Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies

Volume 9 Article 5

January 1996

Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism

Anantanand Rambachan

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Recommended Citation Rambachan, Anantanand (1996) "Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism," Journal of Hindu- Christian Studies: Vol. 9, Article 5. Available at: https://doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1127

The Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies is a publication of the Society for Hindu-Christian Studies. The digital version is made available by Digital Commons @ Butler University. For questions about the Journal or the Society, please contact [email protected]. For more information about Digital Commons @ Butler University, please contact [email protected]. 4 Rambachan: Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism

Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism

Anantanand Rambachan St Olaf College

will, however, make. some comparative references to Ramiinuja and the Visistiidvaita Most of us hear the word "scripture" without stumbling over it. Using it, we tradition where appropriate. Whii~ these give the impression, even to ourselves theological giants of the Hindu tradition that there is understanding of what th; differ radically in their interpretation of the term means; that we all know what Vedas, they do share certain common scripture is. On reflection, it turns out assumptions about the nature of scripture as that this is hardly the case. 1 a source of valid knowledge. While there are important differences in the way in which the authority of sruti is ONE OF WILFRED Cantwell Smith's conceived, the orthodox schools of Indian principal concerns in What is SCripture? is philosophy include it among the sources of to highlight the variety of texts which are valid knowledge and refer to it as sabda- construed as scripture and the variety of prarniir!-a. 4 The term pramtL indicates valid attitudes which human history reveals cognitions arid the special source of such a towards such texts. We may begin by cogriition is termed a A noting, for example, the inappropriateness of pramiina. pramiina, therefore, may be thought of as a source· or the term "scripture" (from scribere - to ~ause of valid knowledge. In the words of write) for the Vedas because of its emphasis Sailkara, "a means of knowledge is or is not on the written word as opposed to the word such according as it leads or does not lead to which is heard and -preserved through oral valid knowledge. Otherwise even a post, for transmission. The Vedas are more aptly instance, would be considered a means of referred to in Sanskrit as sruti (that which is knowledge in perceiving sound, etc."5 . heard) or sabda (sound), and these terms One of the very important consequences correctly underline the traditionally aural of understanding and listing the sTuti, along character of these texts.2 The Hindu with perception and inference, etc., as a tradition, especially in the Vedanta schools source of valid knowledge js that the sruti has relied on and elaborated the idea of srutt must satisfy, as far as possible, the criteria as a prarniir!-a (source of valid knowledge) of being a prarniir!-a. Scripture cannot claim and any unique features of this idea must be a special status which exempts it from being included in the "richness and depth with subject to the same standards as other which human life has been imbued over long sources. In the Advaita school, novelty and stretches of time for most human beings and non-contradictedness are considered to be societies, through their use of their the essential characteristics of valid involvement with their scripture".3 ' knowledge.6 Most of the emphasis, As indicated above, the doctrine of the traditionally, has been placed on non­ sruti as a source of valid knowledge contradictedness as the essential test of truth. received particular attention in the Vedanta An invalid statement or erroneous schools and my discussion of this doctrine is experience can be negated on the basis of confined largely to its formulation in the being contradicted. Advaita (non-dual) tradition of Sailkara. I

