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articipating IN GOVERNMENT

Congressional Voting How well does your member of Congress represent your interests when he or she votes on bills? Track your representative’s vote on important bills during this session of Congress. Post the voting record on a class bulletin board. Write or E-mail your representative regarding how well his or her votes matched your class’s positions.

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Your Congress Beginning in January each year, 535 members of Congress come together to determine such things as the safety of your work- place, the amount of taxes you pay, and how medical care will be provided. To learn more about how Congress works and how it impacts you, view the Democracy in Action Chapter 5 video lesson: The Organization of Congress

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ GOVERNMENT

Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government: Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 5—Overview to preview chapter information.

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Section 11 Congressional Membership

Reader’s Guide he Founders did not intend to make Congress a privileged group, but they did Key Terms intend that the legislative branch have more power than any other branch bicameral legislature, session, census, ofTgovernment. The Constitution emphasized the reapportionment, redistrict, gerrymander, at-large, censure, incumbent importance of the lawmaking branch by describing Congress in Article I. As James Madison said, Con- Find Out gress is “the First Branch of this Government.” ■ How does apportionment of membership in the The United States Congress is a bicameral House of Representatives in districts provide legislature, meaning that it is made up of two representation to local voters? houses, in this case, the Senate and the House ■ What are the key common characteristics of of Representatives. Most of the delegates to the members of Congress? Constitutional Convention agreed to a bicameral Understanding Concepts legislature. Eighteenth-century colonial legisla- Political Processes How well do you think tures had followed the English Parliament with its members of Congress represent the people who upper house and a lower house. have delegated legal authority to them? Today Congress plays a central role in formu- lating national policies. Congress initiates and approves laws dealing with everything from health care to tax changes. Congress Votes Out Perks Congressional Sessions Each term of Congress starts on January 3 WASHINGTON, D.C., 1996 of odd-numbered years and lasts for two ank had its privi- years. For example, the 107th Congress began its Rlege, until Con- term in January 2001 and the 108th Congress gress heard rumblings began in January 2003. from the people. Pres- Each term of Congress is divided into two sured by constituents, sessions, or meetings. A session lasts one year senators decided to and includes breaks for holidays and vacations. hand over a few perks. Until the Twentieth Amendment was ratified in voted out free They Free parking at 1933, Congressional sessions did not formally as well as lunches, National Airport end until March, which left a four-month period costly gifts and ex- between the election and the formal start of new to pense-paid junkets real re- members. This time delay was shortened when the vote about politics or fancy resorts. Was Feingold said, the session start date was moved to January. Wisconsin Democrat Russell form? we are not fun- Congress remains in session until its mem- Senate have to show that “We in the sena- bers vote to adjourn. Neither the House nor the different from other people.” The damentally parking at the to surrender their free Senate may adjourn for more than three days tors refused without the approval of the other house. Also, Airport, however. National if Congress is adjourned, the president may call it back for a special session if necessary.

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Division of the House

▲ Past During sessions of the British House of Commons, “the Govern- ment,” (shown here) led by Prime Minister William Pitt in the 1790s, sits on one side while the “opposition” sits on the other side. The speaker sits in the center, between the two parties.

Present British procedures influ- enced the U.S. House of Representa- tives. Each major political party sits on one side of the chamber, while the Speaker occupies a platform in

the front and center. ▲

Political Processes How does the physical division into political groups help the Speak- er of the House to mod- erate debates?

Membership of the House November election. This means that every two years, all 435 members of the House must run for With its 435 members, the House of Repre- reelection. It also means that the House reorganizes sentatives is the larger body of Congress. itself every two years. Because more than 90 percent The Constitution does not set the number of rep- of all representatives are reelected, however, there is resentatives in the House. It simply states that the great continuity in the House. If a representative number of House seats must be apportioned, or dies or resigns in the first session of Congress, the divided, among the states on the basis of popula- state must hold a special election to fill that vacancy. tion. Each state is entitled to at least one seat in the Procedures for vacancies that occur during the sec- House, no matter how small its population. ond session vary from state to state.

Qualifications The Constitution sets the qual- Representation and Reapportionment ifications for election to the House of Representa- In order to assign representation according to tives. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, population, the Census Bureau takes a national be citizens of the United States for at least 7 years, census, or population count, every 10 years. and be legal residents of the state that elects them. The first census was taken in 1790, and each state Traditionally, representatives also live in the dis- was apportioned its representatives. The next trict they represent. census will be in 2010. The population of each state determines the new number of representatives Term of Office Members of the House of Rep- to which each is entitled—a process called reap- resentatives are elected for two-year terms. Elections portionment. States with slow population growth are held in November of even-numbered years—for or a population decrease may lose representatives, example, 1996, 1998, and 2000. Representatives while states with more rapid population growth begin their term of office on January 3 following the may gain representativees.

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Originally the House had only 64 members. congressional districts. If a state is entitled to only Over the years, as the population of the nation one representative, it has one congressional dis- grew, the number of representatives increased. trict. In most states the state legislature draws the After the 1810 census the House had 186 members. boundary lines for each congressional election dis- By 1911 the House had 435 members. After the trict. The process of setting up new district lines debate sparked by the 1920 census, and concern after reapportionment has been completed is about the increasing size of the House, Congress called redistricting. passed the Reapportionment Act of 1929 limiting Over the years some state legislatures abused the House to 435 representatives. Now each census the redistricting power. They did so in two ways— determines how those 435 seats will be divided by creating congressional districts of very unequal among the 50 states. populations and by gerrymandering. During the early 1960s, for example, there were some states in Congressional Redistricting After the which the largest district in the state had twice the states find out their reapportioned representation population of the smallest district. In these states a for the next 10-year period, each state legislature sets person’s vote in the largest congressional districts up congressional districts—one for each represen- had only half the value of a person’s vote in the tative. Representatives are elected from these smallest districts.

CongressionalCongressional Apportionment,Apportionment, 20002000

WA 9 MT ND ME 1 1 VT 2 OR MN 1 NH MA 5 8 10 ID WI 2 SD NY RI 2 8/–1 29/–2 WY 1 MI 2 1 15/–1 CT IA PA 5/–1 NV NE 19/–2 5 OH NJ 3/+1 3 IL IN 9/–1 18/–1 13 UT CO 19/–1 WV CA 3 VA DE 53/+1 7/+1 KS MO 3 4 KY 11 1 9 6 NC MD 13/+1 8 OK TN 9 AZ NM AR + 5/–1 SC 8/ 2 3 4 6 AL GA MS 13/+2 4/–2 7 TX AK LA 32/+2 1 7 FL HI 25/+2 2

States gaining seats States losing seats States with no change Indicates number of House seats 23/+4 +/– Denotes gain or loss of seats Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2001

Critical Thinking This apportionment map is based on the 2000 census. It will be adjusted after the census of 2010. What is the general trend in reapportionment because of population shifts?

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NorthNorth CarolinaCarolina CongressionalCongressional Districts,Districts, 20022002

13 5 1 4 10 1212 6 11 2 9 8 3

7 The 1st and 12th districts have been redrawn several times because of legal challenges that these districts artificially increase African American representation.

Source:: North Carolina General Assembly Web site, www.ncleg.netg

Critical Thinking What governing body has the final authority to determine whether legislative districts are constitutional?

Following the census of 1990, several states drew new district lines to increase the power of ethnic or Redistricting Cases In a series of decisions racial minorities. This approach increased the num- during the 1960s, the Supreme Court addressed ber of minority representatives, but it also tended to reapportionment issues in Tennessee, Georgia, and concentrate the Democratic vote, leaving neigh- Alabama. In a case originating in Tennessee, Baker boring districts more Republican. v. Carr 1 (1962), the Court held that federal courts The Supreme Court ruled that North Carolina’s could decide conflicts over drawing district 1992 redistricting map was unconstitutional because boundaries. Two years later, in Reynolds v. Sims 2, it used race as the “predominant factor” in drawing the Court held that the equal protection clause of districts. North Carolina redrew its legislative districts the Fourteenth Amendment required that seats in in 1997. These were challenged in court on similar both houses of the Alabama state legislature be ap- grounds,but in 2000 and 2001,the Supreme Court up- portioned on a population basis. In Wesberry v. held the new redistricting plan. Because there are no Sanders 3 (Georgia, 1964), the Court ruled that the clear guidelines for the states on this issue, the Court Constitution clearly intended that a vote in one has ruled on a case-by-case basis. congressional district was to be worth as much as a vote in another district. This principle has come to Gerrymandering Historically, state legisla- be known as the “one-person, one-vote” rule. As a tures have abused their power to divide the result, today each congressional district contains state into congressional districts by gerrymander- about 650,000 people. ing. Gerrymandering means that the political party controlling the state government draws a district’s boundaries to gain an advantage in See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook: elections. Gerrymandering often results in district 1. Baker v. Carr case summary, page 754. 2. Reynolds v. Sims case summary, page 764. boundaries that have very irregular shapes. 3. Wesberry v. Sanders case summary, page 767. The term gerrymandering can be traced to

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Elbridge Gerry, an early Democratic-Republican ers into one district makes the remaining districts governor of Massachusetts. Gerry had signed a re- safe for the majority party’s candidates. Cracking districting plan that gave his party a big political means dividing an opponent’s voters into other advantage over the Federalists. To a map of one districts, to weaken the opponent’s voter base. particularly irregular district that looked like a The Supreme Court has ruled that congres- salamander, artist Gilbert Stuart added a head, sional districts must be compact and contiguous, wings, and claws. A newspaper editor published or physically adjoining. This requirement, plus the the map as a cartoon and labeled it a “Gerryman- one-person, one-vote ruling, has cut down on der.” Federalists popularized the term. some of the worst examples of gerrymandering. “Packing” and “cracking” are ways to gerry- Nevertheless, the competitive struggle of the two- mander. Packing a district means drawing the lines party system continues to fuel the practice of ger- so they include as many of the opposing party’s rymandering. Many districts today are still drawn voters as possible. Crowding the opposition’s vot- in irregular shapes for political reasons.

