A Sociolinguistic Study of Dangaura Tharu and Related Varieties

Home , Banke District, Bardiya District, Binauna, Chailahi, Deukhuri, Dundwa Range

DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2014-009

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell A Sociolinguistic Study of Dangaura Tharu and Related Varieties

Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell

SIL International® 2014

Abstract

This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among the Dangaura Tharu, Kathariya Tharu and other closely related varieties in Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali districts in Nepal. Lexical similarity, language attitudes, vitality and desires for language development were studied in order to assess how to best serve and support each of these communities, including which varieties are able and desire to use materials that are currently being developed in Dang district. Based on the findings of this research, it is suggested that Dangaura and Deukhuri varieties appear most likely to be usable and accepted by other varieties for material development. All of the communities we visited expressed desire for and appear ready to engage in developing multilingual education (MLE) program.

Contents

Abstract Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography— districts 1.2 The Tharu people 1.2.1 History 1.2.2 Culture 1.2.3 Education 1.3 Languages 1.3.1 Dangaura 1.3.2 Deukhuri 1.3.3 Malhoriya 1.3.4 Desauriya 1.3.5 Kathariya 1.4 Previous research 1.4.1 Previous linguistic research 1.4.2 Previous research on language vitality 2 Research questions 3 Methodology 3.1 Site selection 3.2 Research methods 3.2.1 Wordlists 3.2.2 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) 3.2.3 Informal interviews 3.2.4 Recorded Story Questions (RSQ) 3.2.5 Participatory Methods (PM) 3.3 Subject selection 3.3.1 Wordlists and RSQ elicitation subject selection 3.3.2 Informal interview subject selection 3.3.3 Recorded Story Question subject selection 3.3.4 Participatory Method subject selection 4 Lexical similarity 5 Dialect attitudes and emic perspectives 5.1 Attitudes and perspectives toward Dangaura 5.2 Attitudes and perspectives toward Deukhuri 5.3 Attitudes and perspectives toward Malhoriya 5.4 Summary of attitudes and emic perspectives 6 Language vitality 6.1 Domains of language use 6.2 Intergenerational transfer 6.3 Group dynamics 6.4 Network of social relations 6.5 Relative prestige 6.6 External recognition 6.7 Economic base 6.8 Vitality summary 7 Kathariya and Desauriya locations 7.1 Kathariya 7.2 Desauriya 8 Desires for development 9 Recommendations

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Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) Appendix C: Informal Interviews Appendix D: Recorded Story Questions (RSQ) Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Appendix F: Appreciative Inquiry Appendix G: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale References

Preface

This sociolinguistic survey of Dangaura Tharu, Kathariya Tharu and other closely related varieties in western Nepal was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. The data collection portion of this survey was carried out in September and October of 2011 in Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali districts of Nepal. The purpose of the survey was to determine how best to serve each of these communities, including if Dangaura materials could be used by other groups. Many people contributed to the completion of this language survey. Our colleagues at Tribhuvan University gave encouragement and support for which we are grateful. Background research, formation of tools, introductions to invaluable contacts and much of the fieldwork was completed under the guidance and direction of Edward Boehm, without whom this survey could not have been successful. We could not have completed fieldwork without working together with KC and BC, who traveled with us and arranged logistics, spent hours helping us translate and communicate what we were doing and were a profound asset to our team. We are also thankful for the guidance and support from our mentor, John Eppele, and colleague, Holly Hilty. We are grateful to the Tharu people of the districts we visited, who welcomed and helped us. There are too many people to mention by name, but each of you had a part in this report coming to completion. This report is for you. It is our hope that this report will be a useful tool for Tharu language development. We trust that this report accurately reflects the data we collected. However, comments and suggestions are welcomed.

July 2012 Stephanie R. Eichentopf Jessica R. Mitchell Kathmandu, Nepal

1 Introduction

This survey examines the relationships between Dangaura Tharu [thl] and its closely related varieties of Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya. It also seeks to examine Kathariya Tharu [tkt] in relation to these varieties. The purpose of this survey is to determine if Dangaura materials can be used by these other groups and, if not, identify which variety would be best for an adaptation. To better understand if literacy materials that are currently being developed by various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Dangaura Tharu may be usable by other varieties, an examination of lexical similarity, acceptability and vitality is needed. “The Dangora Tharu of Dang Valley should be further tested to the west and to the east of their respective centers to see what the limits are for intelligibility of each dialect. Little testing has been done in the eastern part of Kailali district and in the Bardiya and Banke districts of Nepal. These districts contain large and mixed populations of Tharus. The speech of these populations needs to be assessed to determine which dialect would most likely fit their literacy needs” (Hugoniot 1996:16). For the purposes of this survey, the term Dangaura will be used to refer to only Dangaura Tharu speakers located within northern Dang district. All Dangaura related varieties in this survey will be identified by their variety name. Another important distinction that should be made is the term Tharu. In published articles and books, the term Tharu sometimes refers to all types of Tharu people living along the Nepal-India border, including Chitwan Tharu, Rana Tharu, Dangaura Tharu, etc. However, the term sometimes refers to a specific Tharu group, such as Dangaura Tharu. For the purposes of this report, the term Tharu will be used only when discussing all Tharu varieties addressed in this report (Dangaura, Deukhuri, Desauriya, Malhoriya and Kathariya), unless otherwise noted.

1.1 Geography— districts

Nepal is currently divided into 14 administrative zones and subdivided into 75 districts. This survey spans across four districts in southwest Nepal. From east to west, these districts, in southwestern Nepal, are Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali. They are within the Rapti, Bheri, Seti and Mahakali zones. The Mahendra highway runs east-west through the middle of all these districts (see map 1).

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Map 1. Districts of Nepal

Source: UN map, http://un.org.np/sites/default/files/2011-11-15- Nepal_Admin_Zone_Muni_A4_26August2011_v03.pdf (November 3, 2015)

Dang District

Dang district is widely recognized as the original homeland of Dangaura and Deukhuri Tharu. Dang district is sometimes identified as Dang-Deukhuri district. This is because in the past, it was divided into two districts: Dang to the north of the Mahendra highway and Deukhuri to the south of Dang Valley. The separation of Dangaura and Deukhuri speakers follows the geography of the district. The highest concentration of Dangaura speakers is found in the wide Dang Valley in the north of the district, bordered on the north by the Mahabharat Range and on the south by the lower Dang subrange. Deukhuri speakers are concentrated in the Deukhuri Valley, a long, narrow valley in the south of the district separated from Dang Valley by the Dang subrange and from India by the Dundwa subrange.

Map 2. Dang district

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dang_District,_Nepal#/media/File: NepalDang Districtmap.png (November 3, 2015).

Banke District

Banke district contains a dense mixture of various Tharu varieties primarily located south of the Mahendra highway. Very few are found north of the highway or in the hill area of the southeast. Desauriya speakers are found in the southwest and west of Nepalgunj.

Map 3. Banke district

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banke_District#/media/File:Nepal BankeDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015).

Bardiya District

We did not visit any villages in Bardiya district during our fieldwork. However, many Tharu speakers are found there and these speakers are mentioned by interview responses and discussions. Different spellings can be found for the name of this district, the most common being Bardia and Bardiya. South of Mahendra highway there are high concentrations of Deukhuri and Dangaura speakers, however, their exact locations are unknown. Malhoriya speakers are located in western Bardiya between the bifurcations of the Karmali River. Few Tharus are located north of Mahendra highway because of the Royal Bardiya Reserve located there.

Map 4. Bardiya district

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardiya_District#/media/File:Nepal BardiyaDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015).

Kailali District

One estimate suggests that as high as forty percent of the Dangaura Tharu population resides in Kailali district (Edward Boehm p.c., 2011). Within Kailali, Malhoriya speakers are found concentrated around Tikapur in the southeast. Many Tharu speakers are found in the southwest of the district. Few Tharu speakers are located north of Mahendra highway.

Map 5. Kailali district

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailali_District#/media/File:Nepal KailaliDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015).

1.2 The Tharu people

The Tharu ethnic identity is comprised of many separate groups that vary in culture and language. Generally, the term Tharu refers to a large ethnic group that spans most of the Tarai in Nepal. In actuality, there are many diverse ethnic and language groups under the umbrella term Tharu. “Outsiders generally view the Tharu as one homogeneous group… The Tharu, however, recognize many different subgroups distinguished by clan, region, cultural differences, and language” (Webster 1993:4). The most well-known of these groups are the Rana, Dangaura, Kochila/Morangia, Chitwania and Kathariya (Boehm 1997:19).

1.2.1 History

Dangaura speakers are originally from Dang district, but currently live not only in Dang, but also in the districts west of Dang. This westward migration occurred as a result of a push for development of the Tarai in the 1950s. Prior to this time, the Tharu were one of the few people groups with an immunity to malaria, allowing them to live in relative isolation. As the Malaria Eradication Project lessened the threat of malaria and roads were constructed, hill people were encouraged to settle and work the land in the Tarai. These newcomers had more political awareness and gained control of the land in regions like Dang (Guneratne 2002:4, 94). In response, many Dangaura Tharu speakers migrated west (van Driem 2001:1167).

1.2.2 Culture

The ethnic identities of the Tharu people groups in this survey do not necessarily align with their linguistic identity. Different Tharu groups maintain their own set of religious rituals, marriage patterns and family relations. This section summarizes the economy, religion and family structure of Tharu varieties of this survey. According to observations of the Webster 1993 survey, the western Tharu were almost completely rural, living in villages of less than 2,000 people. Their primary economic base was agriculture and they were generally self-sufficient year round through hunting, fishing and gathering (Webster 1993:3, 113). Referring to the western Tarai, Rajaure says, “a Tharu village consists of several families living in a compact social unit which benefits them both socially and economically…” (1981:155). Marriage tends to occur within the same clan, but not in the same village. According to McDonaugh and confirmed through observations and interviews, Rana, Kathariya and Dangaura Tharu people do not intermarry but think of each other as separate castes (1989:193). Women go to live with their husband’s family. Of Dangaura Tharu within Dang district, Rajaure reports that they rarely leave Tharu areas for more than a couple of days (1981:178). These reports were verified through informal interviews where 78% of respondents say they have never travelled outside of their area. Most Tharu people practice a traditional religion, however many claim to be Hindu (Boehm 1997:27). “Most Tharu practice an indigenous form of animism, in which shamanism, ancestor worship and tattooing play pivotal roles” (van Driem 2001:1167). Idol and artifact worship is common. Guneratne points out that following other groups migrating into the Tharu area after the malaria eradication in the 1950’s, “Tharus were no longer able to perform customary rituals, because they no longer had the resources to do so; these rituals became abbreviated in their performance or fell into disuse entirely” (1998:760).

1.2.3 Education

Education is increasingly available in many Tharu areas. Village leaders report that “half” to “most” of their communities are literate. We observed that while the majority of men are literate, women are predominately illiterate, though this seems to be changing with the younger generation. The Backward Society Education NGO is one of the most influential advocates for Tharu education.

1.3 Languages

The focus of this study is on Dangaura Tharu [thl] and other closely related varieties, including Deukhuri, Malhoriya and Desauriya. In addition, it also looks at Kathariya Tharu [tkt]. The 1991 census figures for Tharu populations were reported by district, but do not include population figures for each individual variety. According to the census data, Dang district has a Tharu population of 354,413 (29.6% Tharu), but again, it is unknown how many are Dangaura Tharu and how many are Deukhuri Tharu, as both reside in Dang district. Tharu population in Banke district is 285,604 (15.6% Tharu), 290,313 in Bardiya (51% Tharu) and 417,891 (47% Tharu) in Kailali. This section describes each variety in more detail.

1.3.1 Dangaura

Dangaura Tharu is an Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone language written in Devanagari script. Other names and spellings for the language are Chaudary Tharu, Chauhari Tharu, Dangauli, Dangha, Dangora and Dangura. Dangaura, in which materials are currently being developed, is primarily spoken in Dang district; however, it is also found in the districts to its west as well as in Kheri, Gonda and Bahraich districts of India (Boehm 1997:19). Nepali has influenced this speech variety.

1.3.2 Deukhuri

Southern Dang district is viewed as one of the original homelands of Deukhuri speakers. They are also located in districts to the west. Deukhuri is listed in the Ethnologue with the same ISO code as Dangaura [thl]. While allowing intermarriage between their groups, Dangaura and Deukhuri speakers identify themselves as separate. Because Deukhuri communities are so close to India, Deukhuri has been influenced by Hindi. The Curriculum Development Centre (CDC) of the Ministry of Education of the Government of Nepal has done some development work in this variety.

1.3.3 Malhoriya

Malhoriya is located in eastern Kailali district around Tikapur, as well as in western Bardiya in the original location of the Dangaura westward migration. Malhoriya shares the same ISO code in the Ethnologue as Dangaura [thl].

1.3.4 Desauriya

Desauriya, sometimes spelled Deshauriya, is not included in the Ethnologue. “The Desauriya Tharu are a related group [to Dangaura Tharu] also inhabiting Banke and Bardiya districts” (van Driem 2001:1167). The origin of Desauriya speakers is unknown, but it is generally believed that that they did not originate in the Dang/Deukhuri area. “In Bardiya and Banke districts, the Dangaura Tharus distinguish themselves from the Deshaurya Tharus. But Deshauriya culture is so close to that of Dangaura that I presume they could be an offshoot of an earlier wave of migrants from Dang…” (Krauskopff 1995:187–188). Additional information about the location of Desauriya speakers is in section 7.2.

1.3.5 Kathariya

Kathariya Tharu is listed in the Ethnologue under ISO [tkt]. An alternate name is Khatima Tharu. Often, it is spelled Kathoriya. However, a leader of their community in Pabera, Kailali indicated to us that the correct spelling is Kathariya. It is classified as Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, unclassified. “Kathoriya Tharu are concentrated most heavily in Kailali district of Nepal but can also be found in Kheri, Bahraich, Gonda, and Gorakpur districts in India and in other areas where Dangaura Tharu are found” (Boehm 1997:19). Hugoniot’s research claimed that all Kathariya villages have Dangaura speakers living in them. In addition, he reported that only Tharus living near Kathariya villages have ever heard of Kathariya Tharu (1996:3, 13). The interviews and observations of this survey verify Hugoniot’s claims that most Tharu (specifically Dangaura, Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya) have neither heard of nor interact with Kathariya. The origin of the Kathariya is unknown, but it is generally believed that, unlike other varieties included in this survey, they did not originate in the Dang/Deukhuri area. Additional information about the location of Kathariya speakers is in section 7.1.

1.4 Previous research

There has been a considerable amount of research on the economics, religion and customs of the Tharu community, but relatively little linguistic research has been published.

1.4.1 Previous linguistic research

“The only significant studies on the language of the Tharus include the work by Frierson (1903) and Hodgson (1857), the atlas of Bhojpuri by Tivari (1960), an inventory of phonemes in Citvan Tharu by D. Leal (1972) and Citvan Tharu sentences by William Leal (1973)” (van Driem 2001: 1166). Previous research by Boehm (1997), Hugonoit (1996) and Webster (1993) has provided some information about Kathariya and Dangaura, although their research primarily focused on other Tharu varieties. Little or no

9 research is found regarding the language varieties of this survey. The most detailed published research on the groups of this survey are the theses: “A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Tharu and Language Use” (Boehm 1998) and “Language Maintenance Among the Tharu of the Indo-Nepal Tarai” (Boehm 1997).

1.4.2 Previous research on language vitality

Tharu speakers’ degree of exposure to and contact with other languages (specifically Nepali and Hindi), makes language vitality necessary to investigate. Kelly Boehm’s thesis (1997) addressed this question. Several factors surfaced as pointing towards healthy language maintenance: • Government attitudes toward minority languages and cultures—Given the current political stance toward preserving minority languages and cultures, many groups (including Tharu) have received encouragement from the government for language and culture preservation. • Attitudes toward and practices of exogamy—Through questionnaires, Boehm found that 70% of Tharus did not approve of marrying a non-Tharu. Tharu groups differ greatly, which means that many will not marry outside of their specific group. • Positive language attitudes—Boehm’s questionnaire revealed that 91% of Tharu speakers believed their language to be better than the language of wider communication (Nepali or Hindi), 96% thought that mothers should speak Tharu to their children and 98% anticipated that Tharu would continue to be spoken in the future. • Education—At the time of Boehm’s study, education was not accessible enough for the Tharu to affect the vitality of the language. She recommended that this issue be re-evaluated when it becomes a possible factor in language maintenance.

2 Research questions

The purpose of this survey is to see how many Tharu varieties can use materials that are being developed in Dangaura Tharu and to investigate how to best serve the speakers of Deukhuri, Malhoriya, Desauriya and Kathariya.

The five goals of this survey are: 1. Lexical Similarity: Investigate lexical similarity between all Tharu varieties of this survey. 2. Dialect Attitude Assessment: Assess the attitudes of the language varieties of this survey toward one another to better understand their willingness to share written materials. 3. Language Vitality: Evaluate the vitality of Deukhuri, Desauriya, Malhoriya and Kathariya varieties. 4. Kathariya and Desauriya Locations: Identify the major population centers of Kathariya and Desauriya speakers. 5. Desires for Development: Discover each community’s desires for their own language-based development.

3 Methodology

3.1 Site selection

A total of seven villages were visited in three districts. We gathered data in one location for each variety, except the Deukhuri variety, which had three sites. Site selection was based upon where the variety is known to be spoken and the recommendation or availability of contacts. Deukhuri and Desauriya sites were located on or near the Mahendra highway, a factor which raised concerns regarding the probability of high contact with other languages. High contact with other

languages can affect language vitality. The high levels of vitality we encountered, however, lead us to believe that data gathered at these sites are a strong argument for language vitality, since language vitality generally increases with distance from population centers. It is probable that language vitality would be even stronger in more remote villages. During site selection, we were unaware that Chapargaudi, the Desauriya village we visited, has only a 10% Tharu population and is highly mixed. Many of our subjects were from nearby villages ranging from 1–3 km in distance from Chapargaudi; however, they view themselves as one group with no differences in their language.

3.2 Research methods

Several methods were used to elicit data in order to meet the goals of the survey. Sections 3.2.1 through 3.2.5 describe the purpose, procedure and certain advantages and disadvantages of each method.

3.2.1 Wordlists

Description and purpose: A comparison of wordlists estimates the degree of lexical similarity between the speech varieties the wordlists represent.

Procedure: Five 316-item wordlists were elicited and compared for this analysis, one from each Tharu variety. Wordlists were elicited in Nepali from Tharu mother-tongue speakers and were transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Lexical similarity analysis was carried out on each pair of wordlists. A complete description of wordlist comparison methodology and the data we collected can be found in Appendix A.

Advantages: Data collection is relatively efficient. Wordlists can provide some broad insights into possible dialect groupings.

Disadvantages: Above certain levels of lexical similarity, wordlists cannot give conclusive evidence of intelligibility between speech varieties compared.

3.2.2 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ)

Description and purpose: A prepared interview specifically designed for someone the community views as the most knowledgeable regarding information about their language. This tool provides information from a reliable and knowledgeable source about their language and social factors that do not vary from person to person.

Procedure: Administered to only one person at a time, questions range from specific population estimates and locations to general information about vitality and other languages spoken by the community. This tool was administered in one village from each speech variety of the survey. The questionnaire and responses are found in Appendix B.

Advantages: Good for obtaining village-level information in a brief period of time.

Disadvantages: Information is from only one person and therefore may be skewed.

3.2.3 Informal interviews

Description and purpose: A prepared interview schedule (based on the “Sociolinguistic Questionnaire A”, used by the Linguistic Survey of Nepal) guides interaction in order to gather information regarding specific sociolinguistic issues, while allowing freedom to ask further questions if they might provide additional information relevant to the research questions of the survey.

Procedure: Interviews were administered on an individual basis. Subjects were chosen using quotas according to demographic factors relevant to our research questions (see section 3.3.2 for additional subject selection procedures). This tool was administered to speakers of all the Tharu varieties of this survey except Dangaura1. The complete interview schedule and responses are in Appendix C.

Advantages: Depending on the length of the interview, the time in administration can be minimal, allowing for relatively large numbers of people to be interviewed. The informal nature of the interviews helps subjects feel comfortable to share openly, while allowing greater depth and providing context for their responses.

Disadvantages: Informal interviews are limited in that subjects may only report what they want the researcher to hear, or what they believe the researcher would like to hear.

3.2.4 Recorded Story Questions (RSQ)

Description and purpose: Subjects listen to recorded stories, with questions asked after the stories. This helps in the assessment of the subjects’ perceived understanding of and attitudes toward actual samples of the language from various areas. It helps the researcher understand if subjects perceive different speech samples as representing their own style of speech.

Procedure: A narrative story is recorded in one location and played for subjects in a second location. The collected story is first tested with at least ten mother-tongue speakers of the variety before administering the test in other locations. The subjects in the second location are not told where the storyteller is from. After listening to a story, subjects answer questions about their understanding of and opinions toward the storyteller’s speech. The RSQ, RSQ responses and translated stories are all found in Appendix D.

Advantages: Evaluates perceived understanding of opinions toward actual samples of the language.

Disadvantages: Decisions about dialect areas should not be based solely upon these responses and are best used in conjunction with more complete intelligibility testing.

3.2.5 Participatory Methods (PM)

This survey used two different participatory methods (PM): Dialect Mapping and Appreciative Inquiry. The purpose for using PM is to gain perspective from the community regarding what they see happening with their language. PM attempt to understand the emic perspectives of the community.

Dialect mapping

Description and purpose: This tool creates space for discussion of emic perspectives regarding dialects, their geographic location and perceived levels of comprehension between varieties.

Procedure: Participants are invited to describe their linguistic landscape by identifying other locations where their language is spoken. They then identify how large they perceive the differences to be between their variety and the others as well as their level of understanding, which variety they use in conversation with people from other areas and which variety they believe to be the standard or most broadly understood. Two trained Dangaura Tharu speakers facilitated dialect mapping in five locations. Full steps used for this facilitation are in Appendix E.

1 This is because material development is already in progress in Dangaura and therefore less information was needed from Dangaura speakers than from other varieties in order to fulfill the purpose and goals of this survey.

Advantages: Provides a visual representation of other communities participants interact with, how well they feel they understand those varieties, how their language may or may not be altered in these circumstances and their attitudes about other varieties.

Disadvantages: May seem complicated or redundant, but each step contributes to a fuller picture of the local perception of the language situation. Emic perspectives do not always match linguistic reality.

Appreciative Inquiry

Description and purpose: This tool helps community members dream and discuss the possibilities for their language and begin planning how they can achieve those dreams. It also shows what the community sees as most important for their language.

Procedure: Participants discuss things in their language or culture that have made them happy or proud. They are then invited to think about how they might build upon these good things they have identified, or identify dreams they have for their language. Next they discuss what dreams might be accomplished sooner and which ones will take longer. Then they identify which dreams are most important to them. Finally, participants are asked if they would like to choose a dream they would like to create a plan for and begin deciding on what the first steps should be, who will be involved and when the plan will be put into action. Like dialect mapping, this was facilitated by two trained Dangaura Tharu speakers. Complete steps of Appreciative Inquiry are in Appendix F.

Advantages: Creates space and opportunity for community discussion of good things that are currently taking place, their goals and dreams and concludes with creating their own plan of action for a goal they have chosen (if they so wish). It is adaptable for various situations.

Disadvantages: It requires facilitators to have strong linguistic and cultural command for effective group facilitation. If not properly framed, the facilitation may raise false hopes of outside assistance in reaching their goals.

3.3 Subject selection

Subject quotas for this survey are based on a convenience sample. It focuses on four demographic groups (gender, age, education and language variety), as these factors are known to influence language use and attitudes. People in these demographic groups often have varying levels of exposure to other languages.

3.3.1 Wordlists and RSQ elicitation subject selection

There are four requirements for subjects chosen for wordlists and recorded story elicitation. These criteria are as follows: 1. Subject has grown up in the village under study, lives there now and if they have lived elsewhere, it was not for a significant amount of recent time2. 2. Subject has at least one parent from the target mother tongue. 3. Subject has at least one parent from the village under study and that parent spoke the mother tongue (L1) with them. 4. Subject speaks L1 first and best.

2 It is difficult to define a specific time period (e.g. more than the last five years) for “a significant amount of recent time.” Thus, this criterion is intentionally subjective as it depends on how long the subject lived elsewhere and how long they have been back in the village relative to their age.

3.3.2 Informal interview subject selection

The informal interview schedule requires that only criteria numbers one and two (section 3.3.1) be met in order for a subject to be eligible. In each language variety a minimum of 12 informal interviews were administered stratified by age and gender. Educational background was also accounted for during data collection and analysis. For this analysis, literate persons were classified as educated, which generally corresponded with the completion of primary level four.

Table 1. Sample size for informal interview by age and gender

Age Sample size by strata Total Young (15–34) Old (35+) Male 3 3 6 Gender Female 3 3 6 Total 6 6 12

3.3.3 Recorded Story Question subject selection

Subjects chosen for listening to and responding to the RSQs met the first three screening criteria that was used for the RSQ storyteller (section 3.3.1). In each language variety a minimum of ten RSQ tests were administered.

3.3.4 Participatory Method subject selection

Appreciative Inquiry and dialect mapping are facilitated for groups in each community. There is no limit imposed on how many people may be involved although a group size between five and ten individuals is preferable. It is also preferred for various demographics (gender, age and education) to be represented in each group if possible. There is no screening process for those involved in participatory methods. However, notes were taken regarding who was present in order to account for possible bias.

4 Lexical similarity

Lexical similarity is a measure of the relative similarity of a sample of words from two speech varieties. Similarity percentages are determined by calculating the percentage of words in one speech variety that are pronounced the same or in a very similar way to the words in another speech variety. Specifically, this survey used the comparison method outlined in (Blair 1990: 31–32), further explained in Appendix A.2. It is generally accepted that lexical similarity percentages below 60% indicate that the compared lists represent different languages. Lexical similarity above 60% requires intelligibility testing to confirm if the varieties are dialects of the same language or if they are different languages. This survey compares five 316-item wordlists. The lexical similarity percentages among the five Tharu wordlists are displayed in table 2.

Table 2. Lexical similarity percentages matrix

Malhoriya

88% Deukhuri

83% 84% Dangaura

84% 81% 76% Desauriya

77% 74% 70% 74% Kathariya

Table 2 shows that the lexical similarity percentages vary from a high of 88% (between Malhoriya and Deukhuri) to a low of 70% (between Dangaura and Kathariya). No comparison falls below the cutoff (60%) where they would be considered separate languages. Malhoriya and Deukhuri have the highest average lexical similarity with all other varieties. The wordlist from Dangaura shared higher similarity with those taken in Malhoriya (83%) and Deukhuri (84%) than with Desauriya (76%) or Kathariya (70%). This suggests a greater potential for intelligibility challenges with Desauriya and Kathariya. Wordlist data shows that Malhoriya and Deukhuri share higher lexical similarity with Dangaura and Desauriya. Dangaura shares high lexical similarity with Deukhuri and Malhoriya. Kathariya is the most lexically variant of these wordlists.

5 Dialect attitudes and emic perspectives

One goal of this survey was to investigate the emic (insider) perspectives of each community in regards to dialect boundaries and assess attitudes toward Dangaura, Deukhuri and Malhoriya varieties. This gives a more complete overview of the language situation than linguistic data alone can provide. Although reported similarity requires further testing, reported differences are generally more reliable. The following sections are divided into each variety (Dangaura, Deukhuri and Malhoriya) and begin with the opinions expressed by dialect mapping participants regarding their own language situation, including perceived boundaries in speech differences. Informal interview responses are then discussed which suggest minimal contact between varieties and opinions regarding different speech varieties. Lastly, attitudes toward the variety are discussed, based on data collected through RSQs and other tools (when applicable). Although the interview and RSQ sample size in each site was not large, we believe they still provide helpful indicators towards these research questions. One of the questions included in dialect mapping was about the development of written materials in Tharu. When groups were asked, assuming no materials had yet been developed, what the best variety for material development would be, each chose their own variety as their first choice. The next nearest (geographically) variety was always their second choice. This provides no consensus on any one dialect that all groups agreed would be best for the development of materials in Tharu. Given the large geographic area covered by the varieties in this survey (nearly 200 km between the farthest two villages), it is not surprising that speakers of some speech varieties have never heard of nor had contact with speakers of some other varieties. During dialect mapping facilitations in this survey, this was often the case. For example, participants in Belganar, Dang (Dangaura Tharu) had heard of Malhoriya and Kathariya varieties, but had never met anyone that speaks either of those varieties.

5.1 Attitudes and perspectives toward Dangaura

This section summarizes the data collected regarding attitudes and perspectives toward Dangaura. Through a dialect mapping facilitation in Belganar, Dang, Dangaura participants shared how they view the boundaries of their language and its varieties. They listed many Village Development Committees (VDCs) that they completely understand, all of which lie north of the Mahendra highway: Narayanapur, Bijouri, Manapur, Duruwa, Phulbari, Goltakuri, Hekuli, Shreegaun and Ghorahi. They reported that they understand half of the speech in Satbariya VDC, which lies just south of the Mahendra highway in what was once called Deukhuri district. When asked about the other Tharu varieties of this survey, participants reported that they understand half of Deukhuri and Desauriya speech. They did not have knowledge about Malhoriya or Kathariya and those groups were excluded from the facilitation. Participants reported that Deukhuri speakers adjust to them by speaking the Dangaura variety, although Deukhuri participants did not report this about themselves. Informal interviews were used to inquire about minimal levels of contact between speech varieties and the opinions of speakers of these different varieties toward each other. As seen in table 3, tables throughout this report include a row for the total number of responses indicated by N=. The total number of responses vary for different questions because some questions were not applicable to some

subjects. In addition, abbreviations for each Tharu variety are displayed in tables throughout this report as follows: Dangaura (DG), Deukhuri (DK), Desauriya (DES), Malhoriya (MAL) and Kathariya (KAT). Table 3 displays the number of respondents from each variety that reported meeting speakers of Dangaura.

Table 3. Contact with Dangaura speakers

DK MAL DES KAT Total N= 12 13 12 12 49 Have 11 13 11 12 47 met DG (92%) (100%) (92%) (100%) (96%)

Table 3 shows that the majority of respondents from all varieties report contact with Dangaura speakers (47/49). This is not surprising because Dangaura speakers comprise the most populous group and live in villages with or near speakers of other varieties in every district. During informal interviews, if respondents reported meeting speakers of the different speech varieties, they were also asked how they liked their language. Responses to this question by those that have met Dangaura speakers are shown in table 4.

Table 4. Informal interview responses regarding Dangaura speech

DK MAL DES KAT N= 11 13 12 12 Good 82% 100% 100% 67% How did their [DG] Indifferent 18% – – 33% Tharu make you feel? Bad – – – –

Most participants who said they have met Dangaura speakers reported that they thought the Dangaura speech of those they met is “good.” Kathariya respondents reported mixed attitudes: the majority (67%) felt the Dangaura speech was “good” and 33% expressed indifference. None of the respondents reported the speech as “bad.” This shows lack of negative attitudes by those who have come in contact with Dangaura speakers. Another tool administered to assess attitudes was the RSQ. After listening to the Dangaura story, listeners were asked to share what they thought of the storyteller’s speech and whether or not the speech is different from their own. Results of these questions are shown in table 5.

Table 5. Attitudes towards speech in Dangaura story

DK MAL DES KAT

N= 10 13 12 11 Good 90% 77% 92% 64% How did you like his Fine 10% 23% 8% 36% speech? Bad – – – – Same 40% – 25% – Is the language in this story…from the language A little different 60% 69% 67% 45% spoken here? Very different – 31% 8% 55%

When listening to an actual sample of Dangaura speech, most respondents said the language variety they heard was “good.” None of the respondents from any variety reported the speech as “bad.” This is consistent with informal interview responses from those that had met Dangaura speakers, further suggesting positive attitudes toward Dangaura. Table 5 shows that all Kathariya and Malhoriya respondents reported the Dangaura story was different in some way from their own speech. Most (75%) Desauriya respondents also reported differences between Dangaura and their own variety. Despite this, the majority of these respondents reported the speech as “good.” None of the respondents from any area responded with clearly negative attitudes towards Dangaura. The fact that these respondents identify the Dangaura storyteller’s speech as different from their own and still report that the speech is “good” suggests generally positive attitudes toward Dangaura speech. When the story was identified as “different,” participants were asked to identify what the differences were: style, pronunciation and/or vocabulary. Style and pronunciation were identified by respondents as the top factors making the Dangaura speech different from their own. When asked if they would allow their son or daughter to marry someone who spoke like the storyteller, an average of 89% said “yes,” suggesting negative attitudes are not held toward Dangaura speech. Kathariya respondents reported the lowest percentage (73%). After listening to the Dangaura story, 55% of listeners (25 of 46) were able to identify the storyteller’s speech as Dangaura. Respondents were asked, “How much of the story did you understand: all, most, half, or less than half?” Table 6 displays responses to this question by subjects from each of the varieties.

Table 6. Perceived comprehension of Dangaura story

DK MAL DES KAT

N= 10 13 12 11

All 100% 85% 83% 73%

How much of the Most – 15% 17% 18% Dangaura story did you understand? Half – – – 9%

Less than half – – – –

The pattern of reported comprehension follows a geographic trend, with each respondent in Deukhuri reporting that they understood all of the story, followed by Malhoriya and Desauriya (85% and 83% respectively) saying they understood all of the story and finally 73% in Kathariya reporting full comprehension. This is consistent with dialect mapping responses from Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya participants. The dialect mapping group in Deukhuri said that they understand most Dangaura speech. Deukhuri and Malhoriya participants said that they understand Dangaura best, after their own variety. During dialect mapping, Desauriya participants reported that they use the Dangaura variety with Dangaura people, in order to improve communication. Their willingness to change their own speech with Dangaura speakers suggests that they view the Dangaura speech favorably. However, Desauriya participants also said they understand only half of Dangaura speech, compared to most (82%) reporting understanding “all” of the Dangaura story. Through informal conversations, several community members reported the Dangaura speech variety as the most polite variety of Tharu. In summary, the data shows that Dangaura is readily identified by other Tharu communities of the area and many report it is easy to understand. Even though other varieties identified the Dangaura speech as different from their own, the data suggests positive attitudes are held toward Dangaura speech. Dialect mapping exercises and observations support this as well. No interview responses or observations suggest there are negative attitudes held toward Dangaura speech. This is further confirmed through a high percentage of respondents reporting that they would allow intermarriage with Dangaura speakers.

Kathariya respondents reported more differences than the other varieties between their own language and Dangaura. Despite this, all but one respondent felt they understood most or all of the Dangaura story. Although this does not confirm comprehension of Dangaura by the Kathariya respondents, it shows that they have positive attitudes towards the Dangaura variety.

5.2 Attitudes and perspectives toward Deukhuri

This section summarizes the data collected regarding attitudes and perspectives toward Deukhuri. Dialect mapping participants in Majgau, Dang district, a Deukhuri village, listed several VDCs as having speech that sounds exactly like their own: Sonpur, Gobardiya, Gangapraspur, Gadhawa, Chaulahi, Lalmatiya and Sisahaniya. These districts are all located in western Dang district, south of the Mahendra highway, except Lalmatiya and Sisahaniya VDCs which are located north of the highway. Like Dangaura participants, they said they understand most, but not all off the Tharu spoken in Satbariya VDC. They also reported understanding most of the speech in Bela VDC. When asked, participants said they do not understand very much Desauriya. They had not interacted frequently enough with Malhoriya or Kathariya speakers to discuss those varieties during the facilitation. When asked which speech varieties they understand best, participants listed the same VDCs as they listed when asked who they completely understand. They reported understanding Satbariya VDC as second most understood, followed by Nepali. Table 7 shows the minimal levels of contact between Malhoriya/Desauriya/Kathariya and Deukhuri reported in individual interviews.

