DigitalResources Electronic Survey Report 2014-009 A Sociolinguistic Study of Dangaura Tharu and Related Varieties Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell A Sociolinguistic Study of Dangaura Tharu and Related Varieties Stephanie R. Eichentopf and Jessica R. Mitchell SIL International® 2014 SIL International Electronic Survey Report 2014-009, December 2014 ©2014 SIL International® All rights reserved Abstract This report presents the results of sociolinguistic research conducted among the Dangaura Tharu, Kathariya Tharu and other closely related varieties in Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali districts in Nepal. Lexical similarity, language attitudes, vitality and desires for language development were studied in order to assess how to best serve and support each of these communities, including which varieties are able and desire to use materials that are currently being developed in Dang district. Based on the findings of this research, it is suggested that Dangaura and Deukhuri varieties appear most likely to be usable and accepted by other varieties for material development. All of the communities we visited expressed desire for and appear ready to engage in developing multilingual education (MLE) program. Contents Abstract Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 Geography— districts 1.2 The Tharu people 1.2.1 History 1.2.2 Culture 1.2.3 Education 1.3 Languages 1.3.1 Dangaura 1.3.2 Deukhuri 1.3.3 Malhoriya 1.3.4 Desauriya 1.3.5 Kathariya 1.4 Previous research 1.4.1 Previous linguistic research 1.4.2 Previous research on language vitality 2 Research questions 3 Methodology 3.1 Site selection 3.2 Research methods 3.2.1 Wordlists 3.2.2 Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) 3.2.3 Informal interviews 3.2.4 Recorded Story Questions (RSQ) 3.2.5 Participatory Methods (PM) 3.3 Subject selection 3.3.1 Wordlists and RSQ elicitation subject selection 3.3.2 Informal interview subject selection 3.3.3 Recorded Story Question subject selection 3.3.4 Participatory Method subject selection 4 Lexical similarity 5 Dialect attitudes and emic perspectives 5.1 Attitudes and perspectives toward Dangaura 5.2 Attitudes and perspectives toward Deukhuri 5.3 Attitudes and perspectives toward Malhoriya 5.4 Summary of attitudes and emic perspectives 6 Language vitality 6.1 Domains of language use 6.2 Intergenerational transfer 6.3 Group dynamics 6.4 Network of social relations 6.5 Relative prestige 6.6 External recognition 6.7 Economic base 6.8 Vitality summary 7 Kathariya and Desauriya locations 7.1 Kathariya 7.2 Desauriya 8 Desires for development 9 Recommendations iii iv Appendix A: Wordlists Appendix B: Knowledgeable Insider Questionnaire (KIQ) Appendix C: Informal Interviews Appendix D: Recorded Story Questions (RSQ) Appendix E: Dialect Mapping Appendix F: Appreciative Inquiry Appendix G: Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale References Preface This sociolinguistic survey of Dangaura Tharu, Kathariya Tharu and other closely related varieties in western Nepal was conducted in partnership with the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal. The data collection portion of this survey was carried out in September and October of 2011 in Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali districts of Nepal. The purpose of the survey was to determine how best to serve each of these communities, including if Dangaura materials could be used by other groups. Many people contributed to the completion of this language survey. Our colleagues at Tribhuvan University gave encouragement and support for which we are grateful. Background research, formation of tools, introductions to invaluable contacts and much of the fieldwork was completed under the guidance and direction of Edward Boehm, without whom this survey could not have been successful. We could not have completed fieldwork without working together with KC and BC, who traveled with us and arranged logistics, spent hours helping us translate and communicate what we were doing and were a profound asset to our team. We are also thankful for the guidance and support from our mentor, John Eppele, and colleague, Holly Hilty. We are grateful to the Tharu people of the districts we visited, who welcomed and helped us. There are too many people to mention by name, but each of you had a part in this report coming to completion. This report is for you. It is our hope that this report will be a useful tool for Tharu language development. We trust that this report accurately reflects the data we collected. However, comments and suggestions are welcomed. July 2012 Stephanie R. Eichentopf Jessica R. Mitchell Kathmandu, Nepal v 1 Introduction This survey examines the relationships between Dangaura Tharu [thl] and its closely related varieties of Deukhuri, Desauriya and Malhoriya. It also seeks to examine Kathariya Tharu [tkt] in relation to these varieties. The purpose of this survey is to determine if Dangaura materials can be used by these other groups and, if not, identify which variety