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Home , James van Hoften, Loren Shriver, Norman Thagard, Robert Crippen, Stennis Space Center, Yuri Gidzenko

Major Milestones The Historical The Accidents: A Nation’s Legacy Tragedy, NASA’s Challenge

National Security

The Historical Legacy 11 Major and Crippen woke early on the morning of April 12, 1981, for the second attempted launch of the Milestones Columbia—the first mission of the . Two days earlier, the launch had been scrubbed due to a computer software error. Jennifer Ross-Nazzal Those working in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory at Johnson Dennis Webb Space Center (JSC) in Houston, , quickly resolved the issue and, with the problem fixed, the agency scheduled a second try soon after. Neither crew member expected to launch, however, because so much had to come together for liftoff to occur.

That morning, they did encounter a serious problem. With fewer than 2 hours until launch, the crew of Space Transportation System (STS)-1 locked the faceplates onto their helmets, only to find that they could not breathe. To avoid scrubbing the mission, the crew members looked at the issue and asked , the support pilot, to help them. Finding a problem with the oxygen hose quick disconnect, Shriver tightened the line with a pair of pliers, and the countdown continued.

At 27 seconds before launch, Crippen realized that this time they were actually going to fly. His heart raced to 130 beats per minute while Young’s heart, that of a veteran commander, stayed at a calm 85 beats. Young later joked, “I was excited too. I just couldn’t get my heart to beat any faster .” At 7:00 a.m., Columbia launched, making its maiden voyage into Earth orbit on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin’s historic first human flight into space ( 1961 ).

The thousands who had traveled to the beaches of ’s coastline to watch the launch were excited to see the return to flying in space. The last American flight was the Apollo- Test Project, which flew in July 197 5 and featured three American astronauts and two cosmonauts who rendezvoused and docked their spacecraft in orbit. Millions of others who watched the launch of STS -1 from their television sets were just as elated. America was back in space.

12 The Historical Legacy Like their predecessors, Young and And it’s going to launch like a Crippen became heroes for flying this spacecraft, it’s going to land like a mission—the boldest test flight in plane,” he told the team. America had history. The shuttle was like no other not yet landed on the moon, but vehicle that had flown; it was reusable. NASA’s engineers moved ahead with Unlike the space capsules of the plans to create a new space vehicle. previous generation, the shuttle had not As the contractors and civil servants been tested in space. This was the first explored various configurations for test flight of the Columbia and the only the next generation of spacecraft, the time astronauts had actually flown a , appointed by spacecraft on its first flight. The President Richard Nixon, issued its primary objective was to prove that the report for future space programs. The shuttle could safely launch a crew and committee submitted three options: then return safely to Earth. Two days Maxime Faget, director of engineering and the first and most ambitious featured later, the mission ended and the goal development at the Manned Spacecraft Center a manned Mars landing as early as was accomplished when Young landed in 1969, holding a balsa wood model of his 1983, a lunar and Earth-orbiting the shuttle at Dryden Flight Research concept of the spaceship that would l aunch on station, and a lunar surface base; the Center on the Edwards Air Force a rocket and land on a runway. second supported a mission to Mars Base runway in . The Four contractors—General Dynamics/ in 1986; and the third deferred the spacecraft had worked like a “champ” Convair, Lockheed, McDonnell Mars landing, providing no scheduled in orbit—even with the loss of several Douglas, and North American date for its completion. Included in tiles during launch. After landing, Rockwell—received 10-month the committee’s post-Apollo plans Christopher Kraft, director of JSC, said, contracts to study different approaches were a Space Shuttle, referred to as “We just became infinitely smarter.” for the integral launch and re-entry the Space Transportation System, and vehicle. Experts examined a number a space station, to be developed Design and Development of designs, from fully reusable vehicles simultaneously. Envisioned as less to the use of expendable rockets. costly than the Saturn rocket and It would be a mistake to say that the On completion of these studies, NASA Apollo capsules, which were expended first flight of Columbia was the start of determined that a two-stage, fully after only one use, the shuttle would the Space Shuttle Program. The idea reusable vehicle met its needs and be reusable and, as a result, make of launching a reusable winged vehicle would pay off in terms of cost savings. space travel more routine and less was not a new concept. Throughout the costly. The shuttle would be capable 1960s, NASA and the Department of On April 1, 196 9, Maxime Faget, of carrying passengers, supplies, Defense (DoD) studied such concepts. director of engineering and , and other equipment— Advanced Space Shuttle studies began development at the Manned Spacecraft much as an airplane ferries people in 1968 when the Manned Spacecraft Center, asked 20 people to report to and their luggage—to and from orbit Center—which later became JSC— the third floor of a building that most at least 100 times before being and Marshall Space Flight Center in thought did not have a third floor. retired. The system would support Huntsville, , issued a joint Because of that, many believed it was both the civil and military space request for proposal for an integral an April Fool’s prank but went anyway. programs and be a cheaper way to launch and re-entry vehicle to study Once there, they spotted a test bay, launch satellites. Nixon, the Space different configurations for a round-trip which had three floors, and that was Task Group proposals, and NASA cut vehicle that could reduce costs, increase where they met. Faget then walked the moon and Mars from their plans. safety, and carry payloads of up to through the door with a balsa wood This left only the shuttle and station 22,680 kg (50,000 pounds). This model of a plane, which he glided for development, which the agency marked the beginning of the design toward the engineers. “We’re going to hoped to develop in parallel. and development of the shuttle. build America’s next spacecraft.