Table 7. Contact with Deukhuri speakers

MAL DES KAT Total N= 13 12 12 37 Have 10 6 10 26 met DK (77%) (50%) (83%) (70%)

Most Malhoriya (10 of 13) and Kathariya (10 of 12) respondents have met Deukhuri speakers. However, only six (6 of 12) Desauriya people interviewed had contact with Deukhuri. Of those who reported meeting Deukhuri speakers, a follow-up question was asked: “How did their Tharu make you feel?” Responses are shown in table 8.

Table 8. Informal interview responses regarding Deukhuri speech

MAL DES KAT

N= 10 6 10 Good 80% 50% 90% How did their [DK] Indifferent 20% 50% 10% Tharu make you feel? Bad – – –

When asked how they like the language of the Deukhuri people they have met, none of the respondents said the Deukhuri language was “bad.” This shows a lack of clearly negative attitudes toward Deukhuri speech by those who have met them. Table 9 shows responses to RSQ questions asking how listeners liked the storyteller’s speech and if the speech was different from their own.

Table 9. Attitudes towards speech in Deukhuri story

DG MAL DES KAT N= 10 13 12 11

Good 80% 77% 92% 91% How did you like his Fine 20% 23% 8% 9% speech? Bad – – – –

Same 10% 69% 33% 20% Is the language in this story…from the language A little different 70% 31% 58% 40% spoken here? Very different 20% – 8% 40%

As seen in table 9, the majority of respondents said that the storyteller’s speech was “good.” Over 90% of both Desauriya and Kathariya respondents said that the storyteller’s speech was “good.” None of the respondents said they disliked the Deukhuri speech they had heard. This data suggests positive attitudes toward Deukhuri speech from the tested varieties. The majority of Malhoriya respondents (69%) reported the Deukhuri storyteller’s speech as the “same” as their own. By contrast, only 33% of Desauriya, 20% of Kathariya and 10% of Dangaura respondents said the same about the storyteller’s speech (table 9). Regardless of whether respondents claimed the storyteller’s speech as the “same” as their own, the majority reported the speech as “good.” This suggests positive attitudes toward Deukhuri speech because, even when differences were recognized, the speech sample was viewed as “good.” The majority of respondents from all varieties reported that they would allow their son or daughter to marry someone who spoke like the Deukhuri storyteller. This suggests that the participants do not hold negative attitudes toward Deukhuri speech. After listening to the Deukhuri story, participants were asked, “How much of the story did you understand?” Table 10 displays the responses.

Table 10. Perceived comprehension of Deukhuri story

DG MAL DES KAT

N= 10 13 12 11

All 100% 100% 92% 91%

How much of the Most – – 8% 9% Deukhuri story did you understand? Half – – – –

Less than half – – – –

While fewer respondents have had previous contact with Deukhuri speakers than with Dangaura, table 10 shows that more respondents felt they understood all of the Deukhuri story than said the same about the Dangaura story. Consistent with this, Kathariya dialect mapping participants reported that they understand Deukhuri speech better than Dangaura speech. After Kathariya participants heard the Dangaura story, eight of 11 (73%) reported understanding all of the story compared to 10 of 11 (91%) claiming they understood all of the Deukhuri story. Every Dangaura and Malhoriya RSQ respondent reported understanding all of the Deukhuri story. However, Dangaura and Malhoriya dialect mapping

participants reported that they understand half of what Deukhuri speakers say. This indicates that Dangaura and Malhoriya speakers identify their speech as different from Deukhuri, but respond differently to an actual sample of speech. Of those who reported the storyteller’s speech as different in some way, the primary reason was “style.” In summary of what speakers of other varieties reported about Deukhuri speech, the Deukhuri story was reportedly the most understood story of all the varieties tested. A high percentage of respondents said the Deukhuri speech in the story was “good.” The same was reported through informal interviews. Desauriya and Kathariya respondents reported the highest amount of differences between their speech and Deukhuri. Despite identifying differences, the majority of respondents from all varieties reported favorable attitudes towards Deukhuri speech. In addition, the majority of interview respondents said they would allow marriages with Deukhuri speakers. Based on this data, it can be generalized that respondents do not hold negative attitudes toward Deukhuri.

5.3 Attitudes and perspectives toward Malhoriya

This section summarizes the data collected regarding attitudes and perspectives toward Malhoriya. Malhoriya dialect mapping participants in Ghiya, Kailali district, listed several VDCs located in southeast Kailali district as having speech that sounds exactly like their own: Chauha, Kota Tulsipur, Baliya, Janakinagar, Joshipur, Pathariya, Munuwa, Durgauli, Thapapur, Tikapur, Narayanpur and Dansinhapur. Participants reported that they understand Dangaura best, after their own variety. They reported understanding only half of both Deukhuri and Kathariya speech. During dialect mapping with other varieties, Malhoriya was rarely mentioned by participants. Therefore, this section will focus on responses about Malhoriya from RSQ and informal interviews. Table 11 shows the minimal levels of contact between Deukhuri/Desauriya/Kathariya and Malhoriya reported in individual interviews.

Table 11. Contact with Malhoriya speakers

DK DES KAT Total N= 12 12 12 36 Have 1 2 12 15 met MAL (8%) (17%) (100%) (42%)

As seen in table 11, very few Deukhuri or Desauriya informal interview respondents said that they have met a Malhoriya speaker. Therefore, minimal data is available from informal interviews regarding attitudes toward Malhoriya speakers by those that have met them. All Kathariya respondents said they have met Malhoriya speakers. Only two Desauriya respondents and one Deukhuri respondent reported having met Malhoriya speakers. Respondents that have met Malhoriya speakers were asked how they liked their speech. Kathariya responses to this question are shown in table 12.

Table 12. Informal interview responses regarding Malhoriya speech

KAT

N= 12 Good 50% How did their [MAL] Indifferent 33% Tharu make you feel? Bad 17%

Table 12 shows that half of the Kathariya respondents felt that the speech of Malhoriya people is “good.” Two Kathariya respondents did not like the Malhoriya speech that they heard in the story. This data shows mixed attitudes toward Malhoriya speech by Kathariya respondents. The Malhoriya story was played for Deukhuri, Desauriya and Kathariya participants. RSQ responses regarding how the listeners felt about the storyteller’s speech and how similar or different the speech was from their own is shown in table 13.

Table 13. Attitudes toward speech in Malhoriya story

DK DES KAT N= 10 12 11

Good 70% 83% 64% How did you like his Fine 30% 17% 27% speech? Bad – – 9%

Same 10% 50% – Is the language in this story…from the language A little different 90% 42% 45% spoken here? Very different – 8% 55%

The majority of participants reported the Malhoriya storyteller’s speech was “good.” Attitudes were least positive among Kathariya respondents. Despite this, the majority of Kathariya respondents said the speech was “good.” Similar to what was said of other varieties, the majority of respondents identified that their speech is, to some degree, different than the storyteller’s. All Kathariya and 90% of Deukhuri respondents identified that the speech was “different.” Again, similar to other varieties, despite these identified differences, positive responses were given regarding the speech sample. This suggests positive attitudes because, though differences exist between the speech varieties, they still view the variety favorably. Most (69%) Malhoriya respondents said the Deukhuri story was the “same” as their language (table 9) while only 10% of Deukhuri respondents said the same about the Malhoriya story (table 13). This data suggests a tentative analysis that Malhoriya speakers might understand Deukhuri more than Deukhuri speakers understand Malhoriya. But intelligibility testing would be required to conclusively evaluate that possibility. When asked, most respondents who reported Malhoriya was different in some way said it was because of pronunciation. The majority of Desauriya (92%) and Deukhuri (80%) respondents said they would allow their child to marry someone that speaks like the Malhoriya storyteller. Sixty-four percent of Kathariya respondents said the same. After listening to the Malhoriya story, Deukhuri, Desauriya and Kathariya respondents were asked, “How much of the story did you understand?” Table 14 displays their responses.

Table 14. Perceived comprehension of Malhoriya story

DK DES KAT

N= 10 12 11

All 80% 100% 91%

How much of the Most 10% – 9% Malhoriya story did you understand? Half 10% – –

Less than half – – –

As table 14 shows, the majority of respondents reported understanding all of the story. Consistent with RSQ data, Kathariya participants reported through dialect mapping that, after their own variety, they understand Malhoriya best. During informal interviews, four (of 12) Kathariya respondents reported that Malhoriya is the least pure Tharu variety. In summary, the majority of respondents for both the RSQ and informal interviews reported they felt that Malhoriya speech is “good.” Participants of the RSQ were able to identify differences between their own speech and the Malhoriya story most of the time. The majority of participants said they would allow intermarriage with Malhoriya speakers, which suggests a lack of strongly negative attitudes. Kathariya subjects appear to view themselves separate and distinct from Malhoriya.

5.4 Summary of attitudes and emic perspectives

In summary of attitudes by varieties toward Dangaura, Deukhuri and Malhoriya, it can be generalized that no negative attitudes are held toward Dangaura or Deukhuri and mixed attitudes were reported toward Malhoriya. More RSQ respondents said they understood “all” the Deukhuri story than the Dangaura or Malhoriya story. Subjects from all varieties feel they understand one another to some extent, with the greatest differences being between Dangaura and Kathariya. Kathariya may be more similar to Malhoriya than to Dangaura or Deukhuri. Malhoriya respondents identify Deukhuri as more similar to their own speech than Dangaura. Differences were reported between speech varieties to varying degrees, but despite the identified differences, overall attitudes appear favorable. Kathariya respondents often recognized differences between their speech variety and the other varieties of the survey. They often stated that their own speech is “very different” from that of the story’s they heard from other varieties. Kathariya language assistants responded more favorably to Deukhuri speech than they did to recordings of Dangaura and Malhoriya varieties.

6 Language vitality

One way of measuring language vitality is through assessing the function of the language and the degree of interruption of intergenerational transfer. The Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) is often used to classify the level of vitality held in a community or language using a 0–10 scale with 0 representing strong vitality and 10 being extinct (Lewis and Simons, 2010). Through investigation of various factors effecting language vitality, Dangaura Tharu (and its sub-varieties) is assigned an EGIDS level of 5: Written; The language is used orally by all generations and is effectively used in written form in parts of the community. Kathariya Tharu is a level 6a: Vigorous; The language is used orally by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language. A complete description of EGIDS is in appendix G.

Several of the indicators of language vitality that this survey examines are based on Lynn Landweer’s Indicators of Ethnolinguistic Vitality (IEV), in which she describes several factors that have been “useful in indicating the probable direction a speech community will go relative to the maintenance of, or shift from, its traditional language” (Landweer 2000). This section discusses seven indicators of vitality: domains of language use, intergenerational transfer, group dynamics, network of social relations, language prestige, external recognition and economic base.

6.1 Domains of language use

One aspect of vitality according to the IEV scale is which languages are used in various domains of life. Language use in the home is viewed as one of the primary domains for vitality because the language of the home is generally a child’s first language. Ninety-eight percent of respondents reported that parents in their village usually use the mother tongue with their own children. All respondents with children reported that all of their children speak their mother tongue. This suggests high vitality for the mother tongue in these communities. Using informal interviews, language choice in 12 domains was investigated. Responses, stratified by age and gender, are displayed in table 15.

Table 15. Domains of Tharu use stratified by gender and age

Men Women Young Old Young Old Average N= 13 12 14 11 50 family gatherings 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% village meetings 91% 92% 86% 100% 92% quarrelling 62% 100% 100% 100% 91% scolding/taboo words 62% 100% 93% 100% 89% storytelling 69% 83% 79% 100% 83% joking 69% 83% 77% 100% 82% discussing/debate 62% 83% 79% 100% 81% telling stories to children 69% 83% 64% 100% 79% puja/prayer 46% 73% 64% 82% 67% bargaining/shopping 23% 67% 50% 100% 60% singing 18% 73% 29% 100% 55% singing at home 23% 58% 38% 91% 53%

Tharu was the primary language respondents claimed to use in these 12 domains, followed by Nepali. Clear distinctions in patterns of language use are seen when viewing the domains by age and gender. Older women (age 35 and above) report the highest use of Tharu in every domain. Older men also report high use of Tharu in most domains. Young men (age 15–34) report lower use of Tharu than the other demographic groupings in all but three domains (telling stories to children, family gatherings and village meetings). One possible explanation for lower use of Tharu by young men is their high level of education. Only one young man from our sample is uneducated. The three domains with lowest Tharu use were: bargaining/shopping (60%), singing (55%) and singing at home (53%). This is likely due to high exposure to non-Tharu music (mainly Nepali and Hindi) as well as frequent contact with non-Tharu speakers in bazaars. Although these domains had the

lowest percentages of Tharu use by participants, the percentages still show strong Tharu use given the predominance of Nepali and Hindi in these domains. One of our goals is to consider language choice patterns in each Tharu variety of this survey. Table 16 shows responses for Tharu language use in twelve domains, stratified by variety.

Table 16. Domains of Tharu use stratified by variety3

DK MAL DES KAT N= 12 14 12 12 family gatherings 100% 100% 100% 100% village meetings 92% 100% 75% 100% quarrelling 100% 100% 73% 83% scolding/taboo words 100% 100% 67% 83% storytelling 75% 100% 67% 83% joking 100% 100% 42% 83% discussing/debate 92% 93% 50% 83% telling stories to children 83% 86% 50% 92% puja/prayer 91% 71% 25% 75% bargaining/shopping 67% 57% 50% 58% singing 58% 50% 36% 67% singing at home 64% 50% 25% 67%

Respondents in the Deukhuri, Malhoriya and Kathariya villages all use their mother tongue relatively often in each of the twelve domains. Desauriya respondents had the lowest reported use of Tharu, when compared to those from other varieties. This was true of every domain except for that of family gatherings, in which all respondents from each area primarily use Tharu. One of the strongest influences of non-mother-tongue use is in the domain of education. Eighty-five percent of respondents report that children use Nepali in school and not Tharu. This percentage may be even higher because some respondents reported Tharu use in schools by children with children instead of reporting what language was used for instruction (the question was unclear). Only two of 36 parents reported that their children learned Nepali at home. Despite high use of Nepali in school instruction, many respondents report that their children use Tharu outside the classroom at school (i.e. with other children on the playground and by teachers for clarification of instructions). Eighty-nine percent of parent respondents report that they usually use their mother tongue to discuss education matters with their children.

6.2 Intergenerational transfer

An important aspect of language vitality is the extent to which the mother tongue is being passed to the next generation, known as intergenerational transfer. The Tharu communities of this survey appear to have high intergenerational transfer from parents to children. Over 80% of interview respondents with children report that they use their mother tongue with children in all areas of life. School instruction is the only area they report their children consistently use Nepali. Some examples of this pattern:

3 Interviews were not administered in Dangaura villages, and therefore are not included in this chart.

• 86% of respondents with children report usually using their mother tongue to tell stories to children • 88% report that their children usually use their mother tongue when speaking with neighbors • 86% report that children usually use their mother tongue when playing with other children • As mentioned in section 1.4.2, 98% of respondents (not just parents, but all respondents) report that their mother tongue is the language most commonly used by parents in the village with their children. Observations in each location confirm the reported use of Tharu by children. Consistency of high Tharu use is found when examining intergenerational transfer by variety. Informal interview responses to the question “Do young people in your village speak your mother tongue well, the way it ought to be spoken” are shown stratified by variety in table 17.

Table17. Young people “speak well” responses by variety

DK MAL DES KAT N= 12 14 12 12 Respondents reported young people as speaking their mother 75% 100% 92% 92% tongue well.

Table 17 shows that the majority of respondents from each variety report that children are speaking the language the way they feel it ought to be spoken. In addition to current mother-tongue use, the informal interview schedule inquired about attitudes toward what the respondents think will happen with their language in the future. All Malhoriya and Kathariya respondents said they believe their children’s children will speak their mother tongue. Similarly, 92% of Desauriya and 83% of Deukhuri respondents reported the same. This reveals a strong belief in the continuation of their mother tongue. Based on informal interviews and observations, we found that most mothers speak limited or no Nepali. However, as education increases for women (71% of young women respondents are educated, but none of the older women respondents), so does their ability in the language of education, namely Nepali. Forty-five percent of older women respondents said they speak at least some Nepali. By contrast, all young women reported that they speak Nepali. As this educated generation ages and has children and grandchildren, further studies should be done to re-investigate how this affects the intergenerational transfer of Tharu. Intergenerational transfer is a critical part of language vitality and, according to the responses from the interviews, the Tharu varieties covered in this survey are being passed on to the next generation. With increasing levels of education, currently all in Nepali, this indicator will require monitoring as young people begin to make choices about which language they will speak with their children.

6.3 Group dynamics

Group dynamics is another indicator of language vitality. “One of the ways that the core of fluent speakers is either supported or undermined is through the language use characteristics of those who immigrate to a speech community” (Landweer 2000). Intermarriage between groups was observed during the survey and, in several instances, the spouse who immigrated learns the local language. In Ghumna, a Deukhuri village, we were told that outsiders who marry-in are not forced to learn the language, but usually do because it is natural when you live there. We observed this in Belganar, a Dangaura village, where a non-Tharu woman married into the community and “fluently” speaks the local variety of Tharu. An additional example is from Ghiya, a Malhoriya village, where our non-Tharu driver spoke Tharu with a village man for directions to a village, when they could have both switched into Nepali instead. These observations suggest strong vitality.

6.4 Network of social relations

Another indicator of language vitality involves language use in a community’s social networks, defined by Landweer as “intracommunity interdependence with dense, multiplex networks utilizing the local language to meet communication needs” (Landweer 2000). A dense network is one in which everyone that is linked or connected to an individual is also linked to one another. A multiplex network is one in which a person is connected to other people through multiple connections (for example, their neighbor may also be their child’s teacher as well as the wife of their doctor). Local language use in a community that has a both dense and multiplex social network indicates high vitality. Observations allowed for little data collection in regards to the network of the Tharu communities. The most telling information came from interviewing leaders in each community. According to community leaders, most of the villages have high percentages of Tharu population. In Majgau, a Deukhuri village, it was reported that approximately 3,980 out of the 4,000 villagers are Deukhuri. It was reported in Pabera that approximately 60% of their village’s population is Kathariya; the remaining 40% being Chaudhary (Dangaura). However, it was also reported that around 75% of the villagers speak Kathariya because they said some Chaudhary people also speak Kathariya. In Ghiya, it was reported that all 1,300 people of the village speak Malhoriya, even the Pahadis (hill people) that live there. The Belganar leader reported similar information saying that 800–900 of the 1,200 villagers are Dangaura. By contrast, the Chapargaudi leader reported that approximately 10% of their village is Desauriya. When leaders were asked about schools and the ethnic background of teachers, information greatly varied. In Ghumna (Deukhuri), 10 of 13 teachers are Tharu. Similarly, a high percentage of teachers in Majgau (Deukhuri) are Tharu. Other locations, however, such as Belganar (Dangaura), reported few Tharu primary school teachers and no Tharu secondary teachers. In Ghiya (Malhoriya), primary school teachers are mostly Tharu and secondary teachers are mostly non-Tharu. In several villages, Tharu medical personnel live and work in the village clinic. The data collected with regards to this indicator is insufficient to make any strong statements of how the social networks of these communities affect language vitality. However, it would appear that each individual location varies greatly from one another.

6.5 Relative prestige

The relative prestige of the mother tongue within a language community influences the vitality of that language. If a language is perceived as prestigious, when given the choice, speakers are more likely to use it. Several factors affect the prestige of a language including the language of education, religious activities, trade, radio and what is available in a language, as well as government recognition and the presence of organizations (internal or external). High prestige is found in all varieties through responses to the informal interview question “What language should children speak first?” All respondents from Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya answered that their mother tongue should be children’s first language. The majority of Malhoriya respondents said the same. Only one respondent reported that English should be first. There are several organizations located within the Tharu speaking area of this survey, including Kathariya Samaj Nepali, a cultural preservation organization located in Pabera, Kailali district; Help Society Nepal, which works with various types of Tharu development in Belganar, Dang district (their office is located in Tulsipur), and Chaudhary Rin-Badhet Samuha, an economic development organization located in Chapargaudi, Banke district. Our host in Ghumna had worked with several different organizations (USAID, as well as organizations from Holland and Japan) in order to fund schools to be built. In Pabera, Kailali district, a street drama was performed in the Kathariya Tharu language. There are radio programs in Tharu. Through asking knowledgeable insiders as well as community members, it appears that Tharu radio programs are available in Dangaura, Deukhuri and Kathariya varieties, but not in Desauriya or Malhoriya. All Deukhuri and Kathariya respondents said they listen to the radio programming available in their language. The majority of Desauriya (88%) and Malhoriya (79%) respondents, whose programs are only available in Dangaura speech variety, reported that they

26 listen to the Tharu radio programs. In some locations, radio programs in Tharu are only available once a week and the remaining time is available in Nepali or Hindi. Some written materials are available in Tharu. Seventy-five percent of literate respondents say they currently read materials that are available in Tharu and 100% say they are interested in having more materials written in Tharu. When asked why they want to read or write in Tharu, the primary response was because their own language is best for them. This supports the prestige of their mother tongue over other languages available to them. Table 18 shows the reported language preference for primary education, stratified by variety.

Table 18. Language of choice for primary education by variety

DK DES MAL KAT

N= 12 12 14 11

What language do you prefer for your Tharu 50% 33% 14% 55% children’s medium of instruction at primary level? Nepali 25% 25% 29% 18% English 25% 42% 57% 27%

Classroom instruction is in Nepali. Some Tharu is used in primary for clarification of instructions and some English is used in secondary school. On average, respondents report English as the preferred language for school (39%), then Tharu (37%), followed by Nepali (24%). However, about half of all Deukhuri and Kathariya respondents reported that they prefer education to be in Tharu. By contrast, only four (33%) Desauriya and one (14%) of the Malhoriya respondents said they prefer Tharu. These responses show a high desire for command of English for economic/scholarly advancement, but also show some desire for mother-tongue education (discussed further in section 8. Overall, Tharu appears to have high prestige. The majority of respondents prefer for their children to speak their mother tongue first. In addition, there are government and organizational recognition, radio programs and written materials. Dangaura has the most printed materials and radio programs. Deukhuri and Kathariya respondents prefer Tharu language use for education, which suggests very positive attitudes towards their mother tongue.

6.6 External recognition

External recognition of a language community as culturally separate and distinct supports language vitality. The government of Nepal has categorized the Tharu as a recognized nationality in the 2002 NFDIN Act (No. 20, Sec. 2C). In addition, Article 5 of the 2007 Interim Constitution of Nepal states that, “All the languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are the national languages of Nepal.” Locally, many signs of distinct identity were found in the Tharu communities, not only separating them from other non-Tharu peoples, but also marking differences between the individual Tharu varieties themselves. These markers included dress, style of homes, songs, dances, and tattoos. Deukhuri women wear a sari-like top and long, full skirts with three bands of color: black, red, and black. In the Dangaura village of Belganar, women wear their sari top and lungi tied in a distinctive way. In Chapargaudi, a Desauriya village, women wear very colorful and distinctive skirts. In Pabera, a Kathariya speaking village, women wear skirts with black, green, and red diamonds on the bottom. These differences in dress are distinctive to an insider, but outsiders may not recognize their cultural significance. Many Tharu women, especially older women, have tattoos on their hands and legs. Although once a common practice, tattooing young women at the time of marriage is now rarely seen. However, we observed a few young women with tattoos. Unmarried women and men never receive this type of tattoo. The design of the tattoo varies place to place. In Pabera, a Kathariya village, one older woman had tattoo markings on her forehead instead of her arms or legs.

Pabera, a Kathariya village, has very distinctive houses painted with different types of designs. They are colorful and designs range from flower pots to animals. It is easy to identify Kathariya people from other groups living in Pabera because of their homes. Although we did not observe it directly, in the Deukhuri villages of Ghumna and Majgau, villagers told us about cultural dance and music. We could also hear music into the night. In every village visited, we were able to observe some kind of physical indication of a distinct identity, not only distinguishing Tharu people, but identifying people as members of different groups of Tharu. These cultural markers are less common among the younger generation; nevertheless, the indicators are present in the community suggesting strong cultural identity which supports vitality.

6.7 Economic base

The final indicator of language vitality this survey considers is the Tharu community’s access to a stable and acceptable economic base. Lynn Landweer suggests that, if the language community believes economic advantages are more accessible in a different language, they will shift in that direction. This decision usually takes place among the parents and, seeking the benefits that are associated with the other language for their children, they encourage the learning and use of that language. Located in the “rice bowl” of Nepal, the most common occupation for both men and women is farming. Knowledgeable insiders from Deukhuri, Dangaura, Desauriya and Kathariya areas report that people from their villages rarely travel outside for work, while Malhoriya leaders report that sometimes people travel outside for work. This means that their agriculture yields enough to supply their own needs and acquiring another language is not necessarily required for financial survival. Nepali is commonly spoken in the bazaar where people from many different ethnolinguistic groups come into contact with one another. Sixty percent of respondents report that they usually use Tharu in the market. However, all older (35+) female respondents in each village report using only Tharu in the market. This demonstrates it is possible to buy and sell in the market while only using their mother tongue. Seventy-two percent of all individual respondents said they travel outside of their village. Each of them was asked where, why, how frequently and what language they use for those travels. Most of them travel for medical reasons or to visit an area. Nepali is the most common language used when outside the village (47%), followed by Tharu (39%), Hindi (13%) and English (1%). Twenty-two percent of interview respondents (one woman, ten men) cite work as their reason for travelling outside their village. Only 8% report travelling abroad (to India) for work purposes and no one had spent more than three years away from their village. The fact that people rarely leave their area for work and when they do it is often for a short period of time, speaks highly of the economic base of these communities. Although a certain level of economic value is ascribed to both English and Nepali, Tharu speakers are largely able to thrive using only their own language.

6.8 Vitality summary

Through examining these seven indicators of ethnolinguistic vitality, an EGIDS level of 5 (Written) can be assigned to Dangaura Tharu and its closely related varieties of Deukhuri, Malhoriya and Desauriya. EGIDS level 6a (Vigorous) describes the vitality of the Kathariya Tharu variety. There are clear patterns of high language use of the mother tongue in most of the domains we asked about, although differences could be observed according to age, gender and variety. Education may affect language use among respondents, as younger men (most of whom are educated) use Tharu least often, while older women (all of whom are uneducated) use Tharu most frequently. However, all respondents frequently use their mother tongue in most domains. Intergenerational transfer patterns are strong. All young people in each community are learning Tharu as their first language. In addition, immigrants and those who marry into Tharu communities are learning and using Tharu. The mother tongue is the language preferred by the respondents for children’s first language. The language is officially recognized by the government of Nepal. It is promoted by local development agencies and individuals through local radio programs and

literacy materials. These materials reveal high prestige, despite Nepali being the primary language used for instruction in schools. The economic base of the communities also supports the vitality of the mother tongue. In addition to these factors, high vitality is supported through the maintenance of distinct cultural aspects in each Tharu speech community, not only identifying themselves as Tharu, but marking which sub-group of Tharu to which they belong. In summary of all of these factors, the vitality of the Tharu language spoken in each community represented in this survey appears strong.

7 Kathariya and Desauriya locations

Current population figures and locations for Kathariya and Desauriya speakers are not published. One goal of this survey was to make an estimation of the population and identify locations of Kathariya and Desauriya communities. Population figures were difficult to acquire and unverifiable. Therefore, this section focuses primarily on the location of Desauriya and Kathariya speakers and only briefly mentions rough estimates of population.

7.1 Kathariya

The most detailed information about the location of Kathariya speakers was from dialect mapping. The Kathariya community participants identified that Kathariya people live in 46 villages in ten VDCs of Kailali district: Hasuliya, Udasipur, Pahalmanpur, Lalbojhi, Thapapur, Joshipur, Munuwa, Durgauli, Patharaiya, and Chauha. Several Malhoriya speakers also mentioned that Kathariya speakers live in Munuwa and Joshipur VDCs. Map 6 illustrates these districts, but does not take into account specific areas or concentrations of Kathariya speakers within each VDC. Several of these VDCs also have villages of Malhoriya speakers, specifically Munuwa, Patharaiya and Joshipur. Gangaram Mahato, the Pabera village elder, estimates the population of Kathariya speakers living within Kailali district to be between 12,000–17,000. We were unable to verify this estimate.

Map 6. Kailali district with highlighted Kathariya VDCs

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailali_District#/media/File:Nepal KailaliDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015). Colors were changed to display Kathariya speaker locations.

7.2 Desauriya

Like Kathariya, the most helpful information regarding locations of Desauriya speakers came from the community respondents themselves during dialect mapping. They reported Desauriya speakers living in Banakatawa, Samserganj, Rajhena, Mahadevpuri and Titahiriya VDCs in Banke district and Motipur VDC in Bardiya district (map 7). Several Deukhuri speakers say they have met Desauriya speakers in Phalkapur, Dang. According to the estimates of a pastor we spoke with in Chapargaudi, Banke district, most Desauriya speakers living in Banke live within a few kilometers of the highway. One Kathariya man reported that most Desauriya speakers live west of the Nepaljung-Surkhet road. Based on conversations, it seems as though the village of Baradhawa, which is approximately one-hour walk north of Chapargaudi, has a high percent of Desauriya Tharu speakers. This data was from personal communication alone and we were unable to verify it.

Map 7. Banke district map with highlighted Desauriya VDCs

Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banke_District#/media/File:Nepal BankeDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015). Colors were changed to illustrate the location of Desauriya speakers.

8 Desires for development

Informal interviews and Appreciative Inquiry were used to assess community’s desires for language- based development. During most Appreciative Inquiry facilitations, the participants referred to their variety of Tharu and not the term Tharu. Appreciative Inquiry revealed that each community has aspirations for multilingual education (MLE). MLE was identified as the most important language development opportunity in each community. Informal interviews reinforce this finding. Most respondents from all test locations felt that learning to read and write in their mother tongue is important for both themselves and for children and that they would like to attend such a class themselves. Pabera (Kathariya) participants said they think that MLE would have positive and lasting effects for their community. While Chapargauri (Desauriya) and Ghiya (Malhoriya) participants said that they would like their mother tongue to be the language of instruction in their primary schools, the educated participants of the group facilitation in Ghumna (Deukhuri) said that it would also be good to have university curriculum available in their mother tongue. Desauriya and Deukhuri participants said they would like to have an alphabet (orthography). Several different communities said they would like to develop radio and television programs, books, school curriculum, as well as oral materials (such as sermons and rituals) in their mother tongue. As discussed in section 6.5, people in each village reported varying opinions regarding their language preference for primary education: Deukhuri and Kathariya respondents prefer mother-tongue education, while Desauriya and Malhoriya respondents prefer English (table 18). However, the response to this question varies considerably when examined stratified by education (table 19).

Table 19. Language of choice for primary education stratified by education

Uneducated Educated Total

N= 22 27 49

Tharu 59% 19% 37% What language do you prefer for your children’s medium of Nepali 23% 26% 24% instruction at primary level? English 18% 55% 39%

The majority of uneducated respondents say they prefer Tharu, while the majority of educated respondents say they prefer English. It will be important to re-examine the language these communities choose to use for primary education as the educated generation begins to have children and make decisions about language choice. The Malhoriya group facilitation said that people that can differentiate the Malhoriya language from borrowed language should be involved in materials development, in order to avoid language mixing. All of the Appreciative Inquiry participants in Desauriya were Christians, which affected the dreams they have for their mother tongue. Like the other speech communities, their highest desire was for MLE. They also expressed many desires that were church-focused. They said they would like their sermons, songs and church functions to be in their mother tongue. Each of the literate interview respondents said that they would like more written materials to be available in their language. When asked which topics they are most interested in reading about, the most frequent responses were stories and folk tales, followed by culture, customs, and the news. Overall, the speech communities all expressed desires to develop and advance their language. MLE was reported by the communities as the most important language development opportunity. Other expressed desires for development include written materials, radio programs, and orthography development.

9 Recommendations

Due to strong language vitality in each of these communities and their expressed desires for language- based development, MLE and other literacy-based work is warranted and likely to succeed if done together with the involvement of local communities. The remainder of this section focuses on which single variety could potentially be used to meet the material development needs of all the varieties. Based on the findings of this survey, materials written in either the Dangaura or Deukhuri variety could potentially be used by any of the varieties of this survey. Of the varieties tested, Dangaura and Deukhuri appear most likely to be accepted by all other varieties. Respondents recognized differences between each variety, but did not express negative attitudes towards any of them. In addition, there is relatively high lexical similarity between Dangaura, Deukhuri and the other varieties. Most subjects felt they understood both Dangaura and Deukhuri well. Malhoriya could possibly be used for material development. However, it is less likely to be used in other areas because the other areas have little exposure to it. They also received less favorable responses regarding attitudes toward their language than did Dangaura or Deukhuri. In addition, there is no known language-based development in Malhoriya. Of the Tharu varieties surveyed, Kathariya was identified as the most distinct. The people are most isolated geographically, and ethnically dissimilar. Lexically Kathariya was shown to be the most distinct as well. Lack of negative attitudes by Kathariya speakers towards Dangaura or Deukhuri were found despite recognizing differences in those varieties. In addition, high perceived intelligibility was reported by Kathariya respondents toward Dangaura and Deukhuri. It is, therefore, possible that Kathariya could use materials in one of these varieties. However, Kathariya may require their own materials and additional intelligibility testing needs to be done. Adult literacy materials as well as MLE materials from the CDC should be included in testing.

Appendix A: Wordlists

A.1 International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) chart

32 33

A.2 Procedures for lexical similarity comparison

For a lexical similarity count, the wordlists are compared, in order to determine the extent to which the vocabulary of each pair of speech forms is similar. No attempt is made to identify genuine cognates based on a network of sound correspondences. Rather, two items are judged to be phonetically similar if at least half of the segments compared are the same (category 1) and of the remaining segments at least half are rather similar (category 2). For example, if two items of eight segments in length are compared, these words are judged to be similar if at least four segments are virtually the same and at least two are rather similar. The criteria applied are:

Category 1

• Consonant (consonant-like) segments which match exactly • Vowel (vowel-like) segments which match exactly or differ by only one articulatory feature • Phonetically similar consonant segments (of the sort which frequently are found as allophones, such as difference in only one articulatory feature) which are seen to correspond in at least three pairs of words

Category 2

• All other phonetically similar pairs of segments which are not, however, supported by at least three pairs of words

Category 3

• Pairs of segments which are not phonetically similar • A segment which is matched by no segment in the corresponding item

Other criteria used specifically for the analysis of this survey are: • Aspirated and unaspirated sounds are considered as category one • Nasalised vowels considered as similar with nasal consonants (i.e. /ũ/ and /n/) • Double consonants were considered one segment (i.e. /p/ and /pp/) • Retroflex and alveolar sounds that were otherwise the same, were considered similar (i.e. /ɖ/ and /d/) • Dipthongs were counted as one segment • Clear cases of metathesis were counted as similar • /ɹ/, /ɾ/, and /r/ were all counted as similar due to transcription difficulties with these sounds • Palatalized stops (/kʲ/) were disregarded during comparison • Interconsonental /ə/ was disregarded

• An increase in the number of segments in category 3 is permitted if it is compensated by an increase in the number of segments in category 1 (see table A.2).

Table A.2: Word length and lexical similarity

Word Category Category Category Length One Two Three 2 2 0 0 3 2 1 0 4 2 1 1 5 3 1 1 6 3 2 1 7 4 2 1 8 4 2 2 9 5 2 2 10 5 3 2 11 6 3 2 12 6 3 3

After pairs of items on two wordlists had been determined to be phonetically similar, according to the criteria stated above, the percentage of items judged similar was calculated. The procedure was repeated for each pair of language varieties. When eliciting verbs, two different forms were asked: the simple past for 3rd person singular and the imperative for 2nd person singular. This was done to identify a common root morpheme, rather than comparing the words as a whole. The common root morpheme was used for the comparison. During the process of wordlist elicitation, the researcher transcribes the words phonetically by using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The transcriptions should be done as accurately as possible. It would be best if only one person did the transcriptions, because each field worker eliciting words may hear and transcribe the sounds slightly differently. Wordlists for this survey were collected by multiple researchers. Therefore, in order to maintain accuracy, after the actual wordlist collection, the researchers listened to the recorded wordlists to account for and unify in notation all the variations that were thought to represent the same sound but marked in different ways. The Tharu varieties of this survey do not use tone and therefore, tone was not considered during transcription and comparison. As mentioned before, this survey used a wordlist of 289 lexical items, but the final number of words compared for the lexicostatistic count is 263 items (262 items for Kathariya variety). Some of the wordlist items needed to be disqualified, that is, not taken into consideration in the lexicostatistic count. Tharu and Nepali numbers use the same lexical term. In some cases, slight variation from the Nepali pronunciation were given. Clearly a loan word, these words were not considered in the comparison. A few items were disqualified because of doubts to whether people had really given a word with the same meaning. Those entries were disqualified in order to eliminate potential skewing.

