Major Milestones The Historical The Accidents: A Nation’s Legacy Tragedy, NASA’s Challenge National Security The Historical Legacy 11 Major Astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen woke early on the morning of April 12, 1981, for the second attempted launch of the Space Shuttle Milestones Columbia—the first mission of the Space Shuttle Program. Two days earlier, the launch had been scrubbed due to a computer software error. Jennifer Ross-Nazzal Those working in the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory at Johnson Dennis Webb Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas, quickly resolved the issue and, with the problem fixed, the agency scheduled a second try soon after. Neither crew member expected to launch, however, because so much had to come together for liftoff to occur. That morning, they did encounter a serious problem. With fewer than 2 hours until launch, the crew of Space Transportation System (STS)-1 locked the faceplates onto their helmets, only to find that they could not breathe. To avoid scrubbing the mission, the crew members looked at the issue and asked Loren Shriver, the astronaut support pilot, to help them. Finding a problem with the oxygen hose quick disconnect, Shriver tightened the line with a pair of pliers, and the countdown continued. At 27 seconds before launch, Crippen realized that this time they were actually going to fly. His heart raced to 130 beats per minute while Young’s heart, that of a veteran commander, stayed at a calm 85 beats. Young later joked, “I was excited too. I just couldn’t get my heart to beat any faster .” At 7:00 a.m., Columbia launched, making its maiden voyage into Earth orbit on the 20th anniversary of Yuri Gagarin’s historic first human flight into space ( 1961 ). The thousands who had traveled to the beaches of Florida’s coastline to watch the launch were excited to see the United States return to flying in space. The last American flight was the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which flew in July 197 5 and featured three American astronauts and two cosmonauts who rendezvoused and docked their spacecraft in orbit. Millions of others who watched the launch of STS -1 from their television sets were just as elated. America was back in space. 12 The Historical Legacy Like their predecessors, Young and And it’s going to launch like a Crippen became heroes for flying this spacecraft, it’s going to land like a mission—the boldest test flight in plane,” he told the team. America had history. The shuttle was like no other not yet landed on the moon, but vehicle that had flown; it was reusable. NASA’s engineers moved ahead with Unlike the space capsules of the plans to create a new space vehicle. previous generation, the shuttle had not As the contractors and civil servants been tested in space. This was the first explored various configurations for test flight of the Columbia and the only the next generation of spacecraft, the time astronauts had actually flown a Space Task Group, appointed by spacecraft on its first flight. The President Richard Nixon, issued its primary objective was to prove that the report for future space programs. The shuttle could safely launch a crew and committee submitted three options: then return safely to Earth. Two days Maxime Faget, director of engineering and the first and most ambitious featured later, the mission ended and the goal development at the Manned Spacecraft Center a manned Mars landing as early as was accomplished when Young landed in 1969, holding a balsa wood model of his 1983, a lunar and Earth-orbiting the shuttle at Dryden Flight Research concept of the spaceship that would l aunch on station, and a lunar surface base; the Center on the Edwards Air Force a rocket and land on a runway. second supported a mission to Mars Base runway in California. The Four contractors—General Dynamics/ in 1986; and the third deferred the spacecraft had worked like a “champ” Convair, Lockheed, McDonnell Mars landing, providing no scheduled in orbit—even with the loss of several Douglas, and North American date for its completion. Included in tiles during launch. After landing, Rockwell—received 10-month the committee’s post-Apollo plans Christopher Kraft, director of JSC, said, contracts to study different approaches were a Space Shuttle, referred to as “We just became infinitely smarter.” for the integral launch and re-entry the Space Transportation System, and vehicle. Experts examined a number a space station, to be developed Design and Development of designs, from fully reusable vehicles simultaneously. Envisioned as less to the use of expendable rockets. costly than the Saturn rocket and It would be a mistake to say that the On completion of these studies, NASA Apollo capsules, which were expended first flight of Columbia was the start of determined that a two-stage, fully after only one use, the shuttle would the Space Shuttle Program. The idea reusable vehicle met its