The Historical Legacy 13 The decision to build a shuttle was carry and launch reconnaissance NASA chose that technology—thereby extremely controversial, even though satellites. A smaller payload bay would making the program more marketable NASA presented the vehicle as require the Air Force to retain their to Congress and the administration. economical—a cost-saver for expendable launch vehicles and chip Robert Thompson, former Space taxpayers—when compared with the away at the argument forwarded by Shuttle Program manager, believed that large outlays for the . NASA about the shuttle’s economy and the decision to use an expendable In fact, in 1970 the shuttle was nearly utilitarian purpose. The result was a External Tank for the Space Shuttle defeated by Congress, which was larger vehicle with more cross-range Main Engines was “perhaps the single dealing with high inflation, conflict in landing capability. most important configuration decision Vietnam, spiraling deficits, and an Though the president and Congress made in the Space Shuttle Program,” economic recession. In April 1970, had not yet approved the shuttle in resulting in a smaller, lighter shuttle. representatives in the House narrowly 1970, NASA awarded preliminary “In retrospect,” Thompson explained, defeated an amendment to eliminate all design contracts to McDonnell Douglas “the basic decision to follow a less funding for the shuttle. A similar and North American Rockwell, thus complicated development path at the amendment offered in the Senate was beginning the second phase of future risk of possible higher operating also narrowly defeated. Minnesota development. By awarding two contracts costs was, in my judgment, a very wise Senator Walter Mondale explained that for the country’s next-generation choice.” This decision was one of the the money NASA requested was spacecraft, NASA signaled its decision program’s major milestones, and the simply the “tip of the iceberg.” He to focus on securing support for the decreased costs for development had argued that the $ 110 million requested two-stage reusable space plane over the the desired effect. for development that year might be station, which received little funding better spent on urban renewal projects, and was essentially shelved until 1984 veterans’ care, or improving the Presidential Approval when President Ronald Reagan directed environment. Political support for the the agency to build a space station Nixon made the announcement in program was very tenuous, including within a decade. In fact, when James support of the Space Shuttle Program poor support from some scientific and Fletcher became NASA’s administrator at his Western White House in San aerospace leaders. in April 1971 , he wholeheartedly Clemente, California, on January 5, To garner support for the shuttle and supported the shuttle and proclaimed, 1972. Believing that the shuttle was a eliminate the possibility of losing the “I don’t want to hear any more about a good investment, he asked the space program, NASA formed a coalition with space station, not while I am here.” agency to stress that the shuttle was not the US Air Force and established a joint an expensive toy. The president Fletcher was doggedly determined to space transportation committee to meet highlighted the benefits of the civilian see that the federal government funded the needs of the two agencies. As an Air and military applications and the shuttle, so he worked closely with Force spokesman explained, given the emphasized the importance of the Nixon administration to assure the political and economic realities of the international cooperation, which program received approval. Realizing time, “Quite possibly neither NASA nor would be ushered in with the program. that the $10.5 billion price tag for the the DoD could justify the shuttle system Ordinary people from across the development of the fully reusable, alone. But together we can make a globe, not just American test pilots, two-stage vehicle was too high, and strong case.” could fly on board the shuttle. facing massive budget cuts from the The Space Shuttle design that NASA Office of Management and Budget, the From the start, Nixon envisioned the proposed did not initially meet the administrator had the agency study the shuttle as a truly international program. military’s requirements. The military use of expendable rockets to cut the Even before the president approved needed the ability to conduct a polar high cost and determine the significant the program, NASA Administrator orbit with quick return to a military cost savings with a partially reusable Thomas Paine, at Nixon’s urging, airfield. This ability demanded the spacecraft as opposed to the proposed approached other nations about now-famous delta wings as opposed totally reusable one. On learning that participating. As NASA’s budget to the originally proposed airplane-like use of an expendable External Tank, worsened, partnering with other nations straight wings. The Air Force also which would provide became more appealing to the space insisted that it needed a larger payload and fuel for Orbiter engines, agency. In 1973, Europe agreed to bay and heavier lift capabilities to would decrease costs by nearly half, develop and build the Spacelab, which

14 The Historical Legacy the ability to deploy a 29,483-kg (65,000-pound) payload from a due-east orbit. As NASA studied alternative concepts for the program, the agency issued a request for proposal for the Space Shuttle Main Engines. In the summer of 1971 , NASA selected the Rocketdyne Division of Rockwell. Rocketdyne built the large, liquid fuel rocket engines used on the NASA (moon rocket). However, the shuttle engines differed dramatically from their predecessors. As James Kingsbury, the director of Science and Engineering at the Marshall Space Flight Center, explained, “It was an unproven technology. Nobody had ever had a that operated at the Rollout tests of the Solid Rocket Boosters. Mobile Launcher Platform number 3, with twin Solid Rocket pressures and temperatures of that Boosters bolted to it, inches along the at various speeds up to 1.6 km (1 mile) per hour in engine.” Because of the necessary lead an effort to gather vibration data. The boosters are braced at the top for stability. Data from these tests, time needed to develop the world’s completed September 2004, helped develop maintenance requirements on the transport equipment first reusable rocket engine, the and the flight hardware. selection of the Space Shuttle Main Engines contractor preceded other would be housed in the payload bay of Fletcher explained, “I think we have Orbiter decisions, but a contract protest the Orbiter and serve as an in-flight made the right decision at the right delayed development by 10 months. space research facility. The Canadians time. And I think it is the right price.” Work on the engines officially began agreed to build the Shuttle Robotic Arm Solids were less expensive to develop in April 1972. in 1975, making the Space Shuttle and cost less than liquid boosters. To Program international in scope. save additional funds, NASA planned Other large companies benefiting to recover the Solid Rocket Boosters from congressional approval of the Having the Nixon administration and refurbish them for future flights. Space Shuttle Program included support the shuttle was a major hurdle, International Business Machines, but NASA still had to contend with Martin Marietta, and Thiokol. The several members of Congress who Contracting out the Work computer giant International Business disagreed with the administration’s Machines would provide five on-board decision. In spite of highly vocal Two days after NASA selected the parallel burn Solid Rocket Motor computers, design and maintain their critics, both the House and Senate software, and support testing in all voted in favor of NASA’s authorization propellant configuration, the agency put out a request for proposal for the ground facilities that used the flight bill, committing the United States to software and general purpose developing the Space Shuttle and, development of the Orbiter. Four companies responded. NASA selected computers, including the Shuttle thereby, marking another milestone Avionics Integration Laboratory, the for the program. North American Rockwell, awarding the company a $2.6 billion contract. Shuttle Mission Simulator, and other To further reduce costs, NASA The Orbiter that Rockwell agreed to facilities. Thiokol received the decided to use Solid Rocket Boosters, build illustrated the impact the Air contract for the solid rockets, and which were less expensive to build Force had on the design. The payload NASA selected Martin Marietta to because they were a proven technology bay measured 18.3 by 4.6 m (60 by build the External Tank. Although used by the Air Force in the Minuteman 15 ft), to house the military’s satellites. Rockwell received the contract for intercontinental ballistic missile The Orbiter also had delta wings and the Orbiter, the corporation parceled program. As NASA Administrator out work to other rival aerospace

The Historical Legacy 15 companies: Grumman built the wings; Convair Aerospace agreed to build the mid-fuselage; and McDonnell Douglas managed the Orbiter rocket engines, which maneuvered the vehicle in space.

Delays and Budget Challenges Although NASA received approval for the program in 1972, inflation and budget cuts continually ate away at funding throughout the rest of the decade. Over time, this resulted in slips in the schedule as the agency had to make do with effectively fewer dollars each year and eventually cut or decrease spending for less-prominent projects, or postpone them. This also led to higher total development costs. Technical problems with the tiles, Orbiter heat shield, and main engines also resulted in delays, which caused development costs to increase. As a result, NASA kept extending the first launch date. The shuttle continued to evolve as engineers worked to shave weight from the vehicle to save costs. In 1974, engineers decided to remove the shuttle’s air-breathing engines, which would have allowed a powered landing of the vehicle. The engines The Space Shuttle Main Engines were the first rocket engines to be reused from one mission to the were to be housed in the payload next. This picture is of Engine 0526, tested on July 7, 2003. A remote camera captures a close-up view bay and would have cost more than of a Space Shuttle Main Engine during a test firing at the John C. in Hancock $300 million to design and build, but County, .

