cultural patterns of a number of peoples and belief systems of human groups. Cul- in the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond. tural anthropology comprises both eth- Yet recent studies have shown that he nography, the examination and recording does not examine them with the objectiv- of specific cultures, and ethnology, the ity cherished by modem anthropology, comparative and historical analysis of but rather viewed them in a "mirror" of culture. In the United Kingdom the field Greece, emphasizing the very oddity (and has usually been termed social anthropol- therefore bizarreness) of traits that most ogy in keeping with the traditional British differed from the Greek ones. Because he emphasis on social structure in contrast to took same-sex behavior for granted, Hero- the American emphasis on the concept of dotus rarely mentioned it-except among culture. Although in principle cultural the Persians (his central subject) and the anthropology addresses all human socie- Scythians, where a still mysterious phe- ties, in fact it tends to be restricted to the nomenon, that of the asexual Enarees, preliterate or tribal peoples of the thud prevailed. Other Greek and Roman writ- world, leaving the study of ~ndustrialsocr- ers actually professed to prefer the cus- ety and its past to socioIogy and history toms of primitive groups to their own as respectively. Since the 1960~~there has less corrupted by luxury. In his idealized appeared a welcome crossing of this taclt picture of the ancient Germanic tribes, boundary in urban anthropology, whlch Tacitus notes, with his usual dry conci- studies groups within the modem city. sion, the aspect of their military ethos that The accumulating body of re- required the execution of cowards and search in cultural anthropology has grdu- effeminates. Later the Christian Salvian, a ally dissolved the deeply rooted belief that Patristic writer, was to transform this any single culture offers an ultlmate or perception into a true homophobic pro- absolute standard of value, the vlew known Germanism. ANTHROPOLOGY O

Medieval travel writers and pro- time the comparison rebounded on the toethnologists believed that remote parts study of classical philology itself. A strik- of the world were inhabited by races with ing example is the career of the Swiss strikingly different physical characteris- scholar Johann ~akob-Bachofen tics and correspondingly bizarre customs (1815-1 887),who formulated the hypothe- (the"monstrous races"). John Mandeville, sis of primitive matriarchy, a prehistoric for example, claimed that a region of Asia stage of society preceding the establish- was actually inhabited by a race of her- ment of patriarchy. This fantasy-for little maphrodites possessing the physical or- conclusive evidence has been offered for a gans of both sexes, a myth that has rever- universal horizon of matriarchy in hu- berated in later times. When the Spanish manity's past-has returned today among conquistadors took possession of the New some anthropologists,who search for traces World they tended to assimilate the prac- of a lost system of social organization tices and beliefs of the indigenous peoples which probably never existed. to archetypes inherited from their ancient Modem Anthropology. The ex- and medieval past. Thus the weaknesses tension of European domination through- of pre-Columbian Mexico and the Andean out the globe helped to create a much cultures, according to some Spanish writ- larger pool of data about tribal cultures. ers, was bound up with their toleration of Armchair scholars such as Adolf Bastian, sodomy. The Amazon takes its name from Lewis Henry Morgan, and Edward Burnett the belief that it was dominated by tribes Tylor then sought to synthesize this mate- of viraginous women, as in the classical rial, creating the foundations for modern legend. cultural anthropology. This trend culrni- The Rise of Cultural Relativism. nated in Sir James Frazer's massive The Eighteenth-century Pacificvoyagesengen- Golden Bough (1890-1 936)) a work that dered a European idealization of Polyne- was more influential in literary quarters sian societies as a kind of earthly paradise. than among anthropologists. There also Montesquieu used the device of a set of developed a popular genre of sensational- fictitious Persian Letters (1721) to criti- ized reporting of "the strange customs cize European customs. Toward the end of and practices of savages," that sometimes the century Johann Gottfried von Herder included sexual data. Although it is (1744-1803) gave an impetus to the emerg- commonly asserted that there is little ing discipline of folklore, by emphasizing information about same-sex behavior the need to listen to the "many voices of from nineteenth- and early twentieth- the peoples." The interest in differences century travelers and anthropologists, betweenpeoplesultimately pavedtheway the great survey of Ferdinand Karsch- for attention to differences within Haack, Das gleichgeschlechtliche Leben peoples-including difference of sexual der Naturvolker (Munich, 1911) shows orientation. These trends fostered ethical that in fact much was observed and re- relativism and diversitarianism, the ap- corded. But since the recorders were often preciation of variety for itsownsake. While Europeangovernment agents and mission- they helped to erode chauvinistic preju- aries, due allowance must be made for dices, they bore within them the seeds of professional bias. a contrary exaggeration, the ethnoroman- After some impressive nine- ticism that sees only harmony and virtue teenth-century amateurefforts--especially in remote primitive societies. with regard to the American Indians-- These developments notwith- American anthropology was put on a firm standing, even travelers tended to see non- footing by the practical work and teaching European cultures in the mirror of classi- of Franz Boas (1858-1942), a German cal civilization: the lure of Hellenism. In immigrant. AlthoughBoasprofessedmeth- 4 ANTHROPOLOGY odological agnosticism, most of his fol- mation of a substantial number of socie- lowers rallied to some form of Hegelian ties in which homosexual behavior was holism. Seeing cultures as homogeneous tolerated as a matter of course, thus erod- units dominated by a single "modal" per- ing one aspect of the "homosexuality is sonality type, they were inattentive to unnatural" argument. subgroups who might engage in homosex- A new positive element appeared ual behavior. However, the reception of in the 1950s, as professional anthropolo- European psychoanalytic ideas, embodied gists took up again the berdache phenome- in the "culture and personality" trend, non among the American Indians (see produced some manifestations of interest W. L. Williams, for details). A further step in same-sex behavior, as by RuthBenedict was taken in the 1970swith the formation and Abraham Kardiner. Yet on the whole of the Anthropological Research Group on American anthropologists continued to Homosexuality. The Newsletter of this neglect the subject until the 1950s, per- group (now termed the Society of Lesbian haps tacitly holding that indigenous and Gay Anthropologists) serves as an peoples-at least those unpolluted by instrument of comunication among seri- acculturation-were exempt from this ous researchers. typically Western vice. Problems and Prognostics. Twen- Flushed with confidence in a tieth-century cultural anthropology has newly emerging discipline, a few hthro- not been able to shake free of its earlier pologists became pundits and sages, com- dilemma. In principle value-free, individ- menting on the problems of American life. ual researchers find it hard in practice to In the case of Margaret Mead (1901-1978)) steer a completely even course between the "lesson" she drew from her less-than- the Scylla of overattachment to their own perfectresearch in Pacificisland cultures- cultural norms and the Charybdis of eth- namely, that gender roles are essentially noromanticism. Until recently many cul- malleable rather than fixed-may have tures were known essentially from one been on balance salutory. Yet the sense ethnography produced by a single investi- that scientific findings were being bent to gator, who may have leaned to one or the serve sociopolitical ends caused unease. other side in the "ourvalues/theirvalues" Not surprisingly, Mead was eventually contrast. More disturbingly, when second disbdged from her popular standing as the and third opinions became available, the virtual personification of the anthropo- portraits drawn of the cultures were often logical discipline. Gradually, however, the very different. Although this so-called relativistic message sank in. Even if most "Rashomon effect" can often be explained lay people did not accept the idea that by the fact that different field workers Kalahari bushmen are on the same level have been looking at different aspects of as, say, modern Danes, the idea that cul- the society under study, discrepanciespoint tures were valuable for their own sake up the need for fuller confirmation of many promoted tolerance. Whether intention- assertions. Then too, questions have been ally or not, by "destabilizing" the conven- raised about the limits of ethical neutral- tional ethnocentric wisdom of American ity: is it appropriate to observe, say, slav- culture, anthropology prepared the way ery or clitoridectomy ("female circumci- for the social experiments of the 1960s. sion"), and to conclude that such practices At midcentury a major scholarly are simply avalid part of a culture different instrument emerged in the Human Rela- from ours! It is hard not to grant that in a tions Area Files at Yale University. This universal horizon of human rights, some vast compilation of world culture traits, behavioral patterns are simply unaccept- though it has rightly been faulted for cru- able. dity and errors in coding, did yield infor- ANTINOUS 4

Many cultures are beingcontami- Plesh: Sexual Diversity in American nated by acculturation or simply disap- Indian Culture, Boston: Beacon, 1986. Wayne Dynes pearing, and anthropologists must R. scramble. In many cases, however, tribal informants have learned to tailor their ANTINOUS responses to what they believe the inves- Adolescent favorite of theRoman expects--or to make a Of tkatOr Emperor Hadrian Ica. 111-13()), who won him for their own amusement. Such infor- his lover,s affection by his beauty and mant self-editing may include denial of gate. During a trip up the Nile in which practices, which in any event he accompanied Hadrian, he was drowned. are often associated with tribal rituals Contemporary gossip enveloped his death closed to outsiders. Institutions thought in romanticlegend; some even alleged that to be dead, such as the No*h American he had given his life for his master. Had- berdache~are sometimes surviving mar- rian's gief was such that he ordered the ginauy-but for how long? At the same boy deified as god and hero and even pro- time urban has extended its moted the belief that Antinous had en- methodstomoredevelo~edenvironments~ tered the firmament s a new stari at the in the third Acknowl- end of the sixteenth centuv Tycho Brahe edging criticisms of subjectivism and lack the name to a particulu star on of cross-checking, a few anthropologists his stellar map. have proposed simply to "write novels," a In Egypt Hadrian founded a new trend that is unlikely to become domi- city named Antinoopolis in his honor, and nant, as it would seriously erode the scien- elsewhere he was commemorated by cult, tific credentials of the discipline. festivals, and statues. Numerous inscrip- Despite these continuing prob- tions in his honor survive, and poems on lems, enough data have accumulated to him were written by Pancrates and essay a tentative map Of Mesomedes. The Early Christians reacted homosexual behavior in tribal societies. to the cult as one inspired by an ,,impure,, In There appear to be two main qpes. the passion, contrasting it with their own first, common in Sub-Saharan and Africa reverence for the saints. Melanesia in the Pacific, age asymmetry The Antinous type appears on predominates, with an Older man pairing scores of coins and statues. The extant In with a or adolescent youth. the statues found today in museums in Italy second One of gender-ro1e and elsewhere display the neo-(=reek some men lrom gender norms to manner that flourished underHadrian, and become berdaches-This qpepredominates have been much admired in modern times among the North American Indians, in by students of the classic style. The influ- and On In addition ential homosexual archaeologist J. J. to this t~olo~tanthro~olo@sts are be- Whckelmnn. (1717-1 768) went into rap- ginning to discern regularities within a tures over rWO Of these works s ,,the glory culture area, as the initiatory homosexual- and crown of art in this age as well as in all ity of Melanesia. others." In these depictions his somewhat BIBLIOGRAPHY. Evelyn Blackwood, full features correspond to the late-adoles- ed., Anthropology and Homosexual cent typeof theepheberather than those of Behavior, Binghampton, NY: Haworth the pais or boy. The mystery surrounding Press, 19B6; Stephen O. Social his career and death has inspired a number Thwzy, Homosexual Realities, New of literary works in modern times, some York: Gay Academic Union, 1984; Walter L. Williams, The Spirit the with an explicitly homosexual theme, such as Marguerite Yourcenar's much admired Hadrian'sMemoirs (NewYork, 1954I.The partners and spouses, some homosexuals great Portuguese writer Fernando Pessoa find their erotic ideal only in the person of published an English poem on the theme a heterosexual [or one presumed to be so]. in 1918. Antinous remains synonymous Both Jews and homosexuals have created with the beauty of late adolescence, for- mordant versions of ingroup humor, which ever preserved from decay by premature serve as safety valves for such feelings, but death. do not suffice to exorcise them. One of the functions of advocacy and service organi- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Royston Lambert, zations for both groups is to address such Beloved and God: The Story of Hadrian and Antinous, New Viking, 1984. kinds of psychological self-oppression so wayneR. D~~~~ that the victims may overcome them. Our society also shows historical parallels of anti-Semitism and antihomo- ANTI-SEMITISMAND sexuality. In the eleventh century in ANTIHOMOSEXUALITY Western Europe, for reasons that are still Social scientists have isolated not clearly understood, the majority soci- several common features in prejudice di- ety began actively to persecute heretics, rected against human groups. The preju- lepers, Jews, and sodomites, as the Chris- diced individual tends to view all mem- tian emperors had done by the time of bers of the targeted group in terms of a Justinian. The first two social categories stereotype; despite empirical counterev- are no longer in the line of fire, but the idence, he stoutly resists any abandon- latter two have continued to remain the ment of his views. Prejudiced persons are object of prejudice, discrimination, perse- likely to act out their feelings through cution, and (ultimately)genocide. At vari- discrimination toward and avoidance of ous times Christian denominations have members of the disliked groups. focused their ire on Jews (or Marranos Several features link Jews and [crypto-Jews]) and homosexuals. Even homosexuals as targets of prejudice. Un- among some secularists, as the Enlighten- like, say, Asian-Americans, both Jews and ment thinkers Diderot and Voltaire, a homosexuals have the option of passing, distaste for both groups has been freely that is, not acknowledging their difference vented. Popular opinion tends to attribute pubEcly and allowing those they meet to a conspiratorial clannishness to both Jews assign them tacitly to the majority group. and homosexuals, the former ostensibly However, just as many Jews in recent owingallegianceto themythicalorganiza- decades have been asserting ethnic pride tion described in the scurrilous Protocols through resuming their original "Jewish" of the Elders of Zion, the latter supposedly surnames (when Anglo-Saxon ones had adherents or agents of a nonexistent been adopted by the parents or ancestors) "Homintern." Both Jews and homosexu- and wearing evident markers such as the als have attracted envy through their ap- Star of David and the yarmulka, so homo- pearance of easy financial circumstances. sexuais and lesbians are now more asser- While the economic advantages of both tive through "coming out" to colleagues, groups (which arerelative, not absolute, as friends, andrelatives, and wearingthe pink there are many poor Jews and many poor triangleandthelambdasymbo1s.Yetthere homosexuals and lesbians) reflect self- is another side of the coin: both Jews and discipline and industry, they also stem homosexuals seem to have more than their from the fact that Jewish middle-class share of individuals who are afflicted with families are statistically more likely to self-contempt-Jewish anti-Semites and have few children or even remain child- antigay homosexuals. Just as some Jews less, whlle homosexuals (though more of restrict themselves to non-Jewish sexual them have children than would be ex- APOLOGETIC, HOMOSEXUAL O pected] have considerably fewer than the As measured by public opinion average. Reduction of investment in the polls, recent decades have shown a signifi- nourishment and education of offspring cant lessening of stereotypical prejudices yields an economic dividend that can be directed against both Jews and homosexu- applied to other purposes. als. Yet both havereason for concern about The year 1895 saw the dramatic countervailing trends which suggest that staging of what amounted to show trials, bigotry is on the rise again. Unpredictable the Oscar Wilde prosecutions in England factors may lie at the root of such discon- and the Alfred Dreyfus case in France. certing reversals. In the case of the Jews it These highly publicized events revealed appears to be the continuing Arab-Israeli vast reservoirs of antihomosexual feeling dispute and the Palestinian independence and anti-Semitism respectively. They also struggle that are the major sources of ten- enhanced the political identity and soli- sions. For homosexuals the AIDS crisis, darity of both groups, leading to the forma- especially in the sensationalized and se- tion of the first homosexual rights organi- lective presentation offered by the media, zation in Berlin, Germany, in 1897 (the has negatively impacted progress toward Scientific-Humanitarian Committee), and full toleration. Some observers, such as the convening of the First Zionist Con- the American playwrights William gress in Basel, Switzerland, in the same Hoffman and Larry Kramer, have seen an year. In the Nazi holocaust, homosexuals analogy between the fate of homosexuals (the pink-triangle men) were sent to con- in the AIDS crisis and the fate of the Jews centration camps along with Jews and in Hitler's holocaust. The analogy is im- gypsies. perfect, however, since the National So- Individual Jews have been in the cialist persecution was the malevolent forefront of the modem study of sex and in action of an ideology that singled out whole the campaign for more enlightened atti- ethnic communities for extermination, tudes toward it, a prominence that has while AIDS is a viral disease that has served as an additional rationalization for disproportionately affected several human antisemitism: Arnold Aletrino, Iwan groups, but (on present evidence) has not Bloch, SigrnundFreud, NomanHaire, Kurt been engineered by a human agency ex- Hiller, Magnus Hirschfeld, Albert Moll, pressly to destroy them. Nonetheless, there and Marc-Andrt Raffalovich. As victims may well be similarities in the effects on of prejudice, enlightened Jews have shown the victims, and these parallels in the fate special sensitivity to the disadvantages of of otherwise dissimilar stigmatized groups other minorities. To be sure, there are merit insightful and sympathetic study. antigay Jews, who can find no persuasive analogy between the situation of the two BIBLIOGRAPHY. Bany Adam, The Survival of Domination: Inferiorization groups, as well as anti-Semitic homosexu- and Everyday Life, New York: Elsevier, als, some of whom claim to ground their 1978. animosity in the antihomosexual passages Ward Houser of the Old Testament. There are also anti- Semites whovehemently defend the Bibli- APOLOGETIC, cal injunctions against homosexual be- HOMOSEXUAL havior while denouncing all Jewish influ- For some centuries Christians ence on modern civilization as the subver- have engaged in a systematic effort to sive activity of a racially alien segment of analyze and defend their faith to nonbe- the population. This was paradoxically lievers, such defenses being termed apolo- enough the mentality of the Nazi leaders gias. An analogous tendency has surfaced who called for increased repression of among some homosexual and lesbian homosexuals and even a gay holocaust. 4 APOLOGETIC, HOMOSEXUAL scholars. Conceived as an effort to cleanse self with a variety of left-wing tendencies the Augean stable of the accumulated from Castroism to Maoism.) Another ver- detritus of homophobic myths and fabri- sion of this demand for commitment ap- cations, the procedure is understandable peared among the New Left thinkers of the and laudable. Sometimes, however, the 1960s who stipulated that only "emanci- undertaking may cross over into apolo- patory" scholarship should be supported, getic in the bad sense, distorting or gloss- while Herbert Marcuse went so far as to ing over the truth in an effort to create a authorize in theory forceable suppression favorable image for the cause. One in- of "harmful" (i.e., nonprogressive)enquiry stance is the claim made by modern de- (inhis 1967essay "Repressive Tolerance"). fenders of pederasty that such relation- Applied to history, selective re- ships, in keeping with their purported search of the kind that has been discussed Greek model, are always noble and charac- is sometimes called "advocacy scholar- ter-building. Some undoubtedly are, but ship." Many practitioners in this mode others are surely less so. Conversely, some display what may be called a "shopper's students of ancient Greece, Islam, and approach" to their material. That is, they other societies where pederasty has been sift through the mass of data available to the norm, claim to find only their own them, extracting only the items that are preferred androphilii there. attractiveand leavingtherest behind. This Another gambit is the posthu- procedure yields a highly selective view of mous "naturalization" of individualssuch the past, but one which the amateur is as Pontius Pilate or George Washington as often unable to distinguish from genuine gay. Of course, in many instances it is work informed by integral understanding necessary first to raise the question of the and judgment. In extremecases, this selec- homosexuality of a past figure so that the tive approach, fueled by the tyro's enthu- evidence may be weighed; where it is lack- siasm and unchecked by training in ing, however, stubbornness should yield method, may even resemble the industry to agnosticism. of the magpie: the "researcher" collects These matters raise broader is- attractive baubles and heaps them together, sues of method. A dispute has long raged littleknowingthathis treasuresaremostly between those who uphold the ideal that of trifling value. Regrettably, some writ- scholarship must strive to be objective and ings publicized as restorations of our value neutral and their opponents (many, "hidden heritage" are of this sort. but not all on the political left), who be- Concededly, these methodologi- lieve that scholarly work is always con- cal shortcomings are part of the growing ducted in the service of a political or ideo- pains of research in a sphere that, until logical position. The former view, that of recent decades, had been largely taboo. classical European rationalism and natu- Also, because of the lack of funding and ral science, has been eloquently defended university chairs, much of the work on the by the great sociologist Max Weber, who history of homosexuality and lesbianism held that while the choice of a research has of necessity been conducted by private problem is shaped by interests, the con- scholars, who have volunteered their own duct of the investigation itself can and time and money, often having to content must be objective. Conversely, Martin themselves with the meagerest recogni- Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre insisted tion for their toil. Untrained in the strict that the intellectual must become com- canons of evidence and argument, their mitted or engaged in a cause. (They dif- errors are often innocent ones. Having fered sharply on what that cause should suffered from the profusion of negative be, Heideggerflirting-for a time at least- stereotypes that our culture offers, it is with Nazism, and Sartre involving him- perhaps understandable that they should AQUINAS, THOMAS,SAINT +

