1 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Why buy and use a product? 2 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Positive acceptance of an application . Mastery of the interface . Competence in performing tasks . Ease in learning originally and in assimilating advanced features . Confidence in the capacity to retain mastery over time . Enjoyment in using the interface . Eagerness to show off interfaces to novices . Desire to explore more powerful aspects 3 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Attributes of direct-manipulation interfaces . Visibility of the objects and actions of interest

• Example: Driving an automobile . Rapid, reversible, incremental actions . Replacement of types commands by a pointing action on the object of interest . Example: Dragging a file to a trash can versus “rm file.doc”

• What about: “rm file*.doc”? • What about “rm *.*” with no undo? 4 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Extensions of direct manipulation . Virtual reality – users are in an immersed environment

• Reality is blocked out via a head-mounted display • Hand gestures (via a data glove) allow users to point, select, grasp and navigate

. Augmented reality – user remains in normal surroundings, but adds a transparent overlay.

• Examples – labeled buildings, hidden plumbing • Google: Project Glass • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2E2zcFt9Xo • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tnRJaHZH9lo&feature=related

. Tangible user interfaces – users manipulate physical objects

• Example – putting several plastic blocks near each other to create an office floor plan 5 Direct Manipulation Interfaces 6 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . The Tubeless Interface 7 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors (e.g., IBM MVS, VM, TSO, JCL) 8 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors versus WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) editors (e.g., Microsoft Word – early 1990s) . Example: Three basic modes of vi

• Command mode (Telling the computer what to do: Low level commands, e.g., move the cursor to the right one character)

. Default when you enter vi.

. Most letters, or short sequences of letters, that you type will be interpreted as commands

. Pressing Esc when you're in command mode, your terminal will beep at you. This is a very good way to tell when you're in command mode

• Insert mode (Entering the content) . Whatever you type is inserted in the file at the cursor position . Press Esc to end insert mode, and return to command mode. • Line mode (Telling the computer what to: High level commands, e.g. Save) . To enter line mode from command mode, type a colon ( : ) . Your cursor moves to the bottom of the screen, by a colon prompt. . Type a line mode command, then press Enter.

9 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors (e.g., vi)

Starting vi and Saving Files Starting vi: vi filename (start editing filename, create it if necessary) Saving the file you're working on and/or leaving vi: :wq (write the file to disk and quit) Quit without saving any changes: :q! :w! newfile (write all lines from the entire current file into the file 'newfile', overwriting any existing newfile) :n,m w! newfile (write the lines from n to m, inclusive, into the file newfile, overwriting any existing newfile) 10 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors

Type To Move To h one space to the left (also try left arrow) j one line down (also try down arrow) k one line up (also try up arrow) l one space to the right (also try right arrow) $ end of current line ^ beginning of current line Enter beginning first word on the next line G end of file :n line n; use :0 to move the beginning of the file w beginning of next word; 5w moves to the beginning of the 5th word to the right e end of next word b beginning of previous word Ctrl-b one page up Ctrl-f one page down % the matching (, ), [, ], {, or } (Press % with your cursor on one of these characters to move your cursor its mate.) 11 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors

• Searching for text

Type To /string search down for string ?string search up for string n repeat last search from present position

• Inserting text

Type To a append starting right of cursor A append at the end of the current line i insert starting left of cursor I insert at beginning of the current line o open line below cursor, then enter insert mode O open line above cursor, then enter insert mode :r newfile add the contents of the file newfile starting below the current line 12 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors

• Deleting text

Type To x delete single character; 5x deletes 5 characters dw delete word; 5dw deletes 5 words dd delete line; 5dd deletes 5 rows

cw delete word, leaves you in insert mode (i.e. change word) cc change line -- delete line and start insert mode s change character -- delete character and start insert mode D delete from cursor to end of line C change from cursor to end of line -- delete and start insert mode u undo last change U undo all changes to current line J join current line with line that follows (press Enter in insert mode to split line) 13 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Single-line and Multi-line Editors