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16 The Historical Legacy they took up too much space in the was not a complete shuttle: it had no Approach and Landing Tests bay and added substantial complexity propellant lines and the propulsion In 197 7, Enterprise flew the Approach to the design. Thus, the agency decided systems (the main engines and orbital and Landing Tests at Dryden Flight to go forward with the idea of an maneuvering pods) were mock-ups. Research Center using Edwards Air unpowered landing to glide the Orbiter Originally, NASA intended to name Force Base runways in California. and crew safely to a runway. the vehicle Constitution in honor of the The program was a series of ground bicentennial of the United States, but This decision posed an important and flight tests designed to learn fans of the television show Star Trek question for engineers: how to bring more about the landing characteristics appealed to NASA and President the Orbiter from California, where of the Orbiter and how the mated Gerald Ford, who eventually relented Rockwell was building it, to the launch shuttle and its carrier operated together. and decided to name the shuttle after sites in Florida, Vandenberg Air Force First, crewless high-speed taxi tests Captain Kirk’s spaceship. Speaking Base, or test sites in Alabama. NASA proved that the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft, at the unveiling, Fletcher proclaimed considered several options: hanging when mated to the Enterprise, could that the debut was “a very proud the Orbiter from a dirigible; carrying steer and brake with the Orbiter moment” for NASA. He emphasized the vehicle on a ship; or modifying a perched on top of the airframe. The the dramatic changes brought about Lockheed C-5A or a Boeing 747 pair, then ready for flight, flew five by the program: “Americans and to ferry the Orbiter in a piggyback captive inert flights without astronauts the people of the world have made the configuration on the back of the plane. in February and March, which evolution to man in space—not just Eventually, NASA selected the 747 qualified the 747 for ferry operations. astronauts.” The rollout of Enterprise and purchased a used plane from Captive-active flights followed in June marked the beginning of a new era American Airlines in 1974 to conduct a and July and featured two-man crews. in spaceflight, one in which all series of tests before transforming the could participate. The final phase was a series of free plane into the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft. flights (when Enterprise separated Modifications of the 747 began in 1976. In fact, earlier that summer, the from the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and agency had issued a call for a new landed at the hands of the two-man class of astronauts, the first to be crews) that flew in 1977, from Final Testing selected since the late 1960s when August to October, and proved the nearly all astronauts were test pilots. Rollout flightworthiness of the shuttle and A few held advanced degrees in the techniques of unpowered landings. On September 17, 1976, Americans science and medicine, but none were Most important, the Approach and got an initial glimpse of NASA’s first women or minorities. Consequently, Landing Tests Program pointed out shuttle, the Enterprise, when a red, NASA emphasized its determination sections of the Orbiter that needed to white, and blue tractor pulled the glider to select people from these groups be strengthened or made of different out of the hangar at the Air Force Plant and encouraged women and materials to save weight. in Palmdale, California. Enterprise minorities to apply.

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The Historical Legacy 17 was tentatively scheduled for March 1979. Problems plagued the engines from the beginning. As early as 1974, the engines ran into trouble as cost overruns threatened the program and delays dogged the modification of facilities in California and the development of key engine components. Test failures occurred at Rocketdyne’s California facility and the National Space Technology Laboratory in Mississippi, further delaying development and testing. Another pacing item for the program was the shuttle’s tiles. As Columbia underwent final assembly in Enterprise atop the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft in a flight above the Mojave Desert, California (1977). California, Rockwell employees began applying the tiles, with the NASA had planned to retrofit Enterprise interviews with 208 applicants selected work to be completed in January 1979. as a flight vehicle, but that would have from more than 8,000 hopefuls. In Their application was much more time taken time and been costly. Instead, the 1978, the agency announced the first consuming than had been anticipated, agency selected the other alternative, class of Space Shuttle astronauts. and NASA transferred the ship to which was to have the structural test This announcement was a historic one. (KSC) in article rebuilt for flight. Eventually Six women who held PhDs or medical March, where the task would be called Challenger, this vehicle would degrees accepted positions along with completed in the Orbiter Processing become the second Orbiter to fly in three African American men and a Facility and later in the Vehicle space after Columbia. Though Japanese American flight test engineer. Assembly Building. Once in Florida, Enterprise was no longer slated for After completing 1 year of training, mating of the tiles to the shuttle flight, NASA continued to use it for a the group began following the progress ramped up. Unfortunately, engineers number of tests as the program matured. of the shuttle’s subsystems, several of found that many of the tiles had to which had caused the program’s first be strengthened. This resulted in many Getting Ready to Fly launch to slip. of the 30,000 tiles being removed, Concurrent with the Approach and The Space Shuttle Main Engines tested, and replaced at least once. Landing Tests Program, the astronaut were behind schedule and threatened The bonding process was so time selection board in Houston held to delay the first orbital flight, which consuming that technicians worked

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18 The Historical Legacy around the clock, 7 days a week at Spaceflight Operations The operational flights, which followed KSC to meet the launch deadline. the flight test program, fell into several Columbia’s First Missions categories: DoD missions; commercial Aaron Cohen, former manager for satellite deployments; space science the Space Shuttle Orbiter Project and Columbia flew three additional test flights; notable spacewalks (also called JSC director, remembered the stress flights between 1981 and 1982. extravehicular activities); or satellite and pressure caused by the delays in These test flights were designed to repair and retrieval. schedule. “I really didn’t know how we verify the shuttle in space, the testing were going to solve the tile problem,” and processing facilities, the vehicle’s To improve costs, beginning in 1983 he recalled. As the challenges mounted, equipment, and crew procedures. all launches and landings at KSC Cohen, who was under tremendous Ground testing demonstrated the were managed by one contractor, pressure from NASA, began going capability of the Orbiter, as well as Lockheed Space Operations gray, a fact that his wife attributed to of its components and systems. Company, Titusville, Florida. This “every tile it took to put on the vehicle .” Without flight time, information consolidated many functions for the Eventually, engineers came up with a about these systems was incomplete. entire shuttle processing. solution—a process known as The four tests were necessary to help densification, which strengthened the NASA understand heating, loads, Department of Defense Flights tiles and, according to Cohen, “bailed acoustics, and other concepts that STS-4 ( 1982) featured the first classified us out of a major, significant problem” could not be studied on the ground. payload, which marked a fundamental and remained the process throughout This test program ended on July 4, shift in NASA’s traditionally open the program. 1982, when commander Thomas environment. Concerned with national After more than 10 years of design Mattingly landed the shuttle at Dryden security, the DoD instructed NASA and development, the shuttle appeared Flight Research Center (DFRC) on the Astronauts Mattingly and Henry ready to fly. In 1979 and 1980, the 15,000-ft runway at Edwards Air Force Hartsfield to not transmit images of Space Shuttle Main Engines proved Base in California. Waiting at the foot the cargo bay during the flight, lest their flightworthiness by completing of the steps, President Reagan and pictures of the secret payload might a series of engine acceptance tests. First Lady Nancy Reagan congratulated inadvertently be revealed. STS-4 did The tile installation finally ended, and the STS-4 crew on a job well done. differ somewhat from the other future the STS- 1 crew members, who had Speaking to a crowd of more than DoD-dedicated flights: there was no been named in 1978, joked that they 45,000 people at DFRC, the president secure communication line, so the crew were “ 130% trained and ready to go” said that the completion of this task was worked out a system of communicating because of all the time they spent in “the historical equivalent to the driving with the ground. the shuttle simulators. Young and of the golden spike which completed the “We had the checklist divided up in Crippen’s mission marked the beginning first transcontinental railroad. It marks sections that we just had letter names of the shuttle flight test program. our entrance into a new era.” like Bravo Charlie, Tab Charlie, Tab

