Let's Make an Adder Circuit
Goal. x + y = z for 4-bit integers.
We build 4-bit adder: 9 inppputs, 4 outputs.
Same idea scales to 128-bit adder.
Key computer component. 1 1 1 0 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) 2 4 8 7 + 3 5 7 9
6 0 6 6 Introduction to Computer Yung-Yu Chuang
with slides by Sedgewick & Wayne (introcs.cs.princeton.edu), Nisan & Schocken (www.nand2tetris.org) and Harris & Harris (DDCA) 2
Binary addition Representing negative numbers (4-bit system)
0 0000 The codes of all positive numbers begin with a “0” Assuming a 4-bit system: 1 0001 1111 -1 2 0010 1110 -2 The codes of all negative numbers 3 0011 1101 -3 begin with a “1“ 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 4 0100 1100 -4 To convert a number: 1 0 0 1 + 1 0 1 1 + 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 5 0101 1011 -5 leave all trailing 0’s and first 1 intact, 6 0110 1010 -6 and flip all the remaining bits 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 7 0111 1001 -7 1000 -8 no overflow overflow
Example: 2 - 5 = 2 + (-5) = 0 0 1 0 Algorithm: exactly the same as in decimal addition + 1 0 1 1 Overflow (MSB carry) has to be dealt with. 11011 1 0 1 = -3
Elements of Computing Systems, Nisan & Schocken, MIT Press, www.nand2tetris.org , Chapter 2: Boolean Arithmetic slide 3 Elements of Computing Systems, Nisan & Schocken, MIT Press, www.nand2tetris.org , Chapter 2: Boolean Arithmetic slide 4 Let's Make an Adder Circuit Let's Make an Adder Circuit
c c Step 1. Represent input and output in binary. Goal. x + y = z for 4-bit integers. out in x3 x2 x1 x0 Step 2. [first attempt] + y3 y2 y1 y0 1 1 0 0 z3 z2 z1 z0 Build truth table. 0 0 1 0 4-Bit Adder Truth Table + 0 1 1 1 c0 x3 x2 x1 x0 y3 y2 y1 y0 z3 z2 z1 z0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
x3 x2 x1 x0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 28+1 = 512 rows! 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 + y3 y2 y1 y0 ...... z3 z2 z1 z0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Q. Why is this a bad idea? A. 128-bit adder: 2256+1 rows >> # electrons in universe! 5 6
1-bit half adder 1-bit full adder
We add numbers one bit at a time. x y x y Cin Cout s x c ADD Cin y s ADD Cout s x y sc
7 8 8-bit adder Let's Make an Adder Circuit
Goal. x + y = z for 4-bit integers.cout c3 c2 c1 c0 = 0
x3 x2 x1 x0 Step 2. [do one bit at a time] + y3 y2 y1 y0 z3 z2 z1 z0 Build truth table for carry bit.
Build truth table for summand bit.
Carry Bit Summand Bit
xi yi ci ci+1 xi yi ci zi 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
9 10
Let's Make an Adder Circuit Let's Make an Adder Circuit
Goal. x + y = z for 4-bit integers. Goal. x + y = z for 4-bit integers.
Step 3. Step 4.
Derive (simplified) Boolean expression. Transform Boolean expression into circuit.
Chain together 1-bit adders.
Carry Bit Summand Bit
xi yi ci ci+1 MAJ xi yi ci zi ODD 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
11 12 Adder: Interface Adder: Component Level View
13 14
Adder: Switch Level View Subtractor
Subtractor circuit: z = x – y.
One approach: desig n like adder circuit
15 Subtractor Subtractor
Subtractor circuit: z = x – y. Subtractor circuit: z = x – y.