attempt to redress the balance by advanc- emerges from his classification of "un- ing a positive, apologetic view of homo- natural vice." After first condemning sexuality. Nonetheless, the increasing masturbation,hedistinyishesth.reetypes depth and breadth of research should en- of improper sexualcontact: with the wrong able homosexual and lesbian scholarship species [bestiality],with the wrong gender to ascend to a higher plane in which these [homosexuality and lesbianism), and with failingsare obsolete. Human history is one the wrongorgan (oralandanalsex][Summa seamless fabric, and the credibility of the ~eologiae,11-11 154, 11).This threefold growing and impressive body of research schema became normative for Christian on homosexuality vitally depends on its thought. universality. In another passage (1-11 31, 71, See also Famous Homosexuals, Aquinas asserts that some pleasures are Lists of; Gay Studies. unnatural to man but become connatural Wayne R. Dynes for physical or psychological reasons or because of habit, and among these is inter- course with males or with brute animals. AQUINAS,THOMAS This text, however, was adapted from SAINT(1224-1274f Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics (1148b], Italian theologian and philoso- i, ~hichthe Master held that sexual inter- ~hertthe most important exponent of the course with males could be pleasurable medieval system of thought known as owing to the innate constitution (in the Scholasticism. Born to a noble family in medieval Latin translation of the southern Italy and cousin of the Holy individual. Aquinas reiterated this crucial Roman Emperor Frederick II, he studied at point in his own commentary, the Senten- St. Benedict's monastery of Monte Cassino tia Libri Ethicorurn (W,51, but suppressed and at the University of Naples, and as a it the Summa. By this act of intellectual young man entered the Dominican order. dishonesty, Aquinas made true, innate Trying to dissuade him from joining that homosexuality an "insolubleproblem"for new and radical order of friars, his brothers Chistian theologians who are obliged to supposedl~broughta~rostitutetohisroom maintain that erotic attraction to one's to tempt him, but he drove her out with a own sex is acquired and therefore abnor- ,, burning brand he tookfrom the hearth. At mal and pathological. twenty, having graduated from Naples he Some modern scholars have de- traveled to Pais and later to Colo@e to plored the views of Aquinas and his con- study under Albertus Ma@us~who set temporaries as representing a turn toward him on the path of fusing Aristotle with a negative view of sexual nonco~ormity Chistian thought, an innovatory combi- in contrast to the ostensibly more tolerant nation which became his life's work. attitude that had preceded him-though Aquinaswasaco~iouswriterwhoseworks they must grant that he was less hostile in their modern edition fill scores of folio than peter ~~~i~~.rn this realm, how- volumes, and who ever, Aquinas is acodifier, innovative only encyclopedic breadth with precision and in his characteristically systematic ap- systematic presentation. He called for the proath, and not in any substantive en- capital punishment of heretics1 witches1 hancement of the negative content, which and sodomites. represented a fusion of the prohibitions of In his sexual views he adhered the Mosaic Law with an anti-homosexual therestrictivist approach laid down by the tradition in the Hellenic world that went Patristic writers, interweaving, however, as far back as Plate. Even before Christian- sm~eelements taken from his extensive ity, the synthesis of the two traditions had study of Aristotle. A sense of his approach already been realized by Phio Judaeus, 4 AQUINAS, THOMAS, SAINT continued by Clement of Alexandria and demands of those who would deny free- John Chrysostom, and reformulated for dom, curtail human action, and destroy the Latin West by St. Augustine in the innocence and love." In the vision of these early fifth century. What Aquinas did was writers Arcadia is a sylvan retreat where it to give the condemnation a proper scholas- is safe to live in accord with one's feelings, tic context, thus assuring its normative while at the same time providing the status for themoral theology and the Canon author with a device to present a Law of the Roman Catholic Church to this quasi-allegorical image of homosexual day and making the "sodomy delusion" a happiness during times in which such hallmark of Western civilization. His sentiments could not be openly avowed. theologicallyand philosophicallyreasoned It could serve as a vehicle for the implica- stance precludes acceptance of the prem- tion that "homosexuality is superior to ises of the gay liberation movement. heterosexuality and is a divinely sanc- The Council of Trent recognized tioned means to an understanding of the Thomas as a "doctor of the Church." good and the beautiful." In such an idyllic Regrouping after the assault of the French setting the quest for the Ideal Friend could Revolution, the Catholic restoration put find its term and consecration. great emphasis on the work of Aquinas, The Latin tag "Et in Arcadia ego" which had been neglected since the seven- has often been translated (according to teenth century. In 1879 Leo XIII went so some wrongly) as "I too was in Arcadia," far as to declare Neo-Thomism the official and thus held to encapsulate the yearning philosophy of theRoman Catholicchurch. for a Golden Age. Denis Diderot, for ex- In recent decades this hegemony has ebbed ample, rendered it "Je vivais aussi dans la in Catholic universities and seminaries, delicieuse Arcadie" ["I too lived in delight- which are now in touch with a broader ful Arcady."]. In the broader perspective range of currents of thought. Official this tradition fits within the overall frame- Thomism still has its survivals here and work of the pastoral tradition stemming there, as seen, for example, in elements of from Theocritus, the great poet of Alexan- the thinking of the radical feminist (and dria. ex-Catholic]Mary Daly. Thomism always The concept was also significant had a strong element of social moralism, in the context of the French homosexual so that it is not surprising to find traces of movement. With his classical training, its influence in the liberation theology of the novelist Roger Peyrefitte suggested the Third World. the name "Arcadie" for what was to be- Warren Johansson come the major French homosexual or- ganization after World War 11. In fact the group began by putting out a magazine, ARCADIA itself called Arcadie (from January 19541, Arcadia is a predominantly rural on the model of the Swiss Der fieis. The area of ancient Greece that has become a membership society followed in 1957. byword for an idealized pastoral existence. AndrC Baudry, the director dissolved the In animportant study, ByrneR. S. Fone has organization in 1982, when the monthly, shown that a number of homosexual writ- which had been noted for the quality of its ers-from Vergil through Richard Bam- scholarly articles, also ceased. field, Walt Whitman and the English Ura- The Arcadie group was a typical nians to Thomas Mann and E. M. Forster- product of the "homophile" phase of the drew upon the image of Arcadia to evoke renascent gay movement as it rose from "that secret Eden" that offers solace the ashes of war and the desolation of Nazi "because of its isolation from the troubled occupation. Members of Arcadie, and by world and its safety from the arrogant extension sympathizers with its relatively ARETINO, PIETRO 4 conservative goals, were termed Arcadi- Nonetheless, Aretino seems to ens. It has been claimed that a high propor- have made some forays into the realm of tion of the actual membership consistedof homosexuality. Alessandro Luzio has priests and ex-priests. published two curious letters of Federico Gonzaga (of February 1528) who writes BIBLIOGRAPHY. Andre Baudry, et al., from Mantua to Aretino of havingfailed to Le regard des autres, Paris: Arcadie, 1979 [Actes du Congrh international); convince a certain Roberto "son of Bianch- Byme R. S. Fone, "This Other Eden: ino" to accept the advances of his corre- Arcadia and the Homosexual spondent. Imagination," Iournal of Homosexual- In "L'Aretino e il Franco" (Gior- ity, (1983),1334. nale storico della letteratma italiana, 29 Wayne R. Dynes [1897], 252) Luzio published a 1524 letter ARCHIVES to Giovanni de' Medici, in which Aretino See Libraries and Archives. playfully declared that he had decided to give up sodomy, because the ardent love ARETINO,PIETRO he was experiencing for a lady had made (1492-1556) him change his tastes. Italian writer. Known as the As these instances show, "scourge of princes," Aretino occupies a Aretino's attitude toward homosexuality place all his own inItalian literature, both was one of amused complacency, similar for his erotic writings (which were for to that of many contemporaries. This fact centuries considered among the most explains the presence in his work of many "outrageous") and for his extraordinary homosexual allusions and double en- rapport with the powerful. He made use of tendres. his journalistic flair to sell his benevo- The work of Aretino in which lence in exchange for monetary gifts. Of homosexuality is most prominent is the humble origins (though not bereft of edu- comedy 1lmarescalco(1 533). The protago- cation), he in fact succeeded in becoming nist, the duke of Mantua's farrier, dislikes rich and famous thanks to his literary women. To tease him the duke decides to works which oscillated between adulation force him to take a wife, which very much of notables and libel. Among his best upsets the poor fellow. At the marriage, known works-apart from such erotic however, he learns that his "bride" is a classics as the Sei giornate (Dialogues of beardless page dressed in women's attire, the Courtesans) and the Sonetti lussmi- and he cannot contain his happiness. osi-are comedies and six volumes of Let- Nowhere in the play is the farrier's homo- ters addressed to major figures of the pe- sexuality openly stated, but the double riod. entendres and various indirect references Despite the gave charges leveled aptly serve to convey that the reason why by Niscolb Franco (1515-1570)--who in he hates women is that he prefers boys. his Prfapea and Rime controPietroAretino The work entitled La puttana er- (1541)treats him simply as a prostitute- rante (1531))long attributed to Aretino, and by the libelous Vita di Pietro Aretino depicts both male and female homosexual of 1537, there is no doubt that Aretino's conduct, but it isnow attributed to Lorenzo erotic interest was gallantly directed to- Veniero. ward women. Domenico Fusco, who ana- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Domeniw Fusco, lyzed the accusations of homosexuality L'Aretino sconosciuto ed apocrifo, directed against the writer by his contem- Turin: Berruto, 1953; Alessandro Luzio, poraries, concluded that they amounted to Pietro Aretino nei prirni suoi anni a unfounded gossip of a type common at the Venezia e alla Corte dei Gonzaga, time. Turin: Loescher, 1888. Giovanni Dall'Orto