A.3 Wordlist language helper biodata and screening questionnaire

1. Name of language consultant: 2. (Ask if needed) Sex: 3. Age: 4. Up to what level (of education) have you completed: 5. What is your mother tongue: 6. Caste: 7. Ethnic group: 8. Which Tharu sub-group: 9. What village were you born in: 10. Where do you live now: 11. How many years have you lived here: 12. Have you lived anywhere else for more than a year: 13. (If yes): a. Where? b. When? c. How long did you live there? 14. What languages can you speak: 15. What language did you speak first: 16. Which language do you speak best: 17. Which language do you speak second best: 18. Which language do you speak third best: 19. Where was your mother born: 20. What is your mother’s mother tongue: 21. What language did your mother usually speak to you when you were a child: 22. Where was your father born: 23. What is your father’s mother tongue: 24. What language did your father usually speak to you when you were a child: 25. Marital status: 26. (If married) What village was your husband/wife born in: 27. (If married) What is the mother tongue of your husband/wife: 28. (If married) What language did your spouse speak first:

A.4 Wordlist language helper biodata

Informed consent was given orally by all respondents.

Dangaura Desauriya Deukhuri Kathariya Malhoriya Date 23 Sept., 2011 26 Sept., 2011 21 Sept., 2011 29 Sept., 2011 28 Sept., 2011 Interviewer Stephanie Jessi Mitchell Stephanie Jessi Mitchell Stephanie Eichentopf Eichentopf Eichentopf 1. JC N LC KPK H

2. Male Female Male Male Male 3. 36 18 63 36 45 4. 10 5 No formal 10 1 5. Tharu Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 6. Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Cardkan 7. NA Desauriya NA NA NA 8. Dangaura NA Deukhuriya NA Malhoriya 9. Belganar, Dang Bardawa, Banke Ghuma, Dang Pabera, Kailali Ghiya, Kailali (4–5 kms from Chapargaudi) 10. Belganar, Dang Bardawa, Banke Ghumna, Dang Pabera, Kailali Bhiya, Kailali 11. 36 yrs (entire 15 yrs 63 yrs (entire 36 yrs (entire 44 yrs life) life) life) 12. Yes Yes No No Yes 13. Kathmandu; 15 Perari, Banke; 7 NA NA Rajapur, Bardiya; 28 yrs yrs ago; 1 yr yrs ago; 3 yrs ago; 1 yr 14. Tharu, Nepali, Nepali, Tharu Tharu, Nepali, Nepali, Hindi, Nepali, Tharu, Dangaha Hindi, English Hindi Tharu, Kathariya, Rana 15. Tharu Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 16. Tharu Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 17. Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali 18. Hindi NA Hindi Hindi Dangaha 19. Machot, Dang Perari, Banke Ghumna, Dang Ditha, Kailali Chabahi, Kailali (notclose by) (nearby) 20. Tharu Desauriya Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 21. Tharu Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 22. Belganar, Dang Bardawa, Banke Ghumna, Dang Laosat (2 hrs Beluwa, Kailali (1 hr away) walk) 23. Tharu Desauriya Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 24. Tharu Tharu Tharu Kathariya Tharu 25. Married Unmarried Married Married Yes 26. Bardiya district NA Ghumna, Dang Pabera, Kailali Janakpur, Kailali (1 hr walk) 27. Tharu NA Tharu Kathariya Tharu 28. Tharu NA Tharu – Tharu

A.5 Wordlist for elicitation

English Gloss Nepali Gloss IPA 1. body जीउ dʒiu 2. head टाउको ʈauko 3. hair कपाल kʌpal 4. face अनहारु / ʌnuhar/mukʰ मखु 5. eye आँखा ãkha 6. ear कान kan 7. nose नाक nak 8. mouth मखु mukh 9. lips ओठ oʈh 10. tooth दाँत dãt 11. tongue िजब् dʒibɾo 12. chest छाती tʃʰati 13. belly/stomach पेट peʈ 14. waist कम मर् kʌmːʌr 15. whole arm हात hat 16. elbow कु �हनो ku(h)ino/ku(h)ina कु �हना 17. palm (of hand) ह त के ल ा hatkela 18. finger औ ंला ʌᵘla 19. fingernail नङ nʌŋ 20. leg (& foot) खुट् khuʈʈa 21. knee घडाुँ gʰũɖa 22. skin छाला tʃhala 23. bone हाड haɖ 24. heart मटु ु muʈu 25. blood रगत ɾʌgʌt 26. urine �पसाब pisab/p 27. feces �दसा disa 28. village गाउँ gaũ 29. house घर ghʌr 30. roof (gable roof common in village) छाना tʃana 31. door ढोका ɖhoka 32. firewood दाउरा dauɾa 33. broom कु चो kutso 34. stick (walking stick) लट् lʌʈʈhi 35. pestle (for spices mortar) लोहोरो lohoɾo/lohʌɾo लोहरो 36. spices mortar (flat) �सलौटो silʌᵘʈo

37. hammer (for breaking stone) घन gʰʌn 38. large Nepali knife खुकु र� kʰukuɾi 39. sickle – (to cut grass) हँ�सया hʌsija 40. axe बन चरो् bʌntsʌɾo 41. rope डोर� ɖoɾi 42. thread धागो dhago 43. needle (for sewing) �सयो sijo 44. cloth (a piece of cloth, as opposed to a कपडा kʌpʌɖa 45. hat टोपी ʈopi 46. ring (finger-ring) औ ंठ� ʌᵘʈhi 47. gold सनु sun 48. sun सयरु / सजु � suɾija/surdʒe 49. moon जून dʒun 50. sky आकाश Akas/akaʃ 51. star तारा taɾa 52. rain (water falls) पानी (पछर ) pani (pʌɾtʃ(ʌ) 53. water पानी pani 54. small river, stream खोला khola 55. cloud (white) बादल badʌl 56. bolt of lightning चट याङ tʃʌʈjæŋ 57. rainbow इन द् ्रे indɾeɳi 58. wind हावा hawa 59. small stone (fist size) ढु ङ्ग / ढुँगा ɖʰuŋga 60. unirrigated field (often close to the house) बार� baɾi 61. irrigated field (rice field) खेत kʰet 62. path, road बाटो baʈo 63. fire आगो ago 64. smoke धुवाँ dhuwã 65. ash खरानी khʌrani 66. soil, clay माटो maʈo 67. dust धलोु dhulo 68. tree (large trees in general) रू rukh 69. leaf पात pat 70. root जरा dʒʌɾa 71. seed बीउ biu 72. bark बोक् bokɾo 73. thorn काँडो / काँडा kãɖo/kãɖa 74. flower फु ल phul 75. bamboo tree बाँस bãs 76. bamboo shoot तामा tama 77. fruit फल फू ल phʌlphul 78. mango आँप ãp 79. banana के र ा keɾa

80. wheat गहूँ gʌ(h)ũ 81. uncooked (husked) rice चामल tsamʌl 82. unhusked rice धान dʰan 83. cooked rice भात bʰat 84. vegetable (cooked and uncooked) तरकार� tʌɾkaɾi 85. potato आल ु alu 86. egg plant भन्ट bʰʌnʈa 87. ground nut बदाम bʌdam 88. chili (whole-red-dry) खोसार्न kʰoɹsani 89. turmeric बेसार besar 90. garlic लसनु lʌsun 91. onion प्या pʲadʒ 92. cauliflower काउल� kauli 93. ginger अदवाु ʌduwa 94. tomato गोलभ�डा golbhẽɖa 95. cabbage बन्दकोब bʌndʌkobi 96. cucumber काँक् kãkɾo 97. oil तेल tel 98. salt ननू nun 99. meat मास ु masu 100. fat part of flesh बोसो boso 101. fish माछा matʃha 102. chicken (gen.) कु खुरा kukʰura 103. egg फु ल phul/ʌɳɖa 104. cow गाइ gai 105. buffalo (gen., fem.) भ�सी bhʌ si 106. milk दधू dudhⁱ 107. horn �सङ siŋ 108. tail पचु छर् puttʃhʌr 109. goat (gen) बाख् bakhɾa 110. pig सुंगरु suŋguɾ 111. dog कु कु र kukur 112. cat �बरालो biɾalo 113. snake सपर / साँप sʌrpʌ/sãp 114. monkey बाँदर bãdʌr 115. bird चरा tsʌɾa 116. wings पखेटा pʌkʰeʈa 117. feather प वाँख् pwãkʰ 118. rat/mouse मसाु musa 119. mosquito लामखुट् lamkhuʈːe 120. fly �झ ंगा dʒʰiŋga/ dʒʰiŋːa 121. honey bee माहुर� / ma(h)uɾi माउर�

122. ant क�मला kʌmila 123. spider माकु रा / makura/ makuro माकु रो 124. louse जुम् dʒumra 125. bed bug उडुस uɖus 126. flea उ�पयाँ upijã 127. leech पानी जुका pani jʰuka 128. person मा�नस / manis/ mantʃʰe मान छे् 129. man (more colloquial) लोग ने् मान छे् lognemantʃhe/purus / परुु 130. woman/female आइमाइ / aimai/mahila म�हला 131. baby (child) बच चा् bʌtsa/bʌttʃa 132. boy (boy child below 10 years old) के ट ा keʈa 133. girl (girl child below 10 years old) के ट � keʈi 134. father बा / बबाु ba/buwa 135. mother आमा ama 136. older brother दाज ु / दाई dadʒu/dai 137. younger brother भाई bhai 138. older sister �दद� didi 139. younger sister ब�हनी bʌ(h)ini 140. son छोरा / छोरो tʃhoɾa/tʃhoɾo 141. daughter छोर� tʃhoɾi 142. husband लोग ने् / logne/sɾiman श्रीम 143. wife स वास् नी् / swasni/ sɾimʌti श्रीम 144. grandfather हजुर बा hʌdʒuɾ ba 145. grandmother हजुर आमा hʌdʒuɾ ama 146. grandson नाती nati 147. granddaughter ना�तनी natini 148. father’s older brother ठू लो बाब ु ʈhulo babu 149. father’s younger brother साना बाब ु sana babu 150. father’s older sister फु प ू phupu 151. mother’s older brother मामा mama 152. mother’s older sister ठू लो आमा ʈhulo ama 153. mother’s younger sister साना आमा sana ama 154. friend साथी sathi 155. name नाम / नाउँ nam/naũ 156. language भाषा bhasa 157. day �दन din 158. night रात ɾat 159. morning (until 10am) �बहान bihanʌ

160. afternoon (from noon till 3 pm) � द उँ सो diũso 161. evening (before evening meal – 5 to 7 pm) बेलकाु beluka 162. today आज adʒʌ 163. yesterday �हजो hi(d)ʒo 164. tomorrow भो�ल bholi 165. week हप्त hʌpta 166. month म�हना mʌhina 167. year बष र bʌrsʌ 168. big ठू लो ʈhulo 169. small सानो sano 170. heavy गह्रुङ / gʌɾuŋgo गरं गो 171. light हलकाु / hʌluka/ hʌluŋgo हलङु ्ग 172. old (thing) परानोु puɾano 173. new (thing) नयाँ nʌjã 174. good (person) असल / राम् ʌsʌl/ɾamɾo 175. bad (person) खराब / khʌɾab/ nʌɾamɾo नराम् 176. wet �भजेको bhi(d)ʒeko 177. dry सकु ् sukkhʌ 178. long (thing) लामो lamo 179. short (thing) छोटो tʃhoʈo 180. thin (person) दबु लो् dublo 181. hot (weather) गम� gʌɾmi 182. cold (weather) जाडो dʒaɖo 183. hot (water) तातो tato 184. cold (water) �चसो tsiso 185. cracked, burst (pot) फु टेको / pʰuʈeko/ pʰuʈjo फु ट यो 186. broken, damaged �ब�ग्रए bigɾieko 187. broken भाँचेको bʰatʃeko 188. empty खा�ल kʰali 189. full भर�भराउ bʰʌɾibʰʌrau 190. few, a little थोरै tʰorə 191. many धेरै dheɾəⁱ 192. all सबै sʌbʌ /sʌpːʌⁱ 193. equal (same amount) बराबार bʌrabarⁱ ⁱ 194. similar/same उस तै् ustʌ 195. different फ़रक pʰʌrʌkⁱ 196. various �ब�भन न् bibʰinːʌ/ biβinːʌ 197. one एक ek 198. two दईु dui 199. three तीन tin

200. four चार tʃaɾ/tsar 201. five पाँच pãts 202. six छ tʃɑ 203. seven सात sat 204. eight आठ aʈʰ 205. nine नौ nau 206. ten दस dʌs 207. eleven एघार egʰaɾʌ 208. twelve बाह bahɾa 209. twenty बीस bis 210. one hundred एक सय ek sʌj 211. white सेतो seto 212. black कालो kalo 213. red रातो ɾato 214. right दायाँ / दा�हने dajã/dahine 215. left बायाँ / देब् bajã/debɾe 216. near निजक / �नर nʌ(d)ʒik/niɾʌ 217. far टाढा ʈaɖha 218. here यहाँ yahã 219. there त यहाँ् tyahã 220. at (refers to person in a location) -मा -ma 221. beside, by the side of/next to छे उमा tʃoma 222. inside �भत bʰittra 223. outside बा�हर bahirʌ 224. above, on/on top of मा�थ mathi 225. below, under तल / म�नु tʌlʌ/muni 226. around (the circumference of) व�रप�र waripari 227. who? को ko 228. whose? कसको kʌsko 229. what? के ke 230. why? �कन kinʌ 231. where? कहाँ kʌhã 232. when? क�हले kʌ(h)ile 233. which? कु न kun 234. how many? क�त kʌti 235. how (what is it like)? कस तो् kʌsto 236. how (to do something?) कसर� kʌsʌɾi 237. this यो jo thulo sungur 238. that त यो् tjo thulo sungur go down 239. (3.sg. simple past) तल गयो tʌlʌ gajo 240. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) तल नजाऊ tʌlʌ nʌgau come (on level ground) 241. (3.sg. simple past) आयो ajo

242. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नआऊ nʌau come down 243. (3.sg. simple past) झय� dʒʰʌɾjo 244. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नझर nʌdʒʰʌɾa climb up 245. (3.sg. simple past) चढ यो tʃʌɖjo 246. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नचढ nʌtʃʌɖʌ climb down 247. (3.sg. simple past) ओल य�् oɾljo 248. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नओलर nʌoɾlja bring down (to) 249. (3.sg. simple past) तल ल यायो् tʌlʌ ljajo 250. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) तल नल याऊ् tʌlʌ nʌljau take down 251. (3.sg. simple past) तल लग यो् tʌlʌ lʌgjo 252. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) तल नलग tʌlʌ nʌlʌgʌ take out 253. (3.sg. simple past) �झक् यो dʒʰikjo 254. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) न�झक nʌdʒʰika put in 255. (3.sg. simple past) राख यो् rakhjo 256. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नराख nʌrakha die 257. (3.sg. simple past) मर् यो mʌɾjo 258. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नमर nʌmʌɾʌ 259. be hungry भोक लाग्य bʰok lagʲo 260. be thirsty �तकार् लाग् tiɾka lagʲo sleep (go to bed) 261. (3.sg. simple past) सतु यो् sutjo 262. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नसतु nʌsutʌ lie down (on his back) 263. (3.sg. simple past) पल ट् यो pʌlʈjo 264. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) न प ल ् nʌpʌlʈʌ sit down, stay 265. (3.sg. simple past) बस यो् bʌsjo 266. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नबस nʌbʌsʌ get up 267. (3.sg. simple past) उठ यो uʈʰjo 268. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नउठ nʌuʈʰʌ stand 269. (3.sg. simple past) उ�भयो ubhijo 270. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नउ�भऊ nʌubhiu walk 271. (3.sg. simple past) �हंड यो hĩɖjo

272. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) न�हंड nʌhĩɖʌ fly 273. (3.sg. simple past) उड यो uɖjo 274. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नउडा nʌuɖʌ run, rush 275. (3.sg. simple past) दगरु यो् dʌguɾjo 276. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नदगरु nʌdʌguɾʌ laugh (loudly) 277. (3.sg. simple past) हाँस यो् hãsjo 278. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नहाँस nʌhãsa cry 279. (3.sg. simple past) रोयो rojo 280. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नरोऊ nʌrou vomit 281. (3.sg. simple past) बान ् त गर यो् banta gʌrijo 282. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) बान ता् नगर banta nʌgʌra spit 283. (3.sg. simple past) थुक् यो thukjo 284. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नथुक nʌthuka eat 285. (3.sg. simple past) खायो kʰajo 286. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नखाऊ nʌkʰau bite 287. (3.sg. simple past) टोक् यो ʈokjo 288. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नटोक nʌʈokʌ drink 289. (3.sg. simple past) �पयो pijo 290. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) न�पऊ nʌpiu give 291. (3.sg. simple past) �दयो dijo 292. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नदेऊ nʌdeu burn (wood) 293. (3.sg. simple past) दाउरा बाल्य daura baljo 294. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) दाउरा नबाल daura nʌbala bury 295. (3.sg. simple past) गाड्यो gaɖjo 296. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नगाड nʌgaɖa kill 297. (3.sg. simple past) मार् यो maɾjo 298. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नमार nʌmaɾʌ cut (kill an animal for meat) 299. (3.sg. simple past) काट यो kaʈjo 300. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नकाट nʌkaʈa throw

301. (3.sg. simple past) फाल यो् phaljo 302. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नफाल nʌphala talk, chat 303. (3.sg. simple past) छलफल tʃʌlphʌl gʌɾjo गर यो् 304. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) छलफल नगर tʃʌlphʌl nʌgʌɾa say/tell 305. (3.sg. simple past) भन यो् bʰʌnjo 306. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नभन nʌbʰʌnʌ hear, listen 307. (3.sg. simple past) सनु यो् sunjo 308. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) न स नु ् nʌsunʌ watch/see 309. (3.sg. simple past) देख यो् dekʰjo look 310. (3.sg. simple past) हेय� heɾjo 311. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नहेर nʌheɾʌ wash 312. (3.sg. simple past) धोयो dhojo 313. (2.sg. negative imperative, used with children) नधो nʌdho 314. my मेरो झोला mero 315. our हाम् झोला hʌmro 316. your (singular/honorific) तपा�को tʌpaĩko झोला 317. your (plural/honorific) तपा�हरुक tʌpaĩhʌruko झोला 318. his (nearby/honorific) उहाँको झोला uwã(ha)ko 319. their (plural/nearby/honorific) उहाँहरुक uwã(ha)hʌruko झोला 320. I म mʌ harek bihanna hiɽchu 321. you (sg. honorific) तपा� tʌpaĩ 322. he/she (honorific here) उहाँ uhã 323. we हामी hami 324. you (two) (honorific) तपा�हर tʌpaĩhʌɾu 325. they (honorific here) उहाँहर wahahʌɾu

A.6 Wordlist data and similarity grouping

Abbreviations used for each language variety are: DG for Dangaura, DES for Desauriya, DK for Deukhuri, KAT for Kathariya and MAL for Malhoriya. above/on top of KAT 1 bʰuwa DG 1 up ər MAL 1 bʰuwa DES 1 uppər DK 1 uppəɾ at KAT 1 uppəɾ DG 1 ma MAL 1 ũpəɾ DES 1 -məⁱ DK 1 me afternoon KAT 1 -maⁱ DG 1 ɖ upəhər MAL 1 mɛ̃ DES 2 din DK 1 ɖupəhaɾ axe KAT 2 din DG 1 kur əhar MAL 1 ɖupəhar DES 2 bəntʃəɾo DK 1 kuɾhaɾ all KAT 3 tikula DG 1 s əkku MAL 1 kuɾhar DES 1 səkku DK 1 səkku baby KAT 1 səkku DG 1 lõ ɾa MAL 1 səkku DES 1 ʈãʈãk lərka DK 2 bətʃʰa ant KAT 1 ləɾka DG 1 t ʃimʈa MAL 1 ləɾka DES 1 tʃimta DK 1 tʃɪmʈa bad (person) KAT 1 tʃẽʈi DG 1 nim ədʒa MAL 1 tʃɪmʈa DES 2 kʰərab DK 1 neⁱmədʒa around KAT 2 kʰəɾab DG 1 and ʒəɾ pandʒəɾ MAL 2 kʰəɾɑb DES 2 tʃaduhur DK 1 ãdʒəɾ pãdʒəɾ bamboo shoot KAT 4 dʒəhãʈəhã DG 1 ʈ ãwã MAL 3 səkuoɾ DES 1 tãwã DK 2 karla ash KAT 3 pɔ̃ŋga DG 1 bʰwi MAL 1 ʈɑ̃wã DES 1 bʰuwa DK 1 bʰuwa

47 bamboo tree belly/stomach DG 1 bãs DG 1 pia ʈ DES 1 bãs DES 1 peʈ DK 1 bãs DK 1 peʈ KAT 1 bãs KAT 1 peʈ MAL 1 bɑ̃s MAL 1 peʈ banana below/under DG 1 kʲa ɾa DG 1 ʈəɾə DES 1 kera DES 1 ʈəre DK 1 keɾa DK 1 ʈaɾe KAT 1 keɾa KAT 1 ʈəɾɛ MAL 1 keɾa MAL 1 ʈəɾe bark beside DG 1 bokra DG 1 p əndʒrə DES 1 bʰokra DES 2 ləge DK 1 bokla DK 3 ʈʰɛn KAT 1 bəkəla KAT 2 ligʰjɛ MAL 1 bokəla MAL 1 pəndʒəɾe be hungry big DG 1 b ʰũk lagəl DG 1 b əɾa DES 1 bʰok lagəl DES 1 bʰaɾi DK 1 bʰũk lagəl DK 1 bʰaɾi KAT 1 bʰõk lagəl KAT 1 bʰəna MAL 1 bʰõk lɑgəl MAL 1 bəɾuwɑɾ be thirsty bird DG 1 pʲ ɑs lagəl DG 1 t ʃĩrĩjə̃ DES 1 pijas lagəl DES 1 tʃirãⁱjã DK 1 pʲɑs lagəl DK 1 tʃĩrẽ KAT 1 pijas lagəl KAT 1 tʃĩɾãⁱ MAL 1 piɑs lɑgəl MAL 1 tʃiɾɑĩjə̃ bed bug bite DG 1 u ɾus DG 1 ka ʈ DES 2 ursa DES 1 kaʈ DK 1 uɾus DK 1 kaʈ KAT 3 kəʈʰkiɾma KAT 1 kaʈʰ MAL 2 urɖsa MAL 1 kɑʈ

48 black bring down DG 1 k əɾiʲa DG 12 lan DES 1 kərijaɾ DES 1 nan DK 1 kəɾijə DK 1 nan KAT 1 kəɾija KAT 2 la MAL 1 kəɾijə MAL 1 nɑn blood broken DG 1 r əgəʈ DG 1 ʈ uʈəl DES 2 kʰun DES 2 bətʃəl DK 1 rəgəʈ DK 1 ʈuʈəl KAT 1 rəkʰət KAT 1 ʈuʈəl MAL 1 rəgət MAL 1 ʈuʈəl body broken/damaged DG 1 s əɾil DG 1 big ɾəl DES 1 sɑɾil DES 1 bigrəl DK 1 saɾiɾ DK 1 bigɾəl KAT 2 dẽhĩ KAT 1 bigəɾəl MAL 2 dæ̃ MAL 1 bigɾəl bolt of lightning broom DG 1 bad ʒs DG 1 kut ʃi DES 3 bəɖɾi tərkəʈa DES 2 bʰərni DK 3 ʈʰaɾgaʈa DK 2 bərni KAT 2 gadʒ KAT 2 bəhɹni MAL 1 badʒ maɖəl MAL 2 bɑɾhni bone buffalo DG 2 h əɖɖi DG 1 bʰaĩsi ɳa DES 1 ɖoŋgəɾ DES 1 bʰəisinja DK 1 ɖoŋgaɾ DK 1 bʰaⁱsinjə KAT 2 haɖʰa KAT 1 bʰəⁱsija MAL 2 həɖɖə MAL 1 bʰɑisinija boy bu rn DG 1 lõ ɾa DG 1 ba ɾ DES 1 laura DES 1 bar DK 1 lounɖə DK 1 baɾ KAT 1 lãᵘɾa KAT 1 baɾ MAL 1 loənɖə MAL 1 baɾ

49 bury chili DG 1 g əɾ DG 2 pip ər DES 1 gar DES 1 mirtʃa DK 1 gaɾ DK 1 maɾtʃʰə KAT 1 gaɾ KAT 1 miɾtʃa MAL 1 gaɾ MAL 1 miɾtʃa cabbage climb down DG 1 b ənɖəgobi DG 1 u ʈr DES 1 pãɖgobʰi DES 1 uʈər DK 1 paɖgobʰi DK 2 uʈʰ KAT 1 bəndəgobi KAT 1 uʈəɾ MAL 1 bənɖəgobʰi MAL 2 uʈ cat climb up DG 1 bila ɾija DG 1 t ʃiᵘhuɾ DES 1 bilarija DES 2 tʃoɖ DK 1 bilaɾ DK 2 tʃuɾ KAT 1 bileja KAT 2 tʃəɖ MAL 1 bilɾa MAL 2 tʃʰəɾ cauliflower cloth DG 1 pʰulgobʰi DG 1 luga DES 1 gobʰi DES 1 lugəɾa DK 1 pʰulgobʰi DK 1 lugə KAT 1 pʰulgobʰi KAT 2 lət̚ta MAL 1 pʰulgobʰi MAL 1 lugəɾə chest cloud DG 1 t ʃʰɑʈi DG 1 b əɖ̚ri DES 1 tʃati DES 1 bədɾi DK 1 tʃʰaʈi DK 1 bəɾri KAT 1 tʃati KAT 1 bədəɾi MAL 1 tʃʰɑʈi MAL 1 bəɖɾi chicken cold (water) DG 1 mu ɾgʰi DG 1 d ʒur DES 1 murgi DES 1 dʒur DK 1 muɾgi DK 1 dʒuɾ KAT 1 muɾgi KAT 1 dʒuɾ MAL 1 muɾghɑ MAL 1 dʒuɾ

50 cold (weather) cry DG 1 d ʒar DG 1 rui DES 1 dʒar DES 1 ro DK 1 dʒaɾ DK 1 ro KAT 1 dʒaɖ KAT 1 ɾo MAL 1 dʒʰar MAL 1 ro come cucumber DG 1 a DG 1 kʰiɾa DES 1 a DES 1 kʰira DK 1 a DK 1 kʰiɾa KAT 1 a KAT 1 kʰiɾa MAL 1 ɑ MAL 1 kʰiɾa co me down cut DG 1 d ʒʰəɾ Excluded DG 1 ka ʈ DES 2 uʈər Excluded DES 1 kaʈ DK 3 a Excluded DK 1 kaʈ KAT 4 giɾ Excluded KAT 1 kaʈ MAL 5 uʈ Excluded MAL 1 kɑʈ cooked rice daughter DG 1 bʰa ʈ DG 1 t ʃai DES 1 bʰaʈ DES 3 biʈʰija DK 1 bʰaʈ DK 1 tʃʰai KAT 1 bʰɑt KAT 2 lãᵘɾija MAL 1 bʰɑʈ MAL 1 tʃɑi cow day DG 1 g əija DG 1 ɖ in DES 1 gəⁱja DES 1 din DK 1 gəⁱjə DK 1 ɖin KAT 1 gə̃ⁱja KAT 1 din MAL 1 gɑĩja MAL 1 ɖin cracked/burst die DG 1 pʰu ʈəl DG 1 mũ DES 1 puʈəl DES 1 mər DK 1 pʰuʈəl DK 1 mũ KAT 1 puʈəl KAT 1 məɾ MAL 1 pʰuʈəl MAL 1 mɑɾ

51 different ear DG 1 pʰ ərək pʰərək DG 1 kan DES 1 pʰəɾək DES 1 kan DK 1 pʰəɾək DK 1 kan KAT 1 pʰəɾək KAT 1 kan MAL 1 pʰəɾək MAL 1 kɑn eat dog DG 1 kai DG 1 kuk ɾa DES 1 kʰa DES 1 kukur DK 1 kʰa DK 1 kukuɾa KAT 1 kʰa KAT 2 kutʰa MAL 1 kʰɑ MAL 1 kukuɾa egg door DG 1 ãra DG 1 ɖ uwar DES 1 ənɖa DES 1 ɖawar DK 1 ənɖə DK 1 ɖuar KAT 1 ənɖa KAT kiwaɾa MAL 1 əɳɖə MAL 1 duwaɾ egg plant drink DG 1 bʰa ɳʈã DG 1 pie Excluded DES 1 bʰãʈã DES 1 pi DK 1 bʰãʈã DK 1 pʰi KAT 1 bʰãʈã KAT 1 piu MAL 1 bʰɑ̃ʈa MAL 1 pʰi eight dry DG Excluded DG 1 sukʰ əl DES 1 a ʈʰ Excluded DES 1 sukʰəl DK 1 aʈʰ Excluded DK 1 sukʰail KAT 1 aʈʰ Excluded KAT 1 sukʰəl MAL Excluded MAL 1 sukʰɑigɪl elbow dust DG 3 gã ʈ Excluded DG 1 ɖ ʰur DES 2 ʈʰehũn Excluded DES 2 pʰoŋg DK 1 ʈʰouni Excluded DK 1 ɖʰuɾ KAT 4 kihuni Excluded KAT 1 ɖʰuɾ MAL 1 ʈʰɛhuni Excluded MAL 1 ɖʰur

52 eleven far DG Excluded DG 1 ɖ uɾ DES 1 gʲær ə Excluded DES 1 ɖuɾ DK 1 gjɛɾə Excluded DK 1 ɖuɾ KAT 1 gʰeɾa Excluded KAT 1 ɖuɾ MAL 1 gijaɾa Excluded MAL 1 ɖur empty fat part of flesh DG 2 t ʃʰutʃʰə DG 1 mũa ʈ DES 1 kʰali DES 2 boso DK 1 kʰali DK 1 moʈ KAT 1 kʰali KAT 3 tadʒa MAL 2 tʃutʃe MAL 1 moʈ equal (same amount) father DG 1 bərabar DG 1 baba DES 1 bərabər DES 1 baba DK 1 bəɾəbəɾ DK 1 baba KAT 1 bəɾabəɾ KAT 1 baba MAL 1 bəɾɑbʰaɾi MAL 1 baba evening father's older brother DG 1 s əndʒʰæ DG 2 ʈʰula DES 1 səndʒʰa DES 1 bərapʰu DK 1 səndʒə DK 1 bəɾapʰu KAT 2 sãhĩdʒun KAT 3 bəɾdəwa MAL 1 sɑ̃dʒ MAL 1 bəɾɑpʰu eye father's older siste r DG 1 ãkʰ DG 1 pʰwi DES 2 ãkʰi DES 1 pʰuwa DK 1 ãkʰ DK 1 pʰwi KAT 2 ãkʰi KAT 1 pʰuwa MAL 2 ãkʰi MAL 1 pʰuwa face father's younger brother DG 1 mũ DG 1 kaka DES 1 mũ DES 1 kaka DK 1 mũ DK 1 kaku KAT 1 mũ KAT 1 kaka MAL 2 tʃeheɾa MAL 1 kɑkɑ

53 feather firewood DG 1 p əkna DG 1 ka ʈi DES 1 pəkʰəna DES 1 kaʈʰi DK 1 pʰəkᵏnə DK 1 kaʈʰi KAT 1 pəkʰna KAT 1 kɑʈʰi MAL 1 pəkʰnə MAL 1 kɑʈʰi feces fish DG 1 gũ DG 1 m ətʃʰi DES 1 gu DES 1 matʃʰri DK 1 gu DK 1 mətʃəɾi KAT 2 dʒaɖa KAT 1 mətʃəɾi MAL 1 gũ MAL 1 mətʃəɾi few/a little five DG 3 ɖ antʃe DG 1 pas Excluded DES 2 ʈʰore DES 1 pãs Excluded DK 2 ʈʰoɾtʃe DK 1 pãtʃ Excluded KAT 2 tʰoɾiek KAT 1 pɑtʃ Excluded MAL 1 kɑitʃuʈi MAL Excluded finger flea DG 1 ə̃ ŋgri DG 1 pʰ əʈka DES 1 ãᵘŋgri DES 1 pʰətka DK 1 əŋgɾi DK 1 pʰəʈkə KAT 1 əŋguɾi KAT 2 kũhĩpa MAL 1 əŋguɾi MAL 2 kuipa fingernail flower DG 1 nõ DG 1 pʰula DES 1 nɔ̃ DES 1 pʰula DK 1 nɔ DK 1 pʰula KAT 2 nəhũ KAT 1 pʰula MAL 1 nɔ̃ MAL 1 pʰula fire fly DG 1 agi DG 1 mat ʃʰi DES 1 agʰi DES 1 mətʃʰja DK 1 agʰi DK 1 matʃʰi KAT 1 agʰi KAT 1 matʃʰi MAL 1 agi MAL 1 matʃʰi

54 fly (verb) get up DG 1 u ɾ DG 1 u ʈʰ DES 1 uɖ DES 1 uʈʰ DK 1 uɾ DK 1 uʈʰ KAT 1 uɖ KAT 1 uʈʰ MAL 1 uɾ MAL 1 uʈʰ four ginger DG Excluded DG 1 əɖ̚ wa DES 1 t ʃar Excluded DES 1 əduwa DK 1 tʃaɾ Excluded DK 1 əɖuwa KAT 1 tʃar Excluded KAT 2 sɔ̃ʈʰ MAL Excluded MAL 1 əɖuwa friend girl DG 1 s əŋgəɾija DG 2 lo ɾija DES 1 səŋgʰərija DES 2 lauwarija DK 1 səŋgʰaɾijə DK 1 lounɖi KAT 2 səŋgʰi KAT 2 lãᵘɾija MAL 1 səŋəhəɾija MAL 1 loənɖi fruit give DG 1 pʰ əl pʰulwaɾ DG 1 ɖ ih DES 1 pʰəlpʰul DES 1 ɖeh DK 1 pʰəl pʰul DK 1 ɖeh KAT 1 pʰɑlpʰɔl KAT 1 ɖeh MAL 1 pʰəl pʰul MAL 1 deh full go DG 1 bʰ əɾəl DG 1 d ʒʰəɾ DES 2 bʰarwa DES 2 dʒə DK 1 bʰəɾəl DK 2 dʒa KAT 1 bʰəɾəl KAT 2 dʒa MAL 2 bʰəɾke MAL 3 gei garlic goat DG 1 l əsun DG 1 t ʃʰegəɾija DES 1 ləʂun DES 1 tʃʰəgərija DK 1 nəsun DK 1 tʃʰɛgɾi KAT 1 lasun KAT 1 bəkʰəɾia MAL 1 lərʂun MAL 1 tʃʰɛgəɾi

