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Està subjecte a una llicència de Reconeixement-NoComercial- SenseObraDerivada 4.0 de Creative Commons CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
1 Late Quaternary pedogenesis of lacustrine terraces in 2 Gallocanta Lake, NE Spain
3 E. Luna a,*, C. Castañeda a, F.J. Gracia b, R. Rodríguez-Ochoa c
4 a Estación Experimental de Aula Dei, EEAD-CSIC, Av. Montañana 1005, 50059 Zaragoza,
5 Spain
6 b Departamento de Ciencias de la Tierra, Universidad de Cádiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Cádiz, Spain
7 c Departamento de Medio Ambiente y Ciencias del Suelo, Universitat de Lleida, Av. Rovira
8 Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
9 *Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Luna).
10
11 Abstract
12 Transitional areas of lake margins are complex environments whose evolution is strongly
13 controlled by flooding frequency and persistence. The edaphic development of lacustrine
14 marginal environments can be reconstructed by combining detailed geomorphological analysis
15 with a systematic edaphic study of toposequences. This approach has been applied to a set of
16 recent lacustrine terraces in the downwind palustrine area of the Gallocanta saline lake, located
17 in a semiarid area in NE Spain. Up to five terraces, from 1.6 to 4.5 m above the lake bottom,
18 have been identified and mapped using stereo photointerpretation and airborne LiDAR data.
19 Several cycles of water level fluctuations, as part of a general trend towards lake desiccation,
20 have generated stepped terrace levels. The soils of these terraces have different morphological
21 characteristics and provide evidences for the Gallocanta paleolake being larger than that of the
22 present day. The soils have a sandy loam texture with variable clay content (1% to 46%) and a
23 predominantly carbonate composition (mean = 26%). The soils are developed in a sequence of
24 lacustrine carbonate-rich (mean = 37%) fine-grained gray layers overlaying detrital (mean = 51% CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
25 gravels) and frequently erosive, carbonate-poor reddish layers. The pedogenesis of the
26 downwind palustrine area is mainly characterized by poorly-developed carbonate accumulations
27 and common redox mottles associated with water level fluctuations in the lake, which
28 continuously rejuvenate or truncate the soils. Integrating pedological and geomorphological
29 features provides insight into recent complex lacustrine and soil forming processes and facilitates
30 management strategies and plans for this protected saline environment.
31 1. Introduction
32 Little is known about wetland soils developed in lake basins under semiarid climates. These soils
33 frequently become seasonally or intermittently dry due to the limited precipitation and high
34 evapotranspiration rates. Along the margins of arid wetlands, soil formation and properties are
35 closely related to geomorphic position and fluctuations in lake, or playa-lake, water levels
36 (Kolka and Thompson, 2007; Biggs et al., 2010; Farpoor et al., 2012; Shabanova et al., 2015).
37 For this reason the study of wetland soils is always intimately linked to the study of wetland
38 geomorphology and hydrology (Richardson et al., 2001).
39 Lake margins in semiarid climates are complex environments where sedimentation and soil
40 formation are determined by the balance between detrital inputs during wet seasons and salt
41 deposition during dry conditions (Boettinger and Richardson, 2001). In the wetting-drying
42 margins of the lake, water action on soils strongly influences their characteristics such as texture,
43 color, and types of horizons (Richardson et al., 2001). In this context, the study of soils provides
44 evidence of recent and past water level fluctuations in the lake (Castañeda et al., 2015), and may
45 be used for identifying regulatory boundaries (Lichvar et al., 2006). If high lake water periods
46 are long enough, they favor the generation of a morphosedimentary marginal surface of mixed
47 sedimentary-edaphic origin which can be abandoned and left perched once the lake level drops
48 again (Romanovsky, 2002). This is the origin of stepped lacustrine terraces in lakes that
49 experience a progressive desiccation trend (Gracia, 1995; Landmann and Reimer, 1996), as is the CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
50 case of Gallocanta Lake. Water level fluctuations in lakes are common in the arid and semiarid
51 Mediterranean region where most lakes are shallower (Beklioglu et al., 2007) and more sensitive
52 to climate oscillations than in more humid areas. Lake water level fluctuations during the Late
53 Quaternary have received much attention as proxies for identifying past environmental changes,
54 usually based on sedimentology (Ghinassi et al., 2012; De Cort et al., 2013; McGlue et al., 2013)
55 together with paleoecological evidence (e.g., pollen, ostracods, diatoms) (Shuman et al., 2001;