SwingsSwings inin ControlControl ofof Congress*Congress*

Political Division of Political Division of the House to 1967 the Senate to 1967 132 300 1 1921–23 37 59

333 89 13 1937–39 75 17 4

188 246 1 1947–49 45 51

295 140 1965–67 68 32

Republicans led Congress in the 1920s until the Great Depression. Except for the late 1940s, Democrats then controlled Congress until the late 1980s. Political Division of Political Division of the House Since 1987 the Senate Since 1987 258 177 1987–89 55 45 260 175 1989–91 55 45 267 167 1 1991–93 56 44 258 176 1 1993–95 57 43 203 231 1 1995-97 48 52 207 227 1 1997–99 45 55 211 223 1 1999–01 45 55 212 221 2 2001–03 50 49 1 205 229 1 2003–05 48 51 1 202 232 1 2005–07 44 55 1 * These results are the results on Election Day, except for the 2001–03 Senate, in which party control changed soon after the election. Divisions of seats within a Congress can change after an election due to death, retirement, and party switching.

Sources: www.senate.gov; www.house.gov. Democrats Republicans Independents

Critical Thinking Democrats and Republicans have each had periods of dominance in the House and Senate. When was the most lopsided division? Why?

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Membership of the Senate to challenge a cost-of-living adjustment to raise salaries to $133,600 in January 1993. (Automatic According to the Constitution, the Senate cost of living adjustments raised salaries to “shall be composed of two senators from $150,000 in 2002.) A United States District Court each state.” Thus, each state is represented equally. judge had ruled that: Today’s Senate includes 100 members—2 from each of the 50 states. Automatic annual adjustments to congres- “sional salaries meet both the language and Qualifications The Constitution provides that the spirit of the 27th Amendment....One senators must be at least 30 years old, citizens of way to maintain high-quality government the United States for 9 years before election, and is to provide our elected officials with a legal residents of the state they represent. All voters living wage that automatically changes to of each state elect senators at-large, or statewide. reflect changed economic conditions. —Judge Stanley Sporkin,” 1992 Term of Office Elections for the Senate, like In addition to their salaries, members of Con- those for the House, are held in November of even- gress enjoy a number of benefits and resources. numbered years. Senators also begin their terms These include stationery, postage for official busi- on January 3, after the election held the previous ness (called the “franking privilege”), a medical November. clinic, and a gymnasium. The Constitution provided for continuity in Members also receive large allowances to pay the Senate by giving senators 6-year terms and by for their office staff and assistants, trips home, tele- providing that only one-third of the senators phones, telegrams, and newsletters. All members would run for reelection every 2 years. In fact, the are entitled to an income tax deduction to help Senate has more continuity than the Framers maintain two residences, one in their home state planned because most senators win reelection. and one in Washington, D.C. Moreover, when they If a senator dies or resigns before the end of retire, senators and representatives may be eligible the term, the state legislature may authorize the for pensions of $150,000 or more a year for life. governor to appoint someone to fill the vacancy until the next election. The governor may also call Privileges of Members The Constitution a special election to fill the seat. provides members of Congress certain protections while they carry out their legislative duties. They Salary and Benefits The Senate and the House are free from arrest “in all cases except treason, set their own salaries. In 1789 salaries for both hous- felony, and breach of the peace,” when they are es were $6 per day. Low pay in the early years de- attending Congress or on their way to or from terred some people from running for Congress. Congress. Members of Congress cannot be sued Congress has voted itself periodic salary increases. for anything they say on the House or Senate floor. In 1991 it voted for a pay hike of $23,000, explaining This privilege does not extend to what members that the increase would be accompanied by a prohi- may say outside of Congress. In Hutchinson v. Prox- bition on honoraria—money paid for speeches. mire 2 (1979), the Supreme Court ruled that mem- Meanwhile, a constitutional amendment af- bers of Congress may be sued for libel for state- fecting legislative salaries was being considered. ments they make in news releases or newsletters. Originally proposed by James Madison in 1789, The Senate and the House both may judge 1 the Twenty-seventh Amendment was finally rat- members’ qualifications and decide whether to ified by the required 38 states when Michigan cast seat them. Each house may refuse to seat an elected the deciding vote on May 7, 1992. The amendment member by a majority vote. This power of prohibits a sitting Congress from giving itself a pay exclusion was later defined by the Supreme Court raise. Any new congressional salary increase will take effect after an intervening election. See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook: Almost immediately a group of plaintiffs, in- 1. The Constitution, pages 774–799. cluding some legislators, used the new amendment 2. Hutchinson v. Proxmire case summary, page 760.

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in the case of Powell v. McCormack (see Supreme commissioner from Puerto Rico, none of whom Court Cases to Debate on page 131). Each house can vote. However, they do attend sessions, intro- may also “punish its own members for disorderly duce bills, speak in debates, and vote in committees. behavior” by a majority vote and expel a legislator by a two-thirds vote. Only the most serious offens- Characteristics Nearly half the members of es such as treason or accepting bribes are grounds Congress are lawyers. A large number of members for expulsion. Members who are guilty of lesser of- also come from business, banking, and education. fenses may be censured. Censure is a vote of for- Why are there so many lawyers? Because lawyers by mal disapproval of a member’s actions. profession deal with laws, it is logical for them to serve as legislators. Training in law helps a legislator understand the complex legal issues that may The Members of Congress affect legislation. Congress includes 535 voting members— Senators and representatives typically have been 100 senators and 435 representatives. In ad- white, middle-aged males. The average age of mem- dition, there are 4 delegates in the House—1 each bers of Congress is usually over 50. Slowly Congress from the District of Columbia, Guam, American has begun to reflect the racial, ethnic, and gender Samoa, and the Virgin Islands—and 1 resident diversity of the general population. ProfileProfile ofof thethe 109th109th CongressCongress Party Affiliation HOUSE SENATE

D e 55 m n oc ca rat bli 44 Repu D 2 e 23 1 Independent m n oc ca ra bli t 2 pu 02 Re Independent 1 † Race and Ethnic Background Gender†

Hispanic* African Women 26 Americans 66 Asian and 42 Men Pacific Islanders Caucasian 369 4 HOUSE 367 HOUSE

* Hispanics can Hispanic* be of any race 2 Women Asian and 14 Pacific Islanders Caucasian Men 2 95 86 SENATE African American 1 SENATE

Sources: www.senate.gov, www.house.gov. †All figures represent total number of voting members of Congress.

Critical Thinking Congress is changing slowly to reflect America’s diverse population. Which house of Congress is more diverse?

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Reelection to Congress Membership in are making the greatest use of the Web. Nearly all Congress has changed very slowly because office- candidates now have election Web sites that serve holders seldom lose reelection. One representative as electronic brochures providing biographies, press put it simply: “All members of Congress have one releases, lists of upcoming campaign events, and primary interest—to be reelected.”Beginning with other information. Candidates also use their elec- Franklin Roosevelt’s landslide presidential victo- tion Web sites to recruit volunteers and to raise ries in the 1930s, incumbency helped Democrats campaign contributions. A few candidates have dominate Congress in all but a few years. even used their Web sites to broadcast, in real time, Between 1945 and 1990, about 90 percent of all campaign events such as speeches. incumbents, or those members already in office, Not many candidates, however, have taken won reelection. In some elections, many seats went advantage of the interactive capacities of the Internet. unchallenged because opponents knew that they In recent elections, for instance, only one in ten would have little or no chance of winning. One candidates has conducted “town hall” type meetings analyst said that winning an election to Congress with voters through their Web sites. Some experts for most members was like removing olives from predict more candidates will do so in the future. a bottle—“after the first one, the rest come easy.” Experts also forecast that congressional candidates Why have incumbents been so successful? First, will make greater use of Web technologies such as incumbents find it easier to raise campaign funds search engines, portals, and e-mail lists to identify because they have worked with so many people voters in their districts interested in particular issues while representing their district. Second, many dis- like gun control or health care. The Internet can then tricts have been gerrymandered in the incumbent be used to communicate directly with such voters party’s favor. Third, incumbents are better known to using specially targeted e-mails or Web sites. Finally, voters, who see them at rallies and on television and experts anticipate more candidates will start using the read about them in newspapers. Fourth, incumbents Internet to improve communications within their use their position to help solve voters’ problems. Fi- campaign organizations. nally, incumbents win because the majority of voters believe their incumbent best represents their views. GOVERNMENT

Campaigning Online While television and Student Web Activity Visit the United States radio remain the dominant campaign technologies, Government: Democracy in Action Web site at people running for Congress have begun using the gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 5—Student Internet as a campaign tool. Challengers for open Web Activities for an activity about the congressional membership. seats and incumbents in highly competitive races

Section 11 AssessmentAssessment Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking 1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to 5. Making Inferences Members of Congress the one below, compare the qualifications for spend part of their time working for reelection. representatives House Senate Which house has a greater percentage of its and senators. time remaining for legislative work? Why? 2. Define bicameral legislature, session, census, reapportionment, redistrict, gerrymander, at-large, censure, incumbent. 3. Identify Elbridge Gerry, Twenty-seventh Amendment. Political Processes What percentage of 4. How does Congress reapportion House seats people believe that their representative does among the states every ten years? not listen to them? Formulate a questionnaire that surveys voters about this issue.