55 gold ground nut DG 1 swan DG 1 b əɖam DES 1 sun DES 2 məmpʰuli DK 1 son DK 2 bəmpʰəli KAT 1 son KAT 2 mɔmpəli MAL 1 ʂɔn MAL 2 məmpʰoli good (person) hair DG 1 m ədʒa DG 1 bʰu ʈla DES 3 bəɾhija DES 1 bʰuʈla DK 1 mədʒa DK 1 bʰuʈla KAT 2 sugʰəɾ KAT 2 baɾ MAL 1 mədʒa MAL 1 bʰuʈʈala granddaughter hammer DG 1 n əʈiɳja DG 2 ʈ okja DES 1 nəʈinija DES 1 gʰɑn DK 1 nəʈʈinijə DK 2 ʈʰokia KAT 1 nətənija KAT 3 ũkʰəɾi MAL 1 nətinija MAL 2 ʈʰokijə grandfather hat DG 3 bad ʒja DG 1 ʈ opi DES 1 buɖu DES 1 ʈopi DK 1 buɖu DK 1 ʈopi KAT 2 adʒa KAT 1 ʈopi MAL 1 buɖu MAL 1 ʈopi grandmother he/she (formal) DG 1 bu ɖi DG 1 uãhak DES 1 buɖi DES 2 u DK 1 bʰuɖi DK 1 uhã KAT 2 adʒi KAT 3 oin MAL 1 buɖi MAL 1 wɑ̃hã grandson head DG 1 n əʈʲa DG 1 mu ɳʈa DES 1 nəʈija DES 1 munʈa DK 1 nəʈʈijə DK 2 muɾi KAT 1 nətija KAT 2 muɾija MAL 1 nətija MAL 1 munʈa

56 hear/listen horn DG 1 sun DG 1 siŋ DES 1 sun DES 1 siŋ DK 1 sun DK 1 siŋ KAT 1 sun KAT 1 sĩŋ MAL 1 sun MAL 1 siŋ heart hot (water) DG 1 mu ʈu DG 1 ʈ aʈul DES 1 muʈu DES 1 ʈaʈal DK 1 moʈu DK 1 ʈaʈul KAT 1 muʈu KAT 2 ɖʰikʰəl MAL 1 muʈu MAL 1 ʈɑʈul heavy hot (weather) DG 3 g əmhiɾ DG 2 gəɾəm DES 1 gəru DES 1 gʰam lagəl DK 2 nounɖu DK 1 gʰam KAT 1 gəɾhu KAT 1 gʰam MAL 1 gəru MAL 1 gʰɑm here house DG 3 ih ɛ DG 1 gʰ ər DES 1 hãjã DES 1 gʰər DK 2 əʈni DK 1 gʰər KAT 1 hĩjã KAT 1 gʰɑɾ MAL 3 jəha MAL 1 gʰər his how (to do something) DG 1 uãhak DG 12 kəsikə DES 4 ukənke DES 1 kəⁱske DK 1 uhãke DK 12 kəsɪk KAT 3 unka KAT 2 kəⁱsɛ MAL 2 hokaɾ MAL 12 kɑisik honey bee how (what is it like) DG 1 m əɖʰuwa DG 1 kəsin DES 1 məɖ DES 1 kəⁱsɪn DK 1 məɖ DK 1 kəⁱsɪn KAT 2 bʰãõɾ KAT 1 kəⁱsən MAL 1 məʈʰ MAL 1 kɑisiŋ

57 how many knee DG 2 k əʈʰjak DG 1 ʈ ʰjəhun DES 1 kəⁱʈʰo DES 1 ʈehuni DK 1 kəʈʰo DK 1 ʈʰjahuni KAT 1 kəta KAT 1 tʰĩhun MAL 1 kətnə MAL 1 ʈʰjɑhuni husband language DG 1 ʈ ʰəɾwa DG 1 bʰasa DES 1 ʈʰəruwa DES 1 bʰasa DK 1 ʈʰaɾuwa DK 1 bʰasa KAT 2 log KAT 1 bʰasa MAL 1 ʈʰɑɾuwa MAL 1 bʰɑsa

I large Nepali knife DG 1 m əi DG 1 munɖar DES 1 məⁱ DES 2 kʰukuri DK 1 məi DK 1 munɖar KAT 1 məⁱ KAT 2 kʰukəɾi MAL 1 MAL 1 munɖaɾ inside laugh DG 1 bʰi ʈʈər DG 1 hãs DES 1 biʈʰər DES 1 hãs DK 1 bʰiʈʈʰəɾ DK 1 hãs KAT 1 bittʰəɾ KAT 1 hãs MAL 1 bʰiʈʈəɾ MAL 1 hãs irrigated field leaf DG 1 kʰe ʈʈuwa DG 1 p əʈija DES 1 kɛʈwa DES 1 pəʈija DK 1 kʰɛʈowa DK 1 pəʈʰijə KAT 2 kʰet KAT 1 pəta MAL 1 kʰɛtuwa MAL 1 pəʈʰija kill leech DG 1 mũ DG 1 d ʒəkwa DES 2 mar DES 1 dʒəkuwa DK 2 maɾ DK 1 dʒõwɑ̃k KAT 2 maɾ KAT 1 dʒõk MAL 2 maɾ MAL 1 dʒokkuwa

58 left look DG 1 baũ DG 1 hjæ ɾ DES 2 lɛbri DES 1 heɾ DK 1 bɔũ DK 1 heɾ KAT 1 baũ KAT 2 ɖekʰ MAL 1 bɔũ MAL 1 heɾ leg louse DG 2 gw əɾa DG 2 t ʃiluɾ DES 12 goɾa DES 1 tʃɪlra DK 1 goɾ DK 2 tʃɪləɾ KAT 1 gõɖ KAT 3 dʒũwã MAL 12 goɾɑ MAL 1 tʃilra lie down man DG bʰil ʈ Excluded DG 1 ʈ ʰaɾu DES ũnɖər Excluded DES 1 tʰərwa DK suʈ Excluded DK 1 ʈʰaɾu KAT leʈ Excluded KAT 2 log MAL suʈ Excluded MAL 1 ʈʰɑɾu light mango DG 1 h əluk DG 1 ãm DES 1 haluk DES 2 ãp DK 1 haluk DK 1 ãm KAT 1 haluk KAT 1 ãm MAL 1 həluk̚ MAL 1 ɑ̃m lips many DG 2 ɖ jæbər DG 3 ɖ ʲanək DES 1 oʈʰ DES 1 ɖʰer DK 2 ɖʰebaɾ DK 1 ɖʰeɾ KAT 1 oʈʰ KAT 2 bəhot MAL 2 dʰebar MAL 1 dʰeuɾ long (thing) meat DG 1 l əmma DG 1 sikar DES 1 ləma DES 1 sikʰar DK 1 nəmə DK 1 sikaɾ KAT 1 ləmba KAT 2 buʈi MAL 1 nummɑ MAL 1 sikɑɾ

59 milk mother DG 1 ɖ uɖ DG 1 ɖ ai DES 1 ɖuɖ DES 1 ɖaⁱ DK 1 ɖuɖ DK 1 ɖaⁱ KAT 1 dudʰ KAT 1 daⁱ MAL 1 ɖuɖʰ MAL 1 ɖɑi monkey mother's older brother DG 1 b əndra DG 1 mama DES 1 bãndər DES 1 mama DK 1 bənɖəɾa DK 1 mama KAT 1 bəndəɾa KAT 1 mama MAL 1 bənɖra MAL 1 mɑma month mother's older sister DG 1 mahin ə DG 1 bəɖɖaⁱ DES 1 mahina DES 1 bəɖaⁱ DK 1 mahinə DK 1 bʰəɾaⁱ KAT 1 məhina KAT 1 bəɾdaⁱ MAL 1 mɑhinə MAL 1 baɾi moon mother's younger sister DG 1 d ʒʰonhija DG 1 mɔ̃si DES 1 dʒʰonihja DES 1 moⁱsi DK 1 dʒonhĩja DK 1 moⁱsi KAT 1 dʒonha KAT 2 kaki MAL 1 dʒonhijə MAL 1 mõusi morning mouth DG 2 bʰinhja DG 1 mũ DES 3 bihan DES 1 mũ DK 1 səkaɾe DK 1 mũ KAT 2 bʰinhik KAT 1 mũ MAL 1 səkɑɾe MAL 1 mũ mosquito my DG 1 m əs DG 1 mwar DES 1 məswa DES 1 moɾ DK 1 mas DK 1 moɾik KAT 1 masa KAT 1 moɾ MAL 1 məsuwa MAL 1 moɾik

60 name nose DG 1 naũ DG 1 nak DES 1 DES 1 nãk DK 1 naũ DK 1 nak KAT 1 naũ KAT 1 nak MAL 1 nɑũ MAL 1 nɑk near oil DG 1 l əggʰə DG 1 ʈ ʲal DES 1 ləggɛ DES 1 ʈel DK 1 ləggje DK 1 ʈel KAT 1 lɪgʰjɛ KAT 1 tel MAL 1 MAL 1 ʈel needle old (thing) DG 1 swi DG 1 puɾan DES 2 siu DES 1 puran DK 1 swi DK 1 puɾan KAT 1 sʷui KAT 1 puɾɑn MAL 1 sju MAL 1 puɾan new (thing) older brother DG 1 lo ᵘwə DG 1 ɖ aɖu DES 1 lawa DES 1 ɖãɖã DK 1 lawa DK 1 ɖaɖu KAT 1 nəma KAT 1 dada MAL 1 lɑwa MAL 1 ɖɑɖɑ night older sister DG 1 ra ʈ DG 1 ɖ iɖi DES 1 raʈ DES 1 ɖiɖi DK 1 raʈ DK 1 ɖiɖi KAT 1 rat KAT 1 didi MAL 1 rɑʈ MAL 1 ɖiɖi nine one DG Excluded DG Excluded DES 1 naũ Excluded DES 1 ek Excluded DK 1 noũ Excluded DK 1 ek Excluded KAT 1 naũ Excluded KAT 1 ek Excluded MAL Excluded MAL Excluded

61 one hundred person DG Excluded DG 1 m ənɑĩjə DES 1 s əⁱ Excluded DES 1 mənaⁱ DK 2 soᵘ Excluded DK 1 mənaⁱ KAT 2 saᵒ Excluded KAT 1 mənəⁱ MAL 1 səi Excluded MAL 1 mɑnɑ̃ⁱja onion pestle DG 1 pʲæd ʒ DG ɖ okni Excluded DES 1 piadʒ DES ɖokni Excluded DK 1 pʲadʒ DK loɾha Excluded KAT 1 pʲedʒ KAT silbəʈʰa Excluded MAL 1 pʲɑdʒ MAL pətʃi Excluded our pig DG 1 h əmar DG 2 suo ɾ DES 1 hamman DES 1 suɹa DK 1 həmaɾ DK 2 suwəɾ KAT 1 həmməɾ KAT 1 sõɾa MAL 1 həmaɾ MAL 1 suɾa outside potato DG 1 bʰahar DG 1 alu DES 1 baher DES 1 alu DK 1 bahaɾ DK 1 alu KAT 1 bahiɾ KAT 1 alu MAL 1 bɑhɑɾe MAL 1 ɑlu palm put in DG 2 g əɖoɾi DG 1 ɖ ʰəɾ DES 2 gaɖʰi DES 1 ɖʰər DK 2 gsɖi DK 1 ɖʰaɾ KAT 1 təpəli KAT 1 ɖʰəɾ MAL 2 gɑɖi MAL 1 ɖʰɑɽ path/road rain DG 1 ɖə gər DG 1 pani pəɾi DES 1 dəgər DES 3 pani pəɾəʈə DK 1 ɖəgər DK 1 pani pəɖɾi KAT 1 dʰəgəɾ KAT 2 pani bəɾsəna MAL 1 dəgəɾə MAL 2 bəɾsəl pani

62 rainbow root bʰ əgunək DG 1 d ʒər DG banal muɾa Excluded DES 1 dʒər ramdʒani DK 1 dʒəɾ DES ɖʰani Excluded KAT 1 dʒəɾ DK ɖʰani Excluded MAL 1 dʒər KAT dʰənusban Excluded MAL dʰənus Excluded rope DG 2 ɖ õɾia rat/mouse DES 1 ləsəɾi DG 1 musswa DK 1 ləsəɾi DES 1 muswa KAT 1 ləsəɾi DK 1 mũsuwa MAL 1 rəsɑɾi KAT 1 musəwa MAL 1 musuwa run DG 1 ɖə guɾ red DES 1 dəgur DG 1 lal DK 2 ɖoɾ DES 1 lal KAT 2 daᵘɾ DK 1 lal MAL 2 ɖoɾ KAT 1 lal MAL 1 lɑl salt DG 1 nʷãn right DES 1 non DG 1 ɖ ahɪn DK 1 non DES 1 dəhina KAT 1 nõn DK 1 ɖahɛn MAL 1 nɔ̃n KAT 1 ɖəhina MAL 1 dahinə say/tell DG 1 kʰ əh ring DES 1 kah DG 2 mũ ɳɖri DK 1 kəh DES 3 ãᵘʈʰi KAT 1 kəh DK 2 munɖəɾi MAL 1 ka KAT 1 əᵘŋgoʈʰi MAL 1 aᵘŋguʈʰi seed DG 1 bia roof DES 1 bia DG 4 t ʃʰanhi DK 1 bija DES 3 tajal KAT 2 guda DK 2 tʃʰəɾən MAL 1 biʲa KAT 1 tʃʰəpəɾa MAL 1 tʃəpəɾa

63 seven skin DG Excluded DG 1 t ʃʰala DES 1 sa ʈʰ Excluded DES 1 tʃala DK 1 saʈ Excluded DK 2 tʃʰɔkʈə KAT 1 sat KAT 1 tʃʰala MAL Excluded MAL 1 tʃʰɑla short (thing) sky DG 1 t ʃoʈi nəmma DG 1 akas DES 1 tʃoʈ DES 1 akas DK 1 tʃʰoʈ DK 1 akas KAT 1 tʃoʈ KAT 1 akɑs MAL 1 tʃʰot MAL 1 ɑkɑs sickle sleep DG 1 hãssj ə DG 1 su ʈ DES 1 hə̃sija DES 1 sut DK 1 hãssija DK 1 suʈ KAT 1 hə̃sĩja KAT 1 suʈ MAL 1 həssijə MAL 1 suʈ similar/same small DG 1 ɔ sʈə̃hə̃ DG 1 t ʃuʈimuʈi DES 12 ɔstəⁱ DES 3 tʃɪnmutʃ DK 12 ɔsʈe DK 2 tʃoʈ KAT 3 usənhi KAT 1 tʃunimuni MAL 2 wəstɛ MAL 2 ʈʃʰot sit down small river DG 2 bai DG 1 kʰolhwa DES 1 bəⁱʈʰ DES 1 kʰinni DK 1 baⁱʈ DK 1 kʰuluwa KAT 1 bəⁱʈ KAT 1 kʰulɔba MAL 1 bɑit MAL 1 kuluwa six small stone DG Excluded DG 1 p əʈʰa DES 1 t ʃʰe Excluded DES 1 pəʈʰra DK 2 tʃʰə Excluded DK 1 ɖʰuŋga KAT 1 tʃe Excluded KAT 1 pətʰaɾa MAL Excluded MAL 1 pəʈʰrə

64 smoke spit DG 1 ɖ ʰũwã DG 1 ʈ ʰuk DES 1 ɖʰuwã DES 1 ʈʰuk DK 1 ɖʰũwã DK 1 ʈʰuk KAT 1 dʰũwã KAT 1 tʰuk MAL 1 ɖʰũwã MAL 1 ʈʰuk snak e stand DG 1 s əpw DG 1 ʈ ʰəɾhe DES 1 səpwa DES 1 ʈʰərhi DK 1 səppuwə DK 1 ʈʰaɾhia KAT 1 sãp KAT 1 ʈʰəɾhe MAL 1 səpuwa MAL 1 tʰəɾhia soil/clay star DG 1 ma ʈi DG 1 ʈ oɾẽja DES 1 maʈi DES 1 ʈoɾãⁱja DK 1 maʈi DK 1 ʈõɾaĩjə KAT 1 maʈi KAT 2 ʈaɾa MAL 1 mɑʈi MAL 1 ʈoɾɑ̃ⁱja son stick DG 1 t ʃouwa DG 1 l əʈʈi DES 2 puʈuwa DES 1 ləʈʰi DK 1 tʃʰawa DK 1 ləʈʈʰa KAT 3 lãᵘɾa KAT 1 laʈʰi MAL 1 tʃʰɑwa MAL 1 ləʈʈʰi spices mortar sun DG silo ʈa Excluded DG 1 ɖ in DES silaᵘʈo Excluded DES 2 suɹja DK siloʈ Excluded DK 1 ɖin KAT silaᵘʈ Excluded KAT 1 din MAL siloʈə Excluded MAL 1 ɖin spider tail DG 1 m əkɾa DG 1 pʰut ʃʰi DES 1 məkra DES 1 pʰutʃʰi DK 1 məkʰɾə DK 1 pũtʃʰi KAT 2 dʒĩguɾa KAT 1 pũtʃi MAL 1 məkra MAL 1 pũtʃʰi

65 take down their (mid) DG 1 leⁱg DG Excluded DES 3 ləⁱdʒ DES 1 uk ɑnke DK 1 leg DK Excluded KAT 2 ləⁱ KAT 1 oinke MAL 1 leg MAL Excluded take out there DG 1 d ʒʰik DG 1 uhã DES 1 dʒik DES 1 hãwã DK 2 nikaɾ DK 1 wãhã KAT 2 nikal KAT 1 wə̃hã MAL 2 nikɑɾ MAL 1 wɑha talk/chat they (high) DG 1 k əɾ DG 1 u ɑ̃hɑ̃hukɾə DES 2 kəⁱ DES Excluded DK 2 ka DK 2 uhãlog KAT 1 kəɾ KAT Excluded MAL 2 kə MAL 1 w ɑ̃hɑ̃hukɾe ten they (mid) DG Excluded DG Excluded DES 1 d əs Excluded DES 1 ukre DK 1 ɖəs Excluded DK Excluded KAT 1 dəs Excluded KAT 2 oin MAL Excluded MAL Excluded that thin (person) DG 1 u DG 1 ɖ ʷaŋgɪl DES 1 u DES 2 pãʈir DK 1 u DK 1 ɖoŋgil KAT 1 u KAT 1 ɖoŋgɪl MAL 1 u MAL 1 ɖoŋgil their (high) this DG 1 u ɑ̃hɑ̃hũkənək DG 1 i DES Excluded DES 1 i DK 2 uh ɑ̃klogənke DK 1 i KAT Excluded KAT 1 i MAL 1 w ɑhɑhukərənke MAL 1 i

66 thorn tomorrow DG 1 kã ʈ DG 1 kal DES 1 kãʈa DES 1 kal DK 1 kãʈa DK 1 kal KAT 1 kãʈ KAT 1 kəl MAL 1 kɑ̃ʈɑ MAL 1 kɑl thread tongue DG 2 su ʈ DG 1 d ʒip̚ DES 1 ɖoɾa DES 1 dʒip̚ DK 2 suʈ DK 1 dʒib KAT 1 ɖoɾa KAT 1 dʒib MAL 1 ɖoɾa MAL 1 dʒipʰ three tooth DG 1 ʈ in Excluded DG 1 ɖ ãʈ DES 1 ʈin Excluded DES 1 ɖãʈ DK 1 ʈin Excluded DK 1 ɖaʈ KAT 1 tin Excluded KAT 1 ɖãʈ MAL MAL 1 ɖɑ̃t throw tree DG 1 pʰak DG 1 rukʰwa DES 1 pʰek DES 1 rukʰwa DK 1 pʰẽk DK 1 rukʰuwa KAT 1 pʰẽk KAT 1 rukʰa MAL 1 pʰẽk MAL 1 rukʰwa today tumeric DG 1 ad ʒ DG 1 har ɖi DES 1 adʒ DES 1 harɖi DK 1 adʒ DK 1 haɾɖi KAT 1 adʒ KAT 1 haɾɖi MAL 1 ɑdʒ MAL 1 hərɖi tomato twelve DG 2 golbʰẽ ɾa DG Excluded DES 1 ʈəmaʈər DES 1 bæra Excluded DK 1 ʈəmaʈəɾ DK 1 baɾa Excluded KAT 1 ʈimaʈəɾ KAT 1 baɾa Excluded MAL 1 ʈəmɑʈər MAL Excluded

67 twenty various DG Excluded DG 1 me ɾhək Excluded DES 1 bis Excluded DES 2 dosərdosər Excluded DK 1 bis Excluded DK 3 meɾ meɾ Excluded KAT 1 bis Excluded KAT 4 aᵘɾeaᵘɾe Excluded MAL Excluded MAL 5 kɑijomɛɾak Excluded two vegetable DG 1 ɖ u Excluded DG 1 ʈ ina DES 2 ɖuⁱ Excluded DES 1 ʈina DK 2 ɖui Excluded DK 1 ʈinə KAT 2 dui Excluded KAT 1 tena MAL Excluded MAL 1 ʈinɑ uncooked rice village DG 1 t ʃour DG 1 g ɑũ DES 1 tʃaur DES 1 gaũ DK 1 tʃauɾ DK 1 gaũ KAT 1 tʃaoɾ KAT 1 gaũ MAL 1 tʃɑuɾ MAL 1 gaũ unhusked rice vomit DG 1 dʰan DG 1 w ɔk lai DES 1 dʰan DES 2 bəʈʷ DK 1 ɖʰan DK 1 wɔk la KAT 1 dʰɑn KAT 3 band MAL 1 dʰɑn MAL 4 ɔkɑl unirrigated field waist DG 2 ɖ ʰiᵘwa DG 1 k əɾijũ DES 1 baɾi DES 2 kəmər DK 1 baɾi DK 1 kəɖhjũ KAT 1 baɾi KAT 1 kə̃ɾhẽᵘ MAL 1 baɾi MAL 2 kubbər urine walk DG 1 mu ʈ DG 1 njæŋ DES 1 muʈ DES 1 niŋ DK 1 muʈ DK 1 neŋ KAT 1 mɔɖ KAT 1 niŋ MAL 1 mũte MAL 1 neiŋ

68 wash what DG 1 ɖ ʰu DG 1 ke DES 1 ɖʰo DES 1 ke DK 1 ɖʰo DK 2 ka KAT 1 ɖʰo KAT 2 ka MAL 1 ɖʰo MAL 1 ke watch/see wheat DG 1 ɖ ʲæk DG 1 g əhũ DES 1 dekʰ DES 1 gõhũ DK 1 ɖekʰ DK 1 gõhũ KAT 1 ɖekʰ KAT 1 gẽhũ MAL 1 ɖekʰ MAL 1 gõhũ water when DG 1 pani DG 1 kaⁱhja DES 1 pani DES 1 kəhija DK 1 pani DK 1 kəⁱje KAT 1 pani KAT 2 kəb MAL 1 pani MAL 1 kɑ̃hĩja we where DG 1 h əmaɾ DG 1 kãhã DES 1 həmɾe DES 1 kəhã DK 1 həmɾe DK 1 kãhã KAT 1 həmɾe KAT 1 kəhã MAL 1 həməɾe MAL 1 kɑ̃hɑ̃ week which DG 2 əʈ ʷaɾ DG 1 koun DES 1 həpta DES 1 kəᵘn DK 1 həpʈa DK 1 kɔn KAT 1 həpta KAT 1 kaᵘn MAL 1 həpta MAL 1 kɔᵘn wet white DG 1 bʰid ʒəl DG 1 ud ʒər DES 1 bʰidʒəl DES 1 udʒʲər DK 1 bʰidʒəl DK 1 udʒəɾ KAT 1 bʰidʒəl KAT 2 set MAL 1 bʰidʒəl MAL 1 udʒəɾ

69 who wings DG 1 ke DG 1 ɖ enə DES 1 ke DES 1 dəⁱna DK 1 ke DK 1 ɖeⁱna KAT 2 kaũn KAT 1 dəkʰna MAL 1 ke MAL 1 ɖẽⁱnə whole arm woman/female DG 1 hã ʈ DG 1 d ʒəni DES 1 haʈ DES 2 mɪ̃tʰərwa DK 1 haʈʰ DK 1 dʒʰənni KAT 1 hat KAT 3 mehəɾuwa MAL 1 hɑʈ MAL 2 mɛnɖʰɑɾu whose year DG 1 kʲak əɾ DG 1 b əɾəs DES 1 kekər DES 1 bərsa DK 1 kekəɾ DK 1 bəɾsa KAT 2 kehəka KAT 1 bəɾsə MAL 1 kekaɾ MAL 1 bəɾsə why y esterday DG 2 kad ʒe DG 1 kal DES 1 kakaɾe DES 1 kal DK 1 kakəɾe DK 1 kal KAT 3 kahik KAT 1 kəl MAL 1 kɑkɾe MAL 1 kɑl wife you (plural formal) DG 1 d ʒənni DG 1 ə pnehukɾə DES 2 mɪtʰərwa DES Excluded DK 1 dʒʰənni DK Excluded KAT 2 mɛhəɾuwa KAT Excluded MAL 1 dʒənni MAL 1 ɑpnehukəɾe wind you (plural mid) DG 3 b əʈas DG Ex cluded DES 2 hawa DES 1 ʈ ʰurehukre DK 1 baⁱjal DK Excluded KAT 1 baⁱjaɾ KAT 1 tumh əɾe MAL 1 bɑⁱjal MAL Excluded

70 you (singular formal) your (plural) DG 1 əpnə DG 1 ə pnəhũkənək DES DES Excluded DK 1 ə pne DK 2 ə pnɛnke KAT KAT Excluded MAL 1 ɑpnə MAL 1 younger brother your (singular high) DG 1 bʰaija DG 1 ə pnək DES 1 bʰaⁱja DES Exc luded DK 1 bʰaⁱjɑ DK 1 ə pnɪk KAT 1 bʰɑⁱja KAT Excluded MAL 2 bʰewa MAL 1 ap ənik younger sister your (singular low) DG 1 bʰai ɳja DG Excluded DES 1 bʰəhinja DES 1 tʰo ɾ DK 1 bʰaⁱnijə DK Excluded KAT 2 bʰəhini KAT 1 tʰoɾ MAL 1 bɑhĩnija MAL

Appendix B: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ)

B.1 KIQ questionnaire

1. Interview number: 2. Date: 3. Place of interview: 4. Interviewer name: 5. Name of language consultant: तपा�को पराु नाम के हो? 6. Sex: 7. Age: उमेर 8. Caste: जा�त कु न हो? 9. Tharus can be divided into various groups, like: थारुहरूल �व�भनन ् समहमाु �वभाजन गनर �स�कनछ ् ,जसतैमा ् : a. Dangaura दङगौरा ् b. Deukhuri देउखु�रया c. Malhoriya म ल ह ो �रया d. Desauriya देशौ�रया e. Kathariya कठो�रया f. Other आर Which group do you fall into? तपाइँ कु न समहमाु पन्ुर हु्छ न ? 10. What is your mother tongue? तपा�को मात ृ भाषा के हो? 11. Your mother's mother tongue? तपा�को आमाको मात ृ भाषा के हो? 12. Your father's mother tongue? तपा�को बवाकोु मात ृ भाषा के हो? 13. What village were you born in? तपा� जन्मेक स्था / गाँउ कहाँ हो? 14. Where do you live now? हाल तपा� कहाँ बस् न हुन्? a. How many years have you lived here? तपा� यहाँ बस् न भएको क�त समय भयो? 15. Is there an official record about the population of this village? के यो गाउँको जनसंखयाको ् आ�धका�रक अ�भलेख छ? a. Where can we get it? कस�र �लन स�कन्? 16. How many homes are located in your village? तपा�को गा उँ मा क�त घरधुर� छन? ् 17. How many ______Tharu homes are located in your village? थार मात्र क�त घरधुर� छन ?् 18. How many people do you think live in your village? तपा�को �बचारमा तपाईको गाउँको जनसंखया ् क�तज�त होला? 19. How many ______Tharu people do you think live in your village? तपा�को �बचारमा तपा�को गाउँ मा थारुहरु जनसंखया ् क�तज�त होला? 20. Of the people living in your village, how many do you think speak your language? तपा�को गाउँमा तपा�कै भाषा बोल्न मा�नसहर क�तज�त होलान? a. All पराु b. Most धेरै c. Half आधा d. Few थोरै 21. Where do your ancestors come from? तपा�को पखु ्य�ल कहाँबाट आउनभयोु ? 22. Where is the nearest health post? यहाबाट सबभह्द निजक स्वास चौक� कहाँ छ? a. (If clinic is named): What language(s) do they speak at the health post? स्बास छौक�मा कु न भाषा बो�लन्? 23. What do you call your language? तपा�को भाषालाई के भ�नन्? 24. Name(s) given by the non-native speakers for your language तपा�को भाषा नबोल्न मान्छेल तपा�को भाषालाई के भन्छ न 25. Other names of the language, if any. यो भाषाका अर के के नाम छन ् 26. What ethnic groups live in your area? अर जातका मा�नसहर यहाँ बस चन् ?् 27. What languages are spoken by those groups: �य जातका मा�नसहर कु न कु न भाषाहर बोल छन् ?् 28. Which language is used the most between all the groups in this village? गाउँका सबै जातका मान्छेहरु कु न भाषा बढ� बोल्ुन हुन? 29. What is the most common occupation for men in the village?

71 72

धेरैजसो यस गाउँ का लोग्न मानछे हर के काम गन्ुर हुन? 30. What is the most common occupation for women in the village? धेरैजसो यस गाउँ का स्वास् मान्छेह के काम गन्ुर हुन? 31. How common is it for people to leave your village for the purpose of finding income (to live)? तपा�को गाउँको मान्छेह पैसा कमाउनको ला�ग कित्तक बा�हर जानहु ुन्? a. Frequently धेरै b. Some क�हले काह�ं c. Rarely थोरै d. Never क�हल्य प�न 32. How often do people from outside your village visit your village? तपा�को गाउँमा बा�हरका मानछे हर कित्तक आउनहु ुन्? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्य प�न 33. (If every day or sometimes): Which language do they usually speak in your village? �त मान्छेह कु न भाषा बोल्ुन हुन? 34. How often do men from your village travel outside the village? तपा�को गाउँका लोग्न मान्छेह कित्तक गाउँबाट बा�हर जानहु ुन्? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्य प�न 35. (If every day or sometimes):

35a. What are the reasons they 35b. Where? 35c. How long do they generally travel outside the village? कहाँ? remain outside the village? बा�हरा जानकोु कारण के हो? कित्त समयको ला�ग जान्छ ai. bi. ci. aii. bii. cii.

36. How often do women from your village travel outside the village? तपा�को गाउँ का स्वास् मानछे हर कित्तक गाउँबाट बा�हर जानहु ुन्? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्यैप�न 37. (If every day or sometimes):

37a. What are the reasons they 37b. Where? 37c. How long do they generally travel outside the village? कहाँ? remain outside the village? बा�हरा जानकोु कारण के हो? कित् समयको ला�ग जान्छ? ai. bi. ci. aii. bii. cii.

38. Is there intermarriage in your group? तपा�को समदायमाु अन्तजार्त �ववाह हुन्? a. If yes: Which ethnic groups does your Tharu group intermarry with the most? ____ हरुल सबै भनदा ् धेरै कु न जा�तहरुसं �वबाहा समवन ् ध् राखेको छ? If yes to 0: Probe for additional groups not mentioned. Do not ask about their own group. तपा�को समदायमाु ______संग क�तको �वहाबार� चल्?

39. DG 40. DK 41. DES 42. MAL 43. KAT 44. S3 you

a. Often धेरै b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ं c. Rarely थोरै d. Never क�हले प�न हुद�न 45. Has your community ever had any problem because of being native speakers of your mother tongue? मातभाृ षी भएकै कारण तपा�ले क�हल्य कु नै समस्य भोग् न भएको छ? a. (If “Yes”) what kinds of problems have you had? के कस्त समस्य भोग् न भएको छ? 46. Is a/Are school(s) available for primary level children? प्राथ� तहको स्क ु छ? a. Where are they located? कहाँ छ? b. Which ethnic group(s) are the teachers from? �श�क �श��काहर कु न जातबाट? c. What language(s) do teachers use with children in the classroom? उहाँहर क�ामा कु न भाषा प्रय गन्ुर हुन?

47. Is a/Are school(s) available for secondary level children? माध्य�म तहको स्क ु छ? a. Where are they located? कहाँ छ? b. Which ethnic group(s) are the teachers from? �श�क �श��काहर कु न जातबाट? c. What language(s) do teachers use with children in the classroom? उहाँहर क�ामा कु न भाषा प्रय गन्ुर हुन? 48. Are there adult non-formal education classes available? अनौपचा�रक प्ढ �श�ा छ? a. If yes, which language(s) do they teach? कु न कु न भाषा �सकाइनछ? 49. How many people, do you think, in your community are literate in any language? तपा�को �वचारमा तपा�को गाउँ मा सबै भाषामा क�तजना मान्छ लेख् र पढ् जान्दछ? a. Most धेरै b. Half आधा c. Few थोरै 50. How many people, do you think, in your community are literate in your language? तपा�को �वचारमा तपा�को गाउँ मा तपा�को भाषामा क�तजना मान्छ लेख् र पढ् जान्दछ? a. Most धेरै b. Half आधा c. Few थोरै 51. (Only ask literate language consultants) Are there materials written about your language? तपा�को भाषाको बारेमा �ल�खत सामग् के -के छन?् a. Phonemic inventory वण्मालर b. Grammar व्याकर c. Dictionary शब्दको d. Textbooks पाठ्यप सु ्त e. Literacy materials सा�रता सामग् f. Newspapers समाचारपत g. Magazines प�त्र h. Written literature �ल�खत सा�हत् i. Folklore लोक कथा j. Other अन् 52. (If “Yes”) What language(s) is it written in? कु न भाषामा ले�खएका छन?् 53. Are marriage invitations written? �वहाको �नमन्त् लेखेर �दइन्? a. (If yes): What language does your community use for marriage invitations? �वहेको �नम्त गन ुर पदार तपा�हर कु न भाषाको प्रय गन ुर हुन्? 54. Are community meeting notes written? साम�हकु बैठकमा छलफल भएका कु राहर ले�खन् �क ले�खदैन? a. If yes: What language is usually used to write minutes in community meetings? समदायकाु बैठकमा भएका �नण्र लेखन ् ु पदार कु न भाषाको प्रय ग�रन्? 55. Are ____ orally available in your language? तपा�को भाषामा मौ�खक सा�हत्हर के -के उपलब् छन?् ______उपलब् छन? a. Folk tales लोक कथा b. Songs संगीत c. Religious resources धा�मर् सा�हत् d. Films �सनेमा e. CD/DVD सीडी / डीभीडी f. Other अन् 56. Are there any organizations that promote the knowledge and/or use of your language? तपा�को भाषामा भएको �ान अथवा उपयोगलाई �वकास वा प्रवद्ध ला�गपरेका कु नै संघसंस्थ वा �नकायहर छन?् a. If Yes: Please name those organizations. ती संस्थाहरू नाम भनी �दन ु होस।् b. What kinds of activities does each organization perform? ती संस्थाल के कस्त काम गछर ्?न bi. Cultural सांस्क �तक bii. Linguistic भा�षक biii. Educational शै��क biv. Other अन्

B.2 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire Responses

Informed Consent was given orally by all respondents.

Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 1 – – – – – 2 20-Sep-11 24-Sep-11 27-Sep-11 29-Sep-11 1-Oct-11 3 Majgau, Dang Belganar, Dang Chapargaudi, Ghiya, Kailali Pabera, Kailali Banke 4 KC (Stephanie Jessi (Stephanie KC (Ed writing Ed (Ed writing Ed (Ed writing writing answers) writing answers) answers) answers) answers) 5 RNC– with group JNC PC CBM GM help 6 Male Male Male Male Male 7 64 44 30 65 55 8 Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu Tharu 9 Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 10 Tharu Tharu Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 11 Tharu Tharu Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 12 Tharu Tharu Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 13 Majgau, Dang Belganar, Dang Chapargaudi Ghiya/Ghyuha, Tikapur Municipality 14 Majgau, Dang Belganar, Dang Binauna (for one Same year), Ward 4, Binauna, Binauna VDC, Banke 14a 64 44 29 65 15 Unknown No Yes Yes Yes (probably) 15a NA NA VDC School VDC 16 253–255 150 500 70 (North), 90 170–172 (Pabera (South) ward) 17 249–251 100 55 87 – The Pahadis 60% Kathariya 40% live in Nepalganj – Chaudhary one or two live here at a time 18 4000 1200 3000 1300 (both N 1200 and S) 19 3980 800–900 300–350 60% Kathariya 40% Chaudhary 20 3980 800–900 300–350 All, even Pahadis 75% (some Chaudharies also speak) 21 Unknown (as far Kuwangeti (next Two different Rajet from near Unknown back as they know town – in Dang) answers – India- Nepalganj (Banke) from here) Sanka and Dang

Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 22 Clinic (emergen- Belganar also in Chatar (3 kms Tikapur In Pabera VDC office cy) here; health Ward 7 away) post in Lamahi 22a Clinic: Tharu and Tharu but Nepali Nepali Nepali Chaudhary Nepali w/ Nepali speakers that don't speak Tharu 23 Tharu, Keukhuriya Tharu Deshauri Language Tharu, Malhoriya Kathariya 24 Tharu (if they are Tharu Tharu Malhoriya Kathariya not Tharu), Deukhuriya (if they are Tharu) 25 Dangko Tharu Dangaura Heard someone say NA None “Chaudhary” 26 Brahmin, Bamai Tharu, Brahmin, Gurung, Magar, Brahmin, Chhetri, Chaudhary, Dhotyali Chettri, Maggar Puri, Newari Magar (in Tikapur) (Tamam – (only a few), Dalit coppersmith, Sunar – [in order of their goldsmith), Acchams population] (different occupations) 27 Nepali in their Tharu speak Tharu Gurung – Gurung Brahmin and Chaudhary – homes and Tharu – all others speak in family, Nepali Chhetri speak Chaudhary (most with Tharu people Nepali with others; Magar Nepali, Magar from Deukhuri); (both groups) – Magar in family, speak Nepali and Dhotyali – Dhotyali; Nepali with others; Magar Acchams – Acchami Puri – Nepali in family and with others; Newari – Newari in family, Nepali with others 28 Tharu Tharu, then Nepali Nepali/Pahadi Tharu Khatoriya (side comment: Chaudhary is most sweet) 29 Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer Farmer 30 Help on House, field, and Help in farming Farmer Farmer (helping) farm/fields home work 31 Rarely (1/1000) Rarely Rarely Sometimes Rarely 32 Every day Often Every day Sometimes Sometimes 33 Tharu – Nepali Tharu but non- Nepali Tharu Own language – with people who Tharus use Nepali usually Nepali, don't speak Tharu sometimes Hindi 34 Every day Every day to Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes nearby villages, but rarely outside Dang 35a Work, visit To get medicine, Work Earn money Bazaar relatives, visit visiting others friends 35b Nearby villages Nepalgunj India, Malaysia India Chandam Chowk (for all three (medicine), (India – most reasons) everywhere frequent), Hasuliya, (visiting) Dhangadi

Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 35c Highly depends Varies Longest was 7 2–6 months 1 day – come back years, 3 yrs max same day more common 36 Every day Rarely (outside Sometimes (almost Rarely Sometimes (not Dang) never) much at all) 37a Fields/work, To sell vegetables, for job Labor/earn money Bazaar relatives buy medicine, – road construction health, business/ money/bank, school (for HS, young women) 37b Very close only Nearby, Tulsipur Kuwait India Same as men 37c Fields/work – day Day trip only (for 2–3 years at most 2–6 months Same as men only; relatives – all reasons) several days 38 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 38a Chettri, Maggar, Not one more than Brahmin Dang Chaudhary Newari (These are another (these are love marriages love marriages, but that rarely happen parents wouldn't – only 7 homes arrange it) like this) 39 Rarely NA Rarely Sometimes Rarely (I asked this from Dang and Deakhuri – he answered 38% as with Chaudhary in this area) 40 NA Rarely Never Sometimes Rarely (I asked this from Dang and Deakhuri – he answered 38% as with Chaudhary in this area) 41 Rarely Never (It is very far NA (often) Sometimes But this is an away) understanding that Deshauriya is this area (not Banke – which I asked about) 42 Rarely (only 1) Never (It is very far Never NA Sometimes (25%?) away) 43 Never Never (It is very far Never Sometimes NA away) 44 NA NA NA NA NA

45 No Yes No (Asked if they Yes No have been insulted, put down because of speaking Deshauriya Tharu)

Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya

45a NA When I meet with Sometimes put NA non-Tharu people, down

I have to speak Nepali

46 Yes Yes (boarding Yes Yes Yes school), gov. school is in different village 46b 10 Tharu, 3 non- Mostly Brahmin Tharu, Brahmin Tharu (most), one Most Chaudhary, Tharu; 13 total and Chettri, Tharu, (usually Brahmin) Pahadi (male) then Khatoriya, then Dhalit – one Tharu Pahadi teacher at gov. school 46c Nepali and English Nepali Nepali Nepali (boarding school), Nepali (gov. school) 47 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 47a Bhan Village Taricau VDC (1.5 Here In same ward, but Within village – 10 (nearby) hours by foot – 8–9 not in village +2 kms) 47b Mostly Tharu, but Brahmin then Tharu, Brahmin Pahadi, Tharu, Most Chaudhary, a few non-Tharu Chettri, no Tharu (usually Brahmin) Madeshi (A Tharu then Kathariya, then teachers from Janalipur) Pahadi 47c Nepali Nepali and English Nepali Nepali Nepali 48 No (used to be) No (used to be, it Yes (Nepali) No (used to be) No (after Tihar starts was in Nepali) for 3 months, 3 days/month) 49 Most Most (not older Half No answer Half people) 50 Half Half Few (of the 50% Half Few literate above) 51 Yes, textbook Yes; dictionary, Yes; newspapers, No answer Songs are written in (Dang has newspapers, magazines, CD copy book, not grammar and folklore, songs (but published dictionary) written in Nepali) 52 DK Tharu NA Deshauri Language No answer 53 Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 53a Tharu Tharu Nepali Nepali and Tharu Nepali (usually – once in a while in Kathariya but need both) 54 Yes Yes (rarely – only Yes Yes Yes for gov.) 54a Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali Nepali 55a Yes Yes No No No 55b Yes Yes Yes No Yes 55c No Yes No No No 55d Yes Yes No No No 55e CD Yes Yes Yes No No

Deukhuri Dangaura Desauriya Malhoriya Kathariya 55f (Some of the songs are religious) 56 No Yes Yes No Yes

56a Half society of Chaudhary Rin- Kathariya Samaj Nepal Badhet Samuha Nepali

56b Economic Saving the culture

Development

Appendix C: Informal Interviews

C.1 Informal interview schedule

Metadata

1. Interview number: 5. Language of elicitation: 2. Date: 6. Language of response: 3. Place of interview: 7. Interpreter name (if needed): 4. Interviewer name: 8. Name of language consultant:

9. (Ask if needed) Sex: 10. Age group: उमेर a. Age 15–34 b. Age 35+ 11. Are you literate? तपा�लाई लेख्-पढ् आउँ छ? 12. (If yes): How did you learn to read and write? तपा�ले लेख्-पढ् कसर� �सक् न भयो? a. Formally औपचा�रक रूपम b. Non-formally अनौपचा�रक रूपम 13. What year/level did you complete? क�त क्ला (क�ा) सम् पढ्ुभएकन ? 14. Marital status: तपा�को �ववाह भइसक् यो? 15. (If married) Mother tongue of your husband/wife? तपा�को �श्रम / �श्रमती मात ृ भाषा के हो? 16. (If married) Do you have any children? तपा�का छोराछोर� छन ् �क छै नन ्? 17. Caste: तपा�को जात कु न हो? 18. Tharus can be divided into various groups, like: थारुहरूल �व�भनन ् समहमाु �वभाजन गनर �स�कनछ ् ,जसतैमा ् : a. Dangaura दङगौरा ् b. Deukhuri देउखु�रया c. Malhoriya मल हो् �रया d. Desauriya देशौ�रया e. Kathariya कठो�रया f. Other आर Which group do you fall into? तपाइँ कु न समहमाु पन्ुर हु्छ न ? 19. What is your (present) occupation? तपा� के काम गन्ुर हुन? 20. What religion do you practice? तपा� कु न धमर मान्ुन हुन? 21. What village were you born in? तपा� जन्मेक स्था/गाँउ कहाँ हो? 22. Where do you live now? हाल तपा� कहाँ बस्ुन हुन? 23. How many years have you lived here? तपा� यहाँ बस् न भएको क�त समय भयो? 24. Have you lived anywhere else for more than a year? तपा� आर ठ ाउँ मा एक वष र भन्द बढ� बस् न भएको छ? 25. (If yes): a. Where? कहाँ? b. When? क�हले? c. How long did you live there? क�त समयसम्? 26. What is your mother tongue? तपईको आफ्न मात ृ भाषा के हो? 27. Where was your mother born? तपा�को आमाको खास गाउँ कु न हो? 28. What is your mother's mother tongue? तपा�को आमाको मात ृ भाषा के हो? 29. What language did your mother usually speak to you when you were a child? सानो हुँदा तपा�को आमाले तपा�सँग कु न भाषा बोल्ुभयन ? 30. Where was your father born? तपा�को बवाकोु खास गाउँ कु न हो? 31. Your father's mother tongue? ताईको बवाु को मात ृ भाषा के हो? 32. What language did your father usually speak to you when you were a child? सानो हुँदा तपा�को बवालेु तपा�सँग कु न भाषा बोल्ुभयन ?

79 80

Mother-tongue proficiency and multilingualism

33. What language(s) can you speak? तपा� कु न कु न भाषा बोल् सक्हन ुन्? 34. What language did you speak first? तपा�ले सबै भन्द प�हले कु न भाषा बोल्ुभयन ? 35. Which language do you speak…यी भाषाहरूमध्,.. कु न भाषा: a. best? सबै भन्द राम्? b. second best? दोस् राम्? c. third best? तेस् राम्? d. fourth best? चौथो राम्? 36. Among the languages that you speak which one do you love the most? तपा�ले बोल्न भाषाहर मध्य कु न चाह�ँ सबै भन्द बढ� मन पराउनहु ुन्? 37. (Only ask if MT was not best language) Please estimate how proficient are you in your mother tongue: तपा� आफ्न मातभाृ षामा कित्तक पोख् हुनहु ुन्? a. Very well धेरै राम् b. Some �ठक � ठ कै c. Only a little अ�ल अ�ल 38. Other languages known to your father? तपा�को बबाु अन् कु न कु न भाषा जानन ् हु ुन्? 39. Other languages known to your mother? तपा�को आमा अन् कु न कु न भाषा जानन ् हु ुन्? 40. Other languages known to your spouse? तपा�को श्रीम ा/ श्रीम अन् कु न कु न भाषा जानन ् ु हुन्?

If they have children: 42. Where did they learn those 41. What language(s) are spoken by your languages? sons/daughters? �तनीहरूल ती भाषाहर कहाँ � स के ? तपा�का छोराछोर�हर कु न कु न भाषा बोल्छ?न a. a. b. c.

Language107B resources

43. Are there radio programs available in your language? तपा�को भाषामा रे�डयो कायर्क छ? 44. (If “Yes”) How often do you listen to radio programs broadcast in your language? तपा� आफ्न मातभाृ षामा रे�डयो कायर्क क�तको सनु न ् हु ुन्? a. Usually सध� b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हले प�न

****IF THEY ARE NON-LITERATE, SKIP TO QUESTION 54: DOMAINS**** 45. Are there written materials available? �ल�खत सामाग् पाइन छ् ? If yes: a. Yes or b. (If yes) What language(s) is it Material: No?____ written in? छ? ____ कु न भाषामा ले�खएका छन?् a. Literacy materials सा�रता सामग् b. Newspapers समाचारपत c. Magazines प�त्र d. Written literature �ल�खत सा�हत् e. Folklore लोक कथा f. Health materials स्वास्थ्य बरेमा g. Other अन्

46. (If they mentioned written materials): Do you read any of these things written in your language? तपा� आफ्न भाषामा मा�थका सामग् मध्य कु नै पढ्ुन हुन? 47. Would you like to have other things written in your language? तपा�, तपा�को भाषामा अर के ह � पढन ् चाहनहु ुन छ् ?

48. (If yes): What would you like to read about in your language? तपा�को आफ्नो भाषामा तपा� के क ो बारेमा पढ् चाहनहु ुन्? 49. How often do you read? तपा� कित्तक पढन ् हु ुन छ् ? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Sometimes क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्य प�न 50. Which language(s) can you read? तपा� कु न कु न भाषामा पढन ् सक् नहु ुन छ् ? 51. Which language do you like to read the most? कु न भाषामा सबभन दा् वद� पढन मनपराउनहु ुन छ् ? 52. (If they listed MT as a language they can read) Please estimate how well you can read your mother tongue. तपा� आफ्न मातभाृ षा कित्तक राम् पढ् सक् न हुन्? a. Very well धेरै राम् b. Some �ठक � ठ कै c. Only a little अ�ल अ�ल 53. (If they listed MT as a language they can read) Please estimate how well you can write in your mother tongue: तपा� आफ्न मातभाृ षा कित्को राम् लेखन ् सक्हन ुन्? a. Very well धेरै राम् b. Some �ठक � ठ कै c. Only a little अ�ल अ�ल

Domains of language use

54. Which language do you use most frequently for the following purposes? तपा� प्र गर� कु न भाषा ______को ला�ग बोलन ् हु ुन छ् ?

Domain Language a Counting गन्ती गदा b Singing गीत गाउँदा c Joking ठट्टा गद d Bargaining/shopping/marketing हाटबजार गदार / मोलतोल गदार e Story telling कथा भन्द f Discussing/debate छलफल / वाद�ववाद गदार g Puja/(praying) पजाु गदार / (प्राथर्ना )ग h Quarrelling झगडा गदार i Scolding/using taboo words गाल� गदार j Telling stories to children केटाकेट�लाई कथा सनाउँदाु k Singing at home घरमा गीत गाउँदा l Family gatherings पा�रवा�रक जमघटमा m Village meetings गाँउको बैठकमा

55. Language most frequently used when a. Grandfather: हजुरबबासु ँग discussing education matters. b. Grandmother: हजुरआमासँग तपा� आफ्नो _____�श�� सम्बनध कु राकानी गदार धेरैजसो कु न भाषा प्रय गन्ुर हु्छ न ? c. Father: बबासु ँग 56. Language most frequently used when d. Mother: आमासँग discussing social events and family matters. e. Spouse: श्रीम ा / श्रीमतीस तपा� आफ ् न _____ सामािजक �क्रयाकला र पा�रवा�रक �वषयमा सम्बनधी कु राकानी f. Children: छोराछोर�सँग गदार् धेरैजसो क ुन भाषा प्रयोग गनुर्ह? 57. If able to write Language most frequently used in home when writing letters. तपा� ______लाई �चठ्ठी लेखदा ् कु न ? भाषामा लेखन ् हु ुन छ् 58. What language do your children usually speak while: तपा�का छोराछोर�ले प्र जसो …कु न भाषा प्रय गछर ्?न a. Playing with other children? अन् साथीहरुसँ खेल्द? b. Talking with neighbors? �छमे क�हरूसँ कु राकानी गदार? c. At school? �वद्यालयम? 59. What language do you prefer for your children's medium of instruction at primary level? तपा�का छोराछोर�लाई प्राथ� तहमा कु न भाषाको माध्यमम पढाउन चाहनहु ुन्? a. Mother tongue मातभाृ षा b. Nepali नेपाल� c. Hindi �हन द�् d. English अंग्रे e. Other अन् 60. How often do you use your mother tongue? तपा� आफ्न मातभाृ षा कित्तक पयोग गन ुर हुन्? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Rarely क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्य ग�दर् 61. How often do you use the LWC? तपा�को सम्पक भाषा कु न हो र त्यसक क�त प्रय गन्ुर हुन? a. Every day �दन �दनै b. Rarely क�हले काह�ँ c. Never क�हल्य ग�दर्

Language vitality (intergenerational transfer)

62. Do all your children speak your mother tongue? तपा�का सबै छोराछोर�ले मातभाृ षा बोल्छ?न 63. What language do most parents in this village usually speak with their children? यस गाउँका धेरै जसो अमा बवाु हर आफ्न छोराछोर�सँग कु राकानी गदार प्र: कु न भाषाको प्रय गछर ््न a. Mother tongue मातभाृ षा b. Nepali नेपाल� c. Hindi � ह न द � d. Other अन् 64. Do young people in your village/town speak your mother tongue well, the way it ought to be spoken? तपा�का समदायकाु यवायु वतीलेु यो भाषा ज�त राम् बोल् न पन� हो त्य� नै राम्र बोल्छ?न 65. Do you think that the language spoken by you is different from your grandparents? तपा�ले बोल्न भाषा तपा�का हजुरबबाु / हजुरआमाले बोल्न भाषा भन्द फरक भए जस्त लाग्? 66. (If yes) How? के के म ा फरक होला? (Allow them to answer and then pry with these options): a. Pronunciation उच्चारणम b. Vocabulary शब्दभण्डार c. Use of specific type of sentences �वशेष प्रकार वाक्यहरू प्रयोग d. Mixing of other languages भाषा�मश्रण e. Way of speaking बोल्न त�रकामा f. Other अन्यम

67. When the children of your village grow up and have children, do you think those children might speak your language? तपा�को �वचारमा, तपा�को गाइँको के ट ा के ट � ह र हुक� र उनीहरुक बालबच्च भएप�छ ती बालबच्चाहरु तपा�को भाषा बोल्ला? a. (If yes): How would you feel if they speak it (your language)? बोले भने तपा�लाई कस्तो लाग्छ ai. Good राम् aii. Indifferent � ठ कै aiii. Bad नराम् b. (If no): How would you feel if they do not speak it (your language)? बोलेनन ् भने कस्तो लाग् bi. Good राम् bii. Indifferent � ठ कै biii. Bad नराम्

Language110B Maintenance

68. Suppose someone started a class for learning how to read and write your language, would you yourself want to attend? य�द कोह� आएर तपा�को भाषामा लेखने र पढ्न क्ला चलायो भने तपा� लेख् पढ् चाहनहु ुन्? 69. For what purpose/Why not? �कन? 70. (If yes): How many hours would you be able to go to such a class each day? प्रत् �दनमा तपा� कती समय �दन सक्ुन हुन? 71. Would it be good to have such a class available to children? यसले तपा�को के ट ा – के ट � (छोरा – छोर�) हरुला फाइदा परयाउछु ? 72. Is knowing how to read and write your language important to you? तपा�को लागी तपा�को लेख् र पढ् महत्वुणप छ? 73. For what reasons/purposes? के कारणले महत्वुनाप छ?

Contact111B

74. Do you travel outside your village? तपा� क�हल् य आ फ न ो गाउँ बा�हर जान ु भएको छ? (If yes): 75. Where? कहाँ? 76. Why? (Reasons) 77. How often? 78. Which language? (कु न कु न ठ ाउँ मा) ? �कन? (कारण) कत�तको ् ? कु न भाषा बोलन ् ु भयो? a. a. a. a. b. b. b. b.

Language112B attitudes

79. How would you feel if your son or daughter married someone who does not know your language? तपा�का छोरा वा छोर�ले तपा�को मातभाृ षा बोल् नजान ने् मान्छे�स �ववाह गरे भने तपा�लाई कस्त लाग्? a. Good राम् b. Indifferent � ठ कै c. Bad नराम् 80. What language should your children speak first? तपा�का छोराछोर�ले सबैभन्द प�हले कु न भाषा बोल् न पछर ? 81. How do you feel when you hear young people of your own community speaking other languages instead of their first language? तपा�कै भा�षक समदायकाु यवाु (जवान)ले आफ्न भाषा नबोलेर अ क� भाषा बोलेको सनु ्द कस्त लाग्? a. Good राम् b. Indifferent � ठ कै c. Bad नराम्

Don’t ask this a. Have you met ______b. If yes: Where did c. If yes: How did their question for Tharu speakers? you meet them? Tharu make you feel? their own तपा�ले थारुभाषा तपा�ले कहाँ �त�नहरुको थारु ल्ने group: बोल्ने मान्छेह भेतनभयोु ? भाषा तपा�लाई कस्तो भेत्ुभयन ? लाग्? a. Good राम् b. Indifferent � ठ कै c. Bad नराम् 82. Dangaura 83. Deukhuri 84. Desauriya 85. Malhoriya

86. Kathariya 87. Where do you think is the purest form of your language spoken? कहाँ सबभन दा् राम् मातभाृ षा भाषा बो�लन्? 88. Why? �कन? 89. Where is the least pure form of your language spoken? कहाँ सबभन्द कम राम् मातभाृ षा भाषा बो�लन्? 90. Why? �कन? 91. Comment

C.2 Key to abbreviated terms

Names Locations: Districts DG D Dang District JM Jessi Mitchell BK D Banke District SE Stephanie Eichentopf BY D Bardiya District EB Edward Boehm KL D Kailali District Other Terms Locations: Villages T True Cha Chapargaudi, Banke F False Ghu Ghumna, Dang Y Yes Pha Phalkapur, Dang N No Pab Pabera, Kailali M Male Ghi Ghiya, Kailali Fe Female KTM Kathmandu H Hindu C Christian Languages Oth Other Pron Pronunciation NEP Nepali Mix Mixing THR Tharu Sent type Sentence Type DG Dangaura Vocab Vocabulary CHD Chaudhary Way of spk Way of Speaking DK Deukhuri DES Desauriya MAL Malhoriya KAT Kathariya ENG English HND Hindi

C.3 Informal interview responses

Informed consent was given orally by all respondents.

Metadata and Biodata, part 1 (questions 9–18)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10a 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 DESJ01 26-Sep Cha JM NEP NEP NA Fe 16 T Formal 11 F NA THR DES DESJ02 27-Sep Cha JM NEP NEP NA M 50 F T THR Y THR DES DESJ03 27-Sep Cha JM NEP NEP NA M 36 F T THR Y THR DES DESJ04 27-Sep Cha JM NEP NEP NA M 30 T Formal 10 T THR Y THR DES DESJ05 27-Sep Cha JM NEP THR EB NA Fe 60 F T DES Y THR DES DESJ06 27-Sep Cha JM NEP NEP NA M 16 T Formal 10 F NA THR DES DESS01 26-Sep Cha SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 28 F T THR Y THR DES DESS02 26-Sep Cha SE NEP NEP NA Fe 16 T Formal 11 F NA THR DES DESS03 26-Sep Cha SE NEP NEP NA M 27 T Formal 12 T THR Y THR DG DESS05 27-Sep Cha SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 36 F T THR Y CHD DES DESS06 27-Sep Cha SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 37 F T KAT Y THR KAT DESS07 27-Sep Cha SE NEP NEP NA M 35 T Formal 5 T THR Y THR DG DKJ01 21-Sep Ghu JM NEP THR Oth NA M 64 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ02 21-Sep Ghu JM NEP NEP NA Fe 35 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ08 21-Sep Ghu JM NEP NEP NA Fe 25 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ09 9-Oct Pha JM NEP NEP NA Fe 20 T Formal 9 T THR Y THR DK DKJ10 9-Oct Pha JM NEP THR BC NA Fe 55 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ11 9-Oct Pha JM NEP NEP NA M 40 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ12 9-Oct Pha JM NEP NEP NA M 45 F T THR Y THR DK DKJ13 9-Oct Pha JM NEP NEP NA M 18 T Formal +2 F NA THR DK DKS02 21-Sep Ghu SE NEP NEP BC NA M 27 T Formal 12 T THR Y THR DK DKS05 9-Oct Pha SE NEP NEP NA Fe 18 T Formal 9 T THR N Thau DK DKS06 9-Oct Pha SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 40 F T THR Y THR DK DKS07 9-Oct Pha SE NEP NEP NA M 28 T Formal Int T NEP Y THR DK KATJ01 1-Oct Pab JM NEP NEP NA Fe 19 T Formal 12 T KAT N THR KAT KATJ02 1-Oct Pab JM NEP NEP NA Fe 15 T Formal 9 F NA THR KAT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10a 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 KATJ03 1-Oct Pab JM NEP THR BC NA Fe 38 F T KAT Y THR KAT NA 3rd yr BA KATJ04 1-Oct Pab JM NEP NEP M 29 T Formal T KAT Y THR KAT Education KATJ05 2-Oct Pab JM NEP THR Oth NA Fe 52 F T KAT Y THR KAT KATS01 30-Sep Pab SE NEP THR BC NA M 80 F T KAT Y KAT KAT KATS02 30-Sep Pab SE NEP NEP NA M 40 T Formal aikam T KAT Y KAT KAT KATS03 1-Oct Pab SE NEP NEP NA M 30 F T CHD Y KAT KAT KATS04 1-Oct Pab SE NEP NEP NA Fe 17 T Formal 11 F NA KAT KAT BC, NA KATS06 1-Oct Pab SE NEP THR EB, Fe 50 F T KAT Y KAT KAT KC KATS07 1-Oct Pab SE NEP NEP NA M 18 T Formal 11 F NA KAT KAT NA MAL, MALJ01 28-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP M 36 T Formal SLC T Y THR MAL THR MALJ02 28-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP NA M 59 F T MAL Y THR MAL MALJ03 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP THR Oth NA Fe 65 F T MAL Y THR MAL MALJ04 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP THR Oth NA Fe 35 F T THR Y THR MAL MALJ05 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP NA M 27 T Formal Degree T MAL Y THR MAL MALJ06 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP NA Fe 17 T Formal 10 F NA THR MAL MALJ07 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP NA M 20 T Formal 12 F NA THR MAL MALJ08 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP NA M 20 T Formal 12 F NA THR DG NA Bachelor - MALJ13 29-Sep Ghi JM NEP NEP Fe 23 T Formal F NA THR MAL English MALS01 29-Sep Ghi SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 35 F T CHD Y THR MAL NA (THR) MALS02 29-Sep Ghi SE NEP THR BC Fe 63 F T THR Y MAL CHD MALS03 19-Sep Ghi SE NEP NEP NA M 17 T Formal 8 F NA THR MAL MALS04 29-Sep Ghi SE NEP THR BC NA Fe 32 T Formal 6 T THR Y THR DG MALS05 29-Sep Ghi SE NEP NEP NA M 40 T Formal Bachelor T THR Y THR MAL

Biodata, part 2 (questions 19–25)

1 19 20 21a 21b 21c 22a 22b 23 24 25ai 25bi 25ci DESJ01 Student C Cha BK D Cha BK D 16 F 20 min cycle DESJ02 Farmer C Barduwa BK D Barduwa, Banke 50 F ride 20 min cycle DESJ03 Carpenter C Barduwa BK D Barduwa, Banke 36 F ride DESJ04 Church C Cha BK D Cha 29 T Binauna 0–1 yr DESJ05 House work C Mahadiyu BY D Barduwa, Banke 1 hr walk 40 F DESJ06 Student C Perari BK D 9–10 kms Cha 2 F 2004– DESS01 House work C Koholpur BK D Nearby Cha BK D 20 T KTM 2–3 yrs 2007 DESS02 Student C Cha BK D Cha BK D 16 F DESS03 Church leader C Bharaiya BK D 2 kms Bharaiya 2 kms 27 T KTM 2000 2–3 yrs Bhardawa, DESS05 Housework C Bhadiya BK D 5 kms 3 kms 36 F Banke Samsaydgaun- Bardhawa, DESS06 Farmer C BK D 15 kms 5 kms 0 F ge/Dharmoti Banke DESS07 Construction C Bhariya BK D 1 km Bhariya, Banke 1 km 35 F DKJ01 Kamiya – servant H Lamahi DG D Nearby Ghu 45 F DKJ02 Farmer Bahai Ghu DG D Ghu DG D F DKJ08 Housework H Ghu DG D Ghu 25 F DKJ09 Farmer Pha DG D Pha 20 F DKJ10 Farmer H Pha DG D Pha 55 F DKJ11 Farmer H Bagarapur DG D 1/2–1 hr T DKJ12 Farmer H Pha DG D Pha 45 F DKJ13 Student H Bankata F Kupunde DKS02 Work with NGO H Ghu DG D Ghu DG D 27 T 6 yrs ago 2–3 yrs district DKS05 Farmer H Pha DG D Pha 18 F 1–2 hrs (30 min DKS06 Farmer H Pharnaha DG D Pha DG D 22 F by bus) Ghorahi, 5 years DKS07 Unemployed H Pha DG D Pha DG D 28 T Dang (28 2–3 yrs ago kms) KATJ01 Housework H Pab KL D Pab 19 F KATJ02 Student H Pab KL D Pab 15 F KATJ03 Farmer H Belaparaswa Oth India Pab 27 F

1 19 20 21a 21b 21c 22a 22b 23 24 25ai 25bi 25ci 6–7 KATJ04 Farmer H Pab KL D Pab 28 T Dangari years 0–1 yrs ago Palwanpur VDC 15 years KATJ05 Housework H Tapa KL D Pab 38 T Hasulija 2–3 yrs – 2 hrs on cycle ago Farming and KATS01 H Pab KL D Pab 80 F watching kids KATS02 Teacher H Pab KL D Pab 40 F KATS03 Driver H Pab KL D Pab 30 F KATS04 Student H Pab KL D Pab 17 F House work and KATS06 Oth Pab KL D Pab 50 F field work KATS07 Student H Pab KL D Dangari, Kailali 18 F Farmer and 20 yrs MALJ01 H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 34 T Gholariia 2–3 yrs shopowner ago MALJ02 Farmer H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 55 T Gholauri 5 yrs ago 4–5 yrs MALJ03 Farmer H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 65 F MALJ04 Shop H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 35 F MALJ05 Teacher H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 27 F MALJ06 Student H Ghi KL D Ghi Kailai F MALJ07 Student H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 20 F MALJ08 Student H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 20 F MALJ13 Student H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 23 F MALS01 Farmer H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D F Home work, MALS02 H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 63 F watching children MALS03 Student H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 17 F MALS04 Farmer H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 32 F MALS05 Teacher H Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 40 F

Biodata, part 3 (questions 26–32)

1 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 DESJ01 THR Chadharia, Banke THR THR Cha THR THR DESJ02 THR Perari THR THR Kharguar, Banke – nearby THR THR DESJ03 THR Samsir, Banke – 30 mins by car THR DES Owe, Banke – 30 mins by car DES DES DESJ04 THR Chatar THR THR Cha THR THR DESJ05 THR Bunkutuwa – near Mahadi DES THR Mahadiya, Bardiya DES THR DESJ06 DES Kohalpur, Banke DES DES Perari, Banke DES DES DESS01 DES Lukna, Banke – nearby DES DES Koholpur DES DES DESS02 THR Chaudhariya, Banke – nearby THR THR Cha THR THR DESS03 THR Neibhua, Banke – 15 kms THR THR Bharaiya, Banke – 2 kms THR THR DESS05 CHD Chatar, Banke – 5 kms THR CHD Bhadiya, Banke THR CHD DESS06 KAT Obari, Banke – 15 kms DES DES Dharmoti, Banke – 15 kms DES DES DESS07 DES Kargawar, Banke – 6 kms DG DES Bhariya, Banke – 1 km DES DES Deukhuri somewhere, he doesn't know, his dad was a DKJ01 THR Deupur (near Lamahi) THR THR THR THR servant DKJ02 THR Katyan THR THR Parsyani THR THR DKJ08 THR Pha THR THR Samdrong THR THR DKJ09 THR Majgau THR THR Gujiwa THR THR DKJ10 THR Bankata THR THR Doesn't know THR THR DKJ11 THR Paraspur THR THR Bhagdad THR THR CHD, DKJ12 Shirgau THR THR Makna (near) THR THR THR DKJ13 THR Pha THR THR Bankata THR THR DKS02 THR Ghu THR THR Ghu THR THR DKS05 THR Swonpur THR THR Pha THR THR DKS06 THR Pharnaha THR THR Pharnaha THR THR DKS07 THR Pha THR THR Pha THR THR KATJ01 KAT Pab CHD CHD Pab CHD CHD KATJ02 KAT India KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATJ03 KAT Belaparaswa, India KAT KAT Belaparaswa, India KAT KAT KATJ04 KAT Pab KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATJ05 KAT Lalbuji VDC (Churra village) KAT KAT Tapa KAT KAT KATS01 KAT Lohusa, Kailali – 10 kms KAT KAT Mujara, Kailali – 2 km KAT KAT KATS02 KAT India – 6 kms KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATS03 KAT India – 1.5 hr walk KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT

1 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 DESJ01 THR Chadharia, Banke THR THR Cha THR THR DESJ02 THR Perari THR THR Kharguar, Banke – nearby THR THR DESJ03 THR Samsir, Banke – 30 mins by car THR DES Owe, Banke – 30 mins by car DES DES DESJ04 THR Chatar THR THR Cha THR THR KATS04 KAT Pab KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATS06 KAT Tapa, Kailali – 10–15 kms KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATS07 KAT Losa, Kailali – 2 hrs walk KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT MALJ01 MAL Dhurgauli MAL MAL Ghi MAL MAL MALJ02 MAL BY D MAL MAL BY D MAL MAL MALJ03 MAL Balharia, Kanchanpur MAL MAL Ghi MAL MAL MALJ04 THR Balahria, Kanchanpur THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ05 THR Ghi THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ06 THR Janakpur THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ07 THR Ghi THR THR Suwanapur THR THR MALJ08 DG, THR Tikuligar (1 km) THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ13 THR Mahadauli THR THR Ghi THR THR MALS01 THR Karha, Kailali (8 km) THR THR Ghi THR THR Banbarsa, Kailali (7 kms/2hrs MALS02 THR THR THR BY D THR THR walk north) MALS03 MAL Belowa, Kailali (1–2 hrs walk) MAL MAL BY D MAL MAL MAL, MALS04 Ghi THR THR Ghi THR THR THR MALS05 THR Ghi THR Ghi THR THR

Mother tongue proficiency and multilingualism, part 1 (questions 33–37)

1 33a 33b 34 35a 35b 35c 35d 36 37 DESJ01 DG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP DG HND THR DESJ02 DG, NEP, THR Dangari THR THR NEP DG Oth DESJ03 DG, DES, NEP DES DES NEP DG DES DESJ04 HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP HND THR She didn't say she spoke NEP, but she did DESJ05 DES, NEP DES DES DES a little DESJ06 DES, HND, NEP DES DES NEP HND NEP DESS01 DG, DES, NEP DES DES NEP DG DES DESS02 DG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP DG HND THR DESS03 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR Oth Oth HND ENG NEP Some DESS05 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DESS06 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DESS07 DG, DES, NEP, Oth Madashi (similar to Awardi) DES DES DG NEP Oth NEP DKJ01 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DKJ02 NEP, THR THR THR NEP DG THR DKJ08 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DKJ09 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DKJ10 THR THR THR THR DKJ11 HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP DKJ12 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DKJ13 ENG, NEP, THR THR NEP THR ENG NEP Some DKS02 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP ENG HND THR DKS05 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR DKS06 THR Understands NEP THR THR THR DKS07 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP HND ENG NEP KATJ01 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP CHD KAT CHD NEP HND NEP KATJ02 HND, KAT, NEP KAT KAT HND NEP KAT KATJ03 KAT KAT KAT THR CHD, DG, ENG, HND, KAT, NEP, KATJ04 KAT NEP KAT CHD ENG KAT Rana KATJ05 CHD, KAT, NEP KATS01 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP, Rana KAT KAT CHD NEP HND KAT

1 33a 33b 34 35a 35b 35c 35d 36 37 KATS02 DG, ENG, HND, KAT, NEP, Rana KAT KAT DG NEP HND KAT KATS03 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP KAT CHD KAT HND NEP KAT KATS04 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP KAT KAT HND CHD NEP KAT KATS06 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP KAT KAT CHD NEP HND KAT KATS07 CHD, ENG, KAT, NEP, Rana KAT KAT CHD NEP Oth ENG Very well MALJ01 DG, HND, MAL, NEP MAL MAL NEP DG HND NEP MALJ02 HND, MAL, NEP MAL MAL HND NEP MAL MALJ03 MAL MAL MAL MAL MALJ04 NEP, THR THR THR NEP MALJ05 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR ENG HND NEP ENG MALJ06 ENG, NEP, THR THR THR NEP ENG THR MALJ07 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP ENG HND THR MALJ08 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP ENG HND ENG DG, DK, ENG, HND, MAL, NEP, MALJ13 Maithali MAL MAL NEP HND DG THR Oth, THR MALS01 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR MALS02 THR THR THR MALS03 HND, MAL, NEP THR MAL NEP HND NEP MALS04 NEP, THR THR THR NEP THR MALS05 ENG, HND, NEP, THR THR THR NEP HND ENG ENG