56 Hoffmann et al., 2012).
57 Although classic geomorphological studies of lakes focus on the different lake morphologies in
58 order to understand their origin and general evolution (Timms, 1992), few studies have
59 investigated the geomorphology of lacustrine terraces in shallow lakes and most of these studies
60 have looked at Pleistocene terraces related to major climatic oscillations (Bowman, 1971; Stine,
61 1990; Abu and Kempe, 2009; Ocakoglu et al., 2013). Only isolated contributions relate the
62 distribution and elevation of Holocene lacustrine terraces to recent climate changes
63 (Romanovsky, 2002; Gutiérrez et al., 2013). In fact, when compared to Pleistocene terraces,
64 Holocene historical levels are usually close to present water levels and hence their study requires
65 a very detailed high-resolution topographic analysis to distinguish different historical and recent
66 terrace levels, not often affected by present flooding.
67 Recognition of such lacustrine terraces and associated past flooding events requires
68 geomorphological and topographical techniques. Hence, lake terrace formation and the
69 interaction between lacustrine and pedogenetic processes can be reconstructed by combining
70 detailed geomorphological analysis and a systematic edaphic study of toposequences. This kind
71 of quantitative analysis is feasible with modern topographic techniques like airborne LiDAR
72 surveys and the digital terrain models derived from them, together with GIS software (Jones et
73 al., 2008; Budja and Mlekuž, 2010). High-resolution LiDAR-derived digital elevation models CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
74 have been widely applied in coastal areas (Kim et al., 2013; Matsu’ura, 2015) and fluvial
75 systems with subtle topography (Jones et al., 2008).
76 The present study focuses on soil development in lacustrine terraces that are assumed to have
77 been intermittently exposed during Late Quaternary-historical times, in the Gallocanta saline
78 lake, NE Spain. The aim is to integrate pedological and geomorphological features to reconstruct
79 the lacustrine terraces formation and understand recent lacustrine and soil formation processes
80 associated with water level fluctuations.
81
82 2. Gallocanta Lake
83 2.1. General setting
84 Gallocanta Lake is the largest well-preserved saline lake in Western Europe and has been
85 included in the Ramsar list since 1994 (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2010). The area
86 comprises a 6477 ha natural reserve that is protected and managed by the local government in
87 order to conserve endemism as well as habitats for the overwintering of migratory birds (Leránoz
88 and González, 2009). The lake, formed at the bottom of a karst polje (Gracia et al., 2002), is
89 located in a 543 km2 endorheic basin at approximately 1000 m.a.s.l. in the Iberian Chain, NE
90 Spain. The basin holds more than 20 lakes of karstic origin, Gallocanta Lake being the largest.
91 The Gallocanta Quaternary basin is elongated in the dominant wind direction (NW-SE), parallel
92 with the Valdelacasa mountain range, which runs along the NE side of the basin with peaks of up
93 to 1400 m.a.s.l. (Figure 1). This mountain range is composed of siliceous Ordovician rocks and
94 flanks an extensive outcrop of deformed carbonate units from the Mesozoic (Gracia, 2014). The
95 basin is excavated into Triassic clays and gypsum, as well as other more soluble salts (Gracia,
96 2009) which contribute to the soil and water salinity. The center of the lake contains about 1 m
97 of lacustrine sediments, the oldest of which have been dated as 43 ky BP (Rodó, 1997). Sediment CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
98 cores were analyzed for reconstructing Late Quaternary paleoenvironmental and paleoclimatic
99 changes by Schütt (1998), Rodó et al. (2002) and Luzón et al. (2007), as well as other authors.
100 The climate is dry semiarid (Liso and Ascaso, 1969) and there is a large yearly variation in
101 rainfall; the mean annual precipitation over the last 70 years is 488 mm yr-1 (range = 791 mm in
102 1959 to 232 mm in 2001), and the mean annual temperature is 11.3 °C for the period 1969-2012.