.:.:.:*.. 73. ;: 4 ARISTOCRATIC VICE

ARISTOCRATICVICE, The scholastic theologian Albertus Mag- HOMOSEXUALITYAS nus (d. 1280)held that the vice of sodomy Little meaningful study has been was "more common in persons of high accomplished on class differences in the station than in humble persons." This incidence of homosexual behavior. The impression reflects in part the greater visi- findings of the first Kinsey Report (19481, bility of the doings of the privileged, and which appeared to show greater preva- also the fact that, through their status or lence of homosexuality among the less influence, the nobility could frequently educated, must be disregarded in as much escape with a reprimand for the commis- as this cohort in the Kinsey survey had a sion of crimes which were subject to capi- disproportionate number of prisoners. tal punishment when committed by If data are lacking, stereotypes commoners. This aspect of class justice have flourished-in particular the notion has fueled social envy, leading to the that homosexual behavior is more preva- demand on the part of the straitlaced mid- lent among the upper classes. This percep- dle class that the aristocracy be disciplined tion accords with the broader working- and required, for its part, to adhere to class belief that the upper classes are over- the narrow canons of petty bourgeois educated, effete, and effeminate. morality. The notion of homosexuality as a In England the claim that homo- distinctively aristocratic vice has a con- sexuality was an aristocratic weakness fell siderable history. In the seventeenth cen- together with the prejudice that it was tury Sir Edward Coke attributed the origin ultimately of foreign derivation; the fond- of sodomy to "pride, excess of diet, idle- ness of the noble lords for the Grand Tour ness and contempt of the poor." The noted of the continent brought them into con- English jurist was in fact offering a vari- tact with the vice-which they then con- ation on the prophet Ezekiel (16:49). This veyed to England, where it was supposedly accusation reflects the perennial truism not native. A curious episode of this phase that wealth, idleness, and lust tend to go of British social history was the Macaroni together-a clustersurnmedup in the Latin Club, an association of cosmopolites term luxuria. Sometimes the view is ex- formed in London about 1760 to banquet pressed that the confirmed debauchee, on that then-rare food. Their foppish, ex- having run through virtually the whole travagant dress was regarded as bordering gamut of sexual sins, turns to sodomy as a on transvestism. This fashion explains an last resort to revive his jaded appetite. otherwise mysterious allusion in an A forerunner of this thought American song of the period: "Yankee complex appears in the comedies of Aris- Doodle came to town/upon a little pony;/ tophanes (ca. 450-385 B.c.], who satirized he stuck a feather in his hatland called it the pederastic foibles of Athenian politi- macaroni" (1767).The colonial hero's at- cians and dandies. In the first century of tempt to play the exquisite exposed him to our era, the Jewish writer Phiio of Alexan- the danger of ridicule as a milktoast-r dria regarded Sodom as the archetype of worse. the link between homosexuality and lux- The stereotype of aristocratic vi- ury: "The inhabitants owed this extreme ce has a sequel in the early twentieth- licence to the never-failing lavishness of century Marxist notion that the purported their sources of wealth. . . . Incapable of increase of homosexuality in modem in- bearing such satiery, plunging like cattle, dustrial states stems from the decadence they threw off from their necks the law of of capitalism; in this view the workers nature and applied themselves to deep fortunately remain psychologically healthy drinking of strong liquor and dainty feed- and thus untainted by the debilitating ing and forbidden forms of intercourse." proclivity. In the Krupp and von Moltke- ARISTOPHANES O

Eulenburg scandals in Germany in nicknames that allude to their "swishy" 1903-08, journalists of the socialist press gestures and manner of walking, and espe- did their best to inflame their readership cially the feminine dress which they af- against the unnatural vices of the aristoc- fected. Similarly reproached are boys who racy, which were bringing the nation to sell their bodies for gifts or payment. In the the brink of ruin. Plutus, 153, a character declares: "And During the late nineteenth cen- they say that the boys do this very thing, tury, homosexual vanguard writers such not for their lovers, but for the sake of as Edward Carpenter and John Addington money. Not the better types, but the cat- Symonds advanced an opposing thesis. amites, since the better types do not ask They held that it was precisely the fact for money." that homosexual contacts tended to link The positive side of Greek ped- the rich and the poor, the educated and the erasty is mentioned only in passing: the uneducated, that made them suited to praise of boyish beauty, the wall inscrip- advancing democracy and the social inte- tions with the boy's name and the word gration of previously antagonistic classes. kalos, "handsome," and the memory of Class and homosexuality are sensitive the heroism of the past inspired by male issues for modern society, and the zone of comradeship and fidelity. The world of their intersection is fraught with emotion. lust and venality which the comedians See also Working Class, Erotici- depict is the baser side of Greek pederasty, zation of. not the nobler, though it is the aristocrat Wayne R. Dynes who is depicted as the boy-lover par excel- lence. The allusions and innuendoes in regard to the institution are legion. An ARISTOPHANES element of jealousy is present, provoked [CA. 450-CA. 385 B.c.) by the preference which a boy would natu- The greatest the play- rally show to a nobleman over a middle- wrights of ancient Athens. Aristophanes classburgher, but the significant phenome- composed a series of plays performed be- non is the role which pederasty played in tween 427 and388 B.C. The texts of eleven the life of the upper classin the colden comedies have survived, together with of ~~h~~~.~~~h~~~ do the plays fragments is known suggest that anAtheniangentlemanwould his life other than what can be learned find intercoursewith a handsome boy from the plays, which reveal a much-read anything but agreeable, and even the op- and educated personality, fond of nature portunity to scrutinize boyish beauty is a and of country life, and conservative by source of delight (wasps,568). inclination. The ideal cherished by the con- His plays satirize cOntemPorarY servative Aristophanes is the smooth- Athenian society, with a verbal dexterity skinned, muscular, shy, seriousboy of the and wordplay that are difficult to convey past, not the avaricious hustler or effemi- in translation. The object of his wit is often nate youth of the present. ~h~~~is a long- the real or alleged effeminacy, passive ing for values that have been lost or sub- homosexuality, or prostitution of themale merged in the ~~h~~~of the characters-failings if not vices in the eyes own day. sowhile humor is an essential of his fellow which the component of the treatment of homosexu- resources of Attic colloquial speech are ality in ~~i~~~~h~~~~,it serves to set in exploited to the full. Aristo~hanesgives relief the idealizedpaide~asteiathat served effeminate men feminine names, Sostrate an educational function in Greek civiliza- instead of Sostratos, Cleonyme instead of tion; never does Aristophanes express Cleonymos (Clouds, 6781 68011 or uses indignation or disgust at the institution, O ARISTOPHANES he rather criticizes the debased form to to male same-sex love by his stress on which (in his view) it had sunk in his day. biological factors. In a brief, but important It is as satire of the lower and ignobler treatment in the Nicomachean Ethics (7:s) manifestations of boy-love that the hu- he'kas the first to distinguish clearly be- morous and sarcastic passages in his plays tween innate and acquired homosexual- are to beinterpreted, not as condemnation ity. This dichotomy corresponds to a stan- in the vein that Christianity was to adopt dard Greek distinction between processes in later centuries. which are determined by nature (physis) and those which are conditioned by cul- Dover, BIBLIOGRAPHY. K. J. ~risto- ture or custom (nomos].The approach set phanic Comedy, London: B. T. Batsford, 1972; Hans Licht, Sexual Life in Ancient forth in this text was to be echoed a millen- Greece, London: Routledge and Kegan nium and a half later in the Christian Paul, 1932. Scholastic treatments of Albertus Magnus Warren Johansson andThomas Aquinas (Summa Thwlogiae, la IIa, 31:7]. In The History of Animals ARISTOTLE(384-322 B.c.) (9:8), Aristotle anticipates modem ethol- Major ancient Greek philosopher. ogy by showing that homosexual behavior Aristotle's thinking was formed at the among birds is linked to patterns of domi- Academy in Athens, where in 366-347 he nation and submission. In various pas- studied under Plato. Aristotle tutored the sages he speaks of homosexual relations bisexual Alexander theGreat in Macedonia among noted Athenian men and boys as a (343-336), and then returned to Athens, matter of course. His treatment of friend- where he opened a school. His habit of ship (Nicomachean Ethics, books 8 and 9) lecturing in the covered walking place emphasizes its mutual character, based on Iperipatos) of the Lyceum gave his school the equality of the parties, which requires the name of Peripatetic. As a thinker Aris- time for full consolidation. He takes it as totle is outstanding for the breadth of his given that true friendship can occur only interests, which encompassed the entire between two free males of equal status, panorama of the ancient sciences, and for excluding slaves and women. Aristotle's his efforts to make sense of the world ideas on friendship were to be echoed by through applying an organic and develop- Cicero, Erasmus, Michel de Montaigne, mental approach. In this way he departed and Sir Francis Bacon. &om the essentialist, deductive emphasis The Problems (4:26], a work at- of Plato. Unfortunately, Aristotle's pol- tributed to Aristotle but probably com- ished essays, which were noted for their piled by a follower, attributes desire for style, are lost, and the massive corpus of anal intercourse in men to the accumula- surviving works derives largely from lec- tion of semen in the fundament. This ture notes. In these the wording of the notion derives from the common Greek Greek presents many uncertainties: hence medical view that semen is produced in the differencesin the various translations, theregion of the brain and then transferred which in sexual matters are often marred by a series of conduits to the lower body. by euphemistic evasion or anachronistic In England and America a spuri- modernization. Dubious points can only ous compilation of sexual and generative be settled by wrestling with the Greek. knowledge, Aristotle's Masterpiece, en- Although Aristotle is known to joyed a long run of popularity. Compiled have had several male lovers, in his writ- from a variety of sources, including the ings he tended to follow Plato's lead in Hippocratic and Galenic medical tradi- favoring restraints on overt expression of tions, the medieval writings of Albertus homoerotic feelings. He differs, however, Magnus, and folklore of all kinds, this from Platotsethicaland idealizingapproach farrago was apparently first published in ART, VISUAL 9