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The Historical Legacy 19 Bravo that they could call out. When we the crew of the first Vandenberg flight, the business of spaceflight became talked to Sunnyvale [California] to Blue STS-62A, which would have been business itself.” Dubbed the “Ace Cube out there, military control, they commanded by veteran Astronaut Moving Company,” the crew jokingly said, ‘Do Tab Charlie,’ or something. , but was cancelled in the promised “fast and courteous service” That way it was just unclassified,” wake of the Challenger accident (1 986). for its future launch services. Hartsfield recalled. Completely Flying classified flights complicated Many of the early shuttle flights were, classified flights began in 1985. the business of spaceflight. For in fact, assigned numerous commercial Even though Vandenberg Air Force national security reasons, the Mission satellites, which they launched from the Base had been selected as one of the Operations Control Room at JSC was Orbiter’s cargo bay. With NASA given program launch sites in 1972, the closed to visitors during simulations a monopoly in the domestic launch California shuttle facilities were not and these flights. Launch time was market, many flight crews released at complete when classified flights began. not shared with the press and, for the least one satellite on each flight, with Anticipating slips, the DoD and NASA first time in NASA’s history, no several unloading as many as three decided to implement a controlled mode astronaut interviews were granted communication satellites for a number at JSC and KSC that would give the about the flight, no press kits were of nations and companies. Foreign space agency the capability to control distributed, and the media were clients, particularly attracted to NASA’s classified flights out of the Texas and prohibited from listening to the bargain rates, booked launches early in Florida facilities. Flight controllers at air-to-ground communications. the program. KSC and JSC used secured launch and Another visible change that occurred flight control rooms separate from the on this, the fifth flight of Columbia rooms used for non-DoD flights. Shuttle Operations, 1982-1986 was the addition of mission Modifications were also made to the STS-5 (1 982) marked both the specialists—scientists and engineers— flight simulation facility, and a room beginning of shuttle operations and whose job it was to deploy satellites, was added in the astronaut office, where another turning point in the history conduct spacewalks, repair and retrieve flight crew members could store of the Space Shuttle Program. As malfunctioning satellites, and work classified documents inside a safe and Astronaut Joseph Allen explained, as scientific researchers in space. talk on a secure line. spaceflight changed “from testing the The first two mission specialists— Although the facilities at Vandenberg means of getting into space to using the Joseph Allen, a physicist, and William Air Force Base were nearly complete in resources found there.” Or, put another Lenoir, an electrical engineer—held 1984, NASA continued to launch and way, this four-member crew (the PhDs in their respective fields and control DoD flights. Two DoD missions largest space crew up to that point; had been selected as astronauts in 1967. flew in 1985: STS-51C and STS-51J. the flight tests never carried more than Those who followed in their footsteps Each flight included a payload specialist two men at a time) was the first to had similar qualifications, often from the Air Force. That year, the launch two commercial satellites. holding advanced degrees in their department also announced the names of This “initiated a new era in which fields of study.

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20 The Historical Legacy As space research expanded, so did the number of users, and the aerospace industry was not excluded from this list. They were particularly active in capitalizing on the potential Christopher Kraft Director of benefits offered by the shuttle and its during shuttle development and early platform as a research facility. Having launches (1972-1982). signed a Joint Endeavor Agreement Played an instrumental role in the development (a quid pro quo arrangement, where and establishment of mission control. no money exchanged hands) with NASA in 1980, McDonnell Douglas Astronautics flew its Continuous Flow “We went through a lot to prove that we should launch STS-1 manned instead Electrophoresis System on board the of unmanned; it was the first time we ever tried to do anything like that. shuttle numerous times to explore the We convinced ourselves that the reliability was higher and the risk lower, capabilities of materials processing even though we were risking the lives of two men. We convinced ourselves in space. The system investigated the that that was a better way to do it, because we didn’t know what else to do. ability to purify erythropoietin (a We had done everything we could think of.” hormone) in orbit and to learn whether the company could mass produce the purified pharmaceutical in orbit. The company even sent one of its With the addition of mission specialists subjecting their fellow crew members employees—who, coincidentally, was and the beginning of operations, space to a variety of tests in the middeck to the first industrial payload specialist— science became a major priority for determine the triggers for a problem into space to monitor the experiment the shuttle, and crews turned their that plagues some space travelers. on board three flights, including the attention to research. A variety of Aside from medical experiments, many maiden flight of Discovery. Other experiments made their way on board of the early missions included a variety companies, like Fairchild Industries the shuttle in Get Away Specials, the of Earth observation instruments. and 3M, also signed Joint Endeavor Shuttle Student Involvement Project, The crews spent time looking out the Agreements with NASA. the middeck (crew quarters), pallets window, identifying and photographing When the ninth shuttle flight lifted off (unpressurized platforms designed to weather patterns, among other the pad in November 1983, Columbia support instruments that require direct phenomena. A number of flights had six passengers and a Spacelab in its exposure to space), and Spacelabs. featured material science research, payload bay. This mission, the first flight Medical doctors within NASA’s own including STS-61C (1 986), which of European lab, operated 24 hours a Astronaut Corps studied space sickness included Marshall Space Flight day, featured more than 70 experiments, on STS-7 (1 983) and STS-8 (1 983), Center’s Material Science Laboratory.

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The Historical Legacy 21 astronauts. The first spacewalk, conducted just months before the flight of STS-41B, tested the suits and the capability of astronauts to work in the William Lucas, PhD payload bay. As McCandless flew the Former director of unit out of the cargo bay for the first Marshall Space Flight Center during shuttle operations time, he said, “It may have been one until Challenger accident small step for Neil, but it’s a heck of a (1974-1986). big leap for me.” Set against the Played an instrumental darkness of space, McCandless became role in Space Shuttle Main the first human satellite in space. Engine, External Tank, On October 11, 1974, newly appointed Marshall Space and Solid Rocket Booster Flight Center (MSFC) Director Dr. William Lucas (right) Having proved the capabilities of the design, development, and a former MSFC Director Dr. Wernher von Braun , NASA and operations. view a model. exploited its capabilities and used the device to make satellite retrieval and “The shuttle was an important part of the total space program and it repair possible without the use of the accomplished, in a remarkable way, the unique missions for which it was Shuttle Robotic Arm. designed. In addition, as an element of the continuum from the first ballistic missile to the present, it has been a significant driver of technology for the Early Satellite Repair and Retrievals benefit of all mankind.” Between 1984 and 1985, the shuttle flew three complicated satellite retrieval or repair missions. On NASA’s 11th shuttle mission, STS-41C, the and carried the first noncommercial and pilot while the German Space crew was to capture and repair the payload specialists to fly in space. Operations Center in Oberpfaffenhofen Solar Maximum Satellite (SolarMax), oversaw the experiments and Three additional missions flew the first one built to be serviced and scientists working in the lab. Spacelabs in 1985, with West Germany repaired by shuttle astronauts. Riding sponsoring the flight of STS-61A, By 1984, the shuttle’s capabilities the manned maneuvering unit, the first mission financed and expanded dramatically when Astronauts spacewalker George Nelson tried to operated by another nation. One of Bruce McCandless and Bob Stewart capture the SolarMax, but neither he the unique features of this flight tested the manned maneuvering units nor the Robotic Arm operator Terry was how control was split between that permitted flight crews to conduct Hart was able to do so. Running centers. JSC’s Mission Control untethered spacewalks. At this point in low on fuel, the crew backed away managed the shuttle’s systems and the program, this was by far the most from the satellite while folks at the worked closely with the commander demanding spacewalk conducted by Goddard Space Flight Center in