103 The frequent NW winds (Figure 1) exacerbate the hydric deficit (Martínez-Cob et al., 2010) and
104 produce longshore currents to the SE, generating shoreline landforms similar to those of marine
105 coasts (Castañeda et al., 2013). Water level fluctuations constitute the most outstanding feature
106 of the lake. The maximum lake water level, 2.84 m, was registered in 1974 (Pérez-Bujarrabal,
107 2014) and the lake desiccates completely during periods of low rainfall.
108 2.2. Downwind palustrine area
109 The SE sector of the lake, or downwind palustrine area, is approximately 500 ha in size and is
110 the largest area of the lake, where sediments and water accumulate during extraordinary flooding
111 events (Figure 1). This sedimentary plain, though flat in appearance (slope <1%), has preserved
112 lacustrine and coastal landforms which can be seen from aerial photographs due to the vegetation
113 and soil patterns. The plain is dominated by alternating flooding and drying periods that lead to
114 changes in soil salinity and moisture. The soil moisture regime around Gallocanta Lake is xeric
115 but soils subjected to frequent flooding have aquic soil moisture regime (Castañeda et al., 2015).
116 Historically, soils have been subjected to longstanding flooding (Comín et al., 1983; Pérez-
117 Bujarrabal, 2014) though at present most soils are exposed for long periods and are subjected to
118 either erosion or sediment transport under aerial conditions.
119 Figure 1
120 The small topographic variations and mixing of saline groundwater with fresh surface water
121 from runoff favor the preservation of a large area of protected habitats with an intricate
122 distribution of shallow ponds (Figure 1), halophytic and non-saline communities, mainly rushes CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
123 and reed beds. Winter cereal and other subsidized crops provide safe sites for the feeding and
124 nesting of protected birds. Low-lying saline areas stand as bare soils or are colonized by annual
125 and perennial halophytes, some of which include protected species such as Limonium sp. and
126 Puccinellia pungens. Limonium sp. is part of a priority habitat (1510 Mediterranean salt steppes)
127 and P. pungens is endemic (Gómez et al., 1983), being included in Annex II of the Habitat
128 Directive and in Appendix I of the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and
129 Natural Habitats (Moreno, 2013).
130
131 3. Material and methods
132 Geomorphological photointerpretation was performed using aerial photographs from 2006
133 printed at 1:15 000 scale. The aerial photographs were taken in summer, when there was no
134 standing water in the lake. Field inspections were crucial for confirming the geomorphological
135 map, which was then transferred to orthophotographs and managed within the geographic
136 information system ArcGIS©. Orthophotographs from the 2009 and 2012 dry seasons were
137 overlain to contrast the stereo photointerpretation.
138 A digital elevation model (DEM) generated from airborne LiDAR data with an absolute vertical
139 accuracy of 0.20 m and a density of 0.5 points per square meter, was used to complement the
140 geomorphological photointerpretation. The elevation model was managed in ENVI© and
141 ArcGIS© for interactive histogram stretching and elevation data statistics. The average elevation
142 for each terrace was computed using the median value, as this is more robust than the mean
143 value in non-Gaussian distributions.
144 Soil sampling was based on the geomorphological map together with vegetation type and pond
145 distribution. Pits were dug during dry periods (zero lake water level), in May, June and August
146 2013, and August 2014. A total of nine pedons were studied, located along two toposequences
147 oriented NW-SE and NE-SW (Figure 2), which are parallel and perpendicular, respectively, to CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
148 the direction of the prevailing winds and the main axis of Gallocanta Lake (Figure 1). The
149 toposequences have a maximum difference in elevation of 1.2 m and 2.3 m, respectively. A soil
150 sample was collected from each horizon identified in the soil profiles, making a total of 53 soil
151 samples. Groundwater samples were collected from the pits where the water table was reached.