English in 1684. A predecessor of later sex Peru showing same-sex acts weredestroyed manuals, the book contains such lore as by their finders as "insults to national the determination of the size of the penis honor." The situation for lesbian art is from that of the nose. even more difficult. Because until recent times works of art have generally been BIBLIOGRAPHY.William Keith commissioned by men for their own pur- Chambers Cuthrie, Aristotle: An Encounter, Cambridge: Cambridge poses, sympathetic depictions of lesbian University Press, 1981 (A History of love are sparse. Before the sixteenth cen- Greek Philosophy, 6). tury, we find only representations of friend- Wayne R. Dynes ship between women; then in the Vene- tian school there begins an imagery of ARMY lesbian dalliance-but only for male en- See Military. tertainment. Only in recent decades has there been a substantial production of lesbian art by lesbians and for lesbians. ART, VISUAL This raises the final problem: how are we Homosexuality intersects with to consider the work of an artist known to the visual arts of painting, sculpture, and be homosexual or bisexual, but whose photography in two ways: through subject subject matter-through lack of commis- matter (iconography) and through the sions or reticence-does not extend to his personal homosexuality or bisexuality of or her own sexuality? artists. Classical Antiquity. A compari- Despite the fact that untilrecently son of Greek homoerotic literature and art most of the relevant images were inacces- is instructive. Since the time of their sible-relegated to museum basements or composition, Greek texts of male-male hidden in private collections--it is no secret love have always been known to those that the world's heritage of the fine arts who cared to seek them out, and they includes much homoerotic material. To provided continuity through the whole be sure, the project of a comprehensive subsequent literary development. Parallel history of "gay art" seems problematic. In works in the visual arts passed unrecog- some areas where there is reason to believe nized, languished in museum storerooms, that thematerial is abundant-as in China or remained hidden in the ground to be and the Islamic countries-the essential discovered only through recent excava- studies and publications needed to form tions. Not being known to homosexual the basis for a synthesis have not been artists of later times, they could not form produced. More fundamentally, it is hard the signposts of a recognized perennial to extract a common denominator from tradition. And the lack of a continuous the varied material itself, which ranges tradition is the main reason why one can- from explicit scenes of copulation, through not rightfully speak of a "history of gay simple portraits of figures known to be art." homosexual, to homophobic depictions of Still ancient Greece supplies a the persecution of homosexuals. Large gaps considerable amount of material. The exist. Lamentably, through many-centu- explanation for this flowering lies in the ries of Christian domination in Europe, fact, that unlike its predecessors in the the ban on the making of such works was ancient Near East, Greece was a secular effective. Then there has been vandalism. society in which the priestly caste was In the New World much was destroyed by relatively unimportant. Even in statues the Spanish conquistadores and the fanati- dedicated in temples and placed on tombs cal churchmen who accompanied them. the wishes of the patron are paramount. In As recently as the early twentieth century antiquity the Greeks were noted for their some Moche pieces from pre-Columbian O ART, VISUAL national peculiarity of exercising in the vases and other works show them in pur- nude. Out of this custom grew the monu- suit of their beloveds. A special place be- mental nude statue, a genre that Greece longs to the depictions of Zeus and bequeathed to the world. The tradition Ganyrnede, as represented for example by began a little before 600 B.C. with the a monumental terracotta of ca. 460 B.C. sequence of nude youths known as kouroi. from Olympia. An essential part of the (Monumental female nudes did not appear legacy of Greece is mythology, and we find until ca. 350 B.c.) Although archeologists that over the centuries artists did dare to have maintained a deafening silence on evoke again and again the Greek ho- the matter, it seems clear that the radiance moerotic figures of Ganymede and Hya- of these figures can only be explained in cinth, Ampelos and Orpheus. the light of the Greek homoerotic appre- The Romans did not share the ciation of the male form. Whatever else Greek fondness for nude exercise and their they may have been, the kouroi were the attitude toward homosexual behavior was finest pinups ever created. Studying them more ambiguous. Perhaps it is not surpris- in chronological order, one can observe an ing that they favored the old religious evolution of the ideal somatic type, from subject of the hermaphrodite, the double- the sturdy, almost burly archaic figures, sexed being, but now reduced largely to a through the classical "swimmer's body" subject of titillation. They also were ca- ones, to a kind of graceful dancer type in pable of depicting scenes of peeping toms the fourth century B.C. A special variation that recall the atmosphere of Petronius's on the huros is the pair of figures dedi- Satyricon. Standing far above the general cated in Athens in 477 B.C. to the memory Roman contribution to the subject are the of the homosexual lovers, the tyrant-slay- idealized portraits of Antinous commis- ers Harmodius and Aristogiton. sioned by the emperor Hadrian after his The recovery of masses of Bithynian favorite drowned in the Nile in decorated vases in modern times has re- A.D. 130. In his honor the emperor founded vealed a particularly forthright category of the Egyptian city of Antinoopolis; excava- Greek art: the scenes of homoerotic court- tions have revealed something of its mag- ship. In these depictions, which begin about nificence. 570 B.c., an older bearded man approaches After the reign of Hadrian, who a youth, clearly indicating his intent by died in 138, the great age of ancient ho- placing one hand in entreaty against the moerotic art was over. Consequently, the boy's chin while the other touches his adoption of Christianity cannot be said to genitals. Often these scenes of courtship have killed off a vibrant tradition, but it are accompanied by gifts of hares, cocks, certainly did not encourage its revival. and other animals to help persuade the Medieval Christian art did have nudes and boy. In contrast to to the occasional depic- scenes of classical mythology, but signifi- tions surviving from earlier civilizations, cantly no homoerotic ones. Liberal toward these scenes are not merely renderings of some aspects of classical culture, for cen- same-sex acts or lifeways, but vivid em- turies Christianity stifled the reemergen- blems of homoerotic desire. Little of the ce of positive homoerotic art. It also fos- monumental painting for which the Greeks tered the creation of antihomoerotic ico- were famous has survived. A spectacular nography, as in the scenes of the burning exception is the fifth-century Tomb of the of the city of Sodom found at Monreale, Diver at Paestum in southemItaly, which Canterbury, and elsewhere. preserves a banquet scene of two male The Renaissance Tradition. When lovers embracing. homosexuality in art again became signifi- As Greek literature attests, the cant, as it did under the humanistic aus- gods had their own homoerotic loves. Some pices of fifteenth-century Florence, it is ART. VISUAL 4 through our knowledge of the biographies with heterosexual dalliance, should have of the artists, rather than from their sub- little to show that is relevant. Yet with the ject matter. Botticelli, Donatello, Mich- rise of Neoclassicism toward the end of elangelo, and Sodoma are all known to the century this situation changed. For have been predominantly homosexual in one thing the theorist and prophet of the orientation, but with rare exceptions (as new movement J. J. Winckelmann Donatello's bronze David and Mich- (171 7-1768) was a homosexual bachelor elangelo's drawings for Tommaso de' whoserhapsodic descriptions of male nudes Cavalieri] their works give little hint had an impact on countless artists. Re- of it. Still the biographical information gardless of the orientation of their crea- we have is fascinating for the reconstruc- tors, the gTeat male nudes of such masters tion of the connection between sexuality as Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) and and the creative process. Since Freud's Bertell Thorwaldsen (1768-1848) are in- essay of 1910 the enigmatic figure separable from Winckelmann's evocations. of Leonardo has offered a special appeal. And other artists, including Jean Broc, A less well known Florentine figure, Claude-MarieDubufe, andBenjamin West, Jacopo Pontormo, left behind a diary boldly revived the Greek themes of the which chronicled not only his troubled homoerotic loves of the gods. mental state, but also (laconically) his Academics and Moderns. French relations with boys. The onset of the nineteenth-century art witnessed a sig- Counter-Reformationin thelater sixteenth nificant production of lesbian scenes by century made life harder for Italian heterosexual artists, including such mas- homoerotic artists, though the stormy ters as Gustave Courbet. One major artist career of the bisexualMichelangelo Merisi who was lesbian, Rosa Bonheur da Caravaggio (1571-1610) is well docu- (1822-1899), did not leave behind works mented. From Flanders comes the tragic directly related to her orientation. The case of the Baroque sculptor JCrGme same is true of the American sculptor Duquesnoy, who was caught with two Harriet Hosmer (1830-1908). In a number boys and executed in 1654. of male artists-Washington Allston, During the Renaissance and Thomas Couture, Thomas Eakins, Baroque periods the status of artists rose, AleksandrIvanov, Frederick Lord Leighton, ind they became proud of their creativity. John Singer Sargent, and Henry Scott The image of the artist "born under Tuke-the work and other evidence points Saturn" flourished, that is to say painters to a homosexual or bisexual orientation, and sculptors were expected to be moody, but full confirmation tends to be elusive. melancholy, and withdrawn, but not ef- A special place in this group belongs to the feminate. Homosexual artists of this time lonely German idealist, Hans von MarCes fulfilled the expectations of the stereotype. (1837-18871, who producedevocative male As the public's concept changed, how- nudes in an Arcadian setting. The fate of ever, the type went out of production so to the English painter Simeon Solomon speak. When in later times homosexual (1840-1905 1, disgraced after a wild party in artists became visible they were measured 1873, must have given many pause. Sym- according to different standards. Because bolists such as Jean Delville and Gustave of such shifts one cannot speak of any Moreau flirted with homoerotic subjects single dominant character type of the "gay which were accepted as contributions to artist" any more than purported continui- the "decadent repertoire." A similar vein ties of style and subject matter permit the of poetry runs through the practitioners of recovery of a single aesthetic of "gay art." a new technique, that of photography: the It is not surprising that the rococo German Wilhelmvon Gloeden (1856-1931,J art of theeighteenth century, so concerned specialized in langorous Sicilian youths + ART, VISUAL while Fred Holland Day (1864-1 933) cre- which she participated. The "Fur-Covered ated evocative tableaux vivants of New Cup, Saucer, and Spoon" (1936) of Meret Testament and other exotic subjects. By Oppenheim, a Swiss woman artist, is a the turn of the century magazines began to stark proclamation of lesbian (vaginal] appear in Germany presenting, by means symbolism; ironically it has become one of photographic reproduction, works ap- of the chief icons of the Surrealist move- pealing exclusively to male homosexual ment, which was generally hostile to taste; lesbian magazines were only to homosexuality. emerge after World War I. Exceptionally, The trajectory of avant-garde art the American George Platt Lynes from post-impressionism through fauvism (1907-19551 pursueda career in bothmain- and cubism to non-objectivism and con- stream and gay media (the latter in his structivism saw progressive abandon- extensive work for the Swiss magazine, ment of representational subject matter. Der Kreis]. This meant the exclusion of all types of A chief characteristicof the avant- sexual allusion, though these were to make garde art of the twentieth century is inter- a temporary comebackwith the para-Freu- national exchange. Even when they stayed dian preoccupations of the Surrealism of at home, artists sought to free themselves the 1920s. The enigmatic, germinal figure from parochial restrictions. When travel- of MarcelDucharnp (1887-1 968)cherished ing, they tended to stop in the Bohemian a female persona, "Rrose SClavy," going so quarters of large cities, where sexual free- far as to have himself photographed as her dom was long the rule. For the first forty in drag. Inasmuch as homosexual attach- years of the century, Paris was the great ments are not documented for Duchamp, magnet. In the city's international lesbian this experiment in gender malleability and colony the most formidable figure was the double personality is probably to be attrib- American experimental writer Gertrude uted to a personal penchant made possible Stein. Through her remarkable art collec- by the freedom of Bohemia. tion, and her influence on her lover the Two Americans illustrate the major collector Etta Cone andothers, Stein possibilities of the gay modem artist. was able to play a formative role in the Marsden Hartley (1877-1 943) resided in reception of advanced modernist art in Berlin at the start of World War I, where he English-speaking countries. Unfortu- created emblematic expressionist portraits nately, the only homosexual artist she of his lover Karl von Freyburg, a soldier promoted was the mediocre Englishman who was killed in the first days of the war. Sir Francis Rose. Paris was also the home The work of Charles Demuth (1883-1935) of the American painter Romaine Brooks is hard to classify, though it has affinities (1874-1 970), whose often forceful works with Georgia OIKeeffe and the precision- are executed in a somewhat old-fashioned ism of Charles Sheeler. Demuth did a se- style, recalling that of James McNeil riesof evocations of New York's gay baths, Whistler. Also dwelling mainly in Paris, as well as groups of sailors (who were the Polish-born heterosexual Tamara de important gay icons in the period). Paul Lempicka (1898-1980), whose work be- Cadmus (b. 1904) deliberately chose to camesynonymouswith art deco, produced work in a style derived from the early lush images of women interacting that Italian Renaissance. Frequently a subject played, teasingly but sometimes power- of controversy, he exposed a seamy, vulgar fully, on the city's image as a modern side of American sexuality that some would Lesbos. Her German contemporary Jeanne prefer to forget. Mammen (1890-1976) created a more Although the Surrealists sought candid and direct iconography of the les- to explore sexuality, the homophobia of bian cabaret culture in her country, in their leader Andre Breton placed a ban on

0 C": ART, VISUAL 4 gay subject~rat least male one?. Two in the Bacon mold. Others, such as the related figures did explore in this realm, Chilean Juan Davila, Philip Gore, and the however, the writer Jean Cocteau (1889- London couple known as Gilbert and 1963))with his drawings of sailors, and the George, explore the byways of camp. A Argentine-born painter Leonor Fini (b. gentle and romantic vision is projected by 1908), with enigmatic scenes of women. the Englishman David Hutter. The major The ambitious Russian-born Pave1 Tche- burst of neo-Expressionism that appeared litchew (189&1957), connected with &- in Berlin during the 1970s saw the emer- eral avant-garde circles in Europe and gence of a number of artists, including America, also belongs in this company. Rainer Fetting and Salome, who treat gay The gay art of southem Europe in this subject matter in afrank, often ironic way. period is just beginning to become known, Lesbian art parallels the great as seen in the Italians Filippo De Pisis upsurge of women's art in our time, as (1869-1956) and Gulgielmo Janni (1892,- exemplified by the collective work "The 19581, as well as the Spaniard Gregorio Dinner Table" coordinated by Judy Chi- Prieto. To this group should be added the cago. The Scottish-born JuneRedfern fuses Dominican Jaime Gonzdez Colson, who ancient myths from the goddess sphere resided in Europe for many years. with modem imagery. The American The Contemporary Epoch. The Harmony Hammond, who is also active as better atmosphere of the period since 1960 a critic, has worked in several late modern has allowed artists of stature to be open and postmodern styles. The new interest about their homosexuality. The English- in women's art has also helped to revive man Francis Bacon (b. 1909) has created painters of the recent past, such as the phantasmagoric scenes of two men wres- bisexual Mexican Frida Kahlo. tling which convey a powerful sense of In male photography the "old existentialangst.DavidHockney (b. 1937), master" Bruce Weber's achievement was also English-born, but California-Parisian commemorated at a retrospective at the in his choice of domiciles, pleases by hih Whitney Biennialin 1987.The photographs agile recycling of major modernist themes. of Duane Michals are poetically yet dis- Finally, Andy Warhol (1928-1986) was a turbingly enigmatic, while Tress and kind of presiding spirit over New York's Robert Mapplethorpe capture the blunt chic art scene. It is possible that the popu- starkness of the 1970s scene. Lesbian lar acceptance of these artists has been photography has concentrated on portrai- achieved at the cost of pigeonholing them ture, as seen in the work of JEB (Joan E. in steretypical categories that the straight Birren), or evocative, nonsexual scenes. public can assimilate: Bacon is the un- In the late 1970s art entered a happy neurotic, Hockney the stylish, fac- phase defined first as "pluralism" and, ile designer, and Warhol the arch-priest of increasingly, as llpostmodemism.llIt may camp. The restricted role categories per- be doubted that the long-standing prem- mitted by our art world contrast with the ises of the modernist aesthetic-its sense more generous possibilities vouchsafed to of discontinuity, irony, and high serious- artists in the Renaissance, however diffi- ness-have been definitively overcome, cult that era may have been in other ways. but there is no doubt that the boundaries of Other openly gay and lesbian the acceptable have been broadened. This artists have been less successful at secur- enlargement creates opportunities for gay ing fame, though a ;nonographic series and lesbian artists. At the same time, published by Gay Men's Press serves to however, the tyranny of the market and of make the work of some of them widely critical stereotypes is as great as ever, so available. The somber works of the late that artists are under great pressure to Mario Dubsky (1939-1985) are somewhat settle into niches that have been prepared * ART, VISUAL for them. It should be remembered that In his accepting attitude toward homosex- many painters, sculptors, and photogra- ual behavior, Artemidorus is fully in ac- phers whose personal orientation is homo- cord with popular Greek ethics. Signifi- sexual are as reluctant to be styled "gay cantly, however, when the body of his artists" as they are to be called neo-expres- teaching passed to Byzantine authors of sionist, neo-mannerist, or some other label. dream books, they subjected the homosex- ual material to a Christian filtration pro- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ctcile Beurdeley, cess so that it is either omitted altogether, L'Amour bleu, New York: Rizzoli, 1978; Emmanuel Cooper, The Sexual Perspec- or (in two rare instances where it survives] tive: Homosexuality and Art in the Lust treated negatively. 100 Years in the West, London: Rout- ledge & Kegan Paul, 1986; Kenneth J. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Artemidorus, The Dover, Greek HornosexuaLity, Cambr- Interpretation of Dreams: Oneirocritica, idge: Harvard University Press, 1978; translated by Robert J. White, Park James M. Saslow, Ganyrnede in the Ridge, NJ:Noyes Press, 1975. Renaissance: Homosexuality in Art and Society, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986; idem, "Homosexuality in ASCETICISM Art," Advocate, 429 (Sept. 17, 1985)) Sexual asceticism may take the 40-42 (continued in issues 436, 457,467, and 480). form of total abstinence-lifelong virgin- Wayne R. Dynes ity--or it may imply infrequency of sexual congress and abstinence during specified periods. In some individuals sexual asceti- ARTEMIDORUS cism is reinforced by chastisement and (LATE SECOND CENTURY mortification of the body through flagella- OF OUR ERA) tion, fasting, and denial of sleep. Greek writer. Although Artemi- Comparative studies reveal a dorus resided in Ephesus he is sometimes number of motives for these restrictions. termed "of Daldis" because the latter was The priestesses in sanctuaries of ancient his mother's native city. He traveled widely Greece were required to avoid sexual in the Mediterranean world to collect contact with any human being in order material for his extant major work The faithfully to serve the god whose consort Interpretation of Dreams. This book, they were. Widespread throughout the which incorporates much ancient folk- Mediterranean world-and elsewhere- lore, influenced Byzantine and Islamic was the idea that sexual contact makes dream books, not to mention the magnum one unclean and therefore unworthy of opus of Sigmund Freud, Traumdeutung setting foot on holy ground without puri- (On the Interpretation of Dreams, 1900). fication and a specified period of absti- Artemidorus takes a favorable nence. Finally, chastity was believed to view of homosexuality, which he says is bring strength to the one who practiced it, "natural, legal, and customary." Conse- and sometimes to others aswell. In ancient quently, whenever the dream symbol Rome the purity of the Vestal Virgins was involves same-sex relations Artemidorus' thought to safeguard the city from harm. interpretation presages good events. The In later Greek times and under only exceptions are symbols pertaining to the Roman empire this cluster of beliefs incestuous relations between father and underwent asharpening, whose effectsleft son and those in which a slave takes an a permanent impress on Western civiliza- aggressive role in relation to his master. tion. In some Stoic thinkers the shift was The interest in sexual dreams probably relatively conservative: a modification of derives from Egyptian dynastic dream the traditional Greek commendation of books, which freely note such incidents. temperance in eating, drinking, and sex in ASCETICISM O the direction of a more active self-denial, option, justifiable only to provide offspring. which should not be pressed to extremes. Some historians have concluded that the Still this change is significant: the older depopulation of the later Roman empire concept had enshrined an even-handed was a direct consequence of countless balance between appetite and renuncia- numbers of individuals declining to par- tion-enlightened self-management- ticipate in the procreation cycle. while thenewer trend tilted towardrenun- Needless to say, in those times ciation. Along these lines, the physician and in ensuing centuries the flesh made Musonius Rufus discouraged homosexual demands that were not to be denied. But intercourse because of its "violence," their exercise was henceforth to be accom- which led to fatigue. panied by a gnawing guilt. The eleventh- Set apart at first from the Greco- century papal imposition of celibacy on Roman mainstream, a number of religious the priesthood meant that the whole of the and philosophical sects arose that regarded clergy, held up as the fullest embodiment the human body as one's enemy, to be of the Christian ideal, was condemned to mortified and humiliated. The Galli, priests lifelong abstinence. In every walk of life of the Eastern goddess Cybele, could be transgressors of the narrow sexual ethic witnessed ritually castrating themselves. were exposed to ridicule and punishment. In the Jewish world, the Qumran sect The notion that sexual uncleanness could known to us from the Dead Sea Scrolls bring divine retribution on a nation fre- seems to have insisted on "spiritual w- quently recurs in sermons against homo- nuchisrn"-total continendorthe inner sexuality in the early modern period. At core of believers. At the heart of Christian- the end of the fifteenth century the appear- ity lay aHoly Family that was cordoned off ance of syphilis in Western Europe seemed from sex. From the fourth century on- to set a terrible seal on this complex of wards, Mary was regarded as not simply a fears. The way in which such feelings of virgin at the time of Jesus's birth, but guilt could be manipulated is evident in perpetually a virgin. Jesus, though fully the great masturbation scare, which began capable of sexual relations, never-in the in the early eighteenth century and reached view of the Early Christian Fathers-chose its zenith in the Victorian period. In fact to exercise the option. As for Joseph, if he the horror of self-pollutionwas but a new had once been capable of sexual activity, avatar of the Early Christian Encratite fear "he was safely beyond it by the time of his of loss of semen. The commercial mind of marriage. It is not surprising that these the Victorians also linked.emission of seed exemplary figures were imitated-in vari- with monetary expenditure; hence sexual ous ways. Virgins had great prestige in the mismanagement led to sexualbankruptcy. Early Christian communities, as did mar- In Britain and North America the late ried couples who had ceased to have sexual nineteenth century saw the rise of the relations. The sect of the Encratites held SexualPurity Movement, which effectively that semen must be conserved in the body propagandized for continence. at all costs. (Evensuch a respected medical In recent decades the importation authority as Soranos of Ephesus taught of elements of Indic religions-Hinduism that every emission of-the male seed was and Buddhism-into Western industrial injurious to health.) And the monks of the countries does not seem to have led to any Egyptian and Syrian deserts not only prac- sustained emulation of the ascetic tradi- ticed chastity, but subjected thebody to an tions cherished by those faiths in their unremitting regime of mortification. It is homelands. A more powerful persuader in against this background that the Early the directionof sexual continence has been Christian prohibition of homosexuality the AIDS crisis, a factor that has served to must be seen. Marriage itself was a lesser enhance (and probably exaggerate) an in- 9 ASCETICISM cipient reaction to the emancipated six- Gay Men and Lesbians. In the gay ties and seventies. community, Asian gay men and lesbians See aho Celibacy. experience the same alienation, being perceived as "The Other": the foreign, the BIBLIOGRAPHY. Peter Bmwn, The exotic, the non-American. The preoccupa- Body and Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Early Chzistian- tion of modem gay male culture with the ity, Berkeley: University of California sexual images and physical types of the Press, 1988; Eugen Fehrle, Die kultische fifties and sixties-the short-haired blue- Keuschheit i Altertum, Giessen: Alfred eyed all-American boy who symbolized T6pelmann1 1910; Aline Rousselle, the United States in its empire-building, Porneia: De lo maftrise du corps d la privation sensorielle, Ile-lVe sihles de expansionist phase-has also resulted in l'dre ckr6tienne, Paris: Presses Universi- the exclusion of Asian men from the sex- taires do ~r~nce,1983. ual and romantic interchange of modern Wayne R. Dynes gymale life in the United States. Among both gay men and lesbians, popular stere- otypes of Asians as being subservient, ASIAN-AMERICANS, passive, and eager to please inform many GAYAND LESBIAN of theirrelationships with theirnon-Asian Asian Americans who are gay or caunterparts. lesbian live within the same social con- Within their ethnic communities straints as their heterosexual counterparts, many Asian gay men and lesbians keep facing many of the prejudices and cultural their homosexuality hidden from families exclusions of modem North America. and friends. While Asian traditionalists Among identifiable ethnic peoples, Asians, may tolerate instances of homosexuality even those of the third, fourth, or fifth if d.etand surreptitious, an open avowal generation, are most likely to be consid- of gmyness is often condemned as a West- ered foreign, illegal aliens, unable to speak ern corruption. Asiangay people with more English and so forth. This perpetual state traditional families also have to contend of being foreign-not being part of the with intense social and cultural pressures American cultural milieudtems from to many, to reproduce the family Ine, not multiple historical roots. to lsgrace the family name and so on. For An initial wave of immigration those who have immigrated more recently frqp China and Japan in the late nine- there areotherpressures: immigration laws teenth century to meet labor demands in that exclude homosexuals and that the railroad industry was followed by the threaten HZV testing and dependence for Chinese Exclusion Acts which explicitly cultural support on ethnic communities aimed at stoppingimmigration from Asian which are largely homophobic. countries. These obstacles to Asian immi- Organizing. To provide support gration were not eased until the 1960~~ and to air and resolve many of their com- when a new wave of immigrants from mon problems, Asian gay men and lesbi- Asian countries, mostly middle-class and ans have organized in many of the largest professional people, was allowed into the cities of the United States. Through their United States. Continuity and growth of activism, many of the groups also chal- viable Asian ethnic communitieswere also lenge the exclusive identification of hampered duringworld Warn by the mass American gay culture and gay communi- internment of Japanese Americans (and ties with Caucasian men. Japanese Canadians),resulting in massive A major impetus to organizing dislocation and dispersion of Japanese began with the first National Third World American families and communities who Lesbian and Gay Conference (October had settled in the Westem states. 12-15, 1979)held in conjunction with the ASTROLOGY +