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Powell v. McCormack, 1969 The Constitution gives CASES TO DEBATE Congress the power to be the “Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members.” It establishes the age, citizenship, and residence requirements for the House and Senate. Does the Constitution allow Congress to judge qualifications beyond these three spe- Adam Clayton cific requirements? The case of Powell v. McCormack addressed this question. Powell, Jr.

no longer in session. In the meantime (1968) Pow- Background of the Case ell had been elected again and seated in the 91st Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., was reelected to Congress. His lawyers now asked the Court for back the House of Representatives in November 1966. salary for the two years he was denied his seat. However, a congressional investigation had already disclosed questionable activities by Powell and The Constitutional Issue members of his staff during his previous terms. The House refused to seat Powell. In March 1967 One constitutional question was whether the Congress declared the seat vacant and notified the case was justiciable—could be decided by the governor of New York to order a new election. Court—under the Constitution. The defendants held Powell charged that he had been unlawfully that the case was not justiciable by the Court be- excluded from his seat in the House and brought cause the Constitution gave Congress, not the Court, suit in the federal courts. Speaker John McCormack power to judge the qualifications of its members. and four other officials were named as defendants. Further, defendants submitted that the ques- They responded that Congress had authority under tion was “political” and therefore not justiciable by the Constitution to judge the qualifications of its the Court. Finally, defendants asked whether the own members. Court could coerce officers of the House or issue The federal district court dismissed the com- injunctions compelling officers or employees of the plaint on the grounds that it did not have jurisdic- House to perform specific acts. tion in this matter. The United States Court of Powell’s lawyers believed that Congress did not Appeals for the District of Columbia refused to hear have the power to judge the moral qualifications of the case on the grounds that it was essentially a members. The Supreme Court referred to debates political question. The Supreme Court heard the at the Constitutional Convention that related to case of Powell v. McCormack in 1969. The 90th giving Congress power to judge its members’ Congress, to which Powell had been elected, was qualifications.

Debating the Case

Questions to Consider You Be the Judge 1. What might be a far-reaching result if the Court Must Congress accept a member if he or she decided in favor of the Speaker? meets the three basic tests—age, citizenship, and 2. What might be a far-reaching result if the Court residency? Does Adam Clayton Powell, Jr., deserve decided in favor of Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.? back pay and restoration of his seniority rights?

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Section 22 The House of Representatives

Reader’s Guide olitical division and debate is unavoidable in democratic government. Legislators Key Terms must have freedom to express their sometimes inflammatory opinions. Rules are constituents, caucus, majority leader, whips, bill, Pnecessary to help ensure fairness, to enable the leg- calendars, quorum islature to conduct business, and to protect the mi- Find Out nority. ■ Why are committees more important in the Article I, Section 51, of the Constitution says: House than they are in the Senate? “Each House may determine the Rules of its Pro- ■ Why is the Rules Committee one of the most ceedings.” Thomas Jefferson compiled the first powerful committees in the House? parliamentary manual for the Senate when he was Understanding Concepts vice president. He emphasized the importance of rules: Growth of Democracy Why does the majority party often get the credit or blame for everything Congress does? It is much more material that there be a “rule to go by, than what the rule is; that there may be a uniformity of proceeding in business not subject to the caprice [whims] of the Speaker or captiousness [criticisms] Congress of the members. A Floor Fight in —Thomas Jefferson, 1797 , 1798 ” PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA

ebate on the Sedition Rules for Lawmaking DAct has reached such The main task of each house of Congress a furor that representatives is the same—to make laws. Because the are no longer safe in cham- House and Senate differ in many ways, each bers. In a heated argument of house has organized itself to carry out its work of yesterday, Mr. Griswold making the laws. Complex rules and a structure Connecticut attacked Mr. with a of leadership enable Congress to carry out its Lyon of Vermont lawmaking duties. cane. Mr. Lyon defended fire tongs. himself with Lyon defends himself Complex Rules Each chamber has scores of Fire tongs cannot re- precedents based on past rulings that serve as a move the hot coals from who promote the Sedition guide to conducting business. The House and speeches of Federalists the of Connecticut, who supports Senate each print their rules every two years. Act. Mr. Allen “Where a law shall Act, read from the Aurora, House rules are generally aimed at defining the Sedition of the Constitution . . . have been passed in violation actions an individual representative can take, between abandonment of the is there any alternative addressed such as limiting representatives to speaking for Constitution and resistance?”Mr. Gallatin five minutes or less during a debate. real purpose of the Sedi- the chamber to reveal the tion Act: to silence all Republicans. See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook: 1. The Constitution, pages 774–799.

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The complex rules in the House are geared to- librarian in Congress. He emphasizes the impor- ward moving legislation quickly once it reaches the tance of libraries in promoting literacy. As an floor. House debates rarely last more than one day. African American, Owens also supports funding Moreover, leaders of the House of Representatives for African American colleges and aid for under- have more power than leaders in the Senate. For privileged students. He explains: example, the rules of the House allow its leaders to make key decisions about legislative work without We need more role models who will open consulting other House members. “new possibilities for those who have been excluded from the dreams that others take Committee Work Committees do most of the for granted. work of Congress. In the House, committee work ” —Major R. Owens is more important than in the Senate. Because the membership of the House is so large, its members Finally, because House members are elected must organize themselves into smaller groups in from districts, much of their time is devoted to order to accomplish their work efficiently. In the serving the interests of their constituents. John J. committees representatives have more influence Duncan, Jr., of Tennessee said: than on the House floor, and they have the time to study and shape bills. I have a firm belief we have too many laws In addition, representatives tend to specialize “on the books now. . . . I’ve made it pretty in a few issues that are important to their clear I believe constituent service is most constituents—the people in the districts they rep- important and is where a freshman can be resent. For example, Major R. Owens, a representa- most effective. tive from Brooklyn, New York, is the only trained ”—John J. Duncan, Jr., 1988

n 1944 Vernon Baker, a for a country that treated him 25-year-old army second as a second-class citizen, Baker Making a Difference Ilieutenant serving in World replied, “I was a soldier with a Making a Difference War II, was shot in the wrist by job to do, and I did it for the a German sniper. He spent two men I was leading.” Vernon Baker months in a segregated hospital, Presented with the Distin- then returned to lead his men guished Service Cross for his ser- into battle. On the morning of vice in Italy, Baker remained in the April 5, 1945, Baker destroyed military after the war. When he re- two enemy bunkers, an observa- tired from the army in 1968, he tion post, and three machine took a job with the Red Cross, gun nests. His company was counseling needy military families. nearly wiped out, but he ordered In 1990 Army officials reex- the seven remaining men amined their records, looking for to retreat while he drew congressional Medal of Honor enemy fire. Somehow, amid candidates among African Ameri- exploding shells, Lieutenant cans with outstanding service in Baker escaped. World War II. Fifty years after his Although the army segre- act of bravery, Vernon Baker ac- gated African Americans during cepted the medal in a White Medal of the war, Baker and his men House ceremony. “It’s a great Honor fought like heroes. Asked day. We’ve all been vindicated,” why he fought so courageously he said.

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(1) organizing and unifying party members; (2) scheduling the work of the House; (3) making certain that lawmakers are present for key floor votes; (4) distributing and collecting information; (5) keeping the House in touch with the president; and (6) influencing lawmakers to support the policies of their political party. The Constitution provides only for the presiding officer of the House. Speaking Frankly Members of Other than that, the House chooses all its other Congress don’t need stamps for their official leaders. mail: their signature, real or printed, is known as a frank and is accepted by the Post Office. The Speaker of the House The Speaker of Franking cannot be used for personal the House is the presiding officer of the House and business or for political campaigns. It can be its most powerful leader. The Constitution states used only on letters mailed to constituents. that the House “shall choose their Speaker and Because this privilege gives incumbents an other officers.” A caucus, or closed meeting, of the advantage during an election year, members majority party chooses the House Speaker at the of Congress can’t send out large volumes of start of each session of Congress, and the entire franked mail right before an election. House membership approves the choice of Speaker. As both the presiding officer of the House and the leader of the majority party, the Speaker has great power. Presiding over the sessions of the Importance of Party Affiliation Many proce- House, the Speaker can influence proceedings by dures in Congress are organized around the political deciding which members to recognize first. The party affiliation of members. In both the House and Speaker also appoints the members of some com- Senate, the Republicans sit on the right side of the mittees, schedules bills for action, and refers bills chamber, the Democrats on the left. In each house to the proper House committee. Finally, the Speak- the majority party selects the leaders of that body, er of the House follows the vice president in the controls the flow of legislative work, and appoints line of succession to the presidency. committee chairs. The power to organize the House Today, Speakers rely as much on persuasion as explains why some conservative Democrats on their formal powers to exercise influence. On a switched to the Republican Party when it became the typical day, the Speaker may talk with dozens of majority party in Congress after the 1994 election. fellow members of Congress. Often the Speaker The Republican majority began sweeping does so just to listen to requests for a favor. As for- changes of House rules in 1995, promoted to make mer Speaker Thomas P. “Tip” O’Neill once put it, the House more accountable. Some changes cen- “The world is full of little things you can do for tralized power in the speakership in order to help people.” In return, the Speaker expects representa- Republicans carry out their agenda. The new rules tives’ support on important issues. provided for fewer committees, fewer staff members, term limits for chairpersons and the Speaker, House Floor Leaders The Speaker’s top as- and an end to absentee voting in committees. sistant is the majority leader. The majority leader’s Despite strong resistance from the Democratic job is to help plan the party’s legislative program, leaders in the House, the new Republican majority steer important bills through the House, and make was able to push through the reforms. sure the chairpersons of the many committees fin- ish work on bills important to the party. The majority leader is the floor leader of his or her House Leadership political party in the House and, like the Speaker, is Organized leadership coordinates the work elected by the majority party. Thus, the majority of the 435 individual members of the House leader is not actually a House official but a party of Representatives. These leaders serve 6 purposes: official.