needs and be reusable and, as a result, make of launching a reusable winged vehicle would pay off in terms of cost savings. space travel more routine and less was not a new concept. Throughout the costly. The shuttle would be capable 1960s, NASA and the Department of On April 1, 196 9, Maxime Faget, of carrying passengers, supplies, Defense (DoD) studied such concepts. director of engineering and satellites, and other equipment— Advanced Space Shuttle studies began development at the Manned Spacecraft much as an airplane ferries people in 1968 when the Manned Spacecraft Center, asked 20 people to report to and their luggage—to and from orbit Center—which later became JSC— the third floor of a building that most at least 100 times before being and Marshall Space Flight Center in thought did not have a third floor. retired. The system would support Huntsville, Alabama, issued a joint Because of that, many believed it was both the civil and military space request for proposal for an integral an April Fool’s prank but went anyway. programs and be a cheaper way to launch and re-entry vehicle to study Once there, they spotted a test bay, launch satellites. Nixon, the Space different configurations for a round-trip which had three floors, and that was Task Group proposals, and NASA cut vehicle that could reduce costs, increase where they met. Faget then walked the moon and Mars from their plans. safety, and carry payloads of up to through the door with a balsa wood This left only the shuttle and station 22,680 kg (50,000 pounds). This model of a plane, which he glided for development, which the agency marked the beginning of the design toward the engineers. “We’re going to hoped to develop in parallel. and development of the shuttle. build America’s next spacecraft. The Historical Legacy 13 The decision to build a shuttle was carry and launch reconnaissance NASA chose that technology—thereby extremely controversial, even though satellites. A smaller payload bay would making the program more marketable NASA presented the vehicle as require the Air Force to retain their to Congress and the administration. economical—a cost-saver for expendable launch vehicles and chip Robert Thompson, former Space taxpayers—when compared with the away at the argument forwarded by Shuttle Program manager, believed that large outlays for the Apollo Program. NASA about the shuttle’s economy and the decision to use an expendable In fact, in 1970 the shuttle was nearly utilitarian purpose. The result was a External Tank for the Space Shuttle defeated by Congress, which was larger vehicle with more cross-range Main Engines was “perhaps the single dealing with high inflation, conflict in landing capability. most important configuration decision Vietnam, spiraling deficits, and an Though the president and Congress made in the Space Shuttle Program,” economic recession. In April 1970, had not yet approved the shuttle in resulting in a smaller, lighter shuttle. representatives in the House narrowly 1970, NASA awarded preliminary “In retrospect,” Thompson explained, defeated an amendment to eliminate all design contracts to McDonnell Douglas “the basic decision to follow a less funding for the shuttle. A similar and North American Rockwell, thus complicated development path at the amendment offered in the Senate was beginning the second phase of future risk of possible higher operating also narrowly defeated. Minnesota development. By awarding two contracts costs was, in my judgment, a very wise Senator Walter Mondale explained that for the country’s next-generation choice.” This decision was one of the the money NASA requested was spacecraft, NASA signaled its decision program’s major milestones, and the simply the “tip of the iceberg.” He to focus on securing support for the decreased costs for development had argued that the $ 110 million requested two-stage reusable space plane over the the desired effect. for development that year might be station, which received little funding better spent on urban renewal projects, and was essentially shelved until 1984 veterans’ care, or improving the Presidential Approval when President Ronald Reagan directed environment. Political support for the the agency to build a space station Nixon made the announcement in program was very tenuous, including within a decade. In fact, when James support of the Space Shuttle Program poor support from some scientific and Fletcher became NASA’s administrator at his Western White House in San aerospace leaders. in April 1971 , he wholeheartedly Clemente, California, on January 5, To garner support for the shuttle and supported the shuttle and proclaimed, 1972. Believing that the shuttle was a eliminate the possibility of losing the “I don’t want to hear any more about a good investment, he asked the space program, NASA formed a coalition with space station, not while I am here.” agency to stress that the shuttle was not the US Air Force and established a joint an expensive toy.