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The view of scripture in the Hindu only; for it lies out of the recognizance tradition as a source of valid knowledge and of the senses, and there moreover is, in the necessity to meet the standards of such the case of right and wrong, an entire knowledge require, it seems to me, that the want of binding rules as to place, time defenders of the sruti recognize a continuous and occasion. What in one place, at one obligation to articulate, clarify, and defend time, on one occasion is performed as a right action, is a wrong action in its claims in dialogue with world views another place, at another time, on which either challenge or affirm its claims. another occasion; none therefore can An advocate of a sruti viewpoint cannot be know, without scripture, what is either indifferent to rival claims which are derived right or wrong. 10 from the empirical sciences or other revelatory sources. A belief in the principle The sruti, as we noted above, also of non-contradictedness should engender an serves as a valid source for our knowledge optimistic faith which is enthusiastic for of brahman (the limitless) and it is in dialogue with other insights about the relation to the revelation of brahman that the ultimate nature of reality. Sruti-based Vedanta traditions articulate the most positions provide an excellent perspective detailed rationale for the nature and from which the Hindu tradition could necessity of the scripture as a pramana. The vigorously engage both secular and sacred cornerstone of SaiIkara's argument for traditions in conversation. It is unfortunate , scripture as a valid means of knowledge for for reasons which I have tried to explore brahman is that given the nature of brahman elsewhere, that a lack of interest in the sruti as nirgul'}a (free from all qualities), a has also resulted in a loss of intellectual pramlll'}a which consists of words is the only vigour in Hinduism and in a lukewarm logical means. Sound, sensation, form, taste, desire for dialogue. 7 One of the common and scent are the respective spheres of the claims of the contemporary Hindu sense organs. Since brahman, however, has apologetic; for example, is that its world no sound, touch, form, taste, or smell, it is view is "scientific", but we are yet to see, outside the domain of the sense organs. from within the Hindu tradition, a serious Moreover, argues SaiIkara, perceptual explication of its viewpoint in relation to the knowledge requires a process of objectifying conclusions of the empirical pramiina. 8 the thing to be known, and brahman, being While admitting scripture as a source of the eternal subject of all experiences,cannot valid knowledge, the Vedanta traditions also be objectified. Although Ramanuja differs define the specific knowledge for which the from SaiIkara in his understanding of the sruti may be regarded as authoritative. The nature of brahman, it is significant to note justification for a special means of that he refutes, in no uncertain terms, the knowledge, like scripture, is that it provides possibility of knowing 'brahman through knowledge of those things which cannot be perception. 11 known through any of the other available Since· perception is an inappropriate sources of knowledge. For the Advaita means of knowledge for brahman, the view tradition, the two subjects which are of both Sailkara and Ramanuja is that inaccessible to· all other pramanas and inference, which is more or less dependent known exclusively through the Vedas are on perception for its data, will not be dharma and brahman.9 For Sailkara, the helpful. Ramanuja sums up the basic nature of dharma, which includes Vedanta viewpoint. appropriate ethical as well as ritual action, is Thus the inference of a creative Lord­ known only from the Vedas. which claims to be in agreement with observation is refuted by reasoning The knowledge of one action being right which is itself in agreement with and another wrong is based on scripture observation, and we hence .conclude that https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol9/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1127 2 Rambachan: Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism 4 Anantanand Rambachan

Scripture is the only source of supportive of the use of argument which is knowledge with regard to a supreme in harmony with revelation. Inferential soul that is the Lord of all and reasoning independent of sruti is constitutes the highest Brahman. What inconclusive since brahman possesses no SCripture tells us of is a being which perceptible characteristics.· Stimtinyato­ comprehends within itself infinite, drstanumtina, however, which corresponds altogether unsurpassable excellences such as omnipotence and so on, is ih ·modern logic to analogical reasoning, is antagonistic to all evil, and totally widely employed by Vedanta commentators. different in character from whatever is This type of reasoning is not viewed as a cognised by other means of pramiina, but operates as an ancillary to a knowledge. 12 pramiina. Its function is to bolster the source of knowledge. Reason has to be used in Sruti fulfils the criteria of being a valid ascertaining and clarifying the meaning of source of knowledge by generating a fruitful scripture in debates with schools that accept knowledge which cannot be obtained the authority of the sruti but offer different through another source and which is interpretations. It also has a wider role in uncontradicted. defending scripture against rival schools Is or is not certain and fruitful which reject both its authority as a source of knowledge generated by passages setting knowledge and its viewpoint. Riimanuja forth the nature of the Self, and if so, again sums up the Vedanta position. how can they lose their authority? Do you not see the result of knowledge in A theory which rests exclusively on the removal of all the evils which are arguments derived from human reason the root of transmigration, such as may, . at some time or place, be ignorance, grief, delusion and fear?13 disestablished by arguments devised by people more skilful than you in Since SaTIkara' s arguments for scripture reasoning; and thus there is no getting as a source of valid knowledge are mainly over the objection founded on the epistemological (Le. that scripture fulfils the invalidity of all mere argumentation. criteria of being a pramii'!a), it is important The conClusion from all this is that with to. underline the point that the Advaita . regard to supersensuous matters, tradition does not try to establish the validity Scripture alone is authoritative,· and of the texts by reference to God's reasoning is to be applied only to· the omniscience. The reason is that since the support of SCripture. IS tradition finds it impossible to establish the How does the proponent of the sruti existence and nature of God through respond when there is conflict between inferential reasoning, one ends up with a human experience and s~ripture? If the issue hopelessly circular argument, "the cannot be resolved by mutually acceptable omniscience of the Lord being established forms of argument, the proponent will on the doctrine of Scripture, and the proffer the uniqueness of scripture as a authority of Scripture again being means of knowledge. In the Vedtinta-Stltras, established on the omniscience of the for example, the question of brahman Lord" .14 creating the world without any organs of The admission of scripture as a source action is raised since one does not see beings of valid knowledge in the Hindu tradition without bodily organs creating anything. does not imply the redundancy of reason. While noting that one should be cautious While SaDkara and Ramanuja reject the about generaliz~tions from experience, argument that the nature of brahman may be Sailkara falls back upon the authority of ascertained through inferential reasoning pramliTfa. independent of scripture, they are both The transcendent highest Brahman can I I I Published by Digital Commons @ Butler University, 1996 3 j