• Cutting and Pasting

Type To xp transpose two characters (two commands, x followed by p) yy yank (i.e. copy) one line into a general buffer (5yy to yank 5 lines) "ayy yank into the buffer named a

P put the general buffer back before the current line "aP put from buffer a before current line p put the general buffer back after the current line "ap put from buffer a after the current line • Miscellaneous Commands

Type To Ctrl- g show line number of current line Ctrl- l redraw the entire display

14 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line versus display editors versus word processors . Early 1980s – Text editing was done with line-oriented command languages . Nroff/troff: Unix based word processor .nf = no-fill, you use for graphs or text that you don't want spaces to be ignored

.ce # = centers by the # of sentences you enter

.ti # = .ti indents but only for one line, so if you have one sentence that needs to be indented 8 spaces but the rest of the page is indented 3 you can use .ti 8 for that single sentence

.fi = fill-in, extra space will be ignored and text that is entered like this, the fill-in command will continue until you enter a .nf command and vice-versa

.in # = # is the number of spaces you want the text indented, this command will be in place until you put in a new .in command...if you want something to not be indented you put in .in 0 15 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line editors . Who would use these interfaces? . Why?

16 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line editors . Who would use these interfaces? . Why?

• Mastery of the interface • Competence in performing tasks • Ease in learning originally and in assimilating advanced features • Confidence in the capacity to retain mastery over time • Enjoyment in using the interface • Eagerness to show off interfaces to novices • Desire to explore more powerful aspects 17 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Command-line editors . Who would use these interfaces? . Why? • BETTER THAN A TYPEWRITER

• BETTER THAN A SLIDE RULE

• BETTER THAN A CALCULATOR 18 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Advantages of WYSIWYG Editors . Users see a full page of text

• 20 to 60 lines provides a context for each sentence . The document is seen as it will appear when printed • Eliminating the clutter of formatting commands . Cursor action is visible • Indicates where to focus attention and apply action . Cursor motion is natural

• Arrow keys or mouse provide natural physical mechanisms for moving the cursor . Labeled icons make frequent actions rapid • Toolbar for frequent actions . Immediate display of the results of an action • Example: Clicking a button to center text provides immediate result . Rapid response and display

• Full page of text in a fraction of a second . Easily reversible actions • Example: Undo, backspace 19 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Technology advancements evolving from word processing . Integration of graphics, spreadsheets, animations, photographs, etc. . Desktop publishing software . Presentation software . Hypermedia environments and the World Wide Web (hyperlinks to documents) . Improved macro facilities (e.g., construct, save and edit sequences of frequently used actions) . Spell checkers and thesauri . Grammar checkers

• Use of passive voice • Excessive use of certain words • Lack of parallel construction . Document assemblers

• Contracts • Wills

20 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Spreadsheets . 1979 – VisiCalc from a Harvard Business School student . 254 rows and 63 columns . Functions within a cell as it relates to other cells . Simulation of an accountants spreadsheet . Lotus 1-2-3 dominated the market in the 1980s . Today Excel dominates

• Graphics displays • Multiple windows • Statistical routines • Database access (e.g., Price List to Service Catalog)

21 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Spatial Data Management . Direct Touch Displays – Nicholas Negroponte at MIT

22 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Spatial Data Management . ArcView – ESRI

• Global Information Systems (Demo) • Select type of information to display (roads, population, rainfall, topography, political boundaries

23 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Video Games . The most exciting, well-engineered, commercially successful application of direct-manipulation concepts? . Pong . Pacman (http://www.activitypad.com/online-games/pacman/) . Field of action is visual and compelling . Button presses, joystick motions and knob rotations produce rapid response on the screen . No syntax to remember . Error messages are rare – the results of the action are obvious and easily reversed . Often there is continuous display of the score (competition between others and the player themselves)