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The majority leader has help from the majori- the chamber. Most representatives are not even on ty whip and deputy whips. These whips serve as the floor, because they are in committee meetings, assistant floor leaders in the House. The majority talking with voters, or taking care of other busi- whip’s job is to watch how majority-party mem- ness. Representatives reach the floor quickly, how- bers intend to vote on bills, to persuade them to ever, when it is time for debate or a vote on vote as the party wishes, and to see that party proposed bills. members are present to vote. Usually, the House starts its floor sessions at The minority party in the House also elects its noon or earlier. Buzzers ring in members’ offices in own leaders. These include the minority leader the House office buildings, committee rooms, and and the minority whips. The responsibilities of in the Capitol, calling representatives. The House is these leaders are much the same as those of the normally in session from Monday through Friday. majority party’s leaders, except they have no power Mondays are for routine work. Not much is done over scheduling work in the House. on Friday because many representatives leave to go to their home districts over the weekend. Thus, most of the House’s important work is done from Lawmaking in the House Tuesday through Thursday. To a visitor, the floor of the House of Repre- sentatives may seem totally disorganized. How House Bills Are Scheduled All Some representatives talk in small groups or read laws start as bills. A proposed law is called a bill newspapers. Others constantly walk in and out of until both houses of Congress pass it and the

COMPARINGCOMPARING GovernmentsGovernments Selected National Legislatures Number of Term of Method of Date of Last Country Legislative Chamber(s) Members Office Selection Constitution

Egypt National Peoples Assembly 454 5 yrs. popular election 1971

Israel Knesset 120 4 yrs. popular election 1949

Diet elected by local Japan House of Representatives 480** 4 yrs. and national 1947 House of Councillors 252 6 yrs. constituencies Chamber of Deputies 500 3 yrs. popular election Mexico 1917 Senate 128 6 yrs. popular election

State Duma 450 4 yrs.* popular election Russia 1993 Federation Council 178 4 yrs.* local election

United House of Commons 659** 5 yrs. popular election no written Kingdom House of Lords 500*** life appointed constitution

United House of Representatives 435 2 yrs. popular election 1789 States Senate 100 6 yrs. popular election

* Initial term was two years; changed ** Number varies. *** Normal attendance is 300, but many to four after second election. more vote on key decisions. Source: CIA, The World Factbook (Washington, D.C.).

Critical Thinking Culture and history play large roles in how legislatures are formed around the world. In what two ways is the United Kingdom unique among the countries shown above?

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articipating 4 How to close or extend debate 5. How to raise the question of IN GOVERNMENT consideration and how to vote 6. What duties and powers the presiding officer has Parliamentary ike Congress, all deliberative as- Procedure semblies need rules to conduct Activity Lbusiness in a fair and impartial 1. Obtain a copy of Robert’s Rules way. Rules of order had their origin of Order. Appoint a small group to in early British Parliaments. Thomas find rules pertaining to the items Jefferson’s Manual of Parliamentary listed above. Discuss the needs Practice (1801) provided rules for of a small group meeting (about the new United States government. the size of your class). Write rules Many groups use Robert’s Rules of for such a meeting based on Order, first published in 1876 by these needs. U.S. army officer Henry M. Robert. 2. Choose a presiding officer for a Robert’s Rules addresses such meeting of your government class issues as: and a parliamentarian to enforce 1. How to make a motion and how the rules. Hold a meeting in which to amend a motion the class determines an issue to 2. What rank or precedence various discuss, hears opinions from the kinds of motions have floor, and decides whether to take 3. How to table or suspend a motion any action.

president signs it. According to the procedure The House Rules Committee The Rules currently in place, to introduce a bill in the House, Committee serves as the “traffic officer” in the representatives drop it into the hopper, a ma- House, helping to direct the flow of major legisla- hogany box that is accessible to all near the front tion. It is one of the oldest House committees, and of the chamber. the most powerful. After a committee has consid- After a bill is introduced, the Speaker of the ered and approved a major bill, it usually goes to House sends it to the appropriate committee for the Rules Committee. The Rules Committee can study, discussion, and review. Of the thousands move bills ahead quickly, hold them back, or stop of bills and resolutions introduced during each them completely. legislative term of Congress, only about 10 to 20 Because the Rules Committee has the power to percent ever go to the full House for a vote. Bills decide how and when legislation will be consid- that survive the committee process are put on one ered by the House, it has often been the focus of of the House calendars. Calendars list bills that are political battles. From 1858 to 1910, the Speaker of up for consideration. the House, as chair of the Rules Committee, dom- The House has five calendars. Three are used inated the flow of legislation. In 1911 the House re- to schedule different kinds of bills for considera- volted against Speaker Joseph G. Cannon’s tion. The Union Calendar lists bills dealing with authoritarian leadership and removed him from money issues. Most other public bills are put on the Rules Committee. the House Calendar. The Private Calendar lists In 1975 Democratic majorities in the House bills that deal with individual people or places. Any once again placed the Rules Committee under bill that the House gives unanimous consent to de- control of the Speaker. The Democratic Caucus bate out of regular order is listed on the Consent gave the Speaker the power to appoint, subject to Calendar. Finally, the Discharge Calendar is used caucus ratification, all majority-party members of for petitions to discharge a bill from committee. the Rules Committee. A former Speaker explained:

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The Rules Committee is an agent of the ahead. The Rules Committee may also include a “leadership. It is what distinguishes us from time limit for debate on the bill and specify how the Senate, where the rules deliberately much the bill may be amended on the floor. favor those who would delay. The rules of the House . . . permit a majority to work Other Purposes of the Rules Committee its will on legislation rather than allow it The Rules Committee also settles disputes among to be bottled up and stymied. other House committees. For example, the Armed —Speaker Jim Wright,” 1987 Services Committee may be considering a bill that involves an area also covered by the Veterans’ Af- Republicans became the majority party in the fairs Committee. The Rules Committee can help House of Representatives in 1995. Their new resolve any dispute between the two committees. Speaker, Newt Gingrich, as minority leader in the Finally, the Rules Committee often delays or previous Congress had sparked an ethics investiga- blocks bills that representatives and House leaders tion that resulted in Speaker Jim Wright’s resigna- do not want to come to a vote on the floor. In this tion. Gingrich asserted the power to appoint way the Rules Committee draws criticism away committee chairpersons, including the leader of from members who might have to take an unpop- the powerful Rules Committee. ular stand on a bill if it reaches the floor.

Function of the Rules Committee Major A Quorum for Business A quorum is the bills that reach the floor of the House for debate minimum number of members who must be pre- and for a vote do so by a “rule”—or special order— sent to permit a legislative body to take official ac- from the Rules Committee. As major bills come tion. For a regular session, a quorum consists of out of committee, they are entered on either the the majority of the House—218 members. When Union Calendar or the House Calendar in the the House meets to debate and amend legislation it order received. The calendars have so many bills may often sit as a Committee of the Whole. In that that if they were taken up in that order, many case, only 100 members constitute a quorum. This would never reach the floor before the end of the procedure helps speed the consideration of impor- session. To resolve this problem, the chairperson of tant bills. The Committee of the Whole cannot the committee that sent the bill to the Rules Com- pass a bill. Instead, it reports the measure back to mittee may ask for it to move ahead of other bills the full House with whatever changes it has made. and to be sent to the House floor. If the Rules The House then has the authority to pass or reject Committee grants the request, the bill moves the bill.

Section 22 AssessmentAssessment Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking 1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the 6. Understanding Cause and Effect Why are one below, show three ways in which the Rules changes in House rules more likely to occur Committee controls legislation. when political control of the House shifts to another party? Rules Committee

2. Define constituents, caucus, majority leader, whips, bill, calendars, quorum. 3. Identify Rules Committee. Growth of Democracy Browse through current 4. Analyze the role of House committees. newspapers and magazines to find out what 5. How does a representative introduce a bill in the legislation the majority party in the House is House? trying to pass. Make a chart of the key legislation and record its progress for several weeks.