Mother tongue proficiency and multilingualism, part 2 (questions 38–42)

HND, NEP, Oth, DESS02 HND, NEP, THR THR, Dangali DESS03 HND, NEP, THR THR NEP, THR THR Home DESS05 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School DESS06 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School DESS07 NEP, THR DES NEP, THR THR Home NEP School DKJ01 THR THR THR THR Home NEP HND, NEP, School, DKJ02 THR THR Malaysian THR Home NEP Oth, THR Village DKJ08 THR THR NEP, THR THR DKJ09 THR THR NEP, THR DKJ10 DKJ11 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP Village DKJ12 THR THR THR THR Home NEP School DKJ13 NEP, THR NEP, THR HND, NEP, DKS02 HND, NEP, THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School THR DKS05 NEP, THR THR NEP, THR DKS06 THR THR THR THR Home NEP School DKS07 NEP, THR THR NEP THR Home NEP Home CHD, HND, KATJ01 CHD, KAT, NEP CHD, KAT, NEP KAT, NEP HND, KAT, NEP, KATJ02 HND, KAT Rana HND, KAT, KATJ03 HND, KAT KAT KAT Home NEP School NEP CHD, DG, ENG, KATJ04 CHD, KAT, Rana KAT Home NEP School KAT, NEP, Rana CHD, HND, KATJ05 KAT KAT KAT, NEP, NEP School CHD Village KAT Home Rana CHD, KAT, NEP, CHD, KAT, School, Home, KATS01 CHD, KAT, Rana NEP HND Village KAT Rana Village Rana Rana Village Village KATS02 KAT KAT DG, KAT KAT Home DG Village KATS03 KAT KAT CHD, KAT KAT Home CHD Home CHD, HND, KAT, CHD, HND, KAT, KATS04 NEP, Rana NEP, Rana CHD, ENG, CHD, HND, KAT, Home, KATS06 KAT HND, KAT, KAT NEP School HND School ENG School NEP Village NEP

1 38 39 40 40a 41a 42a 41b 42b 41c 42c 41d 42d DG, HND, NEP, DG, HND, NEP, DESJ01 THR THR DESJ02 THR THR THR THR Home NEP School DG, DES, HND, Home, School, DESJ03 DG, DES DES, NEP DES NEP NEP Village Village HND, NEP, DESJ04 HND, NEP, THR HND, NEP, THR NEP School THR Home THR DESJ05 DES DES DES DES NEP DESJ06 DES, HND, NEP DES, NEP DG, DES, School, DESS01 DES, HND, NEP DES ENG, HND, DES Home NEP Village NEP HND, NEP, Oth, DESS02 HND, NEP, THR THR, Dangali DESS03 HND, NEP, THR THR NEP, THR THR Home DESS05 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School DESS06 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School CHD, HND, KAT, KATS07 CHD, KAT, NEP NEP DG, MAL, MALJ01 HND, MAL, NEP DG, MAL MAL Home NEP School NEP Drama/ MALJ02 MAL MAL MAL MAL Village NEP School ENG School HND film HND, MAL, Home, MALJ03 HND, MAL MAL Achami MAL NEP School HND NEP, Oth Village HND, NEP, MALJ04 HND, THR THR THR THR HND, NEP, MALJ05 HND, NEP, THR THR THR THR MALJ06 HND, NEP, THR NEP, THR ENG, HND, NEP, MALJ07 THR THR MALJ08 HND, NEP, THR NEP, THR DG, HND, NEP, DG, HND, NEP, MALJ13 THR THR Home, MALS01 THR THR NEP, THR THR NEP School Village MALS02 THR THR NEP, THR THR Home NEP School MALS03 HND, NEP, THR NEP, THR HND, NEP, MALS04 THR THR THR Home NEP School THR

Language resources, part 1 (questions 43–45)

1 43 43a 44 45 45aa 45ba 45ab 45bb 45ac 45bc 45ad 45bd 45ae 45be 45af 45bf 45ag 45bg Sometime DESJ01 T Y Y THR N N Y THR Y THR N s DESJ02 F NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DESJ03 F Sometime DESJ04 T THR N s DESJ05 T DG Never Sometime DESJ06 T DG Y N Y DG N N N N s DESS01 F NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Sometime DESS02 T DES Y Y DG N N Y DG Y DG N s Sometime DG, DG, DG, DESS03 T DES Y N Y DG Y DG Y Y N Pamphlets s DES DES DES Sometime DESS05 T DG Y s DESS06 T DES Usually NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

1 43 43a 44 45 45aa 45ba 45ab 45bb 45ac 45bc 45ad 45bd 45ae 45be 45af 45bf 45ag 45bg DESS07 F Y N Y DES Y DES N N N Song book DG Sometime DKJ01 T NA NA NA NA NA NA s DKJ02 T Usually NA NA NA NA NA NA Sometime DKJ08 T NA NA NA NA NA NA NA s DKJ09 F N N N N N N N DKJ10 F NA NA NA NA NA NA NA Sometime DKJ11 T DK NA NA NA NA NA NA NA s Sometime DKJ12 T DK NA NA NA NA NA NA NA s Sometime DKJ13 T DK Y Y Y DK N N N N s DKS02 T Usually Y Y Y Y N Y Y Sometime DKS05 T DK Y Y DK N Y DK Y DK Y DK Y DK s Sometime DKS06 T DK NA NA NA NA NA NA NA s Sometime DG, Pamphlets DKS07 T DK Y N N Y DG Y Y DK N s DK , films KATJ01 T KAT Usually Y N Y KAT N N Y KAT N KATJ02 T KAT Usually Y N Y CHD Y CHD N N N KATJ03 F KATJ04 T KAT Usually Y N N Y KAT N N N Sometime KATJ05 T KAT s Sometime KATS01 T DG s Sometime KATS02 T KAT Y N Y DG Y DG N N N Songs DG s Sometime KATS03 T KAT s KATS04 T KAT Usually Y Y CHD Y CHD Y CHD Y CHD N N Sometime KATS06 T KAT s Sometime KATS07 T KAT N N N N N N N s KAT, Sometime MALJ01 T N N N N N N Y MAL s MALJ02 T DG Usually NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

1 43 43a 44 45 45aa 45ba 45ab 45bb 45ac 45bc 45ad 45bd 45ae 45be 45af 45bf 45ag 45bg DG, Sometime MALJ03 T NA NA NA NA NA NA NA MAL s MALJ04 T Never NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DG, Sometime DG, DG, DG, DG, DG, DG, Cultural MAL, MALJ05 T Y Y Y Y Y Y Y MAL s MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL drama DG MALJ06 T DG Usually N N Y DG N N Y DG Sometime MALJ07 T MAL Y Y N N N Y MAL Y MAL s MALJ08 T MAL Usually Y Y MAL Y THR Y THR Y Y Y DG, MALJ13 T Never Y DG Y DG Y DG Y DG Y DG Y DG MAL Sometime MALS01 T MAL NA NA NA NA NA NA NA s MALS02 T DG Never NA NA NA NA NA NA NA DG, Sometime MALS03 T N N N N N N N MAL s Sometime MALS04 T DG s Sometime DG, MALS05 T MAL Y N Y N N N N s DK

Language resources, part 2 (questions 46–53)

1 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 DESJ01 Y Y Story Every day HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some DESJ02 NA NA DESJ03 DESJ04 Y Stories, news Sometimes HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some DESJ05 DESJ06 Y Y Christian books Sometimes DG, ENG, HND, NEP NEP Some Some DESS01 NA NA DESS02 Y Y About health, songs, magazines, news Every day ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some DESS03 Y Y Songs for worship, poems Sometimes HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some DESS05 Sometimes NEP DESS06 NA NA Newspaper (begin to print again). Bed prompted and he said DESS07 N Y Sometimes NEP Bible. DKJ01 NA NA DKJ02 NA NA DKJ08 NA NA DKJ09 NA Sometimes CHD, NEP NEP Some Some DKJ10 NA NA DKJ11 NA NA DKJ12 NA NA DKJ13 N Y Stories Every day ENG, NEP, THR NEP Some Some DKS02 Y Y Old stuff and culture Sometimes ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Very well Very well DKS05 Y Y Songs, folk tales Every day NEP, THR NEP Some Very well DKS06 NA NA DKS07 N Y Stories Sometimes ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Very well Very well KATJ01 Y Y Committee for ethnic group Sometimes CHD, ENG, KAT, NEP NEP Very well Very well Only a KATJ02 N Y Poems Sometimes HND, KAT, NEP NEP Some little KATJ03 CHD, ENG, KAT, NEP, KATJ04 Y Y News, TV program Sometimes KAT Very well Very well Oth KATJ05 KATS01

1 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 KATS02 Y Y Stories, newspaper, book, magazine Every day HND, NEP, Oth, THR NEP Very well Very well KATS03 CHD, HND, KAT, NEP, Only a KATS04 Y Y About society and culture Sometimes HND Some Oth little KATS06 KATS07 Y Magazines, TV programs, stuff about KAT language Every day CHD, ENG, NEP ENG MALJ01 Y Old things – where we're from. Sometimes ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Very well Very well MALJ02 NA NA MALJ03 NA NA MALJ04 NA NA MALJ05 Y Y Literature, drama (cultura) Sometimes ENG, HND, NEP, THR ENG Very well Very well MALJ06 Y Y Stories, literature Every day ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some MALJ07 N Y Our culture Every day ENG, HND, NEP, THR ENG Some Some MALJ08 Y Y Stories Every day ENG, HND, NEP, THR ENG Some Some MALJ13 Y Y Stories and old culture Every day ENG, NEP, THR ENG Very well Some MALS01 NA NA MALS02 NA NA MALS03 N Y School, culture Sometimes ENG, NEP NEP MALS04 Y Doesn't know Sometimes NEP MALS05 Y Y Curriculum (school), folk tales, magazines Every day ENG, HND, NEP, THR NEP Some Some

100

Domains, part 1 (question 54)

1 54a 54b 54c 54d 54e 54f 54g 54h 54i 54j 54k 54l 54m DESJ01 NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP THR THR NEP NEP THR THR DESJ02 THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR DESJ03 THR THR NEP THR THR NEP THR THR THR NEP THR THR DESJ04 NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP THR THR DESJ05 DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DESJ06 ENG NEP NEP NEP DES NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP HND DES DES DESS01 THR NEP THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR DESS02 NEP NEP NEP THR THR NEP NEP THR NEP NEP NEP THR NEP DESS03 NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP THR NEP DESS05 THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR DESS06 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR DESS07 NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP THR THR NEP NEP THR NEP DKJ01 NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ02 NEP THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP, THR THR THR DKJ08 THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ09 NEP, THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP THR NEP DKJ10 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ11 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ12 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ13 NEP NEP THR NEP NEP NEP NEP THR THR NEP NEP THR THR DKS02 NEP NEP THR NEP NEP THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR DKS05 NEP, THR NEP THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR DKS06 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKS07 THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR KATJ01 ENG NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP KAT KAT NEP HND KAT CHD KATJ02 KAT HND KAT NEP KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT HND KAT KAT KATJ03 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATJ04 THR NEP THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP THR HND THR THR KATJ05 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS01 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS02 KAT KAT KAT NEP NEP KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT

101

1 54a 54b 54c 54d 54e 54f 54g 54h 54i 54j 54k 54l 54m KATS03 KAT KAT CHD HND CHD CHD KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT CHD KATS04 KAT KAT KAT CHD KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS06 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS07 ENG NEP NEP NEP KAT NEP NEP NEP NEP KAT NEP KAT KAT MALJ01 NEP NEP MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL NEP MAL MAL MALJ02 HND THR THR THR THR THR HND THR THR THR THR THR THR MALJ03 MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MALJ04 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR HND, MALJ05 NEP HND, NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR HND THR THR MALJ06 ENG NEP THR NEP THR THR HND THR THR THR NEP THR THR MALJ07 ENG HND THR NEP THR THR HND THR THR THR NEP THR THR NEP, MALJ08 THR HND, NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR HND THR THR MALJ13 ENG NEP THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP THR THR MALS01 THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS02 THR DG, THR THR THR THR THR HND THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS03 NEP HND THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS04 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS05 NEP NEP THR NEP THR NEP THR THR THR NEP NEP THR THR

102

Domains, part 2 (questions 55–57)

1 55a 55b 55c 55d 55e 55f 56a 56b 56c 56d 56e 56f 57a 57b 57c 57d 57e 57f DESJ01 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP DESJ02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DESJ03 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DESJ04 THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP DESJ05 DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DESJ06 DES DES DES DES DES DES DES DES NEP NEP NEP NEP DESS01 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DESS02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP DESS03 THR THR THR THR NEP NEP THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP DESS05 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DESS06 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DESS07 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP DKJ01 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ08 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ09 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP DKJ10 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ11 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ12 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKJ13 THR THR NEP THR THR THR NEP THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP, NEP, DKS02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP THR THR DKS05 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP DKS06 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR DKS07 THR THR THR THR NEP NEP THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP KATJ01 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATJ02 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT NEP NEP NEP NEP KATJ03 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATJ04 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP THR NEP THR KATJ05 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS01 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS02 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP

103

1 55a 55b 55c 55d 55e 55f 56a 56b 56c 56d 56e 56f 57a 57b 57c 57d 57e 57f KATS03 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS04 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT NEP NEP NEP NEP KATS06 KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KAT KATS07 KAT KAT KAT KAT NEP KAT KAT KAT NEP NEP NEP NEP MALJ01 MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP MALJ02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALJ03 MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MAL MALJ04 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALJ05 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP NEP MALJ06 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALJ07 THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP MALJ08 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP MALJ13 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP MALS01 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS02 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR MALS03 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP NEP NEP MALS04 THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR THR NEP NEP MALS05 THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR NEP THR THR THR NEP

104

Domains, part 3 (questions 58–61)

1 58a 58b 58c 59 60 61 DESJ01 NEP Every day Every day DESJ02 THR THR THR NEP Every day Sometimes DESJ03 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day DESJ04 NEP NEP NEP ENG Every day Every day DESJ05 THR Every day Never DESJ06 NEP THR NEP ENG Every day Every day DESS01 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Every day DESS02 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day DESS03 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Every day DESS05 THR THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes DESS06 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes DESS07 NEP NEP NEP NEP Every day Every day DKJ01 THR THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes DKJ02 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes DKJ08 THR THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes DKJ09 THR THR NEP NEP Every day Sometimes DKJ10 THR THR NEP THR Every day Never DKJ11 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day DKJ12 NEP THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes DKJ13 THR NEP ENG NEP Sometimes Every day DKS02 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Every day DKS05 THR THR NEP NEP Every day Every day DKS06 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day DKS07 NEP NEP NEP ENG Every day Every day KATJ01 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes KATJ02 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes KATJ03 THR THR Every day Never KATJ04 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day KATJ05 THR THR NEP THR Every day Never KATS01 THR THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes KATS02 THR THR THR THR Every day Sometimes

105

1 58a 58b 58c 59 60 61 KATS03 KAT KAT CHD NEP Every day Sometimes KATS04 KAT KAT KAT NEP Every day Sometimes KATS06 KAT KAT CHD THR Every day Sometimes KATS07 KAT KAT NEP ENG Every day Every day MALJ01 MAL MAL NEP ENG Every day Sometimes MALJ02 THR THR NEP THR Every day Sometimes MALJ03 THR THR NEP NEP Every day Never MALJ04 THR THR NEP NEP Every day MALJ05 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes MALJ06 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes MALJ07 THR NEP ENG Every day Every day MALJ08 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes MALJ13 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Sometimes MALS01 THR THR NEP NEP Every day Sometimes MALS02 THR THR NEP ENG Every day Never MALS03 THR THR NEP NEP Every day Sometimes MALS04 THR THR THR ENG Every day Sometimes MALS05 THR THR NEP THR Every day Every day

106

Language vitality (questions 62–67)

1 62 63 64 65 66 67 67a 67b DESJ01 NA THR T T Mix, Pron, Way of spk T Good Bad DESJ02 Y THR T F T Good Bad DESJ03 Y THR T T Vocab T Good Bad DESJ04 Y THR T T Sent type, Vocab T Good Bad DESJ05 Y DES T F T Good Bad DESJ06 NA DES T F T Indifferent Indifferent DESS01 Y THR T F T Good Bad DESS02 Y THR T T Mix, Oth, Pron, Sent type, Vocab, Way of spk T Good Bad DESS03 Y NEP F T Pron, Sent type, Vocab, Way of spk F Good Bad DESS05 Y THR T F T Good Bad DESS06 Y THR T F T Good Bad DESS07 Y THR T T Mix, Pron T Indifferent Indifferent DKJ01 Y THR T F F Good Bad DKJ02 Y THR T T Vocab T Good Bad DKJ08 Y THR T F F Good Bad DKJ09 THR T F T Good Bad DKJ10 Y THR T F T Good Bad DKJ11 Y THR T F T Good Bad DKJ12 Y THR T F T Good Bad DKJ13 THR F T Pron T Good Bad DKS02 Y THR F T Mix, Pron, Sent type, Vocab, Way of spk T Good Bad DKS05 NA THR T F T Good Bad DKS06 Y THR T F T Good Bad DKS07 Y THR F T Mix T Good Bad KATJ01 KAT T F T Good Bad KATJ02 KAT T F T Good Bad KATJ03 Y KAT T F T Good Indifferent KATJ04 Y KAT T F T Good Bad KATJ05 Y KAT T F T KATS01 Y KAT T F T Good Bad KATS02 Y THR T F T Good Bad

107

1 62 63 64 65 66 67 67a 67b KATS03 Y KAT T F T Good Bad KATS04 NA KAT T F T Good Bad KATS06 Y KAT T F T Good Bad KATS07 KAT T F T Good Bad MALJ01 Y THR T F T Good Bad MALJ02 Y THR T F T Good Bad MALJ03 Y THR T F T Good MALJ04 Y THR T F T Good Good MALJ05 Y THR T F T Good Bad MALJ06 NA THR T F T Good Bad MALJ07 NA THR T F T Good Bad MALJ08 NA THR T F T Good Bad MALJ13 THR T F T Good Bad MALS01 Y THR T T Way of spk T Good Bad MALS02 Y THR T T Way of spk T Indifferent Indifferent MALS03 THR T T Pron T Indifferent Bad MALS04 Y THR T F T Good Bad MALS05 Y THR T T Mix, Way of spk T Good Bad

108

Language maintenance (questions 68–73)

1 68 69 70 71 72 73 DESJ01 T My language 2–3 T T To understand DESJ02 T It'd be good to study T T He writes a little NEP DESJ03 T NEP is difficult, but our lang would be better 2–3 T T Because I want to DESJ04 T To know my own langauge and for development 0–1 T T So I can know my own language well DESJ05 T Why wouldn't I like it? But I'm too old. F F DESJ06 T Our language development 2–3 T T For culture, laune/posak DESS01 T For good understanding 2–3 T T To learn many words and understand a lot DESS02 T So we won't lose my language 2–3 T T Development and independence DESS03 T To learn more 0–1 T T I have to because I teach. Gets my family ahead – in front. DESS05 T Because it is THR, the more it's spoken, the better it is. 2–3 T T Because sometimes I need to read for information DESS06 T To learn to better read the Bible. But before she was Christian she didn't care. 2–3 T T Reading the Bible DESS07 T Because it will make it easier to understand and read. 2–3 T T To read books. DKJ01 F Bimar F T He's a singer and it would be easy to read other's songs DKJ02 T Her own language, to write letters and her name 2–3 T T For her children to study so not to lose (language) DKJ08 T 2–3 F T DKJ09 T To study 0–1 T T DKJ10 T To sign/write 2–3 T T To know more DKJ11 T To be able to read and write 4–6 T T Because its not now DKJ12 T To be able to study and know 2–3 T F DKJ13 F Mostly use ENG T F DKS02 T To learn the things older people speak 2–3 T T Knowledge, instructions DKS05 T My own language 0–1 T T My own language. Others needed too, but mine also DKS06 T My language is good to learn 4–6 T T Lots of stuff to learn, to read DKS07 F THR is for local area, NEP is more important for outside T T To save our language KATJ01 T Not to lose our language and culture 6+ T T To preserve our culture KATJ02 T To study our language 2–3 T T It would be good to read and write in our language KATJ03 T Because it's her language 2–3 T T To know things Kids don't understand NEP when they go to school – they'd learn KATJ04 T My own language – it'd be quick 0–1 T T faster in KAT KATJ05 T It's my language – it'd be easy 2–3 T T To not forget/lose it KATS01 T Because it's THR 2-3 T T My own language KATS02 T Development of the language 2-3 T T To understand easily

109

1 68 69 70 71 72 73 KATS03 T Because it's good 0-1 T T Because my language is good KATS04 T To learn to better write my language 0-1 T T For progress and development. Otherwise it goes backward KATS06 T Easy to understand what teacher says 0-1 T T They'll forget language if they don't KATS07 T My own language is best 0-1 T T Because KAT is easy for me MALJ01 T For development 2-3 T T To have knowledge MALJ02 T Be happy to read/write my own language 2-3 T T Knowledge MALJ03 T Knowledge 0-1 T T It's easy in your own language MALJ04 T Knowledge 0-1 T T To learn faster. MALJ05 T Knowledge 0-1 T T Easy to understand MALJ06 T Culture we need to speak own language 0-1 T T Not to lose it MALJ07 T Education 6+ T T For my own culture MALJ08 T Tharu culture 6+ T T My own culture knowledge MALJ13 T I like my language 6+ T T Because if we don't know/speak our language it will be lost. MALS01 T Because it's in THR 2-3 T T To write my name, to be able to write work (budget, sign) MALS02 T Don't know 2-3 F F Don't need. Just for fun, so don't need. MALS03 T To learn 2-3 T T To go to other towns (for travel; for work) MALS04 T My own language 2-3 T T For signing things, travelling MALS05 T To spread language/development 0–1 T T If we don't write our own language, who will? It might get lost.

110

Contact, part 1 (questions 74–78b)

1 74 75a 76a 77a 78a 75b 76b 77b 78b DESJ01 T Perari Ghumna 1x THR Chaudaria Ghumna lots THR DESJ02 T BY D Ghumna 3x THR India Health 1x HND DESJ03 F Visit and church DESJ04 T KTM Church program 10–12x NEP Pokhara 6–7x NEP program DESJ05 F DESJ06 T BY D Youth group meetings 3 days NEP Surkhet Ghumna 1x NEP DESS01 F NEP, DESS02 T KTM Visit 1x for 3 days NEP Chitwan For training 1x for 3 days THR NEP, DESS02 T KTM Visit 1x for 3 days NEP Chitwan For training 1x for 3 days THR Many times – DESS03 T KTM Education a few days NEP Pokhara For work 2x NEP each time DESS05 F 1x each year, DESS06 T Nepalgunj To buy stuff 3–4x each year THR Bardawa, Banke To visit family THR maybe Build power lines DESS07 T KTM Seminar and for bike pass 2x NEP Pokhara 1x NEP (work) Lamahi and DKJ01 T Dhami–jati Daily THR Semrahuagau THR Badaram DKJ02 F DKJ08 F DKJ09 F DKJ10 T DG D Labor meetings 2x THR KL D Labor meetings 1x THR DKJ11 F DKJ12 F ENG, DKJ13 T Tulsipur Medicine 3x NEP KTM tira Visiting 1x NEP DKS02 T India Work 1x HND KTM Work 2x NEP DKS05 F DKS06 F DKS07 T Bazaar (nearby) Work Every day NEP KATJ01 T Dangari Study 7–8x KAT KATJ02 T India Ghumna 4–5x KAT Dangari Study 3–4x NEP

111

1 74 75a 76a 77a 78a 75b 76b 77b 78b 1–2x each KATJ03 T Dangari Bazaar, Ghumna 3x KAT India (her house) KAT month CHD, KATJ04 T Butwal Work 1x NEP Lamahi Ghumna 2–3x KAT, NEP KATJ05 T India Ghumna often KAT KATS01 T India Pilgrimage 20x HND KTM Tour 2x NEP KATS02 T India Tour many times HND Dhangari, Kailali Work– selling many times NEP KATS03 T Dangari, Kailali Work 1x each month NEP Busanta, Kailali Tour 3–4x CHD KATS04 T Dhangari, Kailali Study 4x KAT Bhonija, Kailali Tour 2x KAT KATS06 T Dangaria Daughter lives there, hospital, supplies 1–2x each year NEP Hassalija Buy things 3x each yr KAT Mahendra Nagar, KATS07 T Tour 1x NEP Kamali, Kailali Visit 3x NEP Kanchanpur MALJ01 T Nepalgunj Hospital 5–6x NEP Dangari Ghu 9–10x NEP India – Ghunga MALJ02 T Puja 7–8x HND Chitwan Medical 2x NEP Sagar MALJ03 T India, Lakhimpur Husband's medicine 3x MAL Kohalpur Husband's medicine 1x MAL MALJ04 T India, Laknau Medicine 4x MAL Nepalgunj Medicine 2x MAL MALJ05 T India, Laknau Medicine 8x HND Mumbai Work 1x HND MALJ06 T KTM Visit 1x NEP Pokhara Visit 1x NEP NEP, MALJ07 T Tikapur School/study Daily Dangari Visit 2x NEP THR MALJ08 T Dangari Exam 1x NEP Pokhara Visit 1x NEP HND, MALJ13 T Janapur Visit 1x Dangari Exams and Oth 5x NEP Oth MALS01 F MALS02 F MALS03 F Every other MALS04 T India Pilgrimage 1x THR Tikapur Market THR month MALS05 T KTM Tour 3x NEP Saptari, Eastern Terai Visit 1x NEP, Oth

112

Contact, part 2 (questions 75c–78)

1 75c 76c 77c 78c 75–78 DESJ01 Chitwan Training 1x NEP 1x to KTM used NEP. Lots to Kaduguar for Ghumna used DG DESJ02 Surkhet Ghumna 1x NEP DESJ03 DESJ04 India Work 1x HND DESJ05 DESJ06 DESS01 DESS02 DESS03 Sukhet District Visit friends 1x NEP DESS05 DESS06 DESS07 India work 1x HND DKJ01 DKJ02 DKJ08 DKJ09 DKJ10 DKJ11 DKJ12 DKJ13 Nepalgunj Medicine 4x NEP Butwal, medicine, 1x, NEP; Palpa, visiting, 1x, NEP DKS02 Bhudwol, Rupundi district Study Many times NEP Pokhara, visit, 1x, NEP; Dhungari, Bardiya, work, 1x, THR and NEP DKS05 DKS06 DKS07 KATJ01 KATJ02 KATJ03 KATJ04 Mahendra Ghumna 2x NEP India – Ghumna – lots – HND KATJ05 KATS01 KATS02 Relatives in Kailali Visit many times KAT

113

1 75c 76c 77c 78c 75–78 KATS03 Munkapur, Kailali Tour 3–4x CHD He listed other places in KL D – all using CHD KATS04 Buglia, Kailali Tour 5x KAT KATS06 Chalanchoki, India Buy things every 1–2 wks KAT KATS07 India Market 1x HND MALJ01 Kailali/Sukha Ghumna 10–12x MAL MALJ02 MALJ03 MALJ04 Napara Medicine 1x MAL Dangari, medicine, 2x, MAL MALJ05 Lakhimpur Medicine 7x HND Nepalgunj, medicine, 2x, NEP; Dangari, personal, 10x, NEP MALJ06 Dangari Exam 3x THR Lumbini, visit, 1x, NEP; Nepalgunj, visit/work, 2x, NEP MALJ07 MALJ08 Nepalgunj Visit 1x NEP MALJ13 Nepalgunj Work 1x NEP MALS01 MALS02 MALS03 MALS04 Nepalgunj Visit 1x THR MALS05 Pohkhara Tour 3x NEP

114

Language attitudes, part 1 (questions 79–83)

1 79 80 81 82a 82b 82c 83a 83b 83c DESJ01 Bad THR Bad T Church – here. Good T In training Indifferent DESJ02 Bad THR Good F F DESJ03 Bad THR Bad T Working in Barduwa Good F DESJ04 Bad THR Bad T DG D Good T DG D, Deukhuri (sister married there) Good DESJ05 Bad THR Bad T Bhurigau – daughter's village Good F DESJ06 Indifferent THR Indifferent T Rapti bari Good T Perari (they live there) Good This village and nearby. But none live DESS01 Good THR Indifferent T This village and nearby. Some live here: 2–3 homes Good T Good here now. DESS02 Bad THR Indifferent T Church Good F DESS03 Good THR Bad T Church and DG D Good T My own village – just a few Indifferent DESS05 Bad THR Bad T My own village Good F DESS06 Bad THR Bad T Neighbors of her first village (before marriage) Good F DESS07 Bad THR Indifferent T Near here and in this village Good T DG D Indifferent DKJ01 Indifferent THR Bad T DG D – when he did servant work he travelled there Good NA DKJ02 Bad THR Bad T Bazaar (Lamahi) Good NA DKJ08 F NA DKJ09 Indifferent THR Good T Pha Indifferent NA DKJ10 Bad THR Bad T Pha and DG D Good NA DKJ11 Bad THR Indifferent T DG D Good NA DKJ12 Bad THR Bad T No answer Good NA DKJ13 Bad THR Indifferent T DG D Good NA DKS02 Bad THR Bad T DG D Indifferent NA DKS05 Bad THR Bad T DG D – not this village Good NA DKS06 Bad THR Bad T Here, DG D Good NA DKS07 Bad THR Bad T Dang Good NA KATJ01 Bad KAT Bad T Bhada, Kailali (they live there) Indifferent T Pab Good KATJ02 Bad THR Bad T Near here (they live there) Good T DG D Good KATJ03 T Gau – they live here Good T Pab – they live here Good KATJ04 Good THR Indifferent T Lamahi Good T Here Good KATJ05 Good THR Indifferent T Here Good T Here Good KATS01 Indifferent THR Indifferent T All around this village Good T All around this village Good KATS02 Bad THR Bad T Other villages nearby Indifferent T Other villages nearby Indifferent

115

1 79 80 81 82a 82b 82c 83a 83b 83c KATS03 Good KAT Good T Nearby towns Good T This village Good KATS04 Bad KAT Bad T This village Indifferent F KATS06 Indifferent KAT Bad T This village Indifferent T This village Good KATS07 Indifferent KAT Bad T This village Good F MALJ01 Good ENG Bad T Tikapur, Bardiya – they live there Good T Lumki, Kailali – they wander through Good MALJ02 Bad THR Bad T Tikapur (they live there) Good T Here (they visited) Indifferent MALJ03 Indifferent THR Indifferent T Ghi (lived here before, not now) Good T Ghi (lived here, not now) Good MALJ04 Bad THR Bad T Bhangau (Tikapur) Good F MALJ05 Bad THR Bad T Tikapur, Bhangau campus Good F MALJ06 Bad THR Bad T Bhangau, school Good T Ghi – live here Good MALJ07 Bad THR Indifferent T Biputpur (30 min cycle) – they live there Good F MALJ08 Bad THR Bad T Bhangau T Munuwa Good MALJ13 Bad THR Bad T Campus Good T Campus Good MALS01 Bad THR Bad T Sometimes in this village Good T This village sometimes Good But a different type of DK – all different MALS02 Bad THR Good T Her relatives – BY D; on the road Good T from each other. In the bazaar – on the Good road MALS03 Bad THR Bad T This village Good F MALS04 Bad THR Bad T Tikapur. Relatives. On the road. Good T Relatives, this village Good MALS05 Bad THR Bad T DG D and Tikapur Good T KL D – Hasulija VDC, middle of KL D Indifferent

116

Language attitudes, part 2 (questions 84–86)

1 84a 84b 84c 85a 85b 85c 86a 86b 86c DESJ01 NA F F DESJ02 NA F F DESJ03 T Working in Barduwa F F DESJ04 NA F F DESJ05 NA F F DESJ06 NA F F DESS01 NA F F DESS02 NA F F DESS03 T Church and in my village Good T Church and KL D Indifferent T Church and KL D Indifferent DESS05 NA F F DESS06 T This village and church. Her parents. Good T Relatives Good F DESS07 NA F F DKJ01 F F F DKJ02 T Bazaar (Lamahi) Bad F T Sometimes at bazaar (Lamahi) Bad DKJ08 F F F DKJ09 T Pha Good T Sometimes in Pha Good T Pha Good DKJ10 F F F DKJ11 T Purwa Good F F DKJ12 T Pha – sometimes Bad F F DKJ13 F F F DKS02 F F F DKS05 F F T Bhutwal Good DKS06 F F T Deukhuri Good DKS07 T Kapilbusta district Indifferent F F KATJ01 F T Gusri, Kailali (far) Good NA KATJ02 T Chaudhary. Here. Good T Malwara Good NA Other villages – 1 hr bike (15–20 KATJ03 F T Good NA kms) KATJ04 F T Good NA KATJ05 T They consider themseleves that? T Indifferent NA KATS01 F T Tikapur side Indifferent NA KATS02 F T Other VDC Indifferent NA

117

1 84a 84b 84c 85a 85b 85c 86a 86b 86c KATS03 T India Indifferent T Other side of the jungle Bad NA KATS04 F T Bonija, Kailali (far away) Indifferent NA KATS06 F T Gusari (other side of Tikapur) Good NA KATS07 F T Malpuruwa, Kailali (east) Good NA MALJ01 T KL D – live here Good F T Lukur, Kailali Good Here (I understood them, but MALJ02 NA F T Indifferent can't speak) MALJ03 NA F T Other district Good Lukhar, Jusipur VDC (they live MALJ04 NA F T Good there) MALJ05 NA F T Munuwa, Lakhar Indifferent MALJ06 NA F T Munuwa Good MALJ07 NA F T Munuwa (friends) Good MALJ08 NA F T Mudhi (1 km) Good MALJ13 NA F T Campus Good MALS01 NA F T Nearby town Good MALS02 T On the road Good F T Bazaar; Tikapur Good MALS03 NA F T School Good MALS04 T This village Good F T They came for village dance Bad MALS05 NA F T Munuwa VDC (nearby); Tilsipur Indifferent

118

Language attitudes, part 3 (questions 87–90)

1 87 88 89 90 There aren't as many Tharu, there are more DESJ01 Banke Lots of DES Tharu here KL D Hindi DESJ02 here I was born and raised here Good everywhere DESJ03 Here Where I was born Dangali, Bunja (Bunya/Bunija)? They don't speak as well Banke, Bardiya, DESJ04 Lots of Tharu villages Pokhara and KTM Few Chaudary's live there Kanchanpur The way they say it is good. They say it with love – DESJ05 Dangali Desauri soft/gentle DESJ06 Kohalpur All around – lots of DES BY D tira DG/Nepali mixing Very often, we use NEP because otherwise we DESS01 Here Lots of DES Tharu live here In the bazaar don't understand DESS02 Banke District Lots of DES speakers DESS03 Banke and Bardiya BK D Most are DES speakers Perar, Banke – 3 hrs DESS05 Lots of DES speakers Wherever there are few speakers Wherever there are few speakers walk away DESS06 Dang District Pronunciation is good. Sweet language. KL D. From her own village. Rude language. Non-respectful. Dang District, but DESS07 Most understood BK D, in large towns Because it's a large village here too Hasn't travelled to all these places (DS, MAL, DKJ01 Deukhuri My parent's/family's Doesn't know KAT) DKJ02 Ghumna Her own language DES She doesn't understand DKJ08 Ghumna Doesn't know DKJ09 Dang No answer India tira No answer DKJ10 Deukhur Because my own caste Doesn't know DKJ11 Deukhuria I was born and grew up here DK Speak a little impurely DKJ12 Dang and Deukhuri Boli is a little slow (ours) DK – here Confuse bhayo DKJ13 Deukhuri My birthplace Kopilbastu Hasn't heard it? (nasuneko) Ghumna, ward 6, DKS02 This is the center of DK area Bhodrampur, ward 7, Chalaya VDC, Mixed people, mixed language – lots of mix Chalaya VDC DKS05 DK – here. All of DK. My own Don't know DKS06 DK Good Don't know DKS07 DK My own Sahar Bazaar Mix languages KATJ01 Pabera There are lots here Manau More Chaudary there KATJ02 Lausa Pure there Kota Lots of Chaudhary mixing KATJ03 Pabera Lots of KAT here Manau

119

1 87 88 89 90 KATJ04 Pabera Pure here. MAL Speak differently KATJ05 Tapa or Lausa Pure Khota In those places it's changed KATS01 Pabera Majority Rana Don't know KATS02 Pabera Majority here is KAT MAL Mixing of language KATS03 Here My own. Many speakers. Other side of the jungle (MAL) Less understood Munupara, Kailali (other side of jungle KATS04 Pabera Majority Undertand it but can't speak it MAL) Wherever there are KATS06 India Influence of Hindi KAT KATS07 Pabera All of us are KAT toward MAL they use CHD – not my lang MALJ01 Kailali From here BY D Dangaha there MALJ02 Ghiya Our own place/language Baliya, Kailali Mix with NEP MALJ03 Here Mostly MAL here – not many other castes Tikapur, Bhangau They are from DG D and now mix with MAL MALJ04 Here Mostly Tharu here Narainpur (6 kms away) Mixed village – more Achami there MALJ05 Here Lots of MAL here Narainpur VDC Achami, Tharu mix MALJ06 Kailali Lots of Tharu here KTM (cities) Not many Tharu there MALJ07 Kailali Lots of Tharu here City NEP is spoken there MALJ08 Ghiya Born here City NEP, few Tharu MALJ13 Kailali Lots of Tharu here Janakpur MALS01 Here, Malhoriya All of us are Tharu – we speak it Doesn't know MALS02 Here (MAL) Because it's my own Don't know I haven't gone. MALS03 Here (MAL) All are Tharu Tikapur Some there aren't Tharu MALS04 Here (MAL) Spoken well Don't know MALS05 Here (MAL) My own village and language Don't know (Tikapur) Where villages are mixed.