• Positive reinforcement that encourages mastery

24 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Video Games . Educational Video Games – direct manipulation

• SimCity – education on urban planning

• The Sims – stronger attraction to women then men

25 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Video Games . Computer Role Playing Games (CRPGs)

• Players assume the role of a fictional character • Activity takes place in a fictional world • User’s control many of their character's actions • Myst . Massively Multiplayer On-Line Role Playing Games (MMORPGs) • A large number of players interact with one another in a virtual world • Interaction is in a persistent world – hosted by the game's publisher – continues to evolve while the player is away from the game • Worldwide MMORPGs revenues exceeded half a billion dollars in 2005 • World of Warcraft

26 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Video Games versus Business Applications . Game players

• Engaged in competition with a system or other players • Seek entertainment and focus on challenge • May prefer random events . Application users

• Prefer a strong internal locus of control • Focus on their tasks and may resent too many playful distractions • Do not prefer random events

27 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Computer-aided Design . Automobiles, electronic circuitry, aircraft, mechanical engineering . Structural engineering, floorplans, interiors, landscaping, plumbing, electrical installation, etc. . When the design is complete, the program can provide information regarding:

• Current • Voltage drops • Fabrication costs • Manufacturing problems

28 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Computer – aided Manufacturing and Process Control . Honeywell’s Experion Process Knowledge System

• Provides the manager of a oil refinery or power utility plant with a colorized schematic of the plant • Can indicate with a red line a sensor value that is out of range • With a single click the operator can get a more detailed view of the troubling component • A second click can provide more detailed information the sensor, or reset a value or circuit • Basic strategy: eliminate the need for complex commands that the operator might only need to recall during a once-a-year emergency

29 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Direct Manipulation in Office Automation . Xerox Star • Sophisticated Text Formatting • Graphics • Multiple Fonts • High Resolution • Cursor Based Interface . Apple Lisa • Precursor to the Macintosh • Hardware and software designs supported – Pull-down menus – Multi-window manipulation – Editing of graphics and text – Dragging of icons

30 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Direct Manipulation in Office Automation . MS-DOS Commands vs. Macintosh Direct Manipulation • Tasks: Creating, copying, renaming, erasing files • After training and practice, average task times: – MS-DOS is 5.8 minutes – Macintosh is 4.8 minutes • After training and practice, average errors: – MS-DOS is 2.0 – Macintosh is 0.8

31 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Continuing evolution of direct manipulation . Quicken . Home Automation • Direct manipulation on a floor plan of: – Burglar alarms – Heat sensors – Smoke detectors – Opening/closing curtains or screens – Air conditioning and heating – Audio/video speakers or screens » E.g., users can route sound from a MP3 player located in the living room to the kitchen by dragging the MP3 icon into the kitchen . Virtual Worlds • Travel through the human body • Ride an electron cloud as it spins around a nucleus

32 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Continuing evolution of direct manipulation . Problems with direct manipulation • Spatial or visual representation are not necessarily an improvement over text – Especially for blind or visually impaired users • Direct manipulation designs may consume considerable screen space – May result in scrolling or multiple actions • Users must learn the meanings of visual representations – Icon interpretation • For experienced typists, taking a hand off the keyboard to move a mouse may take more time then typing the relevant command • Users may not share the same understanding of the metaphor, analogy, or conceptual model with the designer (testing is required) • Browser based applications limit direct manipulation (e.g., drag & drop) – Require Dynamic HTML, Java or Flash

33 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Advantages of direct manipulation . Continuous representation of the objects and actions of interest with meaningful visual metaphors . Physical actions or presses of labeled buttons, instead of complex syntax . Rapid, incremental, reversible actions whose effects on the objects of interest are visible immediately