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Section 33 The Senate

Reader’s Guide he Senate is a deliberative body. Senators handle issues of specific interest to them Key Terms in their committees, but they also deal with many other issues on the floor, president pro tempore, filibuster, cloture whereT there is plenty of time for debate. Senators, Find Out who represent entire states, are expected to know ■ Why does the Senate have fewer rules and a something about and deal with many issues— less formal atmosphere than the House? from national defense to social issues to farming. ■ Why does the Senate usually take longer than the House to pass a bill? The Senate at Work Understanding Concepts Visitors going from the House to the Senate Growth of Democracy Why do floor debates are often startled by the difference. The Sen- in the Senate often include powerful speeches ate chamber is smaller than the House chamber. charged with emotion? Usually only a few senators attend sessions. The Senate chamber has 100 desks—one for each senator—facing a raised platform where the president pro tem and another senator preside over sessions. The party leaders or their assistants stay in the First Lady Elected Senate chamber at all times to keep the work mov- OVEMBER 7, 2000 ing and to look after their party’s interests. NEW YORK, N.Y., N Democratic candi- irst Lady Hillary Clinton, the Informal Atmosphere In the Senate, the York, defeated Repub- Fdate for senator from New rules are more flexible than in the House. They lican Congressman Rick are designed to make certain that all senators Lazio. At first, Clinton’s have maximum freedom to express their ideas. race seemed an uphill one. For example, the Senate usually allows unlimit- The problems of her hus- ed debate on proposed legislation. Senate rules band’s presidency lingered, are spelled out in fewer than 100 pages. With and she faced accusations fewer rules, the Senate has a more informal at- of being a carpetbagger, mosphere than the House. They may debate a since she had only recently proposal on and off for weeks or even months in the established residency before taking action on an issue. state. Clinton campaigned and won Hillary Clinton hard, however, Senate Leaders Leadership in the Senate 55-43 percent by a healthy that her first closely parallels leadership in the House, but was helped by the fact margin. She Giuliani, York City mayor Rudolph the Senate has no Speaker. The vice president opponent, New presides in the Senate, but may not vote except out of the race mid-campaign. dropped to break a tie. Also, Senate procedures permit individual senators more freedom in their activities. Consequently, party leaders in the Senate may not have as much influence over other senators as their counterparts in the House.

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The Vice President The Constitution names the time being.” The Senate elects this leader. The the vice president as president of the Senate. The president pro tempore is from the majority party vice president, however, does not have the same and is usually its most senior member. role and power as the Speaker of the House. The vice president may recognize members and put Majority and Minority Floor Leaders The questions to a vote. Because the vice president is majority and minority leaders are the most impor- not an elected member of the Senate, he or she tant officers in the Senate. Elected by the members may not take part in Senate debates. The vice pres- of their political parties, the majority and minori- ident may, if the situation warrants, cast a vote in ty leaders in the Senate are party officials rather the Senate, but only in the event of a tie. A vice than official Senate officers. The majority leader’s president may try to influence the Senate through main job is to steer the party’s bills through the personal contact with senators, however. Many re- Senate. To do this, the majority leader plans the cent vice presidents previously served as senators Senate’s work schedule and agenda in consultation and thus had close relationships with their former with the minority leader. colleagues. The majority leader is responsible for making Most vice presidents find Senate duties un- certain the majority party members attend impor- challenging and devote much of their time to exec- tant Senate sessions and for organizing their sup- utive branch activities, leaving little time to preside port on key bills. The minority leader develops over the Senate. In the absence of the vice presi- criticisms of the majority party’s bills and tries dent, the president pro tempore (or president pro to keep senators in the minority party working tem) presides. The term pro tempore means “for together. As in the House, whips and assistant

The Filibuster—Then and Now ▲ Present During a 1960 filibuster Colorado Republican Gordon Allott, draped in a bedsheet, left his cot to proceed with his oration.

Past In 60 B.C., Cato the Younger

initiated a filibuster to block Caesar’s election as consul. ▲

Legislative Techniques Often senators simply threaten to filibuster to defeat legislative bills. Why would these threats work?

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whips assist the majority and minority leaders of The Filibuster Because the Senate usually the Senate by making sure that legislators are allows unlimited debate on any bill under consid- present for key votes. eration, one way for senators to defeat a bill they oppose is to filibuster against it. To filibuster How Senate Bills Are Scheduled As in the means to stall the legislative process and prevent House, any member of the Senate may introduce a a vote. Stall tactics include talking continuously, bill. Procedures for moving bills through the Sen- delaying issues in committee, and other procedural ate, however, are more informal than in the House. roadblocks. Because it is smaller, the Senate has never needed a Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina committee like the House Rules Committee. In- set the record for a filibuster when he spoke against stead, Senate leaders control the flow of bills to the Civil Rights Act of 1957 for 24 hours and 18 committees and to the floor for debate and vote. minutes. A filibuster by a group of senators could They do this by consulting closely with one anoth- go on for weeks or even months. er and with other senators. A filibuster can be stopped when three-fifths of The Senate has only two calendars. The Calen- the Senate (60 members) votes for cloture. Cloture dar of General Orders lists all the bills the Senate is a procedure that allows each senator to speak only will consider, while the Executive Calendar sched- 1 hour on a bill under debate. Obtaining a vote in ules treaties and nominations. The Senate brings favor of cloture, however, is usually difficult, bills to the floor by unanimous consent, a motion especially when each party controls close to the by all members present to set aside formal rules same number of Senate seats. and consider a bill from the calendar. The proce- The filibuster is not commonly utilized as dure has not changed much through the years. In a legislative tactic in the Senate today. Senate rules 1913 Massachusetts senator Henry Cabot Lodge now allow other matters to continue during a explained that the Senate conducted most of its filibuster, weakening the filibuster’s effectiveness. business through unanimous-consent agreements: Because of the close division of political parties in the Senate, the simple threat of a filibuster is often Not only the important unanimous- enough to delay or defeat a bill. “consent agreements which are reached often with much difficulty on large and general- Politics As in the House, Senate procedures are ly contested measures, but constantly on organized around the members’ party affiliations. all the small business of the Senate we de- Republicans sit on the right side of the chamber, pend on unanimous consent to enable us while Democrats sit on the left. More importantly, to transact the public business. the majority party controls the flow of legislative —Henry Cabot Lodge,” 1913 work.

Section 33 AssessmentAssessment Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking 1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer similar to the 5. Making Comparisons Compare the rules and one at the right, analyze Majority Minority procedures of the House with those of the the relationship between Senate. the Senate majority and minority leaders, whips, and assistant whips. 2. Define president pro tempore, filibuster, cloture. Growth of Democracy Search through a 3. Identify Calendar of General Orders. reference work of historic speeches. Use one 4. How does the Senate bring bills to the floor? of the speeches as a model for a persuasive speech of your own.

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Section 44 Congressional Committees

Reader’s Guide hile the subject of R-rated movies makes for a dramatic hearing, much Key Terms of the detailed day-to-day work of considering proposed legislation standing committee, subcommittee, select Wtakes place in committees that meet in congres- committee, joint committee, conference committee, seniority system sional offices. Sometimes the hearings are more exciting and informative than the floor debates Find Out that follow. ■ Why are several different kinds of committees necessary in the House and Senate? ■ Why are committee chairpersons considered Purposes of Committees the most powerful members of Congress? Both the House and Senate depend upon Understanding Concepts committees to effectively consider the thousands of bills that are proposed each session. Com- Political Processes Why have committees become the power centers in Congress? mittees help ease the workload and are the key power centers in Congress. The committee system serves several important purposes. First, it allows members of Con- gress to divide their work among many smaller groups. Lawmakers can become specialists on the Judiciary Committee issues their committees consider. This system is the only practical way for Congress to operate be- Looks at Hollywood cause no lawmaker can possibly know the details EPTEMBER 18, 2000 WASHINGTON, D.C., S of each of the thousands of bills introduced in each term of Congress. ds for R-rated films Second, from the huge number of bills intro- shown during television duced in each Congress, committees select those A a large per- programs with few that are to receive further consideration. viewers under 17 centage of Committees are the places in which lawmakers sparked a Senate inves- have listen to supporters and opponents of a bill. It is tigation. A federal report also found that underage in committees where they work out compromis- teenagers are easily sneaking es, and decide which bills will or will not have a into R-rated movies. chance to become law. Most bills never get be- Many people in Holly- yond the committee stage. executive wood are suspicious because Studio Third, by holding public hearings and in- held testifies. the hearings are being vestigations, committees help the public learn less than two months before think it’s a bunch of weasels about key problems and issues facing the a national election. “I heads for votes,”said Larry Kasanoff, who nation. Congressional committees have called scrambling based on action-ori- the public’s attention to such issues as orga- a company that makes movies Mortal Kombat and Duke ented video games like nized crime, the safety of prescription drugs, Nukem. hunger in America, airline safety, and many other issues and concerns that have confront- ed the nation.

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Kinds of Committees Party membership on committees is usually divided in direct proportion to each party’s strength Congress has four basic kinds of commit- in each house. For example, if 60 percent of the tees: (1) standing committees; (2) select members of the House are Republicans, then 60 committees; (3) joint committees; and (4) confer- percent of the members of each House standing ence committees. Congress may, however, change committee will be Republicans. Thus, a 10-mem- the method of committee organization and the ber committee would have 6 Republicans and 4 number of committees. Democrats. However, the party in power in the House will often have a super majority on the most Standing Committees Very early in its histo- important committees. ry, Congress set up permanent groups to oversee bills that dealt with certain kinds of issues. These Subcommittees Nearly all standing commit- are called standing committees because they con- tees have several subcommittees. Each subcom- tinue from one Congress to the next. The House mittee specializes in a subcategory of its standing and Senate each create their own standing com- committee’s responsibility. Subcommittees, like mittees and control their areas of jurisdiction, standing committees, usually continue from one occasionally adding or eliminating a standing Congress to the next, although the majority party committee when necessary. may make changes. For example, House Republi- The majority party has power to write the rules cans in the 104th Congress limited most commit- in Congress. Republicans made changes in the tees to no more than five subcommittees. The structure and titles of several committees when exceptions were Appropriations with 13 subcom- they became the majority in 1995. They also set six- mittees, Government Reform and Oversight with year term limits for committee chairpersons. The 7 subcommittees, and Transportation and Infra- last major realignment of standing committees in structure with 6 subcommittees. the Senate took place in 1977. Because the majority party in each house con- Select Committees From time to time, each trols the standing committees, it selects a chair- house of Congress has created temporary commit- person for each from among its party members. tees. Usually, these committees, called select com- The majority of the members of each standing mittees, study one specific issue and report their committee are also members of the majority party. findings to the Senate or the House. These issues