First National Lesbian and Gay March on tion of Asian gay men's groups in San Washington. The handful of Asian lesbi- Francisco, Philadelphia, and Washington. ans and gay men who met at the confer- A distinctive feature of the North ence, many for the first time, lobbied hard American gay Asian movement is its inter- to have an Asian gay person (Michiyo national perspective. Many individual Cornell) speak at the March rally. Tana activists and organizations maintain ties Loy, an Asian lesbian from New York with gay groups and activists in East and City, also addressed the Third World South Asia-the political and cultural Conference. The energy and support gen- exchanges that have developed have en- erated as a result of this first meeting led .riched the movement on both sides of the many to see the value of support and or- Pacific. Of note is the gay South Asian ganizing in their local areas. The Boston newsletter Trikone (formed as Trikon in Asian Gay Men and Lesbians (BAGMAL), January, 1986)based in Palo Alto, Califor- the first Asian gay group in the United nia, which ha inspired chapters in the States, was already afew months old at the Indian subcontinent as well as throughout time of the conference. The Gay Asians of North America. Toronto was formed shortly afterwards by Communities. With the rise of a participant at the conference. local groups and the building of local Throughout the eighties other communities the climate for coming out groups appeared in major cities. Some are for Asian gay men and lesbians improved of the more social club variety with lead- throughout the 1980s. Asian gay commu- ership and participation by both Asian and nities in most cities are a diverse mix of non-Asian gay men. These clubs, modeled North American-born and foreign-born after the Black and White Men Together men and women from a variety of East and groups, sprang up in such cities as Chi- South Asian cultural backgrounds with a cago, Washington, San Francisco, Los substantial proportion of persons of mixed Angeles, and New York. Other groups have cultural heritage. These communitiesvary agendas determined more directly for and substantially from city to city. For ex- by gay Asianmen and Asian lesbians them- ample, groups in San Francisco with its selves. Included among these are the Alli- high incidence of AIDS concentrate on ance of Massachusetts Asian Gay Men and AIDS-related issues while providing sup- Lesbians, the Gay Asians of Toronto, and porrand services for infected Asian people. the Gay Asian Pacific Alliance (based in In Toronto where a high proportion are San Francisco and formed in 1988).Among Hong Kong-born Chinese, a lively gay Asian lesbian groups there is the Asian Chinese culture based on the Cantonese Lesbians of the East Coast (based in New dialect has developed. All communities York and formed in 1983))while on the were enlivened by the influx of Southeast West Coast thegroup called Asian Women Asian refugees into North American cities organized in 1984 around the journal during the eighties. Phoenix Rising, then regrouped as Asian Siong-huat Chuo Pacific Sisters in August, 1988. The First West Coast hianpa- ASTROLOGY cific Lesbian and Gay Conference was held The history of astrology, the pseu- July 18, 1987 in West Hollywood, Califor- doscience which claims to divine events nia, and the first North American Confer- from the positions of the heavenly bodies, ence for Lesbian and Gay Asians was held has attracted considerable recent scholar- August 19-21, 1988, in Toronto, Canada. ship, but the sexual aspects have been The year 1988 also saw the formation of neglected. In a passage in the Confessions new groups for lesbians in San Francisco (4:3), Augustine condemns astrology be- and Washington (D.C.) and the inaugura- cause it could excuse sin as under the 4 ASTROLOGY

controlnot of thewill but of the stars ("the ries. In the sixteenth century, for example, cause of thy sin is inevitably determined Michelangelr+whose horoscope showed by heaven"). For those who accepted the just theconjunctionofMercuryandVenus astrological systems, and many did in late noted by Ptolemy-seemsto haveassuaged GreekandRomanantiquity, thestarscould his guilty conscience with the belief that explain attraction to members of one's his attraction to his youthful assistants own sex. The astral mechanism is detailed (garzoru) had been decreed by celestial by Ptolemy of Alexandria(ca.~.~.100-178) forces beyond his control. Frangois Rabe- intheclassictreatiseonHellenistic-Roman lais, in the Pantagmefine Prognosu'cation astrology: "Jomed with Mercury, in hon- of 1532, spoke of "Those whom Venus is

*.. orable positions, Venus makes them . . .in saidtorule, as.. .Ganymedes, Bardachoes, , . . affairs of love restrained in their relations Huflers [fellators], Ingles." Some planets r. , withwomen, but morepassionate for boys, were held to be androgynous, because they and jealous." (Tetrabiblos,3:3). The inter- are sometimes hot and sometimes cold. pretation of this particular pairing of the Thus Mercury was accounted hot and dry planets was probably suggested by their when near the sun, cold and moist when Greek names Hermes and Aphrodite, near the Moon. Clearly, then, the concept 4 - - ' ,which join to produce Hermaphrodites. of sexual inclination as guided by the stars Babylonian astrology was the helped some of the system's adherents to -v 5: -Source of Greek astrology. Not surpris- grasp that thelrsexual interests were not a 9% . ingly, then, a neoBabylonian text of ca. mere caprice or vicious deviation, but were *---.- ._. - 500 B.C. says that "love of a man for a man" essentially natural, being defined by cos- 8- is governed by the constellation Scorpio. mic imperatives. a*. =+$$. $*@<~~'Lc3&he Greeks personalized astrology by In the seventeenth century, un- ? <<*, .3%* -, developing the notion that each individ- der attack by rationalism, astrology went ;-** ..%[email protected]. ,. a-& - -$ual's character and destiny are determined underground again. The late nineteenth- by the position of the planets at his birth. century crisis of faith, however, engen- 5 Hellenistic-Roman Egypt saw astrological dered a compensatory upsurge of occult s4- , interpretation take the form that it was to and esoterlc beliefs, notably Theosophy , retain through the Renaissance, though (foundedby HelenaPetrovna Blavatsky m the intervention of Christianity and Islam 1875). Theosophy, which had an attrac- caused the homoerotic readings of certain tion for some homosexuals (e.g,, C. W. planetary dispositions to be suppressed Leadbeater), incorporated Buddhist and and disappear horn standard works. Ulti- Hindu dements, which henceforth played mately, as has been seen in the case of Au- theirrole in some astrological systems. As gustine, Christian scorn of astrology suc- the emerginghomophile movement made

+$-a,,, ceeded in driving the discipline under- it possible to discuss homosexuality in - .> ground, though it survived inIslamic lands. public, the long-suppressed erotic inter- During the Renaissance, as part pretationof certain signsreappeared in the the overall program of revival of classi- literature. The first thoroughgoing mod- 1antiquity, the FlorentineNeoplatonist em attempt to correlate astrology with " arsilio Ficino (who was homosexual) homosexual behavior was made in the .d created a vision of the cosmos linking 1920s by the German occultist and right- . . Ts 3 *. humanity with the heavenly bodies wing theorist Karl-Giinther Heimsoth. through emanations of love. At the same Independently, the American homophile time the actual techniques of astrology Gavin Arthur discovered the occult tradi- ~~~-~~enjoyed a remarkable resurgence, though tion in Paris in the 1920s. In 1960, having c$ -,- ; with complicated readjustments to take settled in San Francisco, he published a +. - account of shlfts in the position of the book, The Circle of Sex, which correlates F.

- heavenly bodies in theuintmve;~~~znt;- character types.- with astrolog~calinflu- +.-. Pr ++