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be fathomed by means of Scripture concerned with expressing things as they only, not by mere reasoning. Nor are are. we obliged to assume that the capacity of one being is exactly like that which is Things in the world are known to observed in another. I6 possess certain fixed characteristics such as grossness or fmeness. By citing them One of the important features of the as examples the scripture seeks to tell Vedanta characterization of scripture as a us about some other thing which does pramiif}a which may also open fruitful areas not contradict them. They would not for dialogue with the Christian tradition is cite an example from life if they wanted the concern to circumscribe the scripture's to convey an idea of something 'sphere of authority. Commentators, like contradictory to it. Even if they did, it Sailkara, identify the subject matter for would be to no purpose, for the example would be different from the which scripture is a source of valid thing to be explained. You cannot prove knowledge, but also the topics for which it that fire is cold, or that the sun does not does not speak authoritatively. In this sense, give heat, even by citing a hundred the srud is like all other pramiif}Qs in having examples, for the facts would already a limited revelatory role. be known to be otherwise through Scripture, as noted above, is intended another means of knowledge. And one for the revelation of dharma and brahman, means of knowledge does not contradict both of which cannot be known through . another, for it only tells us about those another source. Its purpose is not to disclose things that cannot be known by another matters within the range of human means. Nor can scripture speak about experience, ascertainable through any of the an unknown thing without having other pramiif}Qs, like perception or recourse to conventional words and their meanings. 18 inference. If a scriptural statement, therefore, contradicts an established fact of The Advaita tradition is very specific everyday human experience, the former about some of the topics which are. not cannot be considered authoritative since such authoritatively revealed in the scripture. It is a matter would be outside its sphere of not the purpose of scripture, for example, to authority. Sailkara is clear on this point. inform us of the details and order of the creation of the world since we neither Sruti is an authority only in matters not perceived by means of ordinary observe nor are told by the texts that the instruments of knowledge such as welfare of human beings depends on this pratyaksha or immediate perception;­ . kind of knowledge. Such descriptions, i.e., it is an authority as to the mutual argues Sailkara, really have as their aim the relation of things as means to ends, but revelation of the nature 'of the absolute. 19 I not in matters lying within the range of It is also not the concern of scripture to I pratyaksha; indeed, sruti is intended as describe the nature of the human being with an authority only for knowing what lies regard to those characteristics which are beyond the range of human knowledge available for observation. "The Lord, on tlie ... A hundred srutis may declare that other hand, about whom ordinary experience fire is cold or that it is dark; still they tells us nothing, is to be c~:msidered as the possess no authority in the matter. 17 special topic of all scriptural passages. "20 If sruti did describe fire as being cold or The case for scripture as a means of dark, we would be obliged to construe its knowledge in the Hindu tradition is based on meaning figuratively since the purpose of the belief that there are realities (or a scripture is not to create anything anew or to reality) whose true nature cannot be reverse the nature of anything. The texts are ascertained by other ways of knowing. Such fundamentally revelatory in purpose and are a premise, it appears to me, is intellectually

https://digitalcommons.butler.edu/jhcs/vol9/iss1/5 DOI: 10.7825/2164-6279.1127 4 Rambachan: Scripture as a Source of Knowledge in Hinduism 6 Anantanand Rambachan