Appendix D: Recorded Story Questions (RSQ)

D.1 Recorded Story Questions

Interview Number: Date: Place: Interviewer Name: Story: 92. How much of the story did you understand? all पराु यो कथा कती बझु ्ुभयन ? most एउटा दईटाु कु रा बझु ्ुभएन half आधी less than half आधीको कम 93. How did you like his/her speech? good राम् उहाँले बोलेको भाषा कस्त लाग्य? fine �ठकै bad नराम् 94. Why? (what is/is not good about it?) �कन होला? (के राम् छ / छै न?) 95. Which village do you think the storyteller is from? यो कथा भन्न मान्छेक गाउँ कु न हो होला? 96. Is the language in this story the same, a little same उस्त छ different, or very different from the language spoken a little different here? आ�लआ�ल फरक छ यहाँ बोलेएको भाषा कथामा उस्त छ �क आ�लआ�ल फरक very different धेरै फरक छ, वा धेरै फरक छ? छ 5a. (If different) In what way is it different? pronunciation उच्चा (pronunciation, words, style) words शब ् (य�द "फरक" भने) के म ा फरक छ? (उच्चा, शब ्, बोल्न style बोल्न त�रका त�रका) 97. Did you hear any mixing with another language? Yes यो कथामा तपा�ले कु नै अक� भाषासँग �मसाएको कु रा No (शब्दह) सनु ्ुभयन ? 98. If yes, which languages? कु न कु न भाषाहर? 99. Would you allow your son or daughter to marry Yes someone who spoke like that? Why? No तपा� त्यस् भाषा बोल्नेसं छोरा वा छोर�लाई �बहे गनर Why: अनमतीु �दनहु ुन्थ्? �कन?

120 121

D.2 Key to abbreviated terms

Languages Other Terms T True NEP Nepali F False THR Tharu Y Yes DG Dangaura N No CHD Chaudhary M Male DK Deukhuri Fe Female DES Desauriya H Hindu MAL Malhoriya C Christian KAT Kathariya Pron Pronunciation HND Hindi Wds Words Oth Other Sty Style Locations: Districts ALD A Little Different VD Very Different DG D Dang District Fml Formal BK D Banke District BY D Bardiya District KL D Kailali District

Locations: Villages Cha Chapargaudi, Banke Pha Phalkapur, Dang Pab Pabera, Kailali Ghi Ghiya, Kailali Bel Belganar, Dang

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D.3 Storyteller biodata

Storyteller biodata was collected based on either the individual interview or knowledgeable insider questionnaire. Unfortunetely, we do not have biodata information for the Dangaura storyteller, however, he did meet the minimum screening criteria. The information that is available is listed in the biodata table. Missing data is indicated by a dash. Informed consent was given orally by all storytellers.

Dangaura Deukhuri Malhoriya Kathariya Desauriya Date of story 23 Sept., 2011 21 Sept., 2011 28 Sept., 2011 30 Sept., 2011 26 Sept., 2011 collection

Resam Bahadur Joge Ram Chatak Bahadur Bhagi Ram Name Harihar Tharu Chaudhary Chaudary Mahato Kathariya Gender Male Male Male Male Male Age – 64 65 40 34 Literate – No – Yes No Marital Status – Married – Married Married Mother Tongue – Tharu – Kathariya Tharu of Spouse

Tharu: Caste Tharu: Dangaura Tharu: Deukhuri Kathariya Tharu: Desauriya Malhoriya

Chapargaudi, Birthplace – Lamahi, Dang Ghiya, Kailali Pabera, Kailali Banke

Current Chapargaudi, Belganar, Dang Ghumna, Dang Ghiya, Kailali Pabera, Kailali Residence Banke

Years in Current – 45 years 65 years 40 years 34 years Residence

Mother Tongue Dangaura Tharu Malhoriya Kathariya Tharu

Mother’s India (6 kms – Deupur, Dang – Pokar, Bardiya Birthplace away)

Mother’s – Tharu Malhoriya Kathariya Tharu Mother Tongue

Father’s Chapargaudi, – Unknown – Pabera, Kailali Birthplace Banke

Father’s Mother – Tharu Malhoriya Kathariya Tharu Tongue

Kathariya, Known – Tharu, Nepali – Dangara, Nepali, – Languages Hindi, English

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D.4 Recorded Story Questions respondent biodata

Recorded Story Questions respondent biodata are the first 32 questions of the individual interview schedule. Informed consent given orally, all respondents.

RSQ Respondent Biodata Part 1 (questions 1–20)

1 2 3 4–8 9 10a 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DESJ05 27-Sep-11 Cha NA Fe 60 F T DES Y THR DES House work C DESJ06 27-Sep-11 Cha NA M 16 T Fml 10 F NA THR DES Student C DESJ07 08-Oct-11 Cha NA Fe 21 F T THR Y THR DES House C DESJ08 08-Oct-11 Cha NA M 17 T Fml 10 F NA THR DES Student C DESJ09 08-Oct-11 Cha NA M 16 T Fml 9 F NA THR DES Student C DESJ10 08-Oct-11 Cha NA M 39 T Fml 5 T THR Y THR DES Farmer H DESS01 26-Sep-11 Cha NA Fe 28 F T THR Y THR DES House Work C DESS03 26-Sep-11 Cha NA M 27 T Fml 12 T THR Y THR DG Church leader C DESS05 27-Sep-11 Cha NA Fe 36 F T THR Y CHD DES Housework C DESS09 08-Oct-11 Cha NA M 33 T Fml +2 T DES Y DES DES Photographer C DESS10 08-Oct-11 Cha NA M 65 F T THR Y THR DES Farmer/watches goats C DESS11 08-Oct-11 Cha NA Fe 60 F T DES Y THR DES Housework H DGJ01 23-Sep-11 Bel NA M 29 T Fml SLC T THR Y THR DG Farmer C DGJ02 23-Sep-11 Bel NA M 50 F T THR Y THR DG Shop Keeper C DGJ03 23-Sep-11 Bel NA M 22 T Fml 6 T THR Y THR DG Farmer C DGJ04 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 23 T Fml 12 T THR Y THR DK Seamstress C DGJ05 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 15 T Fml 8 F NA THR DG Student C DGJ06 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 30 T Fml 5 T THR Y THR DG Farmer C DGJ08 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 21 T Fml 12 F NA THR DG Student C DGJ10 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 40 F T THR Y THR DG Farmer and store owner C DGJ11 24-Sep-11 Bel NA Fe 57 F T THR Y THR DG House work H DGS01 24-Sep-11 Bel NA F F DKJ09 09-Oct-11 Pha NA Fe 20 T Fml 9 T THR Y THR DK Farmer DKJ10 09-Oct-11 Pha NA Fe 55 F T THR Y THR DK Farmer H DKJ11 09-Oct-11 Pha NA M 40 F T THR Y THR DK Farmer H DKJ12 09-Oct-11 Pha NA M 45 F T THR Y THR DK Farmer H

124

1 2 3 4–8 9 10a 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 DKJ13 09-Oct-11 Pha NA M 18 T Fml +2 F NA THR DK Student H DKK01 09-Oct-11 Pha NA Fe 30 T Fml 8 T THR Y THR DK H DKS05 09-Oct-11 Pha NA Fe 18 T Fml 9 T THR N Thau DK Farmer H DKS06 09-Oct-11 Pha NA Fe 40 F T THR Y THR DK Farmer H DKS07 09-Oct-11 Pha NA M 28 T Fml Intermediate T NEP Y THR DK Unemployed H DKS08 09-Oct-11 Pha NA M 60 T Fml 10 T THR Y Kusmi DK Farmer H KATJ01 01-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 19 T Fml 12 T KAT N THR KAT Housework H KATJ02 01-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 15 T Fml 9 F NA THR KAT Student H KATJ03 01-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 38 F T KAT Y THR KAT Farmer H KATJ04 01-Oct-11 Pab NA M 29 T Fml 3rd yr BA Education T KAT Y THR KAT Farmer H KATJ05 02-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 52 F T KAT Y THR KAT Housework H KATS01 30-Sep-11 Pab NA M 80 F T KAT Y KAT KAT Farming/watching kids H KATS03 01-Oct-11 Pab NA M 30 F T CHD Y KAT KAT Driver H KATS04 01-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 17 T Fml 11 F NA KAT KAT Student H KATS06 01-Oct-11 Pab NA Fe 50 F T KAT Y KAT KAT House work/field work Other KATS07 01-Oct-11 Pab NA M 18 T Fml 11 F NA KAT KAT Student H KATS08 01-Oct-11 Pab NA M 55 T Fml SLC T KAT Y KAT KAT Teacher H MALJ01 28-Sep-11 Ghi NA M 36 T Fml SLC T MAL, THR Y THR MAL Farmer/shop owner H MALJ03 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA Fe 65 F T MAL Y THR MAL Farmer H MALJ04 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA Fe 35 F T THR Y THR MAL Shop H MALJ05 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA M 27 T Fml Degree T MAL Y THR MAL Teacher H MALJ06 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA Fe 17 T Fml 10 F NA THR MAL Student H MALJ09 02-Oct-11 Ghi NA M 32 T Fml SLC T THR Y THR MAL Farmer H MALJ10 02-Oct-11 Ghi NA M 45 T Fml 5 T THR Y THR MAL Farmer H MALJ11 02-Oct-11 Ghi NA M 18 T Fml 10 F NA THR DG Student H MALJ12 02-Oct-11 Ghi NA M 24 T Fml 10 F NA THR MAL House H MALS01 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA Fe 35 F T CHD Y THR MAL Farmer H MALS04 29-Sep-11 Ghi NA Fe 32 T Fml 6 T THR Y THR DG Farmer H MALS06 02-Oct-11 Ghi NA Fe 37 F T CHD, THR Y THR MAL House work H

125

RSQ Respondent biodata, part 2 (questions 21–25)

1 21a 21b 21c 22a 22b 23 24 25ai 25bi 25ci DESJ05 Mahadiyu BY D Barduwa, Banke 1 hr walk 40 F DESJ06 Perari BK D 9–10 kms away Cha 2 F DESJ07 Tsandawa BK D next village over Bhariya, Banke 21 T KTM 3 yrs ago 2–3 yrs DESJ08 Cha BK D Cha 17 F DESJ09 Cha BK D Cha 16 T KTM 9 yrs ago 6–10 yrs DESJ10 Cha BK D Cha F DESS01 Koholpur BK D Nearby Cha BK D 20 T KTM 2004–2007 2–3 yrs DESS03 Bharaiya BK D 2 kms away Bharaiya 2 kms away 27 T KTM 2000 2–3 yrs DESS05 Bhadiya BK D 5 kms away Bhardawa, Banke 3 kms away 36 F DESS09 Bhariya BK D 2 kms away Bhariya, Banke 2 kms away 33 F DESS10 Cha BK D Cha 65 F DESS11 Gohua BK D Cha BK D 40 F DGJ01 Sukaura DG D 10 minutes away Sukaura, Dang 29 T Nepalgunj 2004 0–1 yr DGJ02 Bel DG D Bel 50 F DGJ03 Mauli DG D 30 minute walk Mauli, Dang 22 T India 8 yrs ago 0–1 yr DGJ04 Pha DG D Sunpur VDC, Ward 5 Bel 7 F DGJ05 Bel DG D Bel 15 T Ghorahi 12 yrs ago 4–5 yrs DGJ06 Bel DG D Bel 30 T BY D 8 yrs ago 6–10 yrs DGJ08 Bel DG D Bel 21 F DGJ10 Bel DG D Bel 40 F DGJ11 Machuot DG D Ekoli VDC Bel 40 F DGS01 F DKJ09 Pha DG D Pha 20 F DKJ10 Pha DG D Pha 55 F DKJ11 Bagarapur DG D 1/2–1 hour away T DKJ12 Pha DG D Pha 45 F DKJ13 Bankata F DKK01 Lamahi DG D Nearby Pha DG D 10 F DKS05 Pha DG D Pha 18 F DKS06 Pharnaha DG D 1–2 hrs away (30 minutes by bus) Pha DG D 22 F Ghorahi, Dang (28 DKS07 Pha DG D Pha DG D 28 T 5 yrs ago 2-3 yrs kms away)

126

1 21a 21b 21c 22a 22b 23 24 25ai 25bi 25ci DKS08 Pha DG D Pha DG D 60 F KATJ01 Pab KL D Pab 19 F KATJ02 Pab KL D Pab 15 F KATJ03 Belaparaswa Oth India Pab 27 F KATJ04 Pab KL D Pab 28 T Dangari 6–7 yrs ago 0–1 yr KATJ05 Tapa KL D Palwanpur VDC – 2 hrs on cycle Pab 38 T Hasulija 15 yrs ago 2–3 yrs KATS01 Pab KL D Pab 80 F KATS03 Pab KL D Pab 30 F KATS04 Pab KL D Pab 17 F KATS06 Pab KL D Pab 50 F KATS07 Pab KL D Dangari, Kailali 18 F KATS08 Pab KL D Pab 55 T Hassilija, Kailali 15 yrs ago 2–3 yrs MALJ01 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 34 T Gholariia 20 yrs ago 2–3 yrs MALJ03 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 65 F MALJ04 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 35 F MALJ05 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 27 F MALJ06 Ghi KL D Ghi Kailai F MALJ09 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 32 F MALJ10 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 45 F MALJ11 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 18 F MALJ12 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 24 F MALS01 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D F MALS04 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 32 F MALS06 Ghi KL D Ghi KL D 37 F MALS07 Ghi KL D Ghi 18 F

127

RSQ Respondent biodata, part 3 (questions 26–32)

1 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 DESJ05 THR Bunkutuwa – near Mahadi DES THR Mahadiya, Bardiya DES THR DESJ06 DES Kohalpur, Banke DES DES Perari, Banke DES DES DESJ07 THR Cha THR THR Tsandawa, Banke THR THR DESJ08 DES BY D DES DES Cha DES DES DESJ09 THR Kohalpur, Banke THR THR Cha THR THR DESJ10 CHD Cha THR CHD Cha THR CHD DESS01 DES Lukna, Banke – nearby DES DES Koholpur DES DES DESS03 THR Neibhua, Banke – 15 kms away THR THR Bharaiya, Banke – 2 kms away THR THR DESS05 CHD Chatar, Banke – 5 kms away THR CHD Bhadiya, Banke THR CHD DESS09 DES Cha DES THR Koholpur, Banke THR THR DESS10 THR Pokar, Bardiya (non-DES) THR THR Cha THR THR DESS11 DES Chanahoa, Banke – 5 kms away THR THR Tilapurua, Banke – 5 kms away THR THR DGJ01 THR Urari, Dang THR THR Sukaura, Dang THR THR DGJ02 THR Raharpur THR THR Bel THR THR DGJ03 THR Bugasi THR THR Mauli, Dang THR THR DGJ04 THR Pha THR THR Pha THR THR DGJ05 THR Damkapur THR THR Bel THR Nepali DGJ06 THR Bel THR THR Bel THR THR DGJ08 THR Bel THR THR Bel THR THR DGJ10 THR Bel THR THR Bel THR THR DGJ11 THR Mankapur, Dang THR THR Machuot THR THR DGS01 DKJ09 THR Majgau THR THR Gujiwa THR THR DKJ10 THR Bankata THR THR Doesn't know THR THR DKJ11 THR Paraspur THR THR Bhagdad THR THR DKJ12 CHD, THR Shirgau THR THR Makna (near) THR THR DKJ13 THR Pha THR THR Bankata THR THR DKK01 THR Semri THR THR Lamahi THR THR DKS05 THR Swonpur THR THR Pha THR THR DKS06 THR Pharnaha THR THR Pharnaha THR THR DKS07 THR Pha THR THR Pha THR THR

128

1 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 DKS08 THR Pha THR THR Pha THR THR KATJ01 KAT Pab CHD CHD Pab CHD CHD KATJ02 KAT India KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATJ03 KAT Belaparaswa, India KAT KAT Belaparaswa, India KAT KAT KATJ04 KAT Pab KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATJ05 KAT Lalbuji VDC (Churra village) KAT KAT Tapa KAT KAT KATS01 KAT Lohusa, Kailali – 10 kms KAT KAT Mujara, Kailali – 2 kms KAT KAT KATS03 KAT India – 1.5 hr walk KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATS04 KAT Pab KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT KATS06 KAT Tapa, Kailali – 10–15 kms KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT Losa, Kailali – 2 hrs KATS07 KAT KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT walk KATS08 KAT Pab KAT KAT Pab KAT KAT MALJ01 MAL Dhurgauli MAL MAL Ghi MAL MAL MALJ03 MAL Balharia, Kanchanpur MAL MAL Ghi MAL MAL MALJ04 THR Balahria, Kanchanpur THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ05 THR Ghi THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ06 THR Janakpur THR THR Ghi THR THR MALJ09 MAL Latsnapur MAL MAL Ghi MAL MAL MALJ10 MAL Ghi THR THR Doesn't know THR THR MALJ11 DG, THR Ghi DG THR Ghi DG THR MALJ12 THR Nawarpur MAL THR Ghi THR THR MALS01 THR Karha, Kailali (8 kms) THR THR Ghi THR THR MALS04 MAL, THR Ghi THR THR Ghi THR THR MALS06 CHD Bukata, Kailali (15 kms) THR THR Ghi THR THR MALS07 THR Lamki, Bhuduwa, Kailali (12 kms) THR THR Ghi THR THR

129

D.5 Dangaura story data

The “Bankas” Harvesting Incident, Dangaura Tharu

बन कस् काटबे�रक घटना, दङगाहा ् थार

बन कस् खुलल ्त बन कस् काट �गल�। बन कस् काट �गल� त बन कस् कटना ् ठ ाउँ म पगु ल� ् नै। ठ ाउँ म पगु ल� ् त आप काट शरु कल�। काट शरु कल� त काटबेर त मनै �ततर�बतर जह�र बन कस् रना उहँरे। बनकस ् काटबेर, बनकस ् कटट� ् -कट्ट� जाइटनहु ओठे बराभार� भरेङग ् वा् रह का। भरेङग ् वा् रह त ओठे न आप अनध ् वाइल् ब याला् त हो�गल ् उहाँ त बन कसीक् के ल याद कनार बा। पाछदोस बनकस ् कटट� ् -कटट� ् �ग�ल, आप उचा बनकस ् काटबेर त भरेगवम ् त भयङ्कर ड्वाँडर रह हेर�, घोटैल- ् घोटैल ् ड्वाँडर एकदम भललोक ् ड्वाँडर , उ भललोक ् ड्वाँडर देखकन ् त जाटटेर� ् शर�ल त एकदम थरथर� कामल एकदम, िज�रङग ् आङ करल। दोस्रप चुपचाप �नबोलखन ् जह�र बगाल बाट उहँरे, बन कस् ओ�सन लागल बनकस ् रह बन कसओन् कस ् छोरखन। पैल ह् त बन कस् आब औरजन काटदेह ् आिजठ �क कै ख न कौनोजहन हलला ् �नकैखन चुपप ् काटलागल मचचल ् रलह� नै, पाछदोस उ भललोक ् ड्वाँ डर देखल� ् त देखन ् ु त कहपरल पाछदोस जह�र बगाल बाट उहँरे गै�गल। ् दोस आप बगालम सँघ-सँघ बन कस् कटल� ् , ओठे न जैबो�नकल� कहपरल उचा रहल ठ ाउँ ।

Dangaura story, English translation

Translated by: KC

During the time they were allowed to cut bunkus (name of grass) we went when we reached there we began to cut it. When we began the people were spread to try to find wherever the grass was. As I was cutting the bunkus there was a cliff. My purpose was to cut the bunkus and my whole mind was concentrated on bunkus only. As I was cutting it there was a big den, it was nice (in that it was regularly used). It was the den of a bear – when I saw it, my body was trembling. My body was trembling, I was frightened. Then I just quietly moved from there to where other people were. Even though my eyes were attracted to the bunkus I had to leave the bunkus. First, I was thinking that before anyone else comes, I will finish it. (Repeat – first saw, liked, was happy, trying to finish before others). I went to where other groups were. I cut the bunkus in other places and we did not go to that place.

130

Responses to Dangaura Recorded Story Questions

1 Date DG1 DG2 DG3 DG4 DG5 DG5a DG6 DG7 DG8 DG8a When she heard Tharu DESJ05 08-Oct-11 Most Good Don’t know ALD T DG, DES T Dangali – still good. voice meant close to her. DG, DES, DESJ06 08-Oct-11 All Good DES language Bardiya ALD Pron, Sty T T Same and understand NEP DESJ07 08-Oct-11 All Good Clear words Dangali ALD Sty, Wds F T Can communicate well DESJ08 08-Oct-11 Most Good I understood Dangaura – Dang ALD Wds F T Tharu DESJ09 08-Oct-11 All Good Relatives Basgardi, Bardiya ALD Wds T DES F It's possible DESJ10 08-Oct-11 All Good Very good Purwa – Deukhuri VD Wds F T Milcha Not DES, it is DG. But not DESS01 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood Same F T Same language sure. From Banke. DESS03 08-Oct-11 All Good DG language Dang Same F T Milcha DESS05 08-Oct-11 All Good My own language East, but in Banke Same F T My own language Pron, Sty, DESS09 08-Oct-11 All Fine It mixes and I understood Dang ALD T NEP T Languages mix Wds DESS10 08-Oct-11 All Good Very Tharu Dang ALD Pron F T Same language DESS11 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood Not from here, but not sure ALD Sty F T Language mixes DKJ09 09-Oct-11 All Good Dangaha Banke Same F T No answer DKJ10 09-Oct-11 All Good Because she understood Just like Banke Same F T Own caste DKJ11 09-Oct-11 All Good Understood Dang ALD Wds F T Whoever they like Only language is a little DKJ12 09-Oct-11 All Good Hearing it, it's Dang Dang ALD Sty F T different DKJ13 09-Oct-11 All Good Understood Dang ALD Wds F T Our language - similar to DKK01 09-Oct-11 All Good My own language West Banke Same F T Language mixes DKS05 09-Oct-11 All Good My own DK Tharu, this village maybe Same F T My own language Pron, Sty, DKS06 09-Oct-11 All Good Our language Dang, Khodahi ALD F T Own caste Wds DKS07 09-Oct-11 All Good Pure Tharu Dang (north) ALD Pron, Sty F T Tharu-Tharu Understood, but it's DKS08 09-Oct-11 All Fine Dang ALD Pron, Sty F T Language mixes different Because we marry in our KATJ01 01-Oct-11 Most Fine Our langauge Gua? But Danaura VD Pron F F own caste KATJ02 01-Oct-11 All Good Malhora ALD Pron, Wds F F Different caste

131

1 Date DG1 DG2 DG3 DG4 DG5 DG5a DG6 DG7 DG8 DG8a Dangaha and KAT don't KATJ03 01-Oct-11 All Good Good voice/sound Tikapur VD Sty F F mix KATJ04 01-Oct-11 All Good Our language Deukhuri side VD Pron, Wds F T These days it's fine Other languages are "mito" Pron, Sty, KATJ05 01-Oct-11 All Good Dang VD F T Our customs mil good Wds Chaudhari langauge. KATS01 01-Oct-11 All Good Dang District ALD Pron, Sty T T It is happening now Danora language. KATS03 01-Oct-11 All Fine DG language, so it is okay Dang ALD Sty F T It is DG Tharu it is. But didn't Pron, Sty, KATS04 01-Oct-11 Half Fine Kailali (DES) ALD F T Tharu also understand it all Wds Pron, Sty, We need to do according KATS06 01-Oct-11 All Good Spoke well Deukhuri VD F T Wds to her (daughter's) wish Pron, Sty, KATS07 01-Oct-11 Most Fine His language is different Dang ALD T CHD, KAT T Same caste Wds Pron, Sty, KATS08 01-Oct-11 All Good Understood Dang VD F T One caste Wds MALJ01 02-Oct-11 All Good Dangaha language Dangaha language VD Pron F T Caste same, tar different. She would accept the Dangaha language but it is MALJ04 02-Oct-11 All Good Near Tikapur VD Pron, Sty F T marriage, it's not up to good. her so hard question. Dangaura language, Pron, Sty, MALJ05 02-Oct-11 All Fine Understood ALD T MAL T Easy to understand Suparnapur, Kailali (north) Wds Close meaning (Ali ali MALJ06 02-Oct-11 Most Good Own language culture Bhangau VD Sty T NEP T milcha Tharuma) Only a few words A little different from ours, MALJ09 02-Oct-11 All Good Dang tira ALD Wds T MAL T different, but otherwise mostly is okay similar to. It's just a little different One caste, language a MALJ10 02-Oct-11 All Good Dang tira ALD Pron, Sty F T from ours little different. MALJ11 02-Oct-11 All Good Dangaura Tharu Can't say ALD Sty T DG, KAT T Milcha Language similar to, own MALJ12 02-Oct-11 All Good Mil hawa Dang ALD Pron F T caste. Understand all of MALS01 02-Oct-11 All Good Understood all Dang ALD Pron, Sty F T language Understand, but it is Language doesn't mil – MALS04 02-Oct-11 All Fine East but in Kailali ALD Pron F T different different. MALS06 02-Oct-11 All Good My own language Kailali (purba) east ALD Pron, Wds T NEP T Same language Dangaura language, I speak Pron, Sty, Tharus should marry MALS07 02-Oct-11 Most Fine Different district ALD F F Tharu Wds Tharus. They are DG.

132

D.6 Deukhuri story data

The Flood Coming Incident, Deukhuri Tharu

बाहार आइबे�रक घटना, देउखर्या थार

मै पैल हे् �नकन ुर घरेमसे छाता उहक� ते गलल� ् –गल ल�् नेङन ् -ु नेङ्न ु गैन ु लदयामे। ् लद्यम गैन ु त उहँरसे बाह्र आइलगलस। ् बाह्र आइल त घमु न् ,ु घमु न् ु त उहँरसे अइलग लस् पचपच-पचपच हमार गाउँ लेहे ते हमार घर अइन ु हमार बक� पटोइहयकठन ् कन ु र� पटोइह्या बरे बाह्र आइटा झटट ् लकार्पका सहेर, अनाजपानी सहेर पटोइह्या बाते नैमाने फे न अइन ु घरे, घर अइन ु त छोटक� ् छाइ कन ु र� छाइ माहचो बाह्र आइटा सब सहेर अनाजपानी फे न गैन ु बक� पटोइहयकठन ् र� माहाचो बाह्र आइल ्बाह्र उहँरसे हेर आइटा उट्रै आइटावै बक� पटोइह्या कहल बाब बा् हुँन ् अ�सन बाहर ् आइटावै �बशवास ् नैमान टह् ुँ बाबक अइ�सन कहट क � ह के । अइन ु बस घरम बाह्र आइलग�लस ् टार र�हस नसनु ओ पयाज ् र�हस पञ ज् ्र ढैदेहन ् ु उहँ ढैले-ढैले रह�ग�लस जमम ् पहालै�ग�लसु बस फे न घर अइन ु पहुँक� , पहुँक� अइन ु घर त �यहाँ जननेवा ् खब रुइलगल का हुइ�टस का हुइ�टस मै कन ु छाइकेहँ छाइ कलस बाह्रकमार रुइटाहुँ और घर ज ा के खब रोइल- ् रोइल- ् रोइल ्बस मै यह�र मन ल�् छाइक घरठन उचा पानी जाइटह हमार घरेम पानी जाइटह बस बेनह ् ्वा बगैन,ु बेन ह् ्वा बगाके सेक्न ु ते बस यह�र पानी जम म् यह�र गैल ्ते गल ल�म् अइन ु नेङगे ् गल ल�म् अइन ु त उ घर लेले उ घर लेले मार भसकटावै ् के क ् महल भस कटा् कचचे ् इट्टक महल रहे भस क् लागल उहँर जाइटु के क ् �भटा भसकटा ् , के क ् डेहर� भसकटा ् अनाजपानी सब भसकेलग�लन ् सबजन हाहाकार र�हँत गल �लम�नक् मनै उ कहे मोर घर चोलो उ कहे मोर घर चलो मोर घर का टोर घर क�सक जाब हम्र अपनेक ् घर त अइ�सन बा क � ह के ते हम् टोर घर जाब काकरे अइ�सन कै ल स बाह्र अइ�सन आ के क � ह के बाब बा् हो अइ�सन बाहर ् कब ब् नैु देखलेर�ह ् क � ह के ।

Deukhuri story, English translation

Translated by: BC

I first, from my house, got an umbrella. Walked along the road. Along the road I came to a river. The river was coming/flooding. Because it was flooding I turned back. Very much flooding/rushing. I told my son’s wife the river is flooding and coming. “Quickly, save your children.” But she didn’t believe me. I repeated what I said and also a girl told the same thing. Then she believed and said you are speaking the truth. Flood began to come into my house. I save my onions and garlic. But the safe place I put them, the flood still took them away. This happened in one home than another and women were crying. I asked my daughter why they are crying and she replied because the flood is coming. Next I went to my second child’s home. The flood was forceful and the small homes were washed away. The grain storage building washed away. I fell down. What to do!?! How do I go home? My home has fallen, is gone. Neighbors invite those with no homes. None of us had seen something like this!

133

Responses to Deukhuri Recorded Story Questions

1 Date DK1 DK2 DK3 DK4 DK5 DK5a DK6 DK7 DK8 DK8a DESJ05 08-Oct-11 All Good Dangali Probably Dang ALD Sty T DG, DES T No problem DESJ06 08-Oct-11 All Good DES Tharu Banke (east) Same F T DES Tharu No problem – same DESJ07 08-Oct-11 Most Good Dang Dang ALD Wds F T caste DESJ08 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood DES – Banke Same F T My own language Own tribe. Going outside DESJ09 08-Oct-11 All Good Understands all Banke Same F F our tribe is not our caste. DESJ10 08-Oct-11 All Good it was good purwatira, Dang ALD Pron F T milcha Dangaura and DES language Own caste. Own DESS01 08-Oct-11 All Fine Bardiya Same T DG, DES T mixed language. DESS03 08-Oct-11 All Good DK Tharu Dang–Deukhuri VD Pron, Wds T DG, DK T Milcha My own language. I DESS05 08-Oct-11 All Good Malhoriya (west) ALD Sty F T My own language. understood Pron, Sty, DESS09 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood Dang ALD T NEP T Languages mix Wds Pron, Sty, DESS10 08-Oct-11 All Good My own Dang – Just like Dangali ALD F T Language mixes Wds Same caste, same DESS11 08-Oct-11 All Good Good sound Bardiya, but not sure ALD Pron, Sty F T language DGJ01 23-Sep-11 All Fine Deukhuria Deukhuri ALD Pron, Wds F T Language mixes First guess is Bardiya. Or DGJ02 23-Sep-11 All Good I understood all ALD Pron F T Language is not criteria. Deukhuri Kanchanpur tira (Deukhur) Language is a little DGJ03 23-Sep-11 All Good Chaudary Language ALD F T Sounds DES-like different but that's ok. DGJ04 24-Sep-11 All Good Deukhuri VD Sty, Wds F F DGJ05 24-Sep-11 All Good Because I understand Deukhuri ALD Wds T HND F Pron, Sty, DGJ06 24-Sep-11 All Good Deukhuri VD F T Wds Men are all the same – DGJ08 24-Sep-11 All Good Deukhuri Language From Deukhuri Same F T only language is different But not our place's language DGJ10 24-Sep-11 All Good Deukhuri/Kailali tira ALD Sty F F – another place's DGJ11 24-Sep-11 All Good Our language Deukhuri ALD Sty F T Our own Tharu From Dang–Deukhuri DGS01 24-Sep-11 All Fine A little bit different DK valley, exactly unknown. ALD Sty F T valley, so it is ok

134

1 Date DK1 DK2 DK3 DK4 DK5 DK5a DK6 DK7 DK8 DK8a KATJ01 01-Oct-11 Most Good Bises DK Gobrela VD Wds F F Marry in our own caste KATJ02 01-Oct-11 All Good our language Mankapur (nearby) Same F F Different caste Pron, Sty, KATJ03 01-Oct-11 All Good Because it's Tharu Doesn't know, but not here VD F F different caste Wds KATJ04 01-Oct-11 All Good Our language Chaudary justo – Dangaura Sty F T any caste halcha Pron, Sty, KATJ05 01-Oct-11 All Good Tharu/ours – good not here, but it's Chaudary VD F T Wds KATS01 01-Oct-11 All Good I understood Nearby villages in Kailali Same F T Same language The languages are equal KATS03 01-Oct-11 All Fine Kailali (DES) ALD Sty F T Understood language (understood) Pron, Sty, KATS04 01-Oct-11 All Good Tharu Close to my own village ALD T HND T Tharu Wds Pron, Sty, KATS06 01-Oct-11 All Good Tharu language A bit to the east ALD F F Different caste Wds KATS07 01-Oct-11 All Good Same as me – I can speak it Pabera ALD Pron, Sty T CHD, KAT T We are already doing it East – between here and Pron, Sty, KATS08 01-Oct-11 All Good we speak it VD F T From one group MAL Wds MALJ01 02-Oct-11 All Good Our Malhoriya language Doesn't know Same F T Same caste Nowadays everyone is Because I understood it, marrying each other – MALJ03 02-Oct-11 All Good Dang – not sure where. ALD Pron T DG, Oth T though different from ours. before this wasn't the case. MALJ04 02-Oct-11 All Good Our own language Sati, Kailali Same F T Own language. MALJ05 02-Oct-11 All Fine Understood all West (from west), Kailali Same F T My language is the same. MALJ06 02-Oct-11 All Good My language Kailali tira Same F T My language MALJ09 02-Oct-11 All Fine Similar to/with ours Kailali Same F T language milcha MALJ10 02-Oct-11 All Good My own language Yetitira Same F T Good thing MALJ11 02-Oct-11 All Good Dangaura Doesn't know village Same F T Same caste. MALJ12 02-Oct-11 All Good Malhoriya language Tikapur Same F T Own Malhoriya Mixes well with ours – MALS01 02-Oct-11 All Good Dang (/purup/) ALD Pron, Sty F T Both understand understood MALS04 02-Oct-11 All Good Just like my language Somewhere nearby Same F T Just like our language. MALS06 02-Oct-11 All Good He could speak Tharu well Kailali (west) ALD Sty F T Own caste Don't know. (Kailali. East. Pron, Sty, Both Tharu, but they are MALS07 02-Oct-11 All Fine Tharu language ALD T DG F Pushed for these) Wds different.