-++ . -. _ -+?*-:.$ -e< ; --6 . .+++:" - -;,,,:/+::$: sL- -;*A. 86 L -9%' --".,*" " -5*., L ?v.;& -< 2% ~~~~~~~3r.$a - -..zI. . ,-d .. .- .. r*. .$.? - b&r&,*:,- b&r&,*:,- -&& & - a ,2-j,**I < -. ATHENAEUS OF NAUCRATIS 4 ences. Arthur is credited with having of "symposium literature" inwhich guests launched the idea of the coming of the at a banquet discuss philosophy, belles Aquarian Age, which was to become cele- lettres, law, medicine, cuisine, and other brated through the musical Hair. subjects. The framework, while occasion- In twentieth-century America ally tinged with humor, serves as avehicle astrology has exercised an enduring hold for the collections of excerpts that are on the popular imagination, witness the introduced into the dialogue. Athenaeus newspaper columns devoted to the sub- cites some 1,250 authors, gives the titles of ject. Thanks in large measure to the sym- more than 1,000 plays, and quotes more biosis with the Counterculture, astrology than 10,000 lines of verse. gained a foothold in gay circles, and sev- The significance of his work lies eral paperbacks have appeared explaining in showing that in cultivated pagan soci- the role of the stars in homosexual and ety at the close of the second century lesbian destinies. Significantly, however, pederasty and all that related to it could be astrologicalexplanations (based,as it were, discussed freely and casually with no tone on the cosmic environment) play no part of reproach such as Christian apologists in the current debate over acquired vs. would like to trace back to the Golden Age constitutional factors in the etiology of of Hellenic civilization and beyond. The sexual orientation. Today's astrology, the passions of legendary and historic figures debased descendant of a millennia1 tradi- for boys are mentioned, and famous boy- tion, holds an essentially personal, often lovers are named: Alcibiades, Charmides, superficial significance for its adherents. Autolycus, Pausanias, and Sophocles. Before dismissingits contribution entirely, Books and plays on pederasty are named however, one should note that man, un- and cited: The Pederasts by Diphilus, a like the lower animals, has no fixed mat- play entitled Ganymede, a treatise On ing season but copulates at all times of the Love by Heraclides of Pontus, the play The year, a fact that may play an as yet undeter- Effeminates by Cratinus, and allusions to mined role in the characterological vari- boy-love in Aeschylus and Sophocles. The ation of which homosexual orientation is creation of the Sacred Band of Theban but one aspect. In a sense, then, astrology, warriors is ascribed to Epaminondas. The though rightly divested of its own creden- fondness of particular cities and ethnic cials, may yet rank as the precursor of the groups for homosexual pleasures is men- emerging science of biometeorology that tioned: the Cretans, the Chalcidians of may shed unexpected light on the causes Euboea, the Medes, the Tuscans, the in- of homosexuality. habitants of Massilia (Marseilles]. Some individuals who were exclusively homo- BIBLIOGRAPHY. Franz Curnont, sexual, such as Onomarcus and the L'Egypte des astrologues, Brussels: Fondation Egyptologique Reine Elim- philosopher Zeno, are named, with no beth, 1938] Michael Jay, Gay Love Signs, implication that their conduct was deemed New York: Ballantine, 1980; Helen pathological or reprehensible. Lemay, "The Stars and Human The extant portions of thework- Sexuality," Isis, 71 (1980), 127-37. Book wI is the most relevant-are a Warren Johansson goldmine for the study of the homosexual side of classical civilization and the cul- ATHENAEUSOF tural expression of pederasty in the an- NAUCRATISFLOURISHED cient world. Even when the compositions CA. A.D. 2001 quoted have not survived, the titles and Author of the Deipnosophistai, fragments preserved by Athenaeus give an or "Banquet of the Learned," of which 15 idea of the volume of literature and art of some 30 books survive. It is a specimen which male love inspired when it was an 4 ATHENAEUS OF NAUCRATIS accepted part of the everyday life of all pression of masculine values, thevalues of classes of society, individual differences in model citizenship: aggression, competi- erotic taste notwithstanding. tion, racism, elitism, militarism, imperi- Warren Iohansson alism, sexism, and heterosexism. Many writers have suggested that athletics and healthy heterosexual masculinity are ATHLETICS popularly equated. That athletic image is Athletics is the broad field of dramatically unlike the dominant reli- physicalactivity inwhich strength is called gious, medical, and legal models of homo- into play andhcreased-Homosexual men sexuality which categorized homosexuals and women have been and are active in as ,infull pathological, and criminal. Be- both mainstream and gay community cause the popular images of the athlete athletics. Their experience in athletics is, and the homosexual are virtually anti- in many respects, the same as that of their thetical, model healthy citizen and degen- heterosexual counterparts: experiences erate pathological criminal respectively, such as physical exertion, team member- many athletes, especially professionals, ship and competition. have found it difficult publicly to Adetics and the Male Image. acknowledge their homosexual orienta- since the ancient Olympic Games, athlet- tion. Consequently, it is difficult to know ics has been considered a sign of masculin- who in professional sports is homosexual. it'Y. Women, until the twentieth century, Some famous athletes are known to be have been excluded from athletics; they homosexual, among them John Menlove were prohibited from participation in the Edwards (mountaineering), Billie Jean Games Olympia and the King (tennis], David Kopay (footballJ, activities of the gyItUIaSia of Ancient ti^^ Navratilova (tennis) and Bill Greece. (There is evidence, however, that ~il,j~~ in ancient China, upper-class women Le_sbian and Gay Athletes. The played a version of soccer with men.] With masculine significationof athletics, in the emancipation of Westem women in conjunction with the popular belief that the twentieth century, some became ath- lesbians are more masculine than their letes- The modem Olympics prohibited heterosexual counterparts, has led to the thwarticipation of women until 1928-At notion that many athletic women are les- thd984 Los Angeles Ol~mpicsless than bian. It seems likely that there is a concen- a quarter of the athletes were female. tration of lesbians in athletics, but the In the nineteenth theo- factual truth of this assumption cannot be ries of homosexuality were developed determined. Statistical research on the which saw it as a symptom of gender presence of homosexuals in athletics is confusion; in conjunction with that, there inevitably flawed; fear of negativereper- develo~edacommonbeliefthat homosex- cussions mitigates against athletes identi: ual men were essentially feminine and fying themselves as homosexual. There lesbians masculine. has been a concerted effort by individual The nineteenth-centurJ' expan- athletes, sports organizations, administra- sion of the British Empire and its sphere of tors, coaches and scholars in the history cultural influence, the ascendancy of the and sociology of sport to disguise the sub- bourgeoisie, the rise of the British "public stantial participation of lesbians in sport. school" system, and the central role that Many lesbian athletes have been denied sports played in that system have made a participation on teams and been fired from cumulative contribution to the twentieth- positions as national coaches when their century Western conception of sports. lesbianism became known. Research on Athletics became the quintessential ex- lesbians in athletics is minimaland pro- ATHLETICS 9 posals for research are frequently dismissed Since athletics offers a subjective by academic juries. Many lesbian athletes feeling of physical power, homosexual men try to downplay lesbian participation, who have felt powerless because of the low saying that if the extent of lesbianism i~ social position of their sexual orientation, athletics were known "it would give can find athletics especially significant. women's sports a bad name." They can derive intense satisfaction from Whereas in this century athletics excelling in a sport knowing that as "fag- has been a popular occupation for lesbians, gots,) they are beating "macho men" at until the development of the "modern" their own game. Gay liberation encour- gay liberation movement, many homosex- aged gay athletes to come out. Coming out ual men avoided athletics. It could be that has made it possible for some to become they have been aware of the masculine athletes. heterosexual signification of athletic par- Although there have been "re- ticipation and wanted no part of it. Stan- spectableartistictreatments" of the "jock" dard athletic insults refer to fags, pansies, in gay literature, for example The Front or sissies. To avoid such derision, finding Runner (1974)by Patricia Nell Warren, the athletics socially and psychically trau- most prominent position the jock has in matic, many homosexuals eschewed gay culture is probably in gay pomogra- sports. Male homosexual oral history re- phy. One of North America's earliest and search projects reveal few references to most prolific gay pornographers was the athletic activity; when it is mentioned, it Athletic Model Guild of Los Angeles, is usually with considerable distaste. which has produced soft-core gay pornog- Gay Sports. The modem gay lib- raphy since 1945. Other examples of sporty eration movement fostered a strong reac- soft-core gay pornography can be found in tion to the old medical definition of homo- Scott Madsen's Peak Condition (1985)and sexuality which associated it with gender in the photos of athletes by Bruce Weber confusion. Gay writers of the 1970s saw and Christopher Makos which frequently gay liberation, in some measure, as libera- appear in Andy Warhol's magazine Znter- tion from the oppressive restrictionswhich view. Athletes are often featured in hard- society exercised over homosexuals core pornographic publications and videos through the effeminate stereotype of the with titles such as "Jocks," "Spokes," and Fldmosexual. The popular gay conception "These Bases are Loaded." 66 the homosexual has changed from de- One of the products of the gay generate effeminacy to "normal" mascu- liberation movement has been the crea- linity. Consequently, gay men who want tion of specifically gay political and social to look "masculine and normal" by devel- organizations. Gay athletic clubs, which oping athletic bodies have taken up exer- can be found in major cities across North cise. Whereas before the Stopewall Rebel- America, constitute an important aspect lion [1969), the representation of urban of gay community life. The common pur- homosexual men in athletics was proba- pose of gay sports groups is essentially bly equal to or less than their representa- twofold: to promote social interaction, and tion in society as a whole, gay men now to provide athletic opportunitiesfor people comprise either a very substantial minor- who share a way of life. The roster of gay ity or, in some instances, a majority of the community sports clubs is extensive; space population of urban athletic facilities. For affords only a brief samplingof this signifi- example, YMCAs in major North Ameri- cant facet of gay culture. In many North can and European cities have large homo- American cities the largest gay organiza- sexual memberships. Many North Ameri- tions are sports clubs. There are outing can cities now have athletic clubs which clubs affiliated with the International Gay are almost exclusively gay male. and Lesbian Outdoor Organization; they 4 ATHLETICS have names like the "Out and Out Club" tant expression of gay pride can be found in and organize activities such as bicycle gay athleticsFin New York City, a major tours, cross-country and down-hill skiing, event in thegay pride festivities, onewhich hiking, camping, canoeing, parachuting attracts athletes from all parts of North and white-water rafting. Included in the America, is the five mile Gay Pride Run in list of organized North American gay Central Park. A prestigious international community sports groups are: Spokes, a gay pride event is the Gay Games. Gay cycling club in Vancouver; The San Fran- liberationists have seized upon athletics cisco Gay Women's Softball League; and as an ideological instrument of gay poli- the JudyGarland MemorialBowling League tics. Athletic events are promoted by gay in Toronto. The Ramblers Soccer Club of community organizers to counteract the New York City is one of nine teams in the frequently negative image of homosexuals United Nations Soccer League; it is the by emphasizing a picture of health and only non-UN member and the only openly good citizenship. gay team. Gay community sports have been There are gay sports governing used for overt political ends. The relations bodies for many sports. The North Ameri- between urban gay communities and po- can Gay Amateur Athletic Alliance is a lice forces are notoriously poor. Many non-profit organization dedicated to pro- cities, including Vancouver, New York, moting amateur softball for all persons and San Francisco, have annual competi- with a special emphasis on gay participa- tions between police andgay all-star teams tion; it also establishes uniform playing in an effort to improve relations. rules and regulations. The International Conclusion. The participation of Gay Bowling Association has 65 local af- homosexual men and women in athletics filiates across North America with over is extensive. Their presence in mainstream ten thousand members. The National Gay athletics is often not visible because of the Volleyball Association has clubs in over fact that they frequently pass as straight. 60 North American cities. Many cities Their experience in that milieu can be have umbrella sports organizations which uniq'ue and is intimately related to the interact with other gay community groups history of sexuality and popular concep- and help to coordinate local, national and tions of masculinity and athletics. Gay international competitions. There is. the liberation has brought with it a flourishing Metropolitan Sports Association in Chi- of gay culture which has produced a pleth- cago, the San Francisco Arts and Athletics ora of gay teams, clubs, and sports govern- and the Metropolitan Vancouver Athletic ing bodies across North America, a trend and Arts Association which is aRegistered which is spreading to other parts of the Society and has offices in the Sports Brit- world. ish Columbia Building, a provincially funded facility. Although there are gay BIBLIOGRAPHY. R. Coe, A Sense of Pride: The Story of Gay Games 11, San sports groups in other parts of the world, Francisco: Pride Publications, 1986; Australia being an important example, Betty Hicks, "Lesbian Athletes," most gay community sports activity at the Christopher Street 4:3 (October- present takes place in North American November 1979))4250; Billie Jean King cities. and Frank Deford, Billie Jeun, New York: Viking, 1982; David Kopay and Perry The ideological signification of Young, The David Kopoy Story: An gay athletics is important. Over the last Extraordinary Self-Revelation,2nd ed., ten years or so, there has been a shift in New York: Donald I. Fine, 1988; Brian focus in the gay liberation movementfrom Pronger, Irony and Ecstasy: Gay Men the dialectic of oppression and liberation and Athletics, Toronto: Summehill Press, 1989; idem, "Gay Jocks: A to the experience of gay pride. An impor- Phenomenology of Gay Men in Athlet- AUDEN, WYSTAN HUGH 4

ics," in Critical Perspectives on Men, I In 1937 he ex~ressedhis svm~a-. - Masculinity and Sports, Michael thy for the loyalist cause by visiting Spain, Messner and Don Sabo, eds., Champaign, and the followingyear he traveled to China IL: Human Kinetics Publishing 1988) D. Sabo and R. Runfola, lock: Sports and with Isherwood. In 1940, having become Male Identity, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: disillusioned with left-wing causes, he Prentice-Hall, 1980; Michael J. Smith, converted back to Anglicanism,- a change- "The Double Life of a Gay Dodger," in that profoundly affected the character and Black MenlWhite Men, San Francisco, tone of his writing. With the outbreak of Gay Sunshine Press, 1983. Brian Pronger World War 11 in Europe, he settled in New York, where he met and fell in love with a young man, Chester Kallman, who was AUDEN,WYSTAN HUGH destined to be his lifelongcompanion. This (1907-1973) relationship was celebrated in a series of Anglo-American poet and critic. poems to an anonymous and ungendered The child of cultivated, upper-class par- lover, and also in a deliberately outrageous ents, Auden profited from a traditional composition, "The Queen's Masque." This British elite schooling. As a student at unpublished dramatic composition, in- Christ College, Oxford, he first excelled in tended to be performed for Kallman's science, but shifted to English with the twenty-second birthday on February 7, intention of becoming a "great poet." A 1943, was not rediscovered until 1988. In quick study, Auden acquired an under- 1941 Auden collaborated with the gay graduate reputation as an almost oracular composer Benjamin Britten in a chamber presence, and he began to assemble around opera, Paul Bunyan. Through Kallman, him a group of young writers that included whose knowledge was expert and unflag- Christopher Isherwood (whomhe hadmet ging, Auden expanded his interest in op- at preparatory school),C. Day Lewis, Louis era, and the two collaborated on a libretto MacNeice, and Stephen Spender. After for Igor Stravinsky's The Rake's Progress, leaving Oxford in 1928 Auden decided to as well as other works. Although actual spend a year in Berlin learning German. He sexual relations between them ceased af- then held a series of school-teaching jobs ter the first years, the two men made a life that allowed time for writing. together based on mutual trust and affec- Like the other members of his tion. Auden took charge of earning a liv- group-who came to be known as "the ing, while Chester excelled in cooking and poets of the thirtiesM-Auden broke with homemaking. Despite some asperities, the pastoral placidity of the Georgian trend their relationship survived not only in in English poetry, seeking to encompass New York, but in Ischia on the Mediterra- such modern technology and such trends nean and in Kirchstetten in Austria, where in thought as Freudianpsychoanalysis and they spent the summers. Marxism. Although he later repudiated Auden's later work is marked by their ideological commitments, Auden's ambitious cycles, such as A Christmas early poems have a numinous ambiguity Oratorio (1945) and The Age of Anxiety that unfortunately was largely lost in his (19471, which are technically expert but, later more pellucid but often facile work. for many readers at least, lacking in the In his early poetry the exaltation of the charisma of truly great poetry. Partly to figures of the Airman and the Truly Strong make ends meet, Auden produced a con- Man represents a continuation of the siderable body of prose criticism, and this adolescent aesthete's admiration for the sometimes deals movingly with other "hearty." His work in the 1930s had both homosexual authors. His most explicit the exhuberance and the limitations of homosexual poem is a piece of doggerel youth. called "The Platonic Lay" or "A Day for a 4 AUDEN, WYSTAN HUGH