152 Soil profiles were described following Schoeneberger et al. (2012), and genetic and diagnostic
153 horizons and soil classification were based on Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). The soil
154 samples were air-dried and sieved to less than 2 mm for subsequent laboratory analyses. Soil
155 salinity was measured as the electrical conductivity of the saturated paste extract, ECe (MAPA,
156 1994), using a conductivity cell (Orion 013605MD) and expressed in dS m-1 at 25 °C; pH of the
157 1:2.5 soil:water extract of the soil was measured using a pH electrode (Orion 9157BNMD).
158 Calcium carbonate equivalent, CCE, was measured by gasometry (MAPA, 1994). Organic
159 matter, OM, was determined by chromic acid digestion (Heanes, 1984) with a UV/V UNICAM
160 8625 spectrophotometer; and particle size distribution was assessed by laser diffraction with a
161 correction for the clay value following Taubner et al. (2009). The gypsum content was
162 determined using thermogravimetry (Artieda et al., 2006) and confirmed with the qualitative test
163 (Van Reeuwijk, 2002) for gypsum content < 2%. The ionic content (Na, Ca and Mg) of saturated
164 soil-paste extracts was analyzed using an ionic chromatograph (Metrohm 861 Advanced compact
165 IC) (APHA, 1989). The pH and EC of the groundwater samples were measured (MAPA 1994)
166 with a pH electrode (Orion 9157BNMD) and a conductivity cell (Orion 013605MD),
167 respectively. In order to compare different properties of the soil profiles according to depth,
168 proportions of ECe and the sand, silt and clay content were calculated at soil depth intervals of
169 25 cm (Castañeda et al., 2012). The original 53 soil samples resulted in 63 synthetic soil layers
170 of 25 cm thickness. CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
171 Rainfall data recorded since 1944 at Tornos weather station (Figure 1), were complemented with
172 data from nearby weather stations using monthly regressions (Luna et al., 2014). Normal years
173 were identified from mean annual precipitation (Soil Survey Staff, 2014).
174 4. Results and discussion
175 4.1 Distribution of the lacustrine terraces
176 The downwind palustrine plain, isolated from the main lake bed by natural barriers, is delimited
177 by alluvial fans formed at the foot of the mountain range (Figure 1) and by Pleistocene lacustrine
178 coastal sediments on the eastern fringe (Figure 2). These ancient deposits, studied previously by
179 Gracia and Santos (1992), form a high plain more than 5 m above the study area. The plain is
180 506 ha in area and is primarily composed of a sequence of five stepped lacustrine terraces, T0 to
181 T4, whose elevation ranges between 1.6 and 4.5 m above the lake bottom (Table 1). The five
182 terrace levels show a fairly concentric distribution, decreasing in elevation towards the center of
183 the palustrine area. They form flat to gently undulating surfaces limited by slopes, often forming
184 low subvertical escarpments or microcliffs. From a sedimentological point of view the plain
185 belongs to the functional palustrine area defined by Pérez et al. (2002). Although some terrace
186 levels are recognized in other littoral zones of the lake at equivalent heights, they are usually
187 small and present incomplete sequences, whereas the downwind area shows the most complete
188 succession of terrace levels.
189 Table 1
190 Figure 2
191 The median elevation for each of the five terraces represents a robust marker for the successive
192 infilling steps in the palustrine area (Figure 3). The upper terraces, T4 and T3, are well
193 differentiated from the lower terraces, T1 and T0. T2 is a transitional terrace between the upper
194 and lower levels. T3 is inset in the previous level surrounding the palustrine depression and has CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
195 the most fragmented distribution (Table 1). T2 is much more connected than the upper terraces
196 and, finally, the lower terraces T1 and T0 are fairly continuous, with only six separate patches
197 (Table 1). T1 extends around the youngest terrace, T0, which comprises a cluster of several
198 ponds and bare floors that connect when flooded. T0 corresponds to the current local lake floor
199 of the palustrine area.
200 The coefficient of variation for the elevation confirms higher dispersion for the upper terraces,
201 especially T4 (Table 1). The slightly skewed distribution of the histograms (Figure 4) and the
202 presence of shoulders can be interpreted as terrace degradation or as different subsurfaces
203 corresponding to minor episodes of water level drop. Surface erosion, minor mass movements on
204 escarpments, and agricultural practices on the higher terraces have all contributed to their
205 topographic variability.