34 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Advantages of direct manipulation . Design systems with the following benefits • Novices can learn basic functionality quickly • Experts can work rapidly to carry out a wide range of tasks, even defining new functions and features • Knowledgeable intermittent users can retain operational concepts • Error messages are rarely needed • Users can immediately see whether their actions are furthering their goals, and if the actions are counterproductive, they can change the direction of their activity • Users experience less anxiety because the interface is comprehensible and because actions are easily reversed • Users gain confidence and mastery because they are the initiators of action, they feel in control, and they predict the interface’s responses

35 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. The OAI Model and Direct Manipulation . The object of interest is displayed so that interface actions are close to the high-level task domain . Little need for mental decomposition of tasks into multiple interface commands with complex syntactic forms (e.g., vi: go to line, go to word, go to character) . Each action produces a comprehensible result in the task domain that is visible in the interface immediately . The closeness of the task domain to the interface domain reduces operator problem-solving load and stress . Compared to textual descriptors, visual representations of objects may be more natural and closer to human innate capabilities • Action and visual skills emerged well before language in human evolution

36 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Visual Thinking and Icons . Semiotics – the study of signs and symbols . Icon – an image, picture or symbol representing a concept • In computer systems usually less than one inch square (64x64 pixels) • Smaller icons are often integrated with a window border or toolbar . Task dependency • When working on a visual task (e.g., painting program), icons may be useful • When working on a text-based task, it may be better to stay text based . Icons with words (or mouse-overs) are useful

37 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Icon related guidelines . Represent the object or action in a familiar and recognizable manner . Limit the number of different icons . Make the icon standout from its background . 3-d icons can be visually distracting . Ensure that a single selected icon is clearly visible when surrounded by unselected icons . Make each icon distinctive from every other icon . Ensure harmoniousness of each icon as a member of a family of icons . Design the movement animation (e.g., grayed-out ghost image on a drag) . Detail information • Larger shadowing for a larger file • Color to show the age of a document • Animation to show how much of a file has printed (document icon absorbed progressively into the printer icon) . Explore use of combination of icons • (E.g., drag a document to a printer icon)

38 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Direct Manipulation Programming . Example: programming a radio to a set of stations by pressing/holding a channel selection button . Phone Services

39 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Direct Manipulation Programming . Programming in the User Interface • Sufficient computational generality – Conditionals (if, then, else) – Iteration (repeat/while) • Access to appropriate data structures and operators – File structures for directories – Addition, subtraction, etc. • Ease in programming – By specification or by demonstration (Flash animation) – Argument passing • Simplicity in invocation and assignment of arguments • Low risk – High probability of bug free programs – Halt and resume

40 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Direct Manipulation Programming . Viscosity – the difficulty of making changes to a program . Progressive evaluation – the capacity for execution of partial programs

41 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. 3-Dimensional Interfaces . Some applications are designed as 2-D to be simpler than real-world systems http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hw-O4zX8qRY • Constrain movement • Limit interface actions • Ensure visibility of interface objects . Enhanced 3D may be better than 3D • Flying through objects • Multiple simultaneous views of objects http://youtu.be/V057HnLaqeY • X-ray vision • Shrink/expand objects • Group/ungroup components • Going back in time . Less than successful 3D interfaces • Air-traffic control • Showing altitude by perspective drawing only adds clutter when compared to an overview from directly above

42 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. 4-Dimensional Interfaces . 4-D Anyone?

Tesseract 43 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Second Life . Multi-user environment where users interact . Users can choose avatars (fantasy images, desirable characteristics)

44 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. 3D Desktops and Workplaces . Microsoft’s Task Gallery . Intel’s Grand Canyon . Xerox PARC’s Information Visualizer . No successful products yet

45 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Tips for effective 3D interfaces . Use occlusion, shadows, perspective and other 3D techniques carefully . Minimize the number of navigation steps for users to accomplish their tasks . Keep text readable (better rendering, good contrast with background, an no more than 30-degree tilt) . Avoid unnecessary visual clutter, distraction, contrast shifts and reflections . Simplify user movement (keep movements planar, avoid surprises like going through walls) . Organize groups of items in aligned structures to allow rapid visual search . Enable users to construct visual groups to support spatial recall (e.g., placing items in corners)