Lay," which is not included in authorized anism, which held that man was a product editions of his works. Late in life he had of a primal struggle between the high god some contacts with the emerging Ameri- and his Satanic opponent, whose powers can gay movement, though to some his at- were almost equally great. Although he titudes seemed old-fashioned and not de- later abandoned this dualistic belief, im- void of self-contempt. portant residues of its dark coloration Auden's works are still being remained with him. edited and published, and consensus on During his youth he formed a his ultimate status has not been achieved. very deep bond withanothermale student. A recent attempt to show that his work After the premature death of this beloved anticipated the feminist and ecology friend, Augustine movingly remarked: "I movements is unconvincing. Often coura- still thought my soul and his soul to have geous in his outspokenness, Auden no been but one soul in two bodies; and there- doubt suffered at the hands of critics who fore was my life a very honor to me, were uncomfortable with his sexuality. because I would not live by halves. And His poetry and prose, which were wide- even therefore perchance was I afraid to ranging and copious, retain a strong sense die, lest he should wholly die, whom so of period: they tell us much of what the passionately I had loved." (Confessions, thirties werelike inBritah, and the forties 46). and fifties in America. In his thirties Augustine came under the influence of Ambrose, Bishop of BIBLIOGRAPHY. Works: Collected Milan, and was baptized in 387. He then Poems, New York: Random House., 1976; The English Auden: Poems, returned to North Africa, where he be- Essays, and Dramatic Writings, came a priest in 391. Four years later he 1927-1939, New York: Knopf, 1977; became bishop of Hippo, where he led a Porewrds and Afterwords, New York: demanding life of church administration, Vintage., 1974. Studies: Humphrey theological controversy, and serious writ- Carpenter, W. H. Auden: A Biography, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 198 1; ing. His best known works are his Dorothy J. Farnan, Auden in Love, New autobiography, The Confessions, and his York: New American Library, 1985; lengthy meditation on Christian history, Martin E. Gingerich, W. H. Auden: A me City of God, which was occasioned by Reference Guide, Boston: G. K. Hall, the news of the sack of Rome in 410. 1977. Wayne R. Dynes In keeping with the mainstream views of the Greek and Latin theologians who had preceded him, the mature Au- ystinemaintained that sexual intercourse AUGUSTINE,SAINT was lawful only within marriage with the (354-430) aim of producing offspring-thus exclud- Bishop of Hippo and one of the ing birth control. Even within marriage he Doctors of the Church. Born at Thagaste in denied that sexual pleasure could ever be North Africa, he was raised as a Christian. approved as an end in itself. Somewhat As a young man Augustine seems to have exceptionally, he held that, despite the been deeply troubled by the strength of his cleansing efficacy of baptism, some taint sex drive. Later he recalled how "in the of the sin of Adam lingered in the very act sixteenth year of my flesh. . . the madness of procreation through semen which as- of raging lust exercised its supreme do- cended genealogically to our first parent. minion over me." In the course of his From such premises Augustine concluded studies of rhetoric at Carthage he gadu- that the individual free will is radically ally abandoned his Christian faith. Au- circumscribed, seeing in the capacity of ystine was drawn instead to Manichae- the male member for unsought-after erec- AUSTRALIA + tion a signal example of the capacities of time, homosexuals established an open rebellion found within our own being. organization, the purpose of which was to His eloquent advocacy of these demand recognition, equal and just rigorist views, grounded as it was in his treatment before the law, and an end to personal ambivalence toward sexuality, discrimination. When one considers the has been widely influential in the Western almost taboo nature of homosexuality tradition. That Augustine cannot be wn- and the social invisibility of the homosex- sidered uniquely responsibly forthe inten- ual before 1970, the progress toward sification of Christian sex negativism is achievement of these goals has been shown by the parallel triumph of asceti- remarkably rapid. Yet it has also been cism in the Eastern Church where his uneven, with male homosexual acts writings were little known. remaining illegal in Tasmania, Western If the consequencesof Augustine's Australia, and Queensland, while only two view for individual self-development have states, New South Wales and Victoria, been regrettable, the political conclusions have enacted legislation outlawing that he drew from them were perhaps discrimination. The advent of AIDS, still more salutary. Government is at best a perceived by some as a "gay disease," has necessary evil. Since rulers are subject to created new problems, apart from the the same character flaws as other human medical issues, which have been only beings, he warned against the kind of per- partially resolved. sonality cult that has been endemic from The Convict Era. White settle- Alexander and Augustus to Stalin and ment of Australia began in January 1788, Castro. By the same token, he placed no as aBritish penal colony, and the transpor- exaggerated faith in popularrule, since the tation of convicts continued until 1840 in people also are made up of fallible indi- eastern Australia, 1852 in Tasmania, and viduals. There can be no political utopia 1868 in the west. Throughout the trans- on earth, he counseled, and the best that portation period there was a severe imbal- can be done is to check arbitrary exercise ance between the sexes, convict and free, of power through foresight and realism. and of course large numbers of convicts were kept in relative or complete isolation BIBLIOGRAPHY. Peter Brown, Au- from the other sex. Ample evidence exists gustine of Hippo, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967; Elaine Pagels, of the prevalence of homosexual behavior, A&~,Eve, *he Serpent, New Yo&: then referred to as "unnatural or abomi- Random House, 1988. nable crimes"; it is intermittent in the Wayne R. Dynes early years but more abundant after the term of Governor Lachlan Macquarie (1810-211. AUSTRALIA After five years of settlement An affluent,highly urbanized Captain WatkinTench waspleased to note nation with a populationof less than in his memoirs that the convicts' "enor- twenty million of largely European and mities" did not include "unnatural sins." minority indigenous (Aboriginaland Tor- This state of affairs did not last, and in res Strait Island) stock, Australia has a 1796 Francis Wilkinson became the first significant number of citizens who lead man to be charged with buggery (he was their lives as openly homosexual men and acquitted]. Many more such charges were women. This phenomenon and the associ- to follow. In 1822 an official inquiry into ated growth of a homosexual subculture, the sa~alx~ndal that resulted from the highly developed in the largest cities, movement of thirty female prisoner^ to Sydney and Melbourne, has emerged the (male]prison farm at Emu Plains, west since 1970. In that year, for the first ofs~dne~~re~ortedtherumorcurrentthat 4 AUSTRALIA the women had been placed there to pre- a prisoner population of 600-800.1 In a vent "unnatural crimes" on the part of the word, the association is not unusually men. Lesbianism occurred among women viewed by theconvicts as that between the prisoners in the female factories. In a se- sexes; is equally respected by some of cret dispatch of 1843 the Lieutenant- them; and is as much a source of jealousy, ,Governor of Van Diemen's Land (Tasma- rivalry, intrigue and conflict." nia),Sir Eardley Wilmot, stated thatwomen Colonial Mateship. The early in the Hobart female factory have "their economic development of the colonies was Fancy-women, or lovers, to who they are heavily dependent on pastoralism, and the attached with quite as much ardour as opening-up of new, unfenced lands for they would be to the opposite sex, and grazing required the use of shepherds. As practice onanism to the greatest extent." solitude in the bush tended to produce Select committees of the British insanity, the shepherds worked in pairs (or Parliament inquiring into transportation threes], one (or two) tending the sheep, the in 1832 and 1837 heard much evidence of mate looking after the hut and cooking. the prevalence of sodomy in the colonies. This situation is the origin of the Austra- Occasionally we find suggestions that it lian tradition of mateship, which later was not a sporadic occurrence but was took other forms. Modern writers on it structured to the extent of involving role- have made much of its quasi-marital na- playing and mutual affection. Major James ture but have at the same iime insisted Mudie testified that prisoners called each that it was nonsexual. Yet, while most other "sods" and that at Hyde Park Bar- early witnesses are silent on this score, a racks in Sydney boy prisoners went by few, such as Bishop Ullathorne and Jemas names such as Kitty and Nancy. Thomas Backhouse, a Quaker missionary, explic- Cook, a chain-gang prisoner laboring on itly deprecate the prevalence of sodomy roadworks in the Blue Mountains west of among shepherds and stockmen. In 1848 J. Sydney in the 1830s) lamented that his C. Byrne, deploring the absence of women gangmates were "so far advanced . . . in in the "backwoods," stated expressly that depravity" that they openly engaged "in "where black gins [women] are unobtain- assignations one toward the other" and able, there is reason to believe, that the "kicked, struck or otherwise abused" sins for which God punished 'the doomed anyonewho dared to condemn "their horrid cities' prevail among the servants of the propensities." squatters." The fullest evidence comes from Law. English law came with the Norfolk Island, a recidivist penal settle- colonists, and so buggery (hetero- or ment. A magistrate, Robert Pringle Stuart, homosexual anal intercourse and bestial- sent to investigate conditions on the is- ity) was a felony from the outset. The land in 1846, made it his business to burst Offences Against the Person Act (1861) unannounced into the prisoners' barracks reduced the penalty for buggery to life one night. "On the doors being opened, imprisonment and created new offences of men were scrambling into their own beds attempted buggery and indecent assault from others, concealment evidently being upon a male person, and these provisions their object." He continued: "It is my were extended to the colonies by an Impe- painful duty to state that . . . unnatural rial Act of 1885, the CriminalLaw Amend- crime is indulged in to excess. . .I am told, ment Act. Around the time of the Federa- and I believe, that upwards of 100-1 have tion in 1901 the States all enacted similar heard that as many as 150--couples can be laws for themselves. They also enacted pointed out, and moral perception is so statutes-N.S.W. as late as 1955-along completely absorbed that they are said to the lines of theBritish Labouchere amend- be 'married,' 'man and wife,' etc. [This in ment of 1885, which criminalized consen- AUSTRALIA O sual "grossindecencybetween males" even remain unreceptive to revisionist theo- when performed in private. logical trends, and consequently have All such offences were indictable movements of disaffected homosexual and so tried before a judge and jury. The believers working for change from within. laws have never been dead-letter laws, Other gay Christians turned to the Metro- though in recent decades there has been a politan Community Church established tendency for "offences" not involving in 1975 as an offshoot fo the U.S. gay violence or coercion or abuse of authority church of the same name. to be prosecuted under various non-crimi- Medicine and Psychiatry. In the nal statutes having to do with offensive nineteenth century Australian medicine behavior, indecent exposure, soliciting, and did not concern itself with homosexuality the like. Such lesser charges are dealt with per se: "It is beyond the range of medical summarily by magistrates, and convic- philosophy to divine the special causes for tions are easier to obtain. There is evi- its existence," Dr. J. C. Beaney declared in , dence that in the 1950s and 1960s the New his Generative System (1872, 1883). In South Wales police used agents provo- this century, although doubtless many have cateurs to induce the commission of of- accepted the psychopathological explana- fenses. tions usual in psychiatric literature, there Following a gay-bashing murder does not seem to have been any systematic in which police were involved, South effort to submit homosexuals to medical Australia became, in 1972, the first state treatment until the late 1950s when some partially to decriminalize homosexual acts psychiatrists began to apply aversion thera- between consenting adults, and in 1975 pies and psychosurgery in this area. The introduced statutory equality for all sex- issuewas one of the first to be addressed by ual offenses, gay or straight. Decriminali- the new gay movement of the 19709, and zation followed in the Australian Capital the application of these practices to homo- Territory and the Northern Territory in sexuals has ceased. Although Australia 1973, in Victoria in 1980, and in New avoided the fashion for sexual psychopa- South Wales in 1984. Unsuccessful at- thy laws that afflicted the United States tempts at law reform were made in West- from the 1940s to the 1960s, some co- ern Australia in 1977 and in Tasmania in operation between the courts and psychia- 1979 and 1987; only in Queensland has no trists claiming to be able to cure so-called attempt been made. sex offenders occurred informally. Religion and the Churches. Aus- In its public utterances, repre- tralian anti-gay laws were the legal mani- sented by editorials and articles in The festation of the traditional Christian an- Medical Journal of Australia, the medical tipathy to the sodomite. As elsewhere, the profession has, on the whole, been in Australian churches continued to abomi- advance of general community opinion in nate a sin that seemed all too prevalent. calling for reform of social attitudes and Yet, as elsewhere in the Anglican com- the law as they affect homosexuals. munion, each Australian capital city has "Camp" Life Before Gay Libera- long had at least one High Anglican church tion. Given social attitudes and the legal with a traditional toleration of homosexu- position, it is hardly surprising that in the ality in the congregation. latter half of the nineteenth century In the 1960s, in line with progres- homosexuality remained secretive, and sive thinking, mainstream Protestant indeed evidence of it before World War I is churches moved cautiously toward a less adventitious, court records being the most condemnatory attitude and began to consistent source. support limited law reform. The Roman Dr. Beaney told with astonish- Catholic and parts of the Anglican church ment of a "respectable" Melbourne wife + AUSTRALIA who "decoyed into her acquaintance young Rose gave an hilarious account in his married women, and compelled them, by autobiography At the Cross (1960).By the her influence, to entertain the same un- 1950s social clubs had emerged in Sydney natural feelings toward men and women but to avoid unwanted attention from the [as she had]." Other lesbians passed as police and the tabloid press elaborate se- men, as we learn from two cases that have crecy was necessary. By the late 1960s come to light of transvestite women mar- Sydney had several exclusively gay clubs rying and apparently satisfyingtheir wives. and wine bars; gay pubs emerged in the In 1879 the thrice-married Edward De- 19709. Lacy Evans was revealed in the Bendigo Homosexual "Emancipation. Lunacy Ward to be a woman and in 1920 Australia had no homophile movement, Eugenia Falleni, alias Harry Leo Crawf ord, an absence that was regretted by a liberal was convicted of the murder of the woman social critic shortly after the first homo- she had legally married while passing as a sexual law reform organization was man. founded in 1969. However, a short-lived Formen as well aswomen, friend- lesbian group calling itself Daughters of ship must have been the most common Bilitiswas apparently formed in that same locus of homosexual relations, but of this year. In July 1970 in Sydney, inspired by and more extended friendship-networks the newly emerged gay liberation move- we know little before World War I. A hint ment in the United States, John Ware and of whatwas possible emerges from a Sydney Christabel Poll formed the first widely- household of male couples that the police publicized gay-run group. The Campaign raided in 1916 because neighbors com- Against Moral Persecution or CAMP (camp plained about the mysterious comings and being then the usual Australian homosex- goings of "womenM-it transpired that ual slang term for "homosexual"] soon had some of the men cross-dressed. branches in most states. In 1971 groups The other main "institution" of using the name gay liberation emerged, male homosexual life was the beat, a and some gay liberationists dismissed public place, such as a park, toilet, baths, CAMP as "reformist." However, both or beach, where one could expect to en- CAMP and gay liberation groups organ- counter sexual partners. Hyde Park in ized social events and consciousness-rais- Sydney was a beat from at latest the 1880s ing sessions for their members, and both until the early 1960s. The importance of participated in demonstrations intended the beat, indicated by the creation of a to assert gay pride, demand gay rights, and slang term for it, lay not simply in the op- protest against instances of diicrimina- portunities for sex it afforded. For some tion, which now for the first time victims men it was, for good or for ill, what homo- were prepared to make public. sexuality meant to them; for others it led As public awareness and accep- to friendships and perhaps entry to a tance of homosexuals grew (in the first world that would otherwise have re- public opinion survey on the issue in 1967 mained closed to them. only 22% of respondents supported homo- After World War I, in Sydney and sexual law reform, but in 1976 68 % did so), Melbourne, a few cafb, restaurants, and the gay movement found less need to bars were frequented by gays and/or lesbi- employ confrontationist tactics and be- ans, who never, however, constituted the came increasingly involved in the main- exclusive clientele. Such places usually stream political processes. Gay groups had a reputation for bohemianism. By made submissions to the Royal Commis- World War I1 Sydney had an annual drag- sion on Human Relationships whose final ball called the Artists' Ball, of which Jon report in 1977 made many recommenda- AUSTRIA O tions to improve the legal and social posi- AIDS crisis. Since in Australia the major- tion of homosexuals, and began to deal ity of the AIDS cases are homosexualmen, directly with politicians andgovernrnents. this involvement is appropriate and desir- At the same time, the number able; yet it would have been as unimagin- and complexity of homosexual institu- able twenty years ago as the disease itself. tions increased and a distinct subculture emerged in the largest cities. A gay press BIBLIOGRAPHY. Discrimino tion and Homosexuality, Sydney: New South was vital in this development. The first Wales Discrimination Board, 1982; Ink, gay magazine, Camp was produced in Robert Hughes,-, The Fatal Shore: The Sydney in November 1970 by CAMP and Epic of Australia's Founding, New York: lasted some four years. The first truly Knopf, 1987; Denise Thompson, Flaws commercial magazine appeared in 1972. in the Social Fabric: Homosexuals and Society in Sydney, Sydney: Allen and There are now two national monthlies, Unwin, 1985; Paul Wilson, The Sexual the older founded in 1975, and a number of Dilemma, St. Lucia: University of free community newspapers, profession- Queensland Press, 1971; Gary Wother- ally produced and paid for by advertising. spoon, ed., Being Different. Nine Gays Gay publishing of books has been slower Remember, Sydney: Hale and Iremon- ger, 1986. to develop and remains embryonic. G. R. Simes In 1975 the first national gay and lesbian conference was held, and for eleven years these gatherings provided a useful AUSTRIA forum for political, cultural, and social This European country traces its exchange. They helped to boost morale existence to 1180 when Frederick Bar- among activists who Were now increas- barossa convicted Henry the Lion of trea- ingl~involved in lobbying for law reform son and confiscated his estates, dividing and anti-discrimination legislation. After Bavaria proper from its eastem extension failures in Westem Australia and Tasma- which became Austria. Defeating Otokar nia, this process finally had a significant 1 of Bohemia in 1278, the Emperor Rudolf success in Victoria in 1980. I granted Austria as a fief to his son Albert An unprovoked police attack on I, the first Habsburg to rule there. From peaceful Gay Pride marchers in 1978, ar- 1278 until 1918 Habsburgs reigned in rests then and at subsequent demonstra- Austria, adding to their domain more by tions against police brutality, and the long astute and fortunate marriages than by but successful defense against the charges conquest. led to a revival of the flagging movement JosephII (1741-1 790),great-great- in New South Wales. The police were grand nephew of the emperor Rudolf I1 humiliated and the political and legal skills (possibly homosexual) and son of Maria of gays clearly demonstrated. Neverthe- Theresa, was one of the most admired of less, the struggle for law reform took an- Austrian monarchs. Inspired by Voltaire other six years. The march acquired in the and the Encyclopedists and by the ex- Process a new symbolic meaning and, ample of Frederick the Great of Prussia, he moved from wintry June to late-summer began in 1761 (afterhis mother associated February, became the Sydney Gay Mardi him into the government) to draw up Gras, which is now the city's largest an- memoranda, many of which he put into nual street parade. effect after her death. Joseph was the first Perhaps the most striking sign of monarch inEurope to emancipate the Jews the changed situation of homosexuals in (in 1791).In reforming the penal code, he Australian society is the extent to which followed the humane principles of Count gays and lesbians are involved in the offi- Cesare Beccaria, eliminating torture and cia1 structures created to respond to the and unusual punishments, reducing 4 AUSTRIA the number of capital offenses, and de- duction theory. Also, Moritz Kaposi criminalizing many activities. He reduced (1837-1902) was professor of dermatology the penalty for homosexuality from death at Vienna from 1875 until his death; in at the stake to life imprisonment. 1872he had published the article that first In Joseph 11's time, Vienna described Kaposi's sarcoma, which later emerged as the musical capital of Europe became significant in AIDS. with such giants as Mozart and Haydn. The misogynist and Jewish anti- Franz Schubert, the only major composer Semite Otto Weininger, who committed of the group actually to have been bom in suicide in 1903on discovering too much of Vienna, was probably homosexual. Suspi- the feminine in his own personality, in- cions that have been voiced about vented the modern concept of bisexual- Beethoven's interest in his nephew are ity-or perhaps borrowed it from the Ber- hard to substantiate. lin physician Wilhelm Fliess, who had not The Habsburg Empire that Maria published it. Anna Freud seems to have Theresa and Joseph 11 had solidified en- had a long-term lesbian relationship with dured therevolutions andNapoleonicwars an American woman in the Vienna of the and rose under Metternich during the 1920s.The leadingmodemist writerRobert Congress of Vienna to dominate European Musil described in Young Torless (1906) diplomacy until his overthrow by the how two older boys at a preparatory school Revolution of 1848, during which the 18- he attended forced a younger boy to have year old Franz Joseph succeeded upon his sexual relations with them. The witness, father's abdication. This grand-nephew of presumably the author, had a nervous JosephIIreigneduntil1916,trying to patch breakdown. Hermann Broch's The Death together the old system against the rising of Vergil[1945),which he completed after tides of nationalism and socialism, and to his emigration to America, relates Vergil's hold together his dominion served by three musings about the boys he loved. armies-a standing army of soldiers, a The Austrian penal code of 1852, sitting army of bureaucrats, and a creeping which criminalized lesbianism, reduced army of informers. The decadence of Franz the penalties imposed by the Josephine Joseph's reign contrasted with the bril- code for male homosexuality, and gener- liant intellectual and artistic life of his ally came closer to the provisions of the capital, which became one of the gay cen- Pmssian code of the same year. But the ters of Europe. existence of the law did not prevent Vi- In the field of sex research, the enna from having a lively homosexual first major figure of modem times was subculture at the turn of the century, with Richard Freiherr von Krafft-Ebing its cafb, restaurants, bathhouses, and (1840-1902), called from Germany toGraz places of rendezvous all under the surveil- and then to Vienna, which had become the lance of the police,who like their coun- world's leading medical school. His Psy- terparts in Berlin kept systematic lists chopathia Sexualis (first edition 1886) of those who engaged in homosexual disclosed to the educated public the exis- activity. tence of homosexuality and other sexual The Scientific-Humanitarian "perversions," of which he assembled a Committee founded in Berlin in 1897 picturesque dossier on the basis of his own acquired a branch in Vienna in 1906 under and others' observations mainly in prisons the leadership of the engineer Joseph Nico- and insane asylums that left the public ladoni and the psychoanalyst Wilhelm with the conviction that all who engaged Stekel. Freud is reported to have made in forbidden sexual activity were in some small donations to it, and Isidor Sadger way "mentally ill." At a symposium he used the periodical of the Committee to criticized Freud's presentation of his se- locate subjects for his (not particularly AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY + sympathetic) psychoanalytic studies. The strength of the Catholic Among the minor gay literary figures of church in Austria, particularly the state this time were Emil Mario Vacano, Karl that remained after the Treaty of Saint- Michael Freiherr von Lewetzow, Joseph Germain, kept law reform from occurring Kitir, and Emerich Graf Stadion, who until 1971, two years after the Federal published in the journal Poetische Republic of Germany amended Paragraph Flugblattern, edited by Kitir. 175. There is a higher age of consent for In 1901 the writer Minna male homosexuals (18) than for hetero- Wettstein-Adelt published under the sexuals and lesbians (14). Moreover, ar- pseudonym AimCe Duc a novel entitled ticle 220 of the 1971 penal code provides Sind es Frauen! [Are They Women?] that for up to six months imprisonment for depicts a circle of self-consciously lesbian anyone who advocates or states approval women in Geneva, the center of which is of homosexuality, while article 221 stipu- a Russian named Minotschka Fernandoff. lates the same penalty for anyone belong- The feminist Marie von Najmajer ing to an organization that "favors homo- (1844-1904), born inHungary, saluted the sexual lewdness." These provisions have new century with a "Hymn to the Daugh- never been enforced. The major gay or- ters of the Twentieth Century" that had ganizations Homosexuelle Initiative strong lesbian overtones. Yet the lesbian (HOSI) operate quite successfully under subculture of Vienna took little interest in the shadow of this legislation, while gath- the literary treatment of the natives of the ering data about gay people in the Warsaw city; it preferred works showing the Vien- pact nations of Eastern Europe. From 1979 nese lesbian abroad or the foreign lesbian this information has been recorded in the drawn to the Austrian capital. Compared quarterly Lambda Nachrichten (HOSI with the network of enterprises catering to Wien),which even received an official press the male homosexual the lesbian subcul- subsidy in 1987. Vienna also has a gay and ture remained small and marginal. lesbian community center, Rosa LilaVilla. One of themyths that later circu- lated abroad was that the Viennese of the BIBLIOGRAPHY. Neda Bei, et al., eds., Das lila Wien urn 1900, Vienna: early decades of the century were sexually Promedia, 1986. repressed to the point of neuroticism, when William A. Percy in fact the capital had much the same ambiance in contrast with the provinces as did Paris in relation to therest of France. AUTHORITARIAN As the focal point of the homosexual PERSONALITY emancipation movement, Berlin garnered The concept of the authoritarian more than its share of attention, but Vi- personality was introduced to social psy- enna until 1918 was the cosmopolitan chology by the work of Theodor Wiesen- center of a multi-national empire where grund Adomo and his associates in a major erotic pleasure was always sought-and study published in 1950. According to this frequently found. Ludwig Wittgenstein model the authoritarian personality ac- cruised the Prater, where the ferris wheel cepts middle-class conventionality because is located, during the 1920s, and often it enjoys widespread acceptance and sup- went to a classy cafC, a chess club with port, but has not internalized the meaning newspapers by day and a flaming gay club of the accompanying social norms; is at night. After the 1938 Anschluss, which hostile and aggressive toward outsider joined Austria to Hitler's Reich, a number groups, especially ethnic minorities and of the country's homosexuals became relatively powerless, marginalized devi- victims of the holocaust. ant groups; and glorifies its own authority AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY figures. Adomo had been a member of the cial Democrats. The overarching problem Frankfurt school of sociology which the is to determine how it is that myths and Nazi seizure of power exiled to the United fabrications and stereotypes come to be States, and the formulation of the notion entertained in sets, so that if oneor two are had begun in Germany through analysis of acquired the others are likely to follow. the mass psychology of the fateful years of A hallmark of the authoritarian the early 1930s, when authoritarian and personality is preoccupation with devia- democratic creeds contended for rule. tions from the norm of sexual conduct and Originally the contrasting democratic advocacy of harsh penalties for "perverts" personality type was labeled the "socialist and the like. While certain issues that personality," revealing the leftist bias that elicited sharp contrasts between authori- hovered over the creation of the antinomy. tarian and democratic personality types in And indeed one problem with the idea of the 1940shave become irrelevant because the authoritarian personality is the diffi- the political controversy surrounding them culty that many researchers have in ac- has faded, the rise of a militant gay libera- knowledging that authoritarianism is tion movement after 1969 has made one's found as much on the left as on the right. tolerance of homosexuality a clear index Put another way, thenotion of the authori- of personality. A recently developed tool tarian personality, though not devoid of called the Attitudes TowardHomosexuals content, bonds all too easily with the left- (ATH] scale asks agreement or disagree- liberal prejudices and folklore of the con- ment with such statements as "Homo- temporary intelligentsia, serving to con- sexuals should be locked up to protect firm its disdain of conservatives of every society" and "In many ways, the AlDS stripe and to suggest that beliefs linked disease currently killing homosexuals is with the right stem from a character disor- just what they deserve." Authoritarian- der that occludes a "correct" perception of ism accounted for 29% of the variation in reality. the subjects' hostility toward homosexu- Academic psychology had until als; fear and self-righteousness supplied the 1950s failed to discover any correla- nearly all the rest. Fear of a dangerous tion between personality structure and world-and of homosexual assertiveness political attitudes. The contribution of in it-and self-righteousness justifying Adomo and his associates was to trace a punitive sanctions are what trigger the common denominator between ethnic authoritarian's rage and vindictiveness. chauvinism, political and economic The growing role of anti-homosexual conservatism, anti-Semitism, and authori- themes in the propaganda of conservative tarianism. As an indirect measure of preju- and clerical social movements attests to dice and a measure of "prefascism" in the the significance of homophobia for the personality, they developed the F scale mass psychology of the present day. soliciting expressions of agreement or disagreement with 29 broadly phrased BIBLIOGRAPHY. Theodor W. Adomo, et al., The Authoritarian Personality, assertions. Continuing review and criti- New York: Harper & Row, 1950; Bob cism of the early work and its theoretical Altemeyer, "Marching in Step: A presuppositions have led to the develop- Psychological Explanation of State ment of new scales and also to debates Terror," The Sciences, MarchIApril among professional psychologists. For 1988. 30-38. Warren Iohansson example, there has even been academic controversy over whether left-wing au- thoritarianism exists, when any insightful AUTOBIOGRAPHY observer of the left knows that this is the See Biography and Autobiogra- watershed between Communists and So- phy. AVERSION THERAPY 4