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22 The Historical Legacy stabilized the SolarMax. these satellites in 1984 “was at that Spacewalkers built a 13.8-m (45-ft) The shuttle had just enough fuel for time the largest monetary treasure tower and a 3.7-m (12-ft) structure, one more rendezvous with the satellite. recovered in history.” proving that crews could feasibly Fortunately, Hart was able to grapple assemble structures using parts carried The program developed a plan for the the satellite, allowing Nelson and into space by the Orbiter. NASA crew of STS-51I (1 985) to retrieve and to fix the unit, proceeded with plans to build Space repair a malfunctioning Hughes satellite which was then rereleased into orbit. Station Freedom, which in the 1990s that had failed to power up just months was transformed to the International The following retrieval mission was before the flight. With only 4 months to Space Station (ISS). even more complex. STS-51A was the prepare, NASA built a number of tools first mission to deploy two satellites and that had not been tested in space to To fund the space station, NASA then retrieve two others that failed to accomplish the crew’s goal. In many needed to cut costs for shuttles by achieve their desired orbits. Astronauts ways, the crew’s flight was a first. Van releasing requests for proposals for Joseph Allen and used the Hoften, one of the walkers on STS-41C, three new contracts. In 1983, the manned maneuvering unit to capture recalled the difference between his Shuttle Processing Contract integrated and Westar, originally deployed first and second spacewalk: “It wasn’t all processing at KSC. Lockheed on STS-41B 9 months earlier. They anything like the first one. The first one Space Operations Company received encountered problems, however, when was so planned out and choreographed. this contract. In 1985, the Space stowing the first recovered satellite, This one, we were winging it, really.” Transportation Systems Operations forcing Allen to hold the 907-kg Instead of planning their exact moves, Contract and the Flight Equipment (2,000-pound) satellite over his head crew members focused instead on skills Contract were solicited. The former for an entire rotation of the Earth— and tasks. Their efforts paid off when contract consolidated 22 shuttle 90 minutes. When the crew members the ground activated the satellite. operations contracts, while the latter reported that they had captured and combined 15 agreements involving secured both satellites in Discovery’s spaceflight equipment (e.g., food, payload bay, Lloyd’s of London— Space Station Reemerges clothes, and cameras). NASA one of the underwriters for the As the Space Shuttle Program matured, Administrator James Beggs hoped that satellites—rang the Lutine bell, as they NASA began working on the Space by awarding such contracts, he could had done since the 1800s, to announce Station Program, having been directed reduce shuttle costs by as much as a events of importance. As Cohen, to do so by President Reagan in his quarter by putting cost incentives into former director of JSC, explained, 1984 State of the Union address. the contracts. Rockwell International “Historically Lloyd’s of London, The shuttle would play an important won the Space Transportation Systems who would insure high risk adventures, role in building the orbiting facility. Operations Contract, and NASA rang a bell whenever ships returned In the winter of 1985, STS-61B tested chose Boeing Aerospace Operations to port with recovered treasure from structures and assembly methods for to manage the Flight Equipment the sea.” He added that the salvage of the proposed long-duration workshop. Processing Contract.

STS-135STS-11351

STS-134 STS-118 Alpha MagneticMagnetic Educator Spectrometer,Spectrometerr,, ISS 20A Station PayloadPayloaad S Node 3, Cupola STS-133

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The Historical Legacy 23 Challenger Accident Post-Challenger Accident Return to Flight In January 1986, NASA suspended all shuttle flights after the Challenger STS-26 was the Space Shuttle’s Return accident in which seven crew members to Flight. Thirty-two months after the perished. A failure in the Solid Rocket Challenger accident, Discovery roared Booster motor joint caused the to life on September 29, 1988, taking vehicle to break up. The investigation its all-veteran crew into space where board was very critical of NASA they deployed the second Tracking and management, especially about the Data Relay Satellite. The crew safely decision to launch. For nearly 3 years, returned home to DFRC 4 days later, NASA flew no shuttle flights. Instead, and Vice President George H.W. Bush the agency made changes to the and his wife Barbara Bush greeted the shuttle. It added a crew escape system crew. That mission was a particularly and new brakes, improved the main significant accomplishment for NASA. engines, and redesigned the Solid STS-26 restored confidence in the Astronaut James Voss is pictured during an Rocket Boosters, among other things. agency and marked a new beginning STS-69 (1995) that was for NASA’s program. conducted in and around Endeavour’s cargo bay. In the aftermath of the accident, the Voss and Astronaut Michael Gernhardt performed agency made several key decisions, evaluations for space station- era tools and which were major turning points. Building Momentum various elements of the spacesuits. The shuttle would no longer deliver Following the STS-26 flight, the commercial satellites into Earth orbit Extended Duration Orbiter Program shuttle’s launch schedule climbed once unless “compelling circumstances” again, with the space agency eventually Before 1988, shuttle flights were short, existed or the deployment required the using all three shuttles in the launch with limited life science research. unique capabilities of the space truck. processing flow for upcoming missions. NASA thought that if the shuttle could This decision forced industry and The first four flights after the accident be modified, it could function as a foreign governments who hoped to alternated between Discovery and microgravity laboratory for weeks at a deploy satellites from the shuttle to Atlantis, adding Columbia to the mix for time. The first stage was to make turn to expendable launch vehicles. STS-28 (1 989). Even though the flight modifications to the life support, air, Fletcher, who had returned for a crews did not launch any commercial water, and waste management systems second term as NASA administrator, satellites from the payload bay, several for up to a 16-day stay. There were cancelled the Shuttle/Centaur Program deep space probes—the Magellan Venus potential drawbacks to extended stays because it was too risky to launch the Radar Mapper, Galileo, and Ulysses— in microgravity. Astronauts were shuttle carrying a rocket with highly required the shuttle’s unique concerned about the preservation of combustible liquid fuel. Plans to capabilities. STS-30 (1 989) launched the their capability for unaided egress from finally activate and use the Vandenberg mapper, which opened a new era the shuttle, including the capability Air Force Base launch site were of exploration for the agency. This was for bailout. Another concern was abandoned, and the shuttle launch site the first time a Space Shuttle crew degradation of landing proficiency was eventually mothballed. The Air deployed an interplanetary probe, after such a long stay, as this had never Force decided to launch future thereby interlocking both the manned been done before. payloads on rockets and ordered and unmanned spaceflight programs. additional expendable launch vehicles. Between 1992 (STS-50) and 1995, In addition, this flight was NASA’s first A few DoD-dedicated missions this program successfully demonstrated planetary mission of any kind since would, however, fly after the accident. that astronauts could land and egress 1977, when it launched the Voyager Finally, in 1987, Congress authorized after such long stays, but that significant spacecraft. STS-34 (1 989) deployed the the building of Endeavour as a muscle degradation occurred. The Galileo spacecraft toward Jupiter. replacement for the lost Challenger. addition of a new pressurized g-suit Finally, STS-41 (1 990) delivered the Endeavour was delivered to KSC in provided relief to the light-headedness ’s Ulysses the spring of 1991. (feeling like fainting) experienced spacecraft, which would study the polar when returning to Earth. Improvements regions of the sun.