The V-Chip politicians a way of taking action on TV vio- o address the concerns of many parents who lence without stirring up a felt that TV violence was contributing to aggres- controversy over censorship. T sive behavior in young children, Congress Most children’s activists have gave parents more control over home television welcomed the V-chip, although The V-chip viewing. Use of a V-chip is part of a new communi- they realize it will not be effective cations policy that became law in 1996. without parents’ active participation. The law requires manufacturers to install a V- chip in new television sets beginning in 1998. This computer chip enables parents to block out shows articipating that have been coded as violent, lewd, or inappro- IN GOVERNMENT ACTIVITY priate for young children. Debate the Issue Do you think the V-chip is a Legislators know that widespread use of the V- real solution to violence viewed on television? chip will come only after older television sets are Analyze the issue and present your view. no longer in service. However, the device provides 142 141-145 CH05S4-860053 12/1/04 2:34 AM Page 143

StandingStanding CommitteesCommittees ofof CongressCongress

House Committees Senate Committees Agriculture Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry Appropriations Appropriations Armed Services Armed Services Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Budget Budget Education and the Workforce Commerce, Science, and Transportation Energy and Commerce Energy and Natural Resources Financial Services Environment and Public Works Government Reform Finance House Administration Foreign Relations International Relations Governmental Affairs Judiciary Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions Resources Judiciary Rules Rules and Administration Science Small Business and Entrepreneurship Veterans' Affairs Small Business Standards of Official Conduct Subcommittees Transportation and Infrastructure Health Veterans' Affairs Human Resources Ways and Means Oversight Select Revenue Measures Social Security Trade Sources: www.house.gov; www.senate.gov

Critical Thinking Congressional committees have changed in recent decades. The House rules adopted in the 104th Congress limited most standing committees to no more than five subcommittees. What is the difference between standing committees and select committees?

can include: (1) matters of great public concern, Joint Committees Made up of members from such as organized crime; (2) overlooked problems, both the House and the Senate, joint committees such as hunger; or (3) problems of interest groups, may be either temporary or permanent. Like other such as owners of small business, who claim that committees, they have members from both politi- Congress has not met their needs. Select commit- cal parties. These committees—such as the Joint tees usually cannot report bills to their parent Economic Committee—usually act as study chamber, however. groups with responsibility for reporting their find- Select committees were usually set up to last ings back to the House and Senate. for no more than one term of Congress. In prac- In theory, joint committees coordinate the tice, however, select committees may be renewed work of the two houses of Congress. In practice, and continue to meet for several terms of Con- lawmakers usually limit joint committees to han- gress. For this reason, both the House and Senate dling routine matters such as are handled by the have reclassified several select committees, such as Joint Committee on Printing, and the Joint Com- the Select Intelligence Committee, as permanent mittee on the Library of Congress. Some joint committees. In 1993 the House terminated four se- committees, however, have been set up to study lect committees. more volatile matters such as atomic energy,

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Legislative Leadership

Committee Membership Senate Judiciary Committee Chairman Orrin Hatch (UT, left) and Patrick Leahy (VT, right) confer during hearings to confirm the nomination of Attorney General John Ashcroft in 2001. Evaluate the motivation behind requests for committee assignments. Why would a senator seek assignment to judiciary, foreign relations, or budget committees? To committees that could benefit his or her constituents?

defense, and taxation. Joint committees do not out—reaches the floor of each house, it must be have the authority to deal directly with bills or to considered as a whole and may not be amended. It propose legislation to Congress. must be accepted or rejected as it is when it comes from the conference committee. Conference Committees No bill can be sent from Congress to the president until both houses have passed it in identical form. A conference Choosing Committee Members committee is a temporary committee set up when Membership in congressional committees the House and Senate have passed different ver- is extremely important to the role played sions of the same bill. Members of the conference by members of Congress. Assignment to the right committee, called conferees, usually come from committees can help strengthen a member’s ca- the House and Senate standing committees that reer in several ways. First, membership on some handled the bill in question. Democrats and Re- committees can increase a lawmaker’s chances for publicans are represented in the same way here as reelection. For freshmen, the best committees on other committees. may be those that deal with bills that will benefit The job of the conference committee is to re- a lawmaker’s state or district. solve the differences between the two versions of Second, membership on some committees can the bill. Conference committees play a key role in mean the lawmaker will be able to influence na- policy making because they work out a bill that tional policy making. Committees that often help both houses may accept and send to the president. formulate national policies include those dealing The committee accomplishes this task by bargain- with education, the budget, health, the judiciary, ing over each section of the bill. A majority of the and foreign policy. Third, some committees enable conferees from each house must accept the final a member to exert influence over other lawmakers compromise bill—called a conference report— because they deal with matters important to every- before it can be sent to the floor of the House one in Congress. Some of these committees in- and Senate. When the conference committee’s clude the House Rules Committee and taxation report—the compromise bill it has finally worked and appropriations committees.

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In the House the key committees are Rules, Since the 1970s the powers of committee Ways and Means, and Appropriations. In the Sen- chairpersons have been limited somewhat. The ate the most prestigious committees are Foreign Re- Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 made the lations, Finance, and Appropriations.Assignment to committee system more democratic by allowing a the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, for exam- majority of committee members to call meetings ple, will give a lawmaker a chance to directly influ- without the chairperson’s approval. It also stated ence American foreign policy. Senators on this that committee members who disagree with the committee usually receive a great deal of publicity. chairperson must have time to present their views and that reasonable notice must be given for all Assignment to Committees In both the committee hearings. Rule changes in 1995 prohib- House and Senate, the political parties assign mem- ited the chairperson from casting an absent members to the standing committees. Newly elected ber’s vote and required committees to publish all members of Congress who wish to serve on a partic- members’ votes. ular committee or veteran lawmakers who wish to transfer to another committee may request assign- The Seniority System The unwritten rule of ment to the committees on which they want to serve. seniority traditionally has guided the selection Each member may only serve on a limited number of chairpersons. The seniority system gave the of standing committees and subcommittees. member of the majority party with the longest un- interrupted service on a particular committee the The Committee Chairperson’s Role leadership of that committee. Along with party leaders, the chairpersons of Criticism of the seniority system has resulted in standing committees are the most powerful mem- several changes. Beginning in 1971, House Repub- bers of Congress. They make the key decisions licans voted by secret ballot to select the highest- about the work of their committees—when their ranking Republican on each committee. In 1973 committees will meet, which bills they will consid- the Democrats, who were the majority party in the er, and for how long. They decide when hearings House, adopted the same procedure. In a historic will be held and which witnesses will be called to action in 1975, House Democrats voted to replace testify for or against a bill. In addition, chairper- three senior committee chairpersons. In 1995 Re- sons may hire committee staff members and con- publicans also bypassed several senior members up trol the committee budget. Finally, they manage for chairs and ruled that chairpersons of House the floor debates that take place on the bills that committees could hold their positions for no more come from their committees. than three consecutive terms.

Section 44 AssessmentAssessment Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking 1. Main Idea In a Venn diagram, show how a 5. Making Inferences Why did Republicans, when conference committee they won control of Congress in 1995, institute Conference Joint and a joint committee both many rule changes? are alike and how they are different. 2. Define standing committee, subcommittee, select committee, joint committee, conference committee, seniority system. Political Processes Watch coverage of a con- 3. Identify Select Intelligence, Rules, Ways and gressional committee on television, or read Means, Appropriations Committees. about it in a newspaper. Outline the major 4. List four important powers of a committee issues presented in the testimony before the chairperson. committee. Write a position paper in which you agree or disagree with the witnesses.

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Section 55 Staff and Support Agencies

Reader’s Guide he work of Congress is so massive and complicated that lawmakers need trained Key Terms staffs to help them do their work effectively. Staff members also carry out the personal staff, committee staff, administrative workT of congressional committees. In addition, a assistant, legislative assistant, caseworker number of supporting agencies perform impor- Find Out tant functions for members. ■ Why do members of Congress have large per- House rules in 1995 cut the total of committee sonal and committee staffs? staff by one-third compared to the levels of the ■ How could a committee staffer have more previous Congress. The Senate also made less dra- influence than a member of Congress over a matic cuts—a 15 percent reduction in committee proposed bill? staff. At the same time Congress adopted a resolu- Understanding Concepts tion to cut the legislative branch budget and re- duced the budget of the General Accounting Political Processes How do staffs and support agencies help members of Congress carry out their Office. Such staff reductions are rare. many responsibilities? Congressional Staff Role When Lowell Weicker of Connecticut was in the Senate, a woman wrote to him com- plaining about the way an airline had handled her House Audits Books dog. The dog, shipped as animal cargo, had died ANUARY 1995 WASHINGTON, D.C., J in flight. One of the senator’s secretaries men- tioned the letter to the press secretary, who he new Republican thought that perhaps the incident had news Tmajority wasted no value. He phoned the Federal Aviation Agency time in “cleaning house.” and other government offices and found that First, they ordered an audit there had been many similar cases. After inform- the of House records. Then ing the senator, the secretary wrote a draft of a House Oversight Commit- bill to authorize the Transportation Department the tee voted to trim staff in to regulate air transport of animals. Senator television office and reduce of- Republican logo Weicker later introduced the legislation on the staff in the photography floor of the Senate. The story became headlines of Congress fice. Members cost of such services in Weicker’s home state, and he received many now have to pay the full would The new majority letters of appreciation. of their own office funds. out that were attached This story illustrates that congressional party also cut 96 staff positions organizations. The service staff members do much of the important work to 28 legislative service to 1959 when Congress on legislation. Lawmakers rely on their staffs to organizations dated back Study Group to analyze help them handle the growing workload of certified the Democratic Congress, communicate with voters, help run legislation. committee hearings and floor sessions, draft new bills, write committee reports, and attend committee meetings. Congressional staffs also