One approach: desig n like adder circuit One approach: desig n like adder circuit
Better idea: reuse adder circuit Better idea: reuse adder circuit – 2’s complement: to negate an integer, flip bits, then add 1 – 2’s complement: to negate an integer, flip bits, then add 1
17 18
Shifter Shifter
Only one of them will be on at a time.
s0 s1 s2 s3 z0 z1 z2 z3 s x0 0 s1 x1 s SHIFT 2 x2 s3
x3
z0 z1 z2 z3
4-bit Shifter
19 20 Shifter Shifter
z0 z1 z2 z3 s0 x0 x1 x2 x3 s1 0 x0 x1 x2 s2 00x0 x1 s3 0 0 0 x0
z0 = s0‧x0 + s1‧0 + s2‧0 + s3‧0 z0 = s0‧x0 + s1‧0 + s2‧0 + s3‧0 z1 = s0‧x1 + s1‧x0 + s2‧0 + s3‧0 z1 = s0‧x1 + s1‧x0 + s2‧0 + s3‧0 z2 = s0‧x2 + s1‧x1 + s2‧x0 + s3‧0 z2 = s0‧x2 + s1‧x1 + s2‧x0 + s3‧0 z3 = s0‧x3 + s1‧x2 + s2‧x1 + s3‧x0 z3 = s0‧x3 + s1‧x2 + s2‧x1 + s3‧x0
21 22
N-bit Decoder N-bit Decoder
N-bit decoder N-bit decoder N N N address inputs, 2 data outputs N address inputs, 2 data outputs
Addresses output bit is 1; Addresses output bit is 1; all others are 0 all others are 0
23 24 2-Bit Decoder Controlling 4-Bit Shifter Arithmetic Logic Unit
Ex. Put in a binary amount r 0 r 1 to shift. Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). Computes all oppperations in parallel.
Add and subtract.
Xor.
AdAnd.
Shift left or right.
Q. How to select desired answer?
25 26
1 Hot OR 1 Hot OR . 1 hot OR. adder x 1 = x x.0 = 0 All devices compute their answer; adder we pick one.
Exactly one select line is on. x + 0 = x xor Implies exactly one output line is relevant. xor decoder
x.1 = x . shifter x 0 = 0 shift x + 0 = x
27 28 Bus Bitwise AND, XOR, NOT
16-bit bus Bitwise logical operations
Buufwndle of 16 wires Inppyuts x and y: n bits each
Memory transfer Output z: n bits Register transfer Apply logical operation to each corresponding pair of bits
8-bit bus
Bundle of 8 wires
TOY memory address
4-bit bus
Bundle of 4 wires
TOY register address
29 30
TOY ALU Device Interface Using Buses
16-bit words for TOY memory TOY ALU Device. Processes a word at a time. Biggg combinational logic Input bus. Wires on top. 16-bit bus Output bus. Wires on bottom. Add, subtract, and, xor, shift left, shift right, Control. Individual wires on side. copy input 2
31 32 ALU
Arithmetic logic unit.
Add and subtract.
Xor.
And.
Shift left or right.
Arithmetic logic unit.
Computes all operations in parallel.
Uses 1-hot OR to pick each bit answer.
How to convert opcode to 1-hot OR signal?
33 34
Hack ALU
16 x 16-bit 16 16 adde r out y
zx nx zy ny f no out(x, y, control bits) = x+y, x-y, y–x, 0, 1, -1, x 16 bits x, y, -x, -y, ALU out y 16 bits x!, y!, 16 bits x+1, y+1, x-1y1, y-1, x&y, x|y zr ng
35 Hack ALU The ALU in the CPU context (a sneak preview of the Hack platform)
c1,c2, … ,c6
D D register
a ALU out A A register
M A/M ux
RAM M
(selected register)
Elements of Computing Systems, Nisan & Schocken, MIT Press, www.nand2tetris.org , Chapter 2: Boolean Arithmetic slide 38
Perspective
Combinational logic
Our adder design is very basic: no parallelism
It pays to optimize adders
Our ALU is also very basic: no multiplication, no division
Where is the seat of more ad van ced math op erati ons? a typical hardware/software tradeoff.
Elements of Computing Systems, Nisan & Schocken, MIT Press, www.nand2tetris.org , Chapter 2: Boolean Arithmetic slide 39