206 Figure 3
207 Figure 4
208 4.2 Geomorphological processes of terraces formation
209 The highest terrace level, T4, forms a set of NNE-SSW oriented barriers (Loma de Berrueco -
210 Los Estrechos - Loma de Bello), which virtually isolate the downwind plain from the main lake
211 body (Figure 2). This terrace level also defines the outermost fringe of the plain and a group of
212 minor NE-SW aligned islands, which have the greatest extent of all terrace levels present in the
213 zone (Table 1). The roughly circular distribution of the T4 level confines a sub-parallel string of
214 depressions (Figure 2) where vegetation denotes the persistence of soil moisture. The generation
215 of the T4 terrace is associated with sediment accumulation due to the phenomenon of wind-
216 generated wave dissipation that occurs in shallow lakes oriented parallel to prevailing winds,
217 leading to lake segmentation (Zenkovich, 1967; Lees, 1989). Lees and Cook (1991) proposed a
218 conceptual model for the generation of transverse lake barriers and downwind lunettes on
219 shallow lakes, which fits Lake Gallocanta fairly well. CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
220 In an initial stage of lake level stillstand, unidirectional winds blowing from the NW would have
221 generated waves that interacted with the lake bed to transport sediments towards the SE. In a
222 second stage, interaction between waves, the shoreline beaches and migrating bedforms would
223 have led to the construction of a growing bank at a given distance downwind. The morphology
224 of the Loma de Berrueco barrier (Figure 2) suggests the prevailing wave-induced currents moved
225 clockwise. Residual currents flowing to the SE would have built the second, Loma de Bello,
226 barrier and the minor spits of Los Estrechos (Figure 2).
227 After the generation of the T4 terrace, the Loma de Berrueco - Loma de Bello barrier semi-
228 enclosed a downwind basin, only connected with the main lake body through the Los Estrechos
229 inlets. The subsequent water level drop during the Holocene produced a progressive base level
230 fall and the generation of the different lacustrine terrace levels, T3 to T0. The distribution of T3
231 parallels that of T4 and denotes continuity of the geomorphic processes promoting terrace
232 formation. Level T3 significantly segments the plain into two main low-lying basins, Los
233 Lagunazos to the NE and the Loma de Bello - Las Casillas basin to the S (Figure 2). Some
234 remnants of the T3 and T4 terraces display a recurved shape associated with the prevailing
235 longshore currents, which flow to the SE, as can be recognized in other littoral zones of the lake
236 (Gracia, 1995).
237 The 160 cm difference in elevation between T4 and T3 is relatively very high indicating a
238 noticeable water level drop in the paleolake. However, the areal extent of T4 is relatively large,
239 34% of the total palustrine zone, suggesting a substantially stable period of high water level
240 leading to widespread sedimentation. Another lake regression occurred after T3 and these
241 deposits were probably more deeply eroded resulting in a lower difference in elevation between
242 consecutive terraces: 50 cm on average. A subsequent lake regression occurred when T1 began
243 to develop, leading to 70 cm of difference in elevation between T2 and T1 (Table 2 and Figure
244 5). Finally, the last lake regression responds to a minor lake level fall of 20 cm, although this last CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
245 step is very decisive because it culminated in the almost complete enclosure of the palustrine
246 area. From this moment onwards, the downwind palustrine area has been almost isolated from
247 the main lake body by terrace T4, with a water inlet at the southernmost point of the Loma de
248 Bello barrier (Figures 2 and 5). The occasional entrance of water through this narrow gap can be
249 demonstrated with Landsat images taken during wet seasons (Figure 1).
250 The five lacustrine terrace levels provide evidence for the larger extent of the preceding
251 Gallocanta paleolake. Other examples of geomorphological evidence for lake retreat in semiarid
252 environments across the globe are mentioned by authors including Bowman (1971), Abuodha
253 (2004), Timms (2006), Abu and Kempe (2009), and Chen et al. (2013). Luzón et al. (2007)
254 studied sediment cores from Gallocanta Lake and deduced a postglacial maximum lacustrine
255 level (4-10 m) at around 8010 yr BP, coinciding with a relatively humid period at the beginning
256 of the Holocene, as has also been recorded in other Spanish lakes. A progressive water level
257 decrease followed this episode, although with important fluctuations. A recent period of
258 increased humidity was identified for the mid-19th century by Schütt (1998) and Luzón et al.