defensible, especially when scripture is sabda to refer to the Vedas. It must be~ willing to subject its claims to assessment by recognized, however, that the term sruti as other sources of knowledge and to question revelation is not limited to the Vedic texts. the conclusions of these sources. 5. The Brhadarafiyaka Upanisad: with the . The argument that each pramii"f!O- has a comme~tary of Salikaracdrya, Swami unique sphere of authority may appear to be Madhavananda (transl.), Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama, 1975, 11.1.20, p.214. Hereafter one which inhibits dialogue among other abbreviated BR.U.B. religious traditions and between religion and 6. See e.g. The Vedanta Parib~a of the empirical sciences. It would seem to me, Dharmaraja Adhvarfndra, Swami however, that the common interest which Madhavananda (transl.), Belur Math, religions and the empirical sciences have in Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission the nature of reality make them natural Saradapitha, 1972, Ch.l, p.5. dialogue partners. If a religion understands 7. See Anantanand Rambachan, The Limits of the authoritative sources of other religious Scripture: Vivekananda's Reinterpretation of traditions as rival pramiinas, there is an the Authority of the Vedas, Honolulu: obvious epistemological· necessity for University of Hawaii Press, 1994. dialogue to understand and explain their 8. This is also lamentable because of the similar or dissimilar points of view. A significant number of people from the IIidian similar case may be made for dialogue with subcontinent who work in the fields of the empirical sciences when the propositions scientific and technological research. 9. See, e.g., The Vedanta Sutras: with the of the latter converge with or stand opposed commentary of Salikaracarya, George to religious claims. The assumption that Thibaut (transl.), Sacred Books of the East valid sources of knowledge cannot contradict Series, Vol. 34, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, each other suggests that human inquiry, in. 1988, 11.1.6. Hereafter abbreviated VSS. the widest sense, will some day converge, 10. VSS, Vo1.38, III. 1.25. The existence of the but in the meantime, the prarniif!.a approach self in future lives and the appropriate

urges us to account for our differences and means for attaining happiness and avoiding f similarities. The view of scripture as a unhappiness in those lives fall within the pramii"f!O-, provides a sound basis for sphere of dharma and are known only from dialogue and holds out the possibility that all the Vedas. who are engaged in the quest for knowledge, 1 L The Vedanta-Sutras: with the commentary of in whatever diScipline, may be enriched by Ramtinuja, George Thibaut (transl.),Sacred each other. Books of the East Series, Vol. 48, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, 1.1.3. Hereafter abbreviated VSR. While both SaIikara and Notes Ramanuja see the words of Vedas as the authoritative source for the knowledge ofthe 1. w.e. Smith, "What is Scripture?, absolute, there is considerable dis.cussion on Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993, p. L the problem of language relation to brahman 2. A student of the Vedas is referred to, and the special ways in which words are traditionally, as srotriya (one whohears). used in communicating valid knowledge of 3. W.e. Smith, "What is Scripture?, p.16. the limitless. This subject exceeds the scope While Smith argues for attentiveness to of this article and the reader may want to diversity in the materials which are regarded consult Anantanand Rambachan, Accom­ as sCripture and in their interpretation plishing the Accomplished: The Vedas as a throughout history, there is no discussion in Source of Valid Knowledge inSafikara, his work about the significant Hindu notion Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991. of the sruti as pramiina. The latter term does See, in particular, Ch.3. not occur in his discussion of the Hindu 12. Ibid. tradition. 13. BR.U.B. I.iv.7. 4. In this article 1 use the worlds sruti and 14. VSS 11.2.38.

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15. VSR 11.1.12. 17. A. Mahadeva Sastry (trans!.), The 16. VSS 11.1.31. On the same sutra RfunfulUja Bhagavadgfta: with the commentary of comments as follows: "That for which the Saflkaracarya, Madras: Samata Books, sacred word is the only means of 1977, 18:66. knowledge, and which is different from all 18. BR.U.B. 11.1.20. It is obvious that in the other things, is capable of producing those view of SaTIkara, the revelations of scripture effects also of the instrumental means of are not opposed to fact. which it is destitute". See also their 19. See VSS 1.4.14. respective commentaries on surra 11.1.27. 20. Ibid., 1.3.7.

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