24 The Historical Legacy included the addition of a crew transport The astronauts assigned to repair the a first in the history of NASA’s space vehicle that astronauts entered directly telescope felt pressure to succeed. operations. This finally allowed the from the landed shuttle in which they “Everybody was looking at the servicing crew to repair and redeploy the satellite, reclined during medical examination and repair of the Hubble Space which occurred—coincidentally— until they were ready to walk. On-orbit Telescope as the mission that could during Endeavour’s first flight. exercise was tested to improve their prove NASA’s worth,” Commander physical capabilities for emergency Dick Covey recalled. The mission New Main Engine egress and landing. The research was one of the most sophisticated ever STS-70 flew in the summer of 1995 showed that with more than 2 weeks of planned at NASA. The spacewalkers and launched a Tracking and Data microgravity, astronauts probably rendezvoused for the first time with the Relay Satellite. The shuttle flew the should not land the shuttle as it was too telescope, one of the largest objects new main engine, which contained an complicated and risky. In the future, the shuttle had rendezvoused with at improved high-pressure liquid oxygen shuttle landing would only be performed that point, and conducted a record- turbopump, a two-duct powerhead, by a short-duration astronaut. breaking five spacewalks. The repairs and a single-coil heat exchanger. were successful, and the public faith The new pumps were a breakthrough The Great Observatories rebounded. Four additional missions in shuttle reliability and quality, for serviced the Hubble, with the final Months before the Ulysses deployment, they were much safer than those launching in 2009. the crew of STS-31 (1 990) deployed the previously used on the Orbiter. The , which had Two other major scientific payloads, turbopumps required less maintenance been slated for launch in August 1986 part of NASA’s Great Observatories than those used prior to 1995. Rather but slipped to 1990 after the Challenger including the Compton Gamma Ray than removing each pump after every accident. Weeks before the launch, Observatory and the Chandra X-ray flight, engineers would only have to astronauts and NASA administrators Observatory, launched from the conduct detailed inspections of the laid out the importance of the flight. Orbiter’s cargo bay. When the Compton pumps after six missions. A single-coil Lennard Fisk, NASA’s associate Gamma Ray Observatory’s high-gain heat exchanger eliminated many of administrator for Space Science and antenna failed to deploy, Astronauts the welds that existed in the previous Applications, explained, “This is a Jerry Ross and Jay Apt took the first pump, thereby increasing engine mission from which (people) can expect spacewalk in 6 years (the last walk reliability, while the powerhead very fundamental discoveries. They occurred in 1985) and freed the enhanced the flow of fuel in the engine. could begin to understand creation. antenna. The crew of STS-93, which Hubble could be a turning point in featured NASA’s first female mission Space Laboratories humankind’s perception of itself and its commander, , delivered NASA continued to fly space laboratory place in the universe.” the Chandra X-ray Observatory to missions until 1998, when Columbia Earth orbit in 1999. Unfortunately, within just a few short launched the final laboratory and crew months NASA discovered problems Satellite Retrieval and Repair into orbit for the STS-90 mission. The with the telescope’s mirror—problems shuttle had two versions of the payload that generated a great deal of Satellite retrieval and repair missions all bay laboratory: European Spacelab controversy. Several in Congress but disappeared from the shuttle and US company Spacehab, Inc. Fifteen believed that the telescope was a manifest after the Challenger accident. years had passed since the flight of colossal waste of money. Only 4 years STS-49 (1 992) was the one exception. STS-9—the first mission—and the after the accident, NASA’s morale An Intelsat was stranded in an improper project ended with the launch of plunged again. Fortunately, the flight orbit for several years, and spacewalkers Neurolab, which measured the impact and ground crews, along with from STS-49 were to attach a new kick- of microgravity on the nervous system: employees at , took start motor to it. The plan seemed simple blood pressure; eye-hand coordination; the time to work out procedures to enough. After all, NASA had plenty motor coordination; sleep patterns; and service the telescope in orbit during the of practice capturing ailing satellites. the inner ear. Scientists learned a great flight hiatus. In 1992, NASA named the After two unsuccessful attempts, flight deal from Spacelab Life Sciences -1 and crew that would take on this challenge. controllers developed a plan that -2 missions, which flew in the summer required a three-person spacewalk, of 199 1 and 1993, respectively, and

The Historical Legacy 25 represented a turning point in spaceflight human physiology research. Previous understandings of how the human body worked in space were either incomplete or incorrect. The program scientist for the flight explained that the crew obtained “a significant number of surprising results” from the flight. Other notable flights included the ASTRO-1 payload, which featured four telescopes designed to measure ultraviolet light from astronomical objects, life sciences missions, the US Microgravity Labs, and even a second German flight called D-2. The day before the crew of D-2 touched down at DFRC on an runway, the Space Shuttle Program reached a major milestone, US Senator , Jr., payload specialist, keeps up his busy test agenda during Flight Day 7 having accrued a full year of flight on board Discovery STS-95 in 1998. This was a Spacehab flight that studied the effect of microgravity time by May 5, 1993. on human physiology. He is preparing his food, and on the side is the bar code reader used to record all food, fluids, and drug intakes. Spacehab, a commercially provided series of modules similar to Spacelab Consolidating Contracts NASA awarded USA a $7 billion and used for science and logistics, was contract, which went into effect on The Space Shuttle Program seemed a significant part of the shuttle October 1, 1996. Speaking at JSC about to hit its stride in the 1990s. In 1995, manifest in the 1990s. One of those the agreement, Goldin proclaimed, NASA decided to consolidate 12 Spacehab flights featured the return of “Today is the first day of a new space individual contracts under a single Mercury 7 Astronaut and US Senator program in America. We are opening prime contractor. United Space John Glenn, Jr. Thirty-six years had up the space program to commercial Alliance (USA), a hybrid venture passed since he had flown in space and space involving humans. May it between Rockwell International and had become the first American to fly survive and get stronger.” Lockheed Martin, became NASA’s in Earth orbit. He broke records again selection to manage the space agency’s STS-80, the first mission controlled in 1998 when he became the oldest Space Flight Operations Contract. by USA, launched in November 1996. person to fly in space. Given his age, USA was the obvious choice because The all-veteran crew, on the final flight researchers hoped to compare the those two companies combined held of the year and the 80th of the program, similarities between aging on Earth nearly 70% of the dollar value of prime stayed in space for a record-breaking with the effects of microgravity on the shuttle contracts. Although the idea 17 days. A failure with the hatch human body. Interest in this historic of handing over all processing and prohibited crew members from flight, which also fell on NASA’s 40th launch operations to a contractor was conducting two scheduled spacewalks, anniversary, was immense. Not only controversial, NASA Administrator but NASA considered the mission a was Glenn returning to orbit, but Daniel Goldin, known for his “faster, success because the crew brought home Pedro Duque—a European Space better, cheaper” mantra, enthusiastically more scientific data than they had Agency astronaut—became the first supported the sole source contract as expected to gather with the Orbiting and Spanish astronaut, following in the part of President William Clinton’s Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet footsteps of Spanish explorers Hernán effort to trim the federal budget and Spectrometer-Shuttle Pallet Satellite-II. Cortés and Francisco Pizarro. increase efficiency within government.