259 (2007).
260 In a situation of progressively falling water levels, the new lower level would impose new
261 dynamic conditions on the abandoned terrace deposits, and would probably involve their partial
262 erosion due to undercutting by waves, as well as runoff. Therefore, as Bowman (1971) and
263 Flower and Foster (1992) deduced from similar lacustrine features in other lakes, the
264 development of a lacustrine terrace also brings about a change in the earlier levels due to the
265 backwearing process.
266 Figure 5
267 4.3 Main characteristics of the soils and groundwater
268 The soil depth ranges from 120 cm to 210 cm and is mostly limited by the presence of
269 groundwater. The general sequence of horizons is A-B-C with the exception of GA33 and GA34. CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
270 In these cases the A-C sequence is probably related to their proximity to the water and sediment
271 inlet from the main lake (Figure 2). The thickness of the A horizon ranges from 4 to 45 cm and
272 weathered B horizons occur only in densely vegetated areas or in crop fields. The main
273 diagnostic horizons are Ochric, Calcic, Salic, and Cambic (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). There is a
274 progression from Inceptisols in the intermediate and upper terraces, formed under a xeric soil
275 moisture regime, to Aridisols in the lower terraces, where both strong salinity and aquic
276 conditions prevail (Soil Survey Staff, 2014). In general the soil profiles show two main distinct
277 matrix colors, gray (mostly 2.5Y) and reddish (10YR, 7.5YR and 5YR, Table 3); these colors
278 principally correspond to surface and subsurface horizons, respectively. Most soils in the area,
279 based on the sequence of horizons (Birkeland, 1999), are moderately developed.
280 Groundwater was reached at depths of between 90 and 200 cm (Table 2), and displayed no
281 relationship with the terrace levels or distance from the depocenter. The shallowest water table
282 was found at the outermost site of the SW-NE transect (GA33), suggesting influence of lateral
283 water flowing from the adjacent alluvial fan and mountain ranges. In general, the groundwater is
284 very saline in the lower terraces, with EC up to 106 dS m-1 in GA58, three times saltier than the
285 sea. At the outermost fringe of the plain (GA36 and GA55) the groundwater is non-saline (Table
286 2).
287 Saline groundwater is magnesium chloride type, similar to the surface water of the lake during
288 low water level periods (Comín et al., 1983), whereas fresh groundwater is magnesium
289 bicarbonate type. Saline and non-saline groundwater are largely enriched in magnesium, with an
290 Mg/Ca ratio of 30.8 in saline water and 8.7 in fresh water (Table 2). This Mg enrichment is
291 probably related to the precipitation of carbonates, as found by Renaut (1990) in semiarid lakes.
292 The predominantly bicarbonate composition of the groundwater preserves the moderately and
293 strongly alkaline pH of soils.
294 Table 2 CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
295 4.3 Soil composition and texture
296 The soils of the palustrine plain are neutral to strongly alkaline and have less than 2% organic
297 matter (OM) (Table 3). The minimum content of OM corresponds to the scarcely vegetated
298 youngest terrace, T0. Carbonate composition (mean CCE of 32.5%) predominates down to a
299 depth of 50 cm in the lower terraces and down to a depth of 100 cm in the upper terraces (Table
300 3). Below these depths the soil horizons are generally carbonate-free. Considering only
301 carbonate horizons, the soils at the center of the plain have a lower carbonate content (mean CCE
302 24.1%) than soils in the outermost area (mean CCE 34.7%). Previous studies focusing on the soil
303 surface, have given similar carbonate contents (Aranzadi, 1980; Calvo et al., 1978).
304 Unlike the soils and sediments at the bottom of the main lake (Comín et al., 1990; Luzón et al.,
305 2007; Castañeda et al., 2015), the palustrine soils are low in gypsum, with usually less than 5%,
306 with the exception of the T0 topsoil (gypsum 9%) (Table 3). Remarkably, 16% gypsum was
307 found below 2 m at Loma de Bello. This deep gypsum-rich layer could be associated with an
308 evaporitic environment suggesting a predominantly lacustrine origin for this barrier.