46 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Guidelines for inclusion of 3D features . Provide users overviews so they can see the big picture . Allow teleportation (rapid context shifts by selecting destination in an overview) . Offer x-ray vision . Provide history keeping (recording, undoing, replaying, editing) . Permit rich user actions on objects (save, copy, annotate, share, send) . Give users control over explanatory text (pop-up, floating, screen tips) . Offer tools to select, mark and measure . Implement dynamic queries to rapidly filter out unneeded items . Enable landmarks to show themselves even at a distance . Allow multiple coordinated views (users can be in more than one place at a time)

47 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Teleoperation . Derived from direct manipulation and process control . Physical processes taking place in a remote location • Clean-up in a nuclear reactor, bomb disarmament . Need adequate feedback in sufficient time to permit effective decision making • Manufacturing • Medicine (consultation, radiology) • Military operations (drones) . Home automation • Security systems • Energy control • Appliances

48 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Teleoperation • Mahru Humanoid Robot Real-Time Teleoperation • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TJmQqC1nHTU&feature=fvwrel

• Dominos • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZDXuGQRpvs4

• Drones on 60 Minutes • http://www.cbsnews.com/videos/drones-over-america/

• Turkey Drone • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kO0KsU9xFj8&feature=youtu.be/

49 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Design to accommodate teleoperation issues http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VTTO6ZkuLzQ . Slow response times and time delays • Transmission delay (time for command to reach the microscope) • Operation delay (time until the microscope responds) . Incomplete feedback • The microscope can transmit its current position, but operates so slowly it cannot indicate the exact current position . Unanticipated interferences • The slide is accidentally moved by a person at the local site . May be better for the user to specify a destination (rather than a motion) and wait until the action is completed

50 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Telemedicine . Remote examination . Remote surgery . Telepathology • Magnification • Focus • Illumination • Position

51 Direct Manipulation Interfaces https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RjNLvgqZgUI . Virtual and Augmented Reality . “Being in” as opposed to “Looking at” . Architectural applications • Wall-sized image to give perspective • Animation to simulate movement (left to right) • Treadmill to simulate walking toward, walk through doors, stairs • Replace projector with a head-mounted display . Some applications are better when “looked at” • Air-traffic control . Training using virtual reality

52 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Virtual and Augmented Reality . The CAVE (National Center for Supercomputing Applications) . An immersive virtual reality facility designed for the exploration of and interaction with spatially engaging environments. . The stereoscopic capabilities, coupled with its uniquely immersive design, enable scientists and researchers to interact with their data • An atmospheric scientist can actually "climb inside" of a hurricane and visualize its complex and chaotic elements from any angle or visual perspective • A biological researcher, examining a tightly coiled strand of DNA, can virtually "unravel" this strand and manipulate it in an environment that preserves the critical depth information of the data. • Teach a child to cross a street

• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C5jSSKwBbVM 53 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Artificial Reality . VideoPlace – Myron Krueger

• Surround the user with an artificial reality which responded to their movements and actions. • The users were able to visually see the results of their actions on screen, through the use of colored silhouettes. • The users had a sense of presence while interacting with onscreen objects and other users. • The sense of presence was enough that users pulled away when their silhouettes intersected with those of other users. eHarmony 2.0?