26 The Historical Legacy The Shuttle-Mir Program history when he docked Atlantis to the weight, engineers expanded the shuttle’s much-larger Mir. The STS-71 crew ability to carry heavier payloads, As the Cold War (the Soviet-US conflict members exchanged gifts and shook like the space station modules, into between the mid 1940s and early hands with the Mir commander in the Earth’s orbit. Launching with less 1990s) ended, the George H.W. Bush docking tunnel that linked the shuttle weight also enabled the crew to fly to administration began laying the and the Russian station. They dropped a high inclination orbit of 51 .6 degrees, groundwork for a partnership in space off the next Mir crew and picked up two where NASA and its partners would between the United States and the cosmonauts and America’s first resident build the ISS. STS-9 1 also carried a Soviet Union. Following the collapse of Mir, Astronaut . prototype of the Alpha Magnetic of the Soviet Union in 1991, President Additional missions ferried crews and Spectrometer into space. This Bush and Russian President Boris necessary supplies to Mir. One of the instrument was designed to look for Yeltsin signed a space agreement, major milestones of the program was the dark and missing matter in the universe. in June 1992, calling for collaboration STS-74 (1 995) mission, which delivered The preliminary test flight was in between the two countries in space. and attached a permanent docking port preparation for its launch to the ISS They planned to place American to the Russian space station. on STS-134. The Alpha Magnetic astronauts on board the Russian space Spectrometer has a state-of-the-art station Mir and to take Russian In 1996, Astronaut particle physics detector, and includes cosmonauts on board shuttle flights. broke all American records for time the participation of 56 institutions and Noting the historic nature of the in orbit and held the flight endurance 16 countries led by Nobel Laureate agreement, Goldin said, “Our children record for all women, from any nation, Samuel Ting. By the end of the and their children will look upon when she stayed on board Mir for Shuttle-Mir Program, the number of yesterday and today as momentous 188 days. Clinton presented Lucid US astronauts who visited the Russian events that brought our peoples with the Congressional Space Medal space station exceeded the number together.” This agreement brokered a of Honor for her service, representing of Russian cosmonauts who had new partnership between the world’s the first time a woman or scientist worked aboard Mir. spacefaring nations, once adversaries. had received this accolade. Speaking about the importance of the Shuttle-Mir Known as the Shuttle-Mir Program, Program, the president said, “Her The International Space Station these international flights were the mission did much to cement the first phase of the ISS Program and alliance in space we have formed with With the first phase completed, NASA marked a turning point in history. Russia. It demonstrated that, as we began constructing the ISS with the The Shuttle-Mir Program—led from move into a truly global society, space assistance of shuttle crews, who JSC, with its director George Abbey— exploration can serve to deepen our played an integral role in building the was a watershed and a symbol of the understanding, not only of our planet outpost. In 1998, 13 years after thawing of relations between the United and our universe, but of those who spacewalker Jerry Ross demonstrated States and Russia. share the Earth with us.” the feasibility of assembling structures in space (STS-61B [1 985]), ISS For more than 4 years, from the winter STS-9 1 (1 998), which ended shuttle construction began. During three of 1994 to the summer of 1998, nine visits to Mir, featured the first flight of spacewalks, Ross and James Newman shuttle flights flew to the Russian space the super-lightweight External Tank. connected electrical power and cables station, with seven astronauts living on Made of aluminum lithium, the newly between the Russian Zarya module board the Mir for extended periods of designed tank weighed 3,402 kg and America’s Unity Module, also time. The first phase began when (7,500 pounds) less than the previous called Node 1. They installed additional Cosmonaut flew on tank (the lightweight or second- hardware—handrails and antennas— board STS-60 (1 994). generation tank) used on the previous on the station. NASA’s dream of Twenty years had passed since the flight, but its metal was stronger building a space station had finally Apollo-Soyuz Test Project when, in the than that flown prior to the summer come to fruition. summer of 1995, Robert Gibson made of 1998. By removing so much launch

The Historical Legacy 27 Although no astronauts are visible in this picture, action was brisk outside the Space Shuttle (STS-116)/space station tandem in 2006.

The shuttle’s 100th mission (STS-92) left the orbital workshop. Of the Station Robotic Arm, an airlock, and launched from KSC in October 2000, historic mission, Lead Flight Director a mobile transporter, among other marking a major milestone for the Chuck Shaw said, “STS-92/ISS things. By the end of 2002, NASA Space Shuttle and the International Mission 3A opens the next chapter had flown 16 assembly flights. Flying Space Station Programs. The in the construction of the International the shuttle seemed fairly routine until construction crew delivered and Space Station,” when human beings February 2003, when Columbia installed the initial truss—the first from around the world would disintegrated over East Texas, resulting permanent latticework structure—which permanently occupy the space base. in the loss of the shuttle and her set the stage for the future addition of seven-member crew. Crews began living and working in trusses. The crew also delivered a the station in the fall of 2000, when the docking port and other hardware to first resident crew () of the station. Four spacewalkers spent Columbia Accident Sergei Krikalev, , more than 27 hours outside the shuttle and Yuri Gidzenko resided in the space The cause of the Columbia accident as they reconfigured these new elements station for 4 months. For the next was twofold. The physical cause onto the station. The seven-member 3 years, the shuttle and her crews were resulted from the loss of insulating crew also prepared the station for the the station’s workhorse. They foam from the External Tank, which first resident astronauts, who docked transferred crews; delivered supplies; hit the Orbiter’s left wing during launch with the station 14 days after the crew installed modules, trusses, the Space and created a hole. When Columbia