309 Table 3
310 The salinity of the soil samples, measured as ECe, shows a broad range, from 0.2 dS m-1 to 70.7
311 dS m-1. In general, the maximum salinity within the soil profiles is found mainly below 100 cm,
312 evidencing the influence of the saline groundwater. Comparing the different soils using the ECe
313 values estimated for the 25 cm synthetic layers (Figure 6), the 0-25 cm soil layer is usually less
314 saline than the subsurface layers with the exception of the lowest terrace T0. Following the
315 salinity phases established for irrigated agricultural soils by the NRCS (Soil Survey Division
316 Staff, 1993) and modified by Nogués et al. (2006), and taking into account the greater ECe of the
317 0-50 cm soil samples, we obtain a saline soil distribution that depends on the terrace level and
318 the distance to the depression depocenter (i.e., GA58). Very strongly saline soils occur at the
319 innermost fringes of the lower terraces whereas non-saline soils are found at the outermost CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
320 fringes of the upper terraces. Paralleling soil salinity, the maximum Mg/Ca ratio (> 14) occurs in
321 the very strongly saline soils of the lowest terraces (Table 3).
322 Even though the downwind palustrine area of Gallocanta Lake is quasi isolated from the main
323 lake bed, soil salinity is still a major feature associated with the occurrence of saline groundwater
324 and the evapoconcentration caused by capillary rise. However, the leaching of soluble salts down
325 the soil profile by rainwater results in decreased salinity in the surface layers except for the
326 lowest terrace T0, where the upward movement of saline groundwater predominates. The lateral
327 surface and subsurface flows of fresh water that enter the palustrine area probably cause the local
328 differences in soil salinity.
329 Figure 6
330 The soil samples have a predominantly sandy loam texture with a mean sand content of 59%,
331 ranging from 27% to 86% (Table 3). These sandy soils contrast with the clayey materials of the
332 main lake floor previously described by González-López et al. (1983) and Mayayo et al. (2003).
333 Based on the particle size distribution estimated for the 25 cm synthetic layers, the surface
334 horizons are sandier than the subsurface horizons (Figure 7). The upper terraces show increased
335 sand content at a depth of about 75-100 cm. This sand increase consistently correlates with the
336 sandy layer identified in the soils of the main lakebed margins at a similar depth (Castañeda et
337 al., 2015). The exceptionally high silt/clay ratios (up to 43.6) at a soil depth of approximately
338 100 cm and at various terrace levels (Table 3) is probably related to the occurrence of that sandy
339 layer. A rise in the lake water level could be inferred from this increase in grain size, something
340 which is also seen at a shallower level in GA33, which has a similarly high silt/clay ratio (18.7)
341 (Table 3). The Loma de Bello barrier presents three consecutive fining downwards sequences
342 with their boundaries at depths of 100 cm and 250 cm (Figure 7). These cycles are marked by
343 abrupt changes in the sand and clay content (Table 3), probably revealing a pattern of successive
344 lake water level fluctuations. CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
345 Figure 7
346 Based on the mean sand content per profile, the lowest sand content corresponds to GA59, in the
347 northern sector of the palustrine plain, whereas the highest sand content occurs at GA55, the
348 easternmost point of the NW-SE transect (Figure 2). These extreme values probably reflect the
349 effect of the prevailing NW wind which promotes the accumulation of sandy sediments towards
350 the SE, i.e., GA55. Wind action is also inferred from the relatively high percentage of quartz
351 gravels in the topsoil at GA58 (Table 3); this suggests the prevalence of aeolian deflation and
352 subsequent downwind accumulation. In this regard, an aeolian supply of sand to this lee zone of
353 the lake cannot be discounted, as has been recorded in other lacustrine lunette deposits (Lees,
354 1989).