would be best for an adaptation. To better understand if literacy materials that are currently being developed by various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in Dangaura Tharu may be usable by other varieties, an examination of lexical similarity, acceptability and vitality is needed. “The Dangora Tharu of Dang Valley should be further tested to the west and to the east of their respective centers to see what the limits are for intelligibility of each dialect. Little testing has been done in the eastern part of Kailali district and in the Bardiya and Banke districts of Nepal. These districts contain large and mixed populations of Tharus. The speech of these populations needs to be assessed to determine which dialect would most likely fit their literacy needs” (Hugoniot 1996:16). For the purposes of this survey, the term Dangaura will be used to refer to only Dangaura Tharu speakers located within northern Dang district. All Dangaura related varieties in this survey will be identified by their variety name. Another important distinction that should be made is the term Tharu. In published articles and books, the term Tharu sometimes refers to all types of Tharu people living along the Nepal-India border, including Chitwan Tharu, Rana Tharu, Dangaura Tharu, etc. However, the term sometimes refers to a specific Tharu group, such as Dangaura Tharu. For the purposes of this report, the term Tharu will be used only when discussing all Tharu varieties addressed in this report (Dangaura, Deukhuri, Desauriya, Malhoriya and Kathariya), unless otherwise noted. 1.1 Geography— districts Nepal is currently divided into 14 administrative zones and subdivided into 75 districts. This survey spans across four districts in southwest Nepal. From east to west, these districts, in southwestern Nepal, are Dang, Banke, Bardiya and Kailali. They are within the Rapti, Bheri, Seti and Mahakali zones. The Mahendra highway runs east-west through the middle of all these districts (see map 1). 1 2 Map 1. Districts of Nepal Source: UN map, http://un.org.np/sites/default/files/2011-11-15- Nepal_Admin_Zone_Muni_A4_26August2011_v03.pdf (November 3, 2015) Dang District Dang district is widely recognized as the original homeland of Dangaura and Deukhuri Tharu. Dang district is sometimes identified as Dang-Deukhuri district. This is because in the past, it was divided into two districts: Dang to the north of the Mahendra highway and Deukhuri to the south of Dang Valley. The separation of Dangaura and Deukhuri speakers follows the geography of the district. The highest concentration of Dangaura speakers is found in the wide Dang Valley in the north of the district, bordered on the north by the Mahabharat Range and on the south by the lower Dang subrange. Deukhuri speakers are concentrated in the Deukhuri Valley, a long, narrow valley in the south of the district separated from Dang Valley by the Dang subrange and from India by the Dundwa subrange. 3 Map 2. Dang district Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dang_District,_Nepal#/media/File: NepalDang Districtmap.png (November 3, 2015). Banke District Banke district contains a dense mixture of various Tharu varieties primarily located south of the Mahendra highway. Very few are found north of the highway or in the hill area of the southeast. Desauriya speakers are found in the southwest and west of Nepalgunj. 4 Map 3. Banke district Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banke_District#/media/File:Nepal BankeDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015). Bardiya District We did not visit any villages in Bardiya district during our fieldwork. However, many Tharu speakers are found there and these speakers are mentioned by interview responses and discussions. Different spellings can be found for the name of this district, the most common being Bardia and Bardiya. South of Mahendra highway there are high concentrations of Deukhuri and Dangaura speakers, however, their exact locations are unknown. Malhoriya speakers are located in western Bardiya between the bifurcations of the Karmali River. Few Tharus are located north of Mahendra highway because of the Royal Bardiya Reserve located there. 5 Map 4. Bardiya district Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bardiya_District#/media/File:Nepal BardiyaDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015). Kailali District One estimate suggests that as high as forty percent of the Dangaura Tharu population resides in Kailali district (Edward Boehm p.c., 2011). Within Kailali, Malhoriya speakers are found concentrated around Tikapur in the southeast. Many Tharu speakers are found in the southwest of the district. Few Tharu speakers are located north of Mahendra highway. 6 Map 5. Kailali district Source: Wikimedia CC BY-SA 3.0, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailali_District#/media/File:Nepal KailaliDistrictmap.png (November 3, 2015). 1.2 The Tharu people The Tharu ethnic identity is comprised of many separate groups that vary in culture and language.