28 The Historical Legacy entered the Earth’s atmosphere, the left wing leading edge thermal protection (reinforced carbon-carbon panels) was unable to prevent heating due to the breach. This led Leroy Chiao, PhD to the loss of control and disintegration Astronaut on STS-65 (1994), of the shuttle, killing the crew. STS-72 (1996), and STS-92 (2000). NASA’s flawed culture of Commander and science officer on complacency also bore responsibility ISS Expedition 10 (2004-2005). for the loss of the vehicle and its astronauts. All flights were put on “To me, the Space Shuttle is an hold for more than 2 years as NASA amazing flying machine. It implemented numerous safety launches vertically as a rocket, improvements, like redesigning the turns into an extremely capable External Tank with an improved bipod fitting that minimized potential orbital platform for many foam debris from the tank. Other purposes, and then becomes an improvements were the Solid Rocket airplane after re-entry into the Booster Bolt Catcher, impact sensors atmosphere for landing on a conventional runway. Moreover, it is a reusable added to the wing’s leading edge, and a vehicle, which was a first in the US space program. boom for the shuttle’s arm that allowed the crew to inspect the vehicle for any “The Space Shuttle Program presented me the opportunity to become a NASA possible damage, among other things. astronaut and to fly in space. I never forgot my boyhood dream and years later As NASA worked on these issues, applied after watching the first launch of Columbia. In addition to being a superb President George W. Bush announced research and operations platform, the Space Shuttle also served as a bridge to his new Vision for Space Exploration, other nations. Never before had foreign nationals flown aboard US spacecraft. which included the end of the Space On shuttle, the US had flown representatives from nations all around the world. Shuttle Program. As soon as possible, Space is an ideal neutral ground for cooperation and the development of better the shuttles would return to flight to complete the ISS by 20 10 and then understanding and relationships between nations. NASA would retire the fleet. “Without the Space Shuttle as an extravehicular activity test bed, we would Post-Columbia Accident not have been nearly as successful as we have been so far in assembling Return to Flight the ISS. The Space Shuttle again proved its flexibility and capability for ISS construction missions. In 2005, STS -11 4 returned NASA to flying in space. Astronaut Eileen “Upon our landing (STS-92), I realized that my shuttle days were behind me. Collins commanded the first of two I was about to begin training for ISS. But on that afternoon, as we walked around Return to Flight missions, which and under Discovery, I savored the moment and felt a mixture of awe, satisfaction, were considered test flights. The first mission tested and evaluated new and a little sadness. Shuttle, to me, represents a triumph and remains to this day flight safety procedures as well as a technological marvel. We learned so much from the program, not only in the inspection and repair techniques advancement of science and international relations, but also from what works and for the vehicle. One of the changes what doesn’t on a reusable vehicle. The lessons learned from shuttle will make was the addition of an approximately future US spacecraft more reliable, safer, and cost effective. 15-m (50-ft) boom to the end of the robotic arm. This increased astronauts’ “I love the Space Shuttle. I am proud and honored to be a part of its history capabilities to inspect the tile located and legacy.”

The Historical Legacy 29 on the underbelly of the shuttle. to fly in space and eventually doing Improvements on the International When NASA discovered two gap so.” Adults recalled the Challenger Space Station Continued fillers sticking out of the tiles on the accident and watched this flight with Discovery flight STS -1 28, in 2009, shuttle’s belly on the first mission, interest. STS -1 18 drew attention from provided capability for six crew flight controllers and the astronauts students, from across America and members for ISS. This was a major came up with a plan to remove around the globe, who were curious milestone for ISS as the station had the gap fillers—an unprecedented and about the flight. been operating with two to three crew unplanned spacewalk that they members since its first occupation believed would decrease excessive Return to Hubble in 1999. The shuttle launched most of temperatures on re-entry. The plan In May 2009, the crew of STS -1 25 the ISS, including Canadian, European, required Astronaut Stephen Robinson made the final repairs and upgrades to and Japanese elements, to the orbiting to ride the arm underneath the shuttle the Hubble Space Telescope to ensure laboratory. In 2 01 0, Endeavour provided and pull out the fillers. In 24 years quality science for several more years. the final large components: European of shuttle operations, this had never This flight was a long time coming due Space Agency Node 3 with additional been attempted, but the fillers were to the Columbia accident, after which hygiene compartment; and Cupola easily removed. STS -11 4 showed NASA was unsure whether it could with a robotic work station to assist that improvements in the External continue to fly to destinations with no in assembly/maintenance of the ISS and Tank insulation foam were safe haven such as the ISS. a window for Earth observations. insufficient to prevent dangerous losses during ascent. Another year With the ISS, if problems arose, passed before STS -12 1 (2006), the especially with the thermal protection, second Return to Flight mission, flew the astronauts could stay in the space after more improvements were made station until either another shuttle or to the foam applications. the Russian Soyuz could bring them home. The Hubble orbited beyond the ability for the shuttle to get to the ISS Final Flights if the shuttle was critically damaged. Thus, for several years, the agency had Educator Astronaut vetoed any possibility that NASA could Excitement began to build at NASA return to the telescope. and across the nation as the date At that point, the Hubble had been for Barbara Morgan’s flight, STS -1 18 functioning for 12 years in the very (2007), grew closer. Morgan had hostile environment of space. Not only been selected as the backup for did its instruments eventually wear out, Christa McAuliffe, NASA’s first but the telescope needed important Teacher in Space in 1985. After the upgrades to expand its capabilities. This Commemorative Patch celebrates the Challenger accident, Morgan became After the Return to Flight of STS -11 4 30-year life and work of the Space Shuttle Program. Selected from over 100 designs, this the Teacher in Space Designee and STS -12 1, NASA reevaluated the and returned to teaching in Idaho. winning patch by Mr. Blake Dumesnil features ability to safety return astronauts after the historic icon set within a jewel-shape frame. She came back to Houston in 1998 launch. The method to ensure safe It celebrates the shuttle’s exploration within when she was selected as an astronaut return in the event of shuttle damage low-Earth orbit, and our desire to explore beyond. candidate. More than 20 years after was to have a backup vehicle in place. Especially poignant are the seven stars on each side of the shuttle, representing the 14 lives being selected as the backup Teacher So in 2009, Atlantis launched to in Space, Morgan fulfilled that dream lost—seven on Columbia, seven on Challenger— repair the telescope, with Endeavour in pursuit of their dream, and this nation’s dream by serving as the first educator mission as the backup. of further exploration and discovery. The five specialist. NASA Administrator larger stars represent the shuttles that made up Michael Griffin praised Morgan the fleet—each shuttle a star in its own right. “for her interest, her toughness, her resiliency, her persistence in wanting

30 The Historical Legacy Changes in Mission Complexity Over Nearly 3 Decades 50

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Components of Mission Complexity

Length of flight as mission days. Early flights lasted less than 1 Rendezvous included every time the shuttle connected to an week, but, as confidence grew, some flights lasted 14 to 15 days. orbiting craft from satellites, to Hubble, Mir, and ISS. Some flights had several rendezvous. Crew size started at two—a commander and pilot—and grew to routine flights with six crew members. During the Extravehicular activity (EVA) is determined as EVA crew days. Shuttle-Mir and International Space Station (ISS) Programs, Many flights had no EVAs, while others had one every day with the shuttle took crew members to the station and returned two crew members. crew members, for a total of seven crew members. Secret Department of Defense missions were very complex. Deploys occurred throughout the program. During the first Spacelabs were missions with a scientific lab in the payload bay. 10 years, these were primarily satellites with sometimes more Besides the complexity of launch and landing, these flights than one per flight. Some satellites, such as Hubble Space included many scientific studies. Telescope, were returned to the payload bay for repair. With construction of the ISS, several major elements were deployed. Construction of the ISS by shuttle crew members.

Over the 30 years of the Space Shuttle Program, missions became more complex with increased understanding of the use of this vehicle, thereby producing increased capabilities. This diagram illustrates the increasing complexity as well as the downtime between the major accidents—Challenger and Columbia.

The Historical Legacy 31