135

D.7 Malhoriya story data

The Fishing Incident, Malhoriya Tharu

बन सी् लगाइबे�रक घटना, मल हो�रया् थार

मै एक रोज गैन ु घाँस काट, त घाँस काटके अइन ु ट�नक साँझ हो�गल रह, त जम् �ढक्वम ब ठै के बनसी ् लगाइलग न् ,ु त बन सी् लगैट�-लगैट� अनधार ् रहे त हाथमे पलास ् �टक् डोर� लेलहे ् मै बन सी् डलर्रहु लगाइटहुँ। त घाँसक बोझम पाछओर ठङघलरह ् ुँ, त ओहे घाँसक बोझम ठङ्क बनसी ् लगाइटहुँ त पाछेसे मोर पाछेसे कन�ह ् भतू हो प्र हो अइलस मोर पञज ् ् बैठ�गलस। मोर पञज ् ् बैठल, त थोरा चाल त पैन ु मै ले�कन वास ता् न कैै न ।ु वास ता् न केै न ु तो फे न आपन सरमु बन सी् फे न लगाइलग न् ु मै, त बास एकघची र � ह के फे न दोस उ आ�गलस दोस प्र मोतठन मोर आगे आ�गलस त मै त उत झसाङसे झसकन ् ु त उ ठ के खरा हो�गन,ु उ ठ के खरा हो�गन ु त देखन ् ु उका बरेभार� �बरकु ल भालजै�सनू हटमटहटमट नेङगट ् , तो ओइ�हका मै उ ठ के डरा-डरा रखेडटु। डरा-ड र ा के रखेडट -्रखेडट् बेल हट् �ससोरया ् बार� पगढनु ्ुर तब उहरसे लौटन ु र ख डे के ओइ�हका लौटन ु त ओ हो! अत् डर लागट आमहन ् �बरकु ल त पाछे �पठ� खोले-खोले करटावै। ऐ�सनके डरवैलक मै का और मोर यहँर दइठोु संघरया ् रह� बैठल ्त व� तो ड र के म ा रे सोझेहौडास खेलेहस करट� जलद� ् आउ क � ह के काहाँ भा�गलो टुँ के � ह क र खेडटो क � ह के त पछार� मै पगु न ् ु वैन त कहटुँ, अरे टुह का जनबो ् यार मोरठन प्र अइ�गलरहे भतवाू अइ�गलरहे उहेमारे मै उहका खेडे चलगैलरहुँ तब त यह� छटपट-छटपट क � ह के आप काकरलगल ् व� चलचल� आप भागी क � ह के �हयाँ नैसेकब रहे �हयाँ तो बहुत प्र डाहट डाह� हमहन क � ह के , बास तीनेउजने हम् सङघर ् ्या रह� तीनेउजाने उठक चलदेह्ल� हम् चलदेह्ल� घरे पगु ल�् तबसे अठनसे मै आराम करेलगन ् ु घर आ के ।

Malhoriya story, English translation

Translated by: BC

I was cutting grass one day, and I came back from cutting grass, then I went fishing (by hook) while I was fishing night came (took a long time). The plastic string was in his hand, he was moving the string to bait fish, while he was fishing, he was standing in a bunch of grass, from that place he was fishing by hook, behind/beside him he thought a demon was there. He knew a little but it was there (heard it; saw it), but he didn’t care. The demon was there, he didn’t care, he was fishing. While he was fishing demon came in front and scared/surprised him! Then he understood, stood up, and saw the demon like bear. The demon like bear was there, but staggering–he was afraid but he kicked him(demon) He (demon) went far away from him. After kicking him out, the demon returned again. After returning (remembering) he was very afraid. After talking with two friends – his friends were very afraid too. The two friends called him, quick come here! Then he came with his friend and said to them “You didn’t know demon was with me” we ran away – we can’t stay here because demon (I am afraid demon will be here).(repeat) Then they reached home, rested in home, the end.

136

Responses to Malhoriya Recorded Story Questions

1 Date MAL1 MAL2 MAL3 MAL4 MAL5 MAL5a MAL6 MAL7 MAL8 MAL8a DESJ05 08-Oct-11 All Good Because I understand Can't say ALD F T Communicate well HND, DESJ06 08-Oct-11 All Good DES Tharu Banke Same T T Same NEP DESJ07 08-Oct-11 All Good Clear Deukhur VD Wds F T No problem DESJ08 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood DES Tharu Same F T My own language DESJ09 08-Oct-11 All Good Tharu language Banke, Bardiya Same T DG, DES F Different Tharu DESJ10 08-Oct-11 All Good My lang and his lang milcha Paschumside Bardiya Same F T Milcha My own caste. My own DESS01 08-Oct-11 All Good DES language Bardiya Same F T language. DESS03 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood Rajana, Banke ALD Pron, Wds F T Language milcha DESS05 08-Oct-11 All Fine Understood Close by Same F T My own language DESS09 08-Oct-11 All Fine Not a good tone Banke and Bardiya ALD Pron F T Languages mix Pron, Sty, DESS10 08-Oct-11 All Good Understood Bardiya ALD F T Language mixes Wds Not from here, but not DESS11 08-Oct-11 All Good Language is good ALD Sty F T Language mixes sure HND, DKJ09 09-Oct-11 Half Good Hearing the story Banke/Bardiya ALD Pron T F MAYBE THR DKJ10 09-Oct-11 All Good No answer Kailali ALD Sty F T Own caste HND, DKJ11 09-Oct-11 All Good Their boli is a little good Western ALD Sty T T Whoever they like NEP, THR HND, It wouldn't be very hard DKJ12 09-Oct-11 All Fine It sounds good/fine Utar-tira, India tira ALD T T THR (aptera) Boli aptera huncha DKJ13 09-Oct-11 Most Good Our language Bardiya tira ALD Pron T HND F (language is difficult) Same language – if kids DKK01 09-Oct-10 All Fine My own language Bardiya ALD Wds F T wanted Pron, Sty, Only language is a little DKS05 09-Oct-11 All Good Just like my language DG Tharu (east) ALD F T Wds different DKS06 09-Oct-11 All Good It's good Very good Same F T Tharu language Pron, Sty, HND, DKS07 09-Oct-11 All Fine A little mixing Western ALD T T Language related Wds NEP DKS08 09-Oct-11 All Good Tharu Dang (west) ALD Pron F T Language mixes

137

1 Date MAL1 MAL2 MAL3 MAL4 MAL5 MAL5a MAL6 MAL7 MAL8 MAL8a DK, KAT, KATJ01 01-Oct-11 Most Bad KAT, NEP, DK mixed Manau tira VD Pron T F Marry in our own caste NEP KATJ02 01-Oct-11 All Good Our language Kota Malhora VD Pron T CHD F Different caste KATJ03 01-Oct-11 All Good Chaudary language Neighbor village VD Pron, Wds F F Different caste KAT, KATJ04 01-Oct-11 All Fine Our own language Malhoriya ALD Pron T T Any caste halcha MAL Tikapur (she didn't know, Pron, Sty, KATJ05 01-Oct-11 All Good I understood said Dangaha, then men VD T HND T Tharu Wds told her to say Tikapur) KATS01 01-Oct-11 All Good Understood it Kailali. Nearby ALD Sty F T It is happening DG, KAT, KATS03 01-Oct-11 All Fine Mixed language Malhoriya ALD Sty T T Understand it MAL KATS04 01-Oct-11 All Fine Because it's Tharu Nearby village ALD Pron T HND T Tharu Pron, Sty, KATS06 01-Oct-11 All Good Tharu language Malhoriya VD F F Different caste Wds Pron, Sty, KATS07 01-Oct-11 All Good my own language Deukhuri ALD T CHD, KAT T Same caste Wds Towards the east but in Pron, Sty, KATS08 01-Oct-11 All Good I understand VD F T Part of same caste Kailali Wds

138

D.8 Kathariya story data

The Flood Coming Incident, Kathariya Tharu

बाह्र आइबे�रक घटना, कथ�रया थार

एकचोट�के बात हे, यी खास क र के दइु हजार पैसटठ� ् साल असोज चार ग त केे घटना हे। का हुइल कलेसे �हयाँ अत् जोरके बाहढ ् आइल सायद साठ-साठ बरषके बरुह् फे नाइ ऐ�सन देखले ् रह�। त कै � स न आइल कलसे एक्कैचोट� आइल उत्तर�तत पराू �बरकु ल खेत भरल लगभग तीन �फट उपपर�तती ् आइल पराू गाउँमे सब ज ु र के अत् जलद� ् पानी पेलगैल ्�क मनै जान फे नैपैनै। उसबेला का हुइल �क बहुतसे मनै जहाँ रह� उह� फँ स�गनै और कह�तयाँ अत् धन ज न के नाश हुइल ्गैयाँ, भै�सया, चाउर, धान और अन् �चज बहुत् मनै अ�सन बचाइट-बचाइट फे मनै पहु ्फे �गने, और अतना जयादा ् मतलब गाइँयाँ, भ��सयाँ और धान, चाउर पहु ्गैल ्�क मनै घ ब र ा के बहुतसे मनै ते मतलब फे न ट ् फे हुइना समस यामे् आइ�ग�नय।ँ तबमारे यी सालके घटना ऐसन पखारू ्व बतै�तया �क हम् साठ-साठ बरषके होगैल� तब फे नैदेखलेरह� ् ले�कन यी कहाँसे कै स न भगवानके दैबी प्रक है �क का है ऐसन जीनगी ् नैदेखलेरह� ् कै ह ्के बहुत ज यदा् मनै आसतक समझ�तय ् ँ �क हमार जीनदगीमे ् ऐ�सन घटना कब�बनै ् हुइलहेत� यी बाह्र हमार भ�वष यमे् सायद ऐ�सन नैकब ु होबे और हुइल ्फे नैरहे तबकमार यी बाह्रसे हमार बहुत नोक् सान हुइल ,् तबकमार ओकर डर�तती आसकाम मनै सब आँटावाला घर बनैना फे शरु करदेहलह�। और इसीबजसे सायद बाह्ढ उसक� ् वाद नैआइलह� ् और सायद अइना सम भावना् होइ कहलेसे ऐसन बाह्र आइ कहलेसे आप�तते आउर बहुतसे मनै �यह�मे पहु ् फे िजह�ँ अउर कह�तयाँ बहत धनजनके नाश फे होजाई ग�या भ�स या् फे पहु ्ना समभावना ् हे। बहुत मनैन ते का हुइल ्�क घमु तीघ् मतु सडकमे नेङ्ट�नेङट ऐसन जाङतक पानीमे हो�गने �क पराु आपन घर�तती एक घर�तती और घरमे जैना फे नै�सक्नै तबकमारे यी बाह्र बहुत खराब बाहर ् हे ऐसन कब ब् नैु आवै कै ह ्के ।

Kathariya story, English translation

Translated by: BC

Once there was an event. 2065 BS. There was a flood. Hadn’t seen one like that in sixty years. It came suddenly. The flood is all over the field. Three feet over the ground. The flood entered the village. But the people didn’t know. At that time, the people who were there were knocked over. Many cattle, grain, etc….were taken away. We tried to save, but we couldn’t. It took away men too. People fell. Ancestors said never have we seen something like this. They were over sixty years old. They talked to each other about what happened. I remember that event even now. In the future it should never happen again. The reason the flood came. It came up the stairs. The flood came, but never again has it come. If it came like that flood, many people will be washed away. Wealth–grain/cattle would perish. In that event, many people walked away with water up to their waist. They didn’t go to other house. Flood like that is very bad. He wants a neighbor welcome in flood like that.

139

Responses to Kathariya Recorded Story Questions

1 Date KAT1 KAT2 KAT3 KAT4 KAT5 KAT5a KAT6 KAT7 KAT8 KAT8a Only 2 or 3 words I didn't MALS01 02-Oct-11 Most Good Kathoriya (buchim) west ALD Pron, Wds F T Different language understand Different language and caste – After talking to a Lakar, Manuwar, Kailali Pron, Sty, man she said no. Not MALS04 02-Oct-11 All Good Kathoriya language (she listed several KAT VD F T Wds normally, but they villages would tolerate it if their child wanted it. If she makes the She understood but I cannot Pron, Sty, decision. She would MALS06 02-Oct-11 All Good Rana, Kailali VD T HND T speak it Wds accept what her husband decides. Kathoriya language but I Pron, Sty, We speak Tharu, they MALS07 02-Oct-11 Most Fine Munwa, Kailali VD F F understood Wds speak KAT, so no. Same caste, different MALJ01 02-Oct-11 All Good Kathoriya Munuwa tira VD Pron F T tar. Nowdays everyone is KAT – Munuwa (knew right marrying each other – MALJ03 02-Oct-11 All Good Because I understood. ALD Sty T DG, KAT T away) before this wasn't the case. MALJ04 02-Oct-11 Most Fine Kathoriya language, not mine Laka, Kailali (west) VD Pron, Sty F T Different caste. Kathoriya language – Pron, Sty, MALJ05 02-Oct-11 All Good Understood all ALD T HND, KAT T Understood. Munuwa (north) Wds MALJ06 02-Oct-11 All Good Own caste Munuwa tira ALD Sty T HND T Language a little close MALJ09 02-Oct-11 All Bad Different design Munuwa tira VD Pron T HND F Different caste. Because now anything MALJ10 02-Oct-11 All Good Similar to/with our caste Kanchanpur tira (KAT) ALD Wds F T is ok for young people. MALJ11 02-Oct-11 All Good Rana language Kailali ALD Wds T Rana, THR F Rana language. KAT (said right away) Caste MALJ12 02-Oct-11 All Good Kanchanpur ALD Pron T HND T Own caste. KAT, but Tharu

140

D.9 Desauriya story data

The Goat Shepherding Incident, Desauriya Tharu

छे ग् चह्राइबे� घटना, देसाउर� थार

मै बाह तेह स ा ल के रहुँ, यी उनचाल�स ् -चाल�स सालओर होवै। मै आपन बहु ुक सङगे ् छे ग् चह्र जाउँ । एक �दन हम् सक् करह� जार म�हनक �दन रहे, अ�न बहु ुक सङगे ् एक सयसे डेर सयसकतक छे ग् ल केै जाइटरह� चह्रा जब बन वम् पगु ल�् बीचचेक ् बनवम ् हम् सक् कु छे ग ी न के पाछे पाछे रह� छे ग्रव�भर। छे ग् आगेआगे जाइँ अ�न अचानक एकठो हुँरार एकठो छे गरे लटु लेहल ् , उ छेगरेटे�हन डुन ड् ् लै�गलस ,् खुन �पएलागल हम् सक् कु जाने गजब हलला ् कै ल � ठठै ल� अ�न झपटा ् ठठै ल�, तबहुन उ हुँरार नैछोरल उका म वु ा के छोरल। उ �दनम हम् सक्क ु जाने ड रे के म ा रे ओटठे ् छे ग्र छोरके भागलह� यी घटनाटे�हन आपन जीवनम कबब ् नाइु �बस्राइसे, �क आपन आगेसे एकठो हुँरार हमनके छे ग्रे टे� खालेहेल।

Desauriya story, English translation

Translated by: BC

I was thirteen years old. In 2040 this happened. Was with his grandfather watching goats. One day I went with grandfather grazing goats (150 goats). We reached the jungle with the goats. The goats were in front of us closer to jungle. All of a sudden, a tiger attacked a goat and took it to its den. The tiger ate the goat blood. We yelled and shouted and made noise. So the tiger didn’t take the goat. That day, we left all the goats and escaped/run away. I will never forget this event.

Appendix E: Dialect Mapping

E.1 Dialect mapping steps

Explain the activity and ask for permission to collect data. In addition, ask for permission each time a photo is taken. What is your language? (Be specific) 1. Where do people speak your language exactly like you? (Village names) 1a. For each location, what other language(s) are spoken there that you know of? 1b. Ask to take picture. 2. Where do people speak your language a little differently than you? (Village names) 2a. For each location, what other language(s) are spoken there that you know of? 2b. Ask to take picture. 3. Where do people speak your language, but it is different, even very different, from how you speak it? 3a. For each location, what other language(s) are spoken there that you know of? 3b. Ask to take picture 4. If they haven’t mentioned these varieties, ask them the following questions: (Dangaura, Deukhuri, Malhoriya, Kathariya, Desauriya. Ask about each district) 4a. Have you met _____ people? 4b. Which village(s) do they live in? 4c. To your knowledge, what other language(s) are spoken there? (This question starts with the nearest neighboring variety. Repeat the question until all the varieties are complete). 5. You have mentioned many places. Some speak just like you. Some speak a little differently than you. And some speak very differently from you. Place a small loop of string around the places that speak just like you. 6. Which variety do you understand best? Place a number 1 next to it. 6a. Which variety do you understand second best? Place a number 2 next to it. 6b. Which variety do you understand third best? Place a number 3 next to it. 6c. Ask to take picture. 7. Looking at all the varieties, which ones do you completely understand? (Place an open smiley face). Which ones do you mostly understand? (Place a closed smiley face). Which ones do you understand half? (Place a straight face). Which ones do you not understand much of? (Place a frown face). 7a. Ask to take picture. 8. Now ask about how they speak when they meet people who speak these different varieties. (Use chart) 8a. Ask to take picture. 9. Inquire into extensibility. Explain situation. How many varieties could use Dang district Dangaura Tharu literacy materials? (Mark with something.) 10. Let’s assume there was no literacy development in the Tharu language. If that were the case, where do you think is the best place for literacy material development? Second best? Third best? (Place A, B, C). 11. Ask someone to summarize (including recording). 11a. Ask to take picture.

Follow-up questions to lead into additional participatory methods tools • Please summarize what you see. • How does this make you feel? What does this mean? Why? • What do you want to change? What do you want to do about it? Would you like anything to be different?

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E.2 Dialect mapping results

Key to dialect mapping data

* Participants identified the speech as exactly like theirs

Which varieties do you understand… 1. Best 2. Second best 3. Third best

Which varieties do you… = completely understand = mostly understand ❶ = half understand ❷ = not much understand ❸ When❹ you meet people from other speech varieties… → We change to them ← They change to us ↔ We both change − Neither of us change If no materials existed, where would be best? क Best ख Second best ग Third best घ Fourth best Who do you think can use Dangaura materials best? a. Best b. Second best c. Third best

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Dialect mapping results

Majgau Belganar Chapargaudi Ghiya Pabera Date: Sept 20, 2011 Date: Sept 24, 2011 Date: Sept 26, 2011 Date: Sept 28, 2011 Date: Sept 30, 2011 Village name: Uttar Village name: Village name: Village name: Village name: Majgau Belganar Chapargaudi Ghiya Pabera Ward no.: 8 Ward no.: 8 Ward no.: NA Ward no.: NA Ward no.: NA VDC/municipality: VDC/municipa-lity: VDC/municipality: VDC/municipa-lity: VDC/municipa-lity: Chailahi Urahari Kohalpur Tikapur Pabera District: Dang district: Dange district: Banke District: Kailali District: Kailali Zone: Rapti Zone: Rapti zone: Bheri Zone: Seti Zone: Seti Facilitator: KC Facilitator: BC Facilitator: KC Facilitator: KC Facilitator: KC *Lalemati 1 क *Narayanap *Chapargaudiy *Chuha VDC *Hasuliya क क *Sisahniya 1 ❶ *Bijouri ❶ *Desauri Tharu 1 *Kotatulsipu *Udasipur क क *Sonpur 1 ❶ *Manapur ❶ *Banakatuwa ❶ *Baliya *Pabera क क *Gobrdiha 1 ❶ *Belganar ❶ a *Samsboragach *Janakinaga *Lalawophi क *Ganga 1 ❶ *Duruba *Noukaruta *Choshipur *Pahalamat क *Gadwa 1 ❶ *Phunbari ❶ *Rajhena VDC *Patharaiya *Thapapur क *Chailahi 1 ❶ *Goltakura ❶ *Mahadeupuri *Munuwa *Josipur

Satwariya 2 ❶→ *Hekuli ❶ *Titirihiya *Durgauli *Munuwa Nepali 3 → *Shigau *Belouna VDC *Thapapur *Dugrouli ❷ ❶

Bela ❷ → ← *Ghanouri ❶ *Sashor VDC *Tikapur *Sadepani

Awadi ❷ → ← Praseni ❶↔ *Bohalapur *Narayangp *Kotatulsipu घ Hindi ❷ ← Golouri *Lakhana *Ghansipur *Chuha

Urdu ❸ ↔ Deukhuri ❷ *Chatedngwa *Malhoriya *Payaraiya ग Banke ❹ Etabariya ❸ *Motipur VDC Hindi ❶2 Kathoriya 1 ग क Bardiya ❹ Bijulipur, ❸ *Basgadi Jumli ❷ Malhoriya 2 ❶ Hekuli − Village ❹ ❷ ❹ Desauriya ग Solhariya *Toraya Village Doteli Deukhuriya 3 ख ख ❹ Desauri ❷ Kohalpur Awadhi ❹ Dangaura 4

❸ Hindi 4 Nepali ❸3 Rana Tharu 5 Dangoura 3 ❹ Rana Tharu ❸

Nepali 2 ❸ Dehati ❹4 English ❷ Desauriya ❸ Magar Kathoriya ग घ Gurung Deukhuriya ❸ Maithali Dangaura 1 ख ❸ Bhojpuri English Newar Achami Rai ❹

Appendix F: Appreciative Inquiry

F.1 Appreciative Inquiry steps

Explain the activity and ask for permission to collect data. In addition, ask for permission each time a photo is taken.

(If not immediately following DM, use transition questions.) • Please summarize what we saw/discussed in Dialect Mapping. • How did this make you feel? What does this mean? Why? • What do you want to change? What do you want to do about it? Would you like anything to be different? 1. Describe something you saw, heard or did that made you proud of [L1] or your culture or that made you happy to see [L1] used in that way. (Write summary labels for each.) 2. How can we take these good things and make them even better? Improve them? Build on them? What are your dreams for your language? (Share in groups of three people, give time– allow any dream – even impossible ones!) 3. Let’s come back to the big group and listen to the dreams of each small group. 3a. Who will write the dreams for the group? Write "Dreams" for a heading. 3b. Write one dream per paper. (Everyone can help to summarize the dream in 3–4 words. Place each dream under the heading Dreams.) 4. As we think about your dreams, some seem easy and others seem difficult. 4a. Write labels "Easiest" and "Difficult.” 4b. Let’s put these in order from the “Easiest” to the most “Difficult.” (Put down these two labels then let the participants sort the dreams along a continuum.) 5. Some of these dreams may be more important than others. Still keeping them in order, slide to one side the ones that are most important. (Let them slide over the ones that they feel are most important. Take a photo now if possible!) 6. Now you have the chance to begin making plans to make these dreams come true. Which of the dreams do you want to begin making plans for right now? 6a. Take the written dream and form a group. (Allow them to form groups. Encourage everyone to join a group.) 7. As you make your plans, think about (1) the steps you need to take, (2) the other people besides who could also be involved and (3) the things you need to begin making this dream happen. (Give them paper and markers to write their plans. Let them write in big letters for the group to see.) 8. We would like each group to share their plans with all the others. Who would like to share first?

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F.2 Appreciative Inquiry results

Village name: Ghumna, Dang Language: Deukhuri Date of facilitation: September 21, 2011 Facilitator: KC

Dreams/hopes:

Based on the facilitator summary, the following are the dreams and hopes expressed by Ghumna participants: • It would be good if the Tharu language was established as a language of wider communication for use in official domains: official/government offices, education and other public affairs • It would be good if there could be education in Tharu from primary level all the way up to university • They focused mostly on education goals.

Plans for making this happen: Work to be done: Necessary manpower: Necessary resources: • Get people’s • Committee people will do • Economic resources participation what? (wealth/property) • Need to make a • Chowkidar • Land decision (watchman/guard) • Building • • Build a building Representative of the • Table, chair, bench, • Need to request the people desk • government Need committee people • Computer, copy • Need to get economic • Technical (help) should books, pencils, chalk, source/support be there: duster, book • Need to convene a carpenter/mason, doctor, • Labor (workers) junior technical assistant, committee • Library lawyer, engineer, teacher, • Need to decide on a • driver Means of definite place communication • Work should be done with • Need to prepare a • men and women on equal All kinds of education curriculum basis materials • Need to conduct • Get young boys and girls classes to work in development • Need to make policy work on equal basis • School management (employ young people) committee

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Village name: Chapargaudi, Banke Language: Desauriya Tharu Date of facilitation: September 27, 2011 Facilitator: KC

Dreams/hopes:

Easy: Hard: • Primary school in Desauriya Tharu • Film in Desauriya Tharu • Dramas, stories, sermons, and songs in • Desauriya Tharu school Desauriya Tharu • Desauriya Tharu Bible • Teacher who can teach in Desauriya • Desauriya Tharu collection/series of Tharu written material • Pastors who speak in Desauriya Tharu • Desauriya alphabet • Various kinds of poetry and folk stories • Being able to speak/use Desauriya in Desauriya Tharu Tharu in district government offices, • Church in Desauriya Tharu VDC’s, or various institutions and • Calendar in Desauriya Tharu organizations • • News (television/radio) in Desauriya Television programs in Desauriya Tharu Tharu • • Traditional clothing and culture FM radio programs in Desauriya Tharu (assuming they mean preservation of) • Seminars in Desauriya Tharu • Desauriya jewelry and dance (assuming they mean preservation of)

Biggest hope was for a school in DesauriyaTharu

Plans for making this happen:

Work to be done: Necessary manpower: Necessary Resources: • The people of society • Students • Finances should agree • Parents • Benches and tables • Place should be • Male and female teachers • Stationary materials selected • Educated and learned • Society (assuming they • Decision should be ones mean the help of the made • Assistant staff community – same for • Necessary things the following) • Book keeper should be collected • Government office • School management • Books should be • committee Organizations printed • Village development • There should be the committee scripts of Desauriya • Other donors language • The approval letter from the government should be received • Advertisement should be made

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Village name: Ghiya, Kailali Language: Malhoriya Tharu Date of facilitation: September 29, 2011 Facilitator: KC

Dreams/hopes:

Biggest hope was for a school in Malhoriya Tharu

Plans for making this happen: Work to be done: Necessary manpower: Necessary resources: • Having discussion and • Team should be formed • Finances consensus from all • Work should be assigned • Raw materials people to the selected ones by • Means of • There should be the team communication people who know • There should be people • Transportation pure Malhoriya who know to purely • Language language speak and write the consultants/experts • There should be Malhoriya langauge • Technologies educated and learned • There should be people (computer, printing persons who can identify the press, etc) • Money is needed language • There should be an (need to raise money) • There should be people acceptance and • Responsibility should who can differentiate acknowledgement of be given to respected Malhoriya language and the government elders borrowed language • It should be registered • In order to produce • There should be according to the law books in Malhoriya newspapers and radio of Nepal government language, we should and television programs be able to go and visit in Malhoriya language different places • If possible, there should be people who can write book in Malhoriya Tharu for primary level Village name: Pabera, Kailali Language: Kathariya Date of facilitation: October 1, 2011 Facilitator: KC During facilitation in Pabera, no photos were taken of the discussion. The following data is from the facilitator summary that was completed within two days of the facilitation as the facilitator remembers it.

Dreams/hopes:

In the discussion, the people that participated said they should run a lot of different programs in their language. They said it would be especially good if they could run a school in Kathariya. They said that education in their language would have big and long- lasting effect and impact on their community.

Appendix G: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

(Cited from “Making EGIDS assessments for the Ethnologue”) Gary Simons and Paul Lewis 6 December 2010 Last revised: 10 Feb 2011

In our 2010 article, “Assessing language endangerment: Extending Fishman’s GIDS” (http://www.lingv.ro/resources/scm_images/RRL-02-2010-Lewis.pdf [no longer active]), we introduce the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS). Response to the scale has been positive, both within SIL and without. We are thus planning to include an assessment of the EGIDS level for every language in the next edition of the Ethnologue. In attempts thus far by a number of users to apply the decision tree in the article to the task of making EGIDS assessments, we have found that the decision tree does not always lead to the right answer. We are thus working on refining the definitions and the decision tree to better incorporate the insights of the Sustainable Use Model. In the meantime, however, we offer this “job aid” to assist in making the assessments. On the next page is a revision of the table of EGIDS levels in which definitions for some of the levels have been refined. These revisions are designed to address the kinds of questions we have been getting about deciding on unclear cases. In addition, the following subsections offer further commentary on each of the levels. If you still have a question about how to classify a given language after consulting the revised chart on the next page, try to resolve the problem by reading the commentary for the levels you are trying to decide between. If you still cannot decide how to classify the language, please let us know about the situation you are trying to classify.

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Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (adapted from Fishman 1991)

LEVEL LABEL DESCRIPTION UNESCO

The language is widely used between nations in trade, knowledge 0 International Safe exchange, and international policy.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, and 1 National Safe government at the nationwide level.

The language is used in education, work, mass media, and 2 Regional Safe government within officially recognized regions of a nation.

The language is used in work and mass media without official status 3 Trade Safe to transcend language differences across a region.

The language is vigorous and literacy in the language is being 4 Educational Safe transmitted sustainably through a system of public education.

The language is vigorous and is effectively used in written form in 5 Written Safe parts of the community though literacy is not yet sustainable.

The language is used orally by all generations and is normally 6a Vigorous Safe learned by children as their first language.

The language is still used orally within all generations but there is a significant threat to sustainability, particularly a break in 6b Threatened Vulnerable transmission to the next generation by a significant portion of the child-bearing generation.

The child-bearing generation can use the language among Definitely 7 Shifting themselves but they do not normally transmit it to their children. Endangered

The only remaining active speakers of the language are members of Severely 8a Moribund the grandparent generation. Endangered

The only remaining speakers of the language are elderly and have Critically 8b Nearly Extinct little opportunity to use the language. Endangered

There are no proficient speakers, but some symbolic use remains as 9 Dormant Extinct a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community.

No one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the 10 Extinct Extinct language, even for symbolic purposes.

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0. International

For this level, we are taking the United Nations as the authority. There are six languages that are recognized as official for this body—Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish—and these are the languages we place in this category. Other languages used across a number of countries (like Portuguese) are classed as a national language in multiple countries.

1. National

The primary component of Level 1 status is that the written language is used to conduct the business of national government. This need not take the form of being declared “official” in law. A language that is used nationally for oral communication, but which is not used in writing to record the laws of the land or the decisions of the courts, is classed as Level 3.

2. Regional

As with Level 1, the key defining characteristics for this level is use in written form to conduct the business of government. At Level 2 the government in focus is not the national government, but the government of an officially recognized administrative subdivision of the country (for instance, a province or state).

3. Trade

A Level 3 language lacks such recognition as a language for conducting the written business of government. It is still “vehicular”, however, and used by native speakers of other languages across a region for purposes of work or mass media. The general pattern in the EGIDS is that each level adds to what is true in the next lower level; this is the one point where an exception is possible. It is not a requirement of Level 3 that it also be used in formal education as in Level 4. The key component here is verhicularity (that is, being used widely by people who speak different first languages). The original logic of the GIDS as defined by Fishman is that successively higher levels are stronger and less susceptible to language shift. Clearly an unwritten trade language with millions of speakers is in a stronger position than a written local language with only thousands of speakers, even if the latter has achieved formal support in public education.

4. Educational

A Level 4 language is one that is vigorous and non-vehicular and that has achieved sustainable literacy. The fact of educational use of the written language is not enough to qualify as Level 4 (as was implied in the definition in the published paper). Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions as spelled out in the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence: • Adequate vernacular literature exists in the domains for which vernacular writing is desired. • Vernacular literacy is being taught by trained teachers under the auspices of a sustainable institution. • Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of reading and writing in the local language. • Official government policy calls for the cultivation of this language and cultural identity and the government has put this policy into practice by sanctioning an official orthography and using its educational institutions to transmit local language literacy. • Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language in writing versus when to use a more dominant language.

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If there is a significant lack of any of these conditions such that removing the government support for education in the language would likely lead to the immediate disuse of literacy, then literacy should still be viewed as incipient and the language should be classified as Level 5.

5. Written

A Level 5 language is a vigorous language in which literacy is incipient. The mere fact that somebody has devised a writing system or even produced a piece of printed literature is not enough to lift a language from Level 6a to Level 5. Rather, the definition requires that some segment of the language community is effectively using literacy in the language. If this is true, but oral language use is significantly threatened, then the language should be classified as Level 6b. That is, if by ignoring the factor of literacy, it is clear that the language would be classified as Level 6b rather than 6a, then the overall assessment should be 6b since the language cannot be considered vigorous.

6a. Vigorous

A Level 6a language is an oral language that is maintaining sustainable oral use among all generations in the home domain. The most salient indicator of this level is the fact that the language is being transmitted to all children in the home. By “all” children we do not mean literally 100%, but that it is the societal norm and it is typically followed. A few exceptional cases are not seen as a threat to sustainability, but when a significant number of exceptions emerge such that the community becomes aware that the norm is eroding, then there is a threat to sustainability and the language should be classified as Level 6b. While unbroken intergenerational transmission is the primary indicator of Level 6a, it is not sufficient by itself. Rather, all five of the FAMED conditions of the Sustainable Use Model should be in evidence: • Adequate oral use exists in every domain for which oral use is desired. • There is full oral transmission of the vernacular language to all children in the home. • Members of the language community perceive the economic, social, religious, and identificational benefits of using their language orally. • Official government policy affirms the oral use of the language. • Members of the language community have a set of shared norms as to when to use the local language orally versus when to use a more dominant language. If there is a significant lack of any of these five conditions, then sustained oral use is under threat and the language should be classified as Level 6b. For instance, if the community perceives so little value to using their local language that they would immediately begin transmitting the more dominant language if only they could learn it, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b. Or, if the official government policy is hostile toward ethnolinguistic diversity and calls for the elimination or suppression of this language, then on-going language use is not sustainable and the language should be classified as Level 6b.

6b. Threatened

A Level 6b language is one that has started tipping away from sustainability. If an effort can be made to address any of the above conditions that are undermining the local language, then it may be possible to pull the language back toward sustainability; however, in the absence of such efforts, the community will be likely to continue shifting toward greater use of the more dominant language.

7. Shifting

A Level 7 language is teetering on the tipping point of sustainability. It is no longer the norm for parents to transmit the language to their children, but the parents still know the language, so it would be

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possible for intergenerational transmission to resume if the community could be convinced of the value of their language. Level 7 does not mean that transmission to children has completely stopped, but that it is now exceptional. Full transmission happens so infrequently that children who are learning the language will have difficulty finding peers to speak the language with (including a spouse) when they are adults.

8a. Moribund

A Level 8a language is still in everyday use in some homes, but only among those who are beyond child- bearing age. Thus, the normal cycle of intergenerational transmission has been broken. There may be younger adults who know the language at least somewhat, but they do not regularly speak it with their peers and are not fully proficient.

8b. Nearly extinct

A Level 8b language is no longer used in any home. Those who can still speak the language no longer have a spouse who can speak the language and find little opportunity to use it since there are so few other speakers.

9. Dormant

A Level 9 language is no longer the first language of any living individual. However, it is still the recognized heritage language of an ethnic community and it still serves as a marker of ethnic identity. Some vestiges of the language remain and are passed on within the community to strengthen the heritage identity. This could include names of cultural objects, local place names, traditional greetings, formulaic use of the language in traditional rituals, or even the continuing use of ancient scriptures within in a faith community.

10. Extinct

At this level the language is known only through the historical records. There is no living community that still looks to the language as a marker of its heritage identity.

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Figure 1: Expanded GIDS diagnostic decision tree.

References

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