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0MsySesdisE https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmmxVA5xhuo 54 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Applications of virtual environments . Phobia treatment • Acrophobia . Pain Control • Immersive environments provide distractions for patients . Interior Design • OAI model – Click, drag, enlarge objects http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jNIqyyypojg – Room painting tool 55 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Augmented Reality . See the real world with an overlay of additional information • See wires or plumbing behind walls • Tourist glasses – label buildings in a historic town • Molecular biology

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZczX6qleV4Q 56 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Virtual environments dependent on integration of multiple technologies . Visual Display • Normal Display – 12 to 17 inches diagonally at a normal viewing distance of 70 cm subtends a visual angle of about 5-degrees • Large Screen – 17 to 30 inches can cover 20 to 30-degrees • Head Mounted Displays – 100 degrees horizontally and 60-degrees vertically – Head motion produces new images so users perceive 360-degrees – Displays must approach 100-millisecond delay in presenting images to approach real time 57 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Virtual environments dependent on integration of multiple technologies . Head-position sensing • Head-mounted displays can provide differing views depending on head position

. Hand-position sensing • DataGlove 58 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Virtual environments dependent on integration of multiple technologies . Force feedback and haptics • Hand-operated remote-control devices for performing chemistry experiments or for handling nuclear materials • Gives users a sense of grasp . Sound input and output • Training of Army tank crews while using realistic sounds of battle resulted in: – Elevated heart rates, more rapid breathing, and increased perspiration • Speech recognition for initiating actions and making menu selection – Keyboard and mouse use is restricted . Other sensations • Tilting and vibration of flight simulators . Collaborative and competitive virtual environments • Two people at remote sites working together while seeing each others actions and the object of interest 59 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Piaget’s Four Stages of Development . Sensorimotor (birth to 2 years) . Preoperational (2 to 7 years) . Concrete operational (7 to 11 years) • Physical actions on an object are comprehensible • Children acquire the concept of conservation or invariance • Direct manipulation brings activity to this stage . Formal operational (begins at 11 years) • Symbol manipulation to represent actions on objects

60 Future Direct Manipulation

. Tangible User Interface (TUI) - 1997 . Based on the physical embodiment of digital information & computation . Went beyond the dominant paradigm of “Painted Bits” (GUI). . Humans have evolved a heightened ability to sense and manipulate the physical world . TUIs expand the affordances of physical objects, surfaces, and spaces so they can support direct engagement with the digital world.

. Radical Atoms - 2012 . Assume a hypothetical generation of materials that can change form and appearance dynamically, becoming as reconfigurable as pixels on a screen. . Radical Atoms are coupled with bits so that dynamic changes of physical form can be reflected in digital states in real time, and vice versa.

61 Future Direct Manipulation

. Tangible Bits (TUI) - a user interface where a person interacts with digital information through the physical environment. . https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NQ0JoM09HHA . http://tangible.media.mit.edu/vision/

62 Future Direct Manipulation

. Tangible Media - inFORM - Interacting With a Dynamic Shape Display . http://vimeo.com/79179138

63 Future Direct Manipulation

. zSpace – 3D Immersive Technology . Gesture Based Interaction – e.g., head position . http://www.forbes.com/sites/tomiogeron/2013/09/24/zspace-makes- immersive-3d-computing-reality/

64 Future Direct Manipulation

. Aireal – Tactile 3D . Haptic technology that delivers tactile sensations in mid air. . AIREAL enables users to feel virtual objects, experience dynamically varying textures and receive feedback on full body gestures . http://www.disneyresearch.com/project/aireal/

65 Future Direct Manipulation

. Forget devices; the future of technology is seeded in biology . http://www.engadget.com/2013/11/09/the-future-of-technology/ . Will completely healthy people start modifying their bodies to make themselves harder, better, faster, stronger? . Tattoo a smartphone microphone onto your throat . Captures vibrations directly from your larynx in order to cut out background noise . http://www.engadget.com/2013/11/07/motorola-throat-tattoo-microphone/ 66 Direct Manipulation

. Computer mouse inventor Douglas Engelbart dies – July 2013

• http://www.cnn.com/2013/07/03/tech/mouse-inventor-dies/index.html 67 Direct Manipulation Interfaces

. Meta glasses bring 3D and your hands into the picture . http://news.cnet.com/8301-11386_3-57584739-76/meta-glasses-bring- 3d-and-your-hands-into-the-picture/