AUTOEROTICISM advocates, doubts as to efficacy of the See Masturbation. treatment arise. While aversion therapy may succeed for a time in causing the AVERSIONTHERAPY subject to feel revulsion toward his or her This type of modification of homosexuality, it has failed to instill human conduct is grounded in a basic heterosexual desire where a basis for this principle of behaviorism, the stimulus- waslacking. Thus the "cured" clients were response mechanism. If pleasant experi- almost always bisexuals with a strong ences continue to be regularly associated preexisting heterosexual component; the with a particular stimulus the behavioral therapeutic intervention simply deleted response is said to be positively reinforced; the homosexual component. Even here it unfavorable experiences cause negative is by no means certain that the effect will reinforcement or deconditioning. Thus prove lasting, inasmuch as the decondi- Pavlov's dogs came to salivate at the ring- tioning has a tendency to fade over time so ing of a bell when this sound regularly that the homosexual side may eventually preceded feeding; substituting electric return. shocks for the feeding would cancel the Some behavioral therapists assert response of salivation, replacing it with that they would use such techniques only symptoms of fear. Applied to homosexual- to help the homosexual to adjust to his ity, it is posited that if the favorable asso- condition. Here the problems addressed ciations evoked by the same-sex bodies are would be from the realm of daily conduct displaced by unpleasant ones (in the form (asseen, for example, in excessive timidity of electric shocks or a nausea-inducing that would prevent the client from finding drug], while a pattern of pleasant feelings partners] and from the area of sexual func- is brought into play with respect to the tioning. Once again, because of the fading body of the opposite sex, the subject will principle, one may doubt that the results shift from a homosexual orientation to a are permanent. It may be that, however, in heterosexual one. In its negative-reinforce- a larger program designed to achieve the ment aspects aversion therapy amounts to patient's self-actualization, aversion pro- a routinization of punishment. The ther- cedures may have a specific instrumental apy known as Behavior Modification is value. The harnessingof the techniques to similar in its reliance on the principle of a broader, humanistic endeavorwould help conditioning, but it tends to emphasize to address the criticism of depth psycholo- rewards more than punishments. gists and others, who assert that aversion When imposed involuntarily--as techniques and behavior modification af- in a prison or hospital setting-aversion fect only the surface, neglecting the inner therapy raises strong moral questions. As life of the client. aresult of unfavorable publicity it is rarely BIBLIOGRAPHY. William 0. Faustman, applied today to any but pedophiles, re- "Aversive Control of Maladaptive garded as a danger to society. Even here, Sexual Behavior: Past Developments and however, the ethical questions subsist. In Future Trends," Psychology, 13 (19761, fairness, one should note that many propo- 53-60; Michael W. Ross, "Paradigm Lost or Paradigm Regained? Behaviour nents of these techniques have protested Therapy and Homosexuality," New their involuntary use, asking that such Zeoland Psychologist, 6 (1977), 42-5 1. interventions cease. Ward Houser Most practitioners of aversion therapy maintain that they act only at the request of the patient. Yet here, despite claims of "cures" on the part of some 9 AZ~A,MANUEL

AZANA,MANUEL naeum of Madrid in 1930, Azafia emerged (1880-1940) as a national leader with the proclamation President of Spain, 193133 and of the Second Republic in 1931. It was he 193G39. Azafiawas aman of letters before who declared that Spain was no longer entering politics. With his long-time Catholic, and an opposition to Catholi- companion, the theater director Cipriano cism, support for personal liberty, and a Rivas Cherif, whose sister he was to marry belief in the power of the intellect were at in 1929, he edited the literary magazine La the center of his political philosophy. Pluma (192&23), and then joinedtheboard of the more political Espaiia (1923-24). In BIBLIOGRAPHY. Azazia, Madrid: Edascal, 1980; Frank Sedwick, The the late 1920s he published a novel, Gar- Tragedy of Manuel Azazia, Columbus: den of the Monks, dedicated to Rivas Ohio State University Press, 1%3. Cherif, and much literary scholarship. Daniel Eisenberg Elected president of the influential Athe-