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help lawmakers get reelected. Staffers help mem- members work directly for individual senators and bers of Congress get publicity, keep an eye on po- representatives. Committee staff members work litical developments back home, and write for the many House and Senate committees. speeches and newsletters. They also help raise The size of senators’ personal staffs varies be- funds for election campaigns and meet with lob- cause allowances to pay for them are based on the byists and visitors from home. population of the senator’s state and distance from the capital. Senators each receive a yearly budget to operate their offices. Most of this amount is to Congressional Staff Growth pay staff salaries. About one-third of personal staff Congress has not always relied on staff to members work in the legislators’ home states. The accomplish its work. For almost 100 years, rest work in Washington, D.C. Each member of the senators and representatives had no personal aides. House has an allowance to pay for a personal staff. Occasionally they might hire assistants out of per- The House and Senate employ thousands of personal funds, but Congress provided no paid staff. sonal staff aides. Lawmakers can hire and fire staff Inadequate staffing had become an urgent com- members at will. plaint by the time Congress considered the Legisla- tive Reorganization Act in 1946. After that the Administrative Assistants Lawmakers usu- number of staff members increased dramatically. ally have three types of personal staff members in The House and Senate employed 2,000 personal their offices. The administrative assistant, called staff members in 1947, but more than 11,500 in an AA, is a very important legislative aide. The AA 1990. Committee staff increased from 400 to more runs the lawmaker’s office, supervises the lawmak- than 3,000 in that same period. er’s schedule, and gives advice on political matters. Congressional staffs grew as lawmaking be- A good AA also deals with influential people from came more complex after the early 1900s. Lawmak- the lawmaker’s congressional district or state, who ers could not be experts on all the issues that came may influence the lawmaker’s reelection. before their committees or upon which they voted in Congress. Hav- ing a large staff became one way to An Expanding Government get expert help. Also, the demands that constituents placed on lawmakers increased over the years. Mem- bers of Congress needed a large office staff simply to deal with the many letters from people in their states or congressional districts. In addition to writing to their senators and representatives, voters in increasing numbers have turned to their lawmakers for help in solving problems. One lawmaker explained, “More than half my total staff time is devoted to resolving individual diffi- culties that have developed between citizens and their government.”

Personal Staff Public Perceptions Members of Congress must balance the need for large staffs with the need to cut government Congress includes two types spending. What public perception of Congress does the of staffs: personal staff and cartoonist enhance with this cartoon? committee staff. Personal staff

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Legislative Assistants Legislative assis- witnesses. Often the senator or representative has tants, or LAs, are a second type of personal staff not seen the speech or the questions but relies on member. An LA makes certain that the lawmaker is the LA’s judgment. well informed about the many bills with which she LAs also keep track of the work taking place on or he must deal. An LA does research, drafts bills, the floor of Congress, as well as bills that are in studies bills currently in Congress, and writes committee. While routine legislative business goes speeches and articles for the lawmaker. on, the lawmaker may be in a committee meeting Another important part of the LA’s job is to or talking with voters. When the buzzer rings, sig- assist the lawmaker in committee meetings and to naling time for a vote, lawmakers rush to the floor attend committee meetings when the lawmaker of the Senate or House from their offices or com- cannot be present. Senators and representatives mittee rooms. They may not know what the vote is are members of so many committees and subcom- about unless it involves a major bill that has been mittees that they cannot possibly attend all scheduled long in advance. As they walk, they look the committee meetings.When they do attend com- for their LAs. In his book In the Shadow of the mittee meetings, they often come in at the last Dome, former LA Mark Bisnow describes the minute and briefly talk with their LA to find out scene: what has taken place. The LA, who has followed the meeting and studied the bill in question, may have As the door of the “Senators Only” elevator prepared a short speech for the lawmaker or made “opened, their bosses would pour out. . . . If up a list of questions for the lawmaker to ask they did not know what they were voting on (votes occurred frequently throughout the day, and it was hard to keep track), . . . Aiding Lawmakers they would glance to the side to see if someone were waiting. A staffer might wave and run up for a huddled conference behind a pillar; or if the senator were in a hurry . . . he [or she] might simply expect a quick thumbs-up or thumbs-down gesture. ” —Mark Bisnow, 1990 Caseworkers Some personal staff members are called caseworkers because they handle the many requests for help from people in a lawmaker’s state or congressional district. In addition to their offices in Washington, D.C., lawmakers are likely to have offices in key cities in their home district. Caseworkers usually staff these offices. Committee Staff Every committee and subcommittee in Congress has staff members who work for that committee. The larger a committee is, the more staff people it will likely have. The commit- Influencing Congress Members of Con- tee chairperson and the senior minority party gress, like Representative Maxine Waters, depend on their legislative aides. How might member of the committee are in charge of these legislative assistants influence members staff members. Committee staffers draft bills, of Congress? study issues, collect information, plan committee hearings, write memos, and prepare committee

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reports. They are largely responsible for the work Supporting Congress involved in making laws. Some senior committee staff members are very experienced and are experts in the area their committee covers, whether it be tax policy, foreign affairs, or health care. Laurence Woodworth, who spent 32 years on the staff of the Joint Commit- tee on Internal Revenue Taxa- tion, is a good example of such an expert. As the committee’s staff director for 14 years, he was largely responsible for all changes in the tax laws. Later, Wood- worth left the committee to Thomas become assistant secretary of Jefferson the treasury.

Too Much Power? The people do not elect congressional staffers. Yet they play a key role in lawmaking. Do they have too much influence? Some lawmakers believe they do. Other lawmakers disagree. They say that the staff really collects information and develops alternative courses of action for the lawmakers.

Support Agencies Congressional Research Congress established the Library of Congress in 1800, and in 1815 Several agencies that are part of the legisla- purchased Thomas Jefferson’s private library of tive branch provide services that help Con- about 6,000 books. The Main Reading Room is gress carry out its powers. Some of the services the center of the greatest research library in the these agencies provide are also available to the United States. Why would members of Congress other branches of government and to private citi- require research materials? zens. Congress has created four important support agencies. year, CRS answers thousands of requests for infor- The Library of Congress Congress created mation from lawmakers, congressional staff, and the Library of Congress in 1800 to “purchase such committees. CRS workers will check out anything, books as may be necessary for the use of Con- from the number of kangaroos in Australia to the gress.”Today, it is one of the largest libraries in the crime rate in urban areas. Members of Congress world. This great center of information contains use the CRS to answer requests for information more than 100 million items, including books, from voters. They also use CRS for research on journals, music, films, photographs, and maps. matters related to bills before Congress. As the administrator of the copyright law, the copyright office in the Library receives two free Congressional Budget Office (CBO) Con- copies of most published works copyrighted in the gress established the CBO in 1974 to coordinate United States. the budget-making work of Congress, study the The Library has a Congressional Research Ser- budget proposals put forward by the president vice (CRS) with hundreds of employees. Every each year, and make cost projections of proposed

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new programs. The CBO counterbalances the day the GPO prints the Congressional Record, a president’s elaborate budget-making organization, daily record of all the bills introduced in both the Office of Management and Budget. CBO staff houses and of the speeches and testimony present- members study economic trends, keep track of ed in Congress. Members of Congress can make how much congressional committees are spend- changes in speeches they have made before they ing, and prepare a report on the budget each April. are printed in the Record. They can even have They also calculate how Congress’s budget deci- speeches they never actually made in the House or sions might affect the nation’s economy. Senate printed in the Record. Congressional staff members spend a good General Accounting Office (GAO) Estab- deal of time preparing speeches for lawmakers be- lished in 1921, this agency is the nation’s watchdog cause those words will be inserted in the Congres- over the spending of funds Congress appropriates. sional Record. Thus, when voters ask about the A comptroller general appointed to a 15-year term lawmaker’s position on a particular issue, the staff directs the GAO. The agency has a professional can send a copy of the Record containing a speech staff of about 3,300 people. They review the finan- the lawmaker made on that issue to the constituent cial management of government programs that making the request. Congress creates, collect government debts, settle Another valuable publication of the Govern- claims, and provide legal service. ment Printing Office is the Statistical Abstract Many GAO staff members answer requests for of the United States, updated and printed every information about specific programs from lawmak- year since 1878. Published by the Bureau of the ers and congressional committees. GAO staff mem- Census, this volume provides statistical informa- bers prepare reports on various federal programs tion about population, government finances, per- for lawmakers, testify before committees, develop sonal income, business, agriculture, education, law questions for committee hearings, and provide legal enforcement, national defense, elections, and opinions on bills under consideration. Almost one- many other topics. It is an invaluable source of third of the GAO’s work now comes from congres- data used by congressional staff as well as the gen- sional requests for information. eral public. The support agencies provide a vital function Government Printing Office (GPO) The for Congress. They have helped the legislative Government Printing Office is the largest multi- branch become less dependent on the executive purpose printing plant in the world. It does the branch for information. This has helped Congress printing for the entire federal government. Every regain some of the power it held in earlier years.

Section 55 AssessmentAssessment Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking 1. Main Idea In a graphic organizer like the one 5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Why do shown, analyze the differences between person- you think the comptroller general who oversees al staff and committee Personal Committee the General Accounting Office is appointed for staff in Congress. a 15-year term? 2. Define personal staff, committee staff, administrative assistant, legislative assistant, caseworker. 3. Identify Library of Congress, Congressional Budget Office, General Accounting Office, Political Processes Create a political cartoon Government Printing Office. that includes a caption about the role of com- 4. Why did the numbers of congressional staff mittee staff in Congress. Take a position on increase rapidly after 1900? whether professional staff members have too much power.

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Making Generalizations

eneralizations set forth a widely applied principle or rule based on particular facts. G“Florida is warmer than Michigan” is a valid generalization based on temperatures recorded over many years.

Learning the Skill To make a valid generalization, follow these steps: • Identify the subject matter. • Gather related facts and examples. • Identify similarities among these facts. • Use these similarities to form a general statement about the subject. Abigail Adams Practicing the Skill Identify each following generalization as valid Abigail Adams wrote the following letter to or invalid based on the information presented. her husband, John, who was attending the Second 1. There are many issues to answer if America Continental Congress in 1775. Read the excerpt separates from Britain. and complete the activity that follows. 2. Some governmental controls are necessary in a community. The reins of government have been so long 3. The colonies should adopt the British code “slackened that I fear the people will not of laws. quietly submit to those restraints which 4. The Americans should adopt a new are necessary for the peace and security of constitution. the community. If we separate from Britain, what code of laws will be estab- Application ActivityActivity lished? How shall we be governed so as to retain our liberties? Can any government Over a period of weeks, read the editori- be free which is administered by general als in your local newspaper. Then write a stated laws? Who shall frame these laws? list of generalizations about the newspaper’s Who will give them force and energy? It is position on issues such as politics or crime. true your resolutions, as a body, have hith- The Glencoe Skillbuilder erto had the force of laws; but will they Interactive Workbook, Level 2 continue to have? provides instruction and practice ” in key social studies skills.

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NOTEBOOK GEORGE

THE JOHNSON TREATMENT VERBATIM BETTMANN/CORBIS TAMES/THE LYNDON B. JOHNSON, SENATE LEADER FROM 1955 TO 1961, HAD A WHAT PEOPLE SAID unique way of persuading colleagues to see his point of view. He I think it is high time NEW would lean in close, cajole, and sometimes touch the other person “we remembered that

YORK for emphasis—techniques some might refer to as gentle bullying. the Constitution TIMES Senator Johnson gives Senator Theodore Francis Green “the treatment.” speaks not only of the freedom of speech but also of trial by jury instead of trial by accusation…. SENATOR” MARGARET CHASE SMITH of Maine, standing up to Senator Joseph McCarthy during his anti-Communist crusade in 1950 Members of the Congress, the “Constitution makes us not rivals for power but partners for progress. We are all trustees for the American people, custodians of the American heritage. PRESIDENT JOHN” F. KENNEDY, in a 1962 State of SYMBOLS IN THE HOUSE the Union Address AND SENATE It is the duty of every member “of this House to act upon his THE MACE is made up of 13 ebony rods tied together conscience and his sense of duty. with silver string and topped by a globe upon which sits It is his business to be right, a silver eagle with outstretched wings. This nearly four- careless of what may happen to foot high bundle is placed at the right of the Speaker’s him in consequence thereof. desk at the beginning of each House session. If a ” member becomes unruly, the sergeant at arms has been REPRESENTATIVE THOMAS KRT/NEWSCOM BRACKETT REED, in an 1884 speech known to place the mace in front of that person—or in the House of Representatives march up and down the aisle with the mace until people calm down. Congress is the great “commanding theater of this nation. THE GAVEL is a symbol of authority used by COURTESY ” both the House and the Senate. The Senate has THOMAS a fondness for a certain silver-capped ivory JEFFERSON, in gavel that is placed on the vice president’s desk U.S. an 1808 letter HOUSE at the opening of each Senate session. This gavel to William Wirt, a lawyer has not been used since 1954, when it OF and statesman started to deteriorate; it has since been REPRESENTATIVES

replaced by a replica that was a gift BETTMANN/CORBIS from the government of India.

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U.S. CONGRESS

MILESTONES NUMBERS

1st In 1968 Shirley Chisholm became the first African American woman elected to Congress. Four years later, the New York state resident was the first African American and first ##11 woman to enter the AP

PHOTO/NASA race for her party’s nomination for president of the United LAUNCHED, 1998. JOHN UNSEATED, 1926. SMITH States. GLENN, former Ohio senator and BROOKHART became the only the first American to orbit Earth, person in U.S. history to be 1st In 1992 became the oldest person to unseated in the Senate Carol Mosley- travel in space as a passenger following a recount of votes. Braun became aboard a NASA space shuttle. After a long dispute, the Senate the first African He was 77. recounted all 900,000 votes American woman from a 1924 race in Iowa—and elected to the United States APPOINTED, 1971. TWO 16- realized that the wrong man WARREN YEAR-OLD GIRLS became the first was currently serving. In 1926 it Senate. WILLIAM females to serve as Senate pages. awarded the Senate seat to the WINTER/CORBIS Ben Nighthorse In the 1830s, Senator Daniel true winner, Daniel Steck. PHILPOTT/CORBIS 1st Webster had appointed a 9-year- Campbell was the first Native old boy to run errands and TIE BROKEN, American to chair the Senate deliver messages for him—and 2001. VICE Indian Affairs Committee. the tradition of Senate pages was PRESIDENT Judo champ, gold medalist at the Pan American Games, born, an all-male tradition that DICK jewelry designer, rancher—all was not broken for more than CHENEY these titles fit this versatile 130 years. used his senator. powers as TALKED THE TALK, 1957. president The number of votes in the SENATOR STROM THURMOND of the Senate 1 Senate by which Texas of South Carolina set a filibuster (a position squeaked into the Union in record by refusing to give up the given to every U.S. 1845. (Other senators were Senate floor. He talked for 24 vice president) to break a tie holding out, thinking Texas hours and 18 minutes. vote. Cheney’s move approved should be carved up into four an amendment to a resolution separate states.) that allowed up to $300 billion IMAGES.COM/CORBIS to be spent on Medicare 1 The number of votes by prescription drug coverage. which the Senate approved the purchase of Alaska from Russia for around $7 million.

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Chapter 55 Assessment and Activities

Recalling Facts GOVERNMENT 1. What are the qualifications for members of the House and Senate? Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government: 2. Identify the most powerful committee in the Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com and House of Representatives. click on Chapter 5–Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for 3. List four advantages incumbents have in the chapter test. running for office. 4. How do House rules differ from Senate rules? 5. What position in the Senate does the vice Reviewing Key Terms president serve? Match each term below with one of the following phrases or terms: Understanding Concepts a. House b. Senate c. Both chambers 1. Political Processes How does the census affect 1. bill 6. joint committee the reapportionment of the House? 2. majority leader 7. redistricting 2. Growth of Democracy Why does the Constitu- 3. gerrymandering 8. reapportionment tion provide for free and unlimited debate in 4. filibuster 9. censure Congress? 5. constituents 10. incumbent 3. Political Processes How does the majority party in each house determine the flow of legislation?

Congress

Senate House of Representatives

Vice president Presiding officer Speaker of the House 30 years old, 9-year U.S. citizen, legal Qualifications 25 years old, 7-year U.S. citizen, legal resident of the state where elected resident of the state where elected 6 years Term of office 2 years 100—two from each state Number of members 435 voting representatives $154,700 Annual salary $150,000

Committees Staff Support Agencies • Needed to manage the thousands of • Personal staff work for individual • Help Congress carry out its powers bills proposed senators and representatives • Some services also available to other • Include standing, select, joint, and • Committee staff work for particular branches and the public conference committees committees 146-155 CH05S5-860053 12/1/04 2:39 AM Page 155

Chapter 55

Critical Thinking 1. Making Inferences Why are bills that minority party mem- Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity bers introduce unlikely to be reported out of committee? 1. What is the subject 2. Making Comparisons In a of this cartoon? graphic organizer like the one 2. What do the roots below, compare the duties of of the tree trunk a congressional administrative symbolize? assistant with those of a leg- 3. According to this islative assistant. cartoon, how difficult is it to administrative legislative unseat an incumbent in Congress? Analyzing Primary Sources In 1775, at the request of the Continental Congress, John Adams wrote Thoughts on Government, in which he detailed what he believed would be the components of an ideal form of government. He advocated, among other things, a bicameral legislature. Read the excerpt and then answer the questions that follow. 2. Even though Adams believed that one section of “A representation of the people in one assembly being ob- the legislative branch should be appointed, both tained, a question arises whether all the powers of govern- houses of the U.S. Congress are directly elected. ment, legislative, executive, and judicial, shall be left in this What are the benefits of direct elections of repre- body? I think a people cannot be long free, nor ever happy, sentatives? whose government is in one Assembly. . . . [L]et a [distinct] Assembly be constituted, as a mediator between the two extreme branches of the legislature, that Participating in which represents the people and that which is vested with the executive power. Local Government Let the Representative Assembly then elect by ballot, from The idea of a constitutional among themselves or their constituents, or both, a distinct amendment requiring Assembly, which for the sake of perspicuity we will call a term limits for members of Council. It . . . should have a free and independent exercise Congress has been debated of its judgment, and consequently a negative voice in the in recent years. What are the legislature.” arguments for and against a constitutional amendment on term limits? What 1. John Adams advocated a bicameral legislature is your view? Research this issue and write a letter with an upper house that would be appointed by to the editor of your local paper expressing your leaders and a lower house that would be elected opinion for or against term limits. Be sure to include by the population. What are the benefits of hav- at least three arguments that support your position ing a legislative body arranged in this manner? in the letter.

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