355 Romeo-Gamarra et al. (2011) determined the mineralogical composition of the clays in soils of
356 the north and south lake margins subjected to similar intermittent flooding conditions. Illite
357 predominates, up to 73%, whereas dolomite ranges from 3 to 9%, and quartz varies from 8 to
358 15%. Smectite also occurs in strongly saline soils, with percentages up to 15%. Qualitative
359 determinations of clay minerals by Calvo et al. (1978) and Aranzadi (1980) also mention the
360 illite as predominating, with a lesser quantity of kaolinite, and even including small proportions
361 of smectite.
362
363 4.4. Pedogenic accumulations and redoximorphic features
364 Carbonate accumulations are common at all terrace levels (with the exception of GA35) and
365 include gravel coatings and pendants, as well as soft and friable nodules from 5 to 15 mm. These
366 accumulations, together with redox mottles, are best developed at the bottom of the B and C
367 horizons (Figure 8). The non-saline soils contain the highest content of carbonate nodules,
368 >40%, and even a non-cemented carbonate crust (Figure 8). Carbonate coatings, pendants and
369 banding are much less frequent in the strongly saline soils. The morphologies of the carbonate CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
370 accumulations at all terrace levels correspond to stage II of pedogenic carbonate development
371 (Machette, 1985; Schoeneberger et al., 2012), in contrast with the stage IV carbonate
372 development found in the older soils of the alluvial fans surrounding the lake (Castañeda et al.,
373 2015). The widespread occurrence of non-cemented carbonate nodules and bands evidences
374 present day mobilization of carbonates, suggesting a close relationship with the fluctuating water
375 table.
376 Figure 8
377 Gypsum accumulations are very scarce (Figure 8). Gypsum crystals occur in surface (GA33) and
378 subsurface (GA35) saline layers together with friable gypsum nodules. Vermiform gypsum can
379 be seen in the upper horizons of GA57. Salt crystals are visible in subsurface horizons at the
380 lowest terrace level (GA58).
381 Redoximorphic features resulting from prolonged soil saturation and related to alternating
382 wetting and drying cycles, such as seasonally high groundwater or flooding, are widespread in
383 the palustrine area. Small iron and/or manganese oxidation mottles are frequent, though sparse,
384 in the subsurface horizons of all the pedons studied. The oxidation mottles are either dark (mean
385 value = 2 and chroma = 1) or light (mean value and chroma = 6)(see Table 3 and Figure 8), and
386 are sometimes associated with pores, rock fragments, and root channels. Occasional black,
387 rounded or banded manganese oxide mottles (10YR 3/1) are seen in soils with contrasted salinity
388 (GA34 and GA36).
389 Gray reduction mottles are frequent or abundant in some of the studied soils; they are 2.5Y or 5Y
390 in color with a value of ≥5 and chroma of ≤4. This occurs in subsurface horizons at a soil depth
391 which increases with the terrace level. Reduction mottles can form vertical tongues up to 20 cm
392 in length, probably related to preferential circulation of water, revealing the intensity and extent
393 of the reducing conditions in the palustrine area. Accumulations of manganese bands (5PB 2.5/1) CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
394 are also present in subsurface horizons where a high concentration of reduction mottling occurs
395 (Figure 8).
396 Redoximorphic features in other soils of Gallocanta Lake have been described from macro to
397 microscale in different landscape positions, under either oxidizing or reducing conditions
398 (Castañeda et al., 2015). In general, soils of the palustrine area are under predominantly
399 oxidizing conditions, probably favored by the high porosity of the sandy materials and the
400 significant percentage of gravels in subsurface horizons that allow air and water to circulate. The
401 only exceptions are the surface horizons of GA34 and GA59, from the lower T1 and T2 terraces.
402 There, reducing conditions are preserved probably due to a higher flooding frequency because of
403 their proximity to intermittently ponded areas (Figure 2). Another noticeable redox feature is the
404 presence of depleted matrix in the surface layers of the GA34, GA35, and GA57 soils.
405 According to the criteria of Richardson and Vepraskas (2001) and the USDA-NRCS (2010),
406 these soils are hydric.
407 Figure 9
408 Figure 10
409 4.5 Soil genesis under alternating conditions
410 The palustrine soils of the lowest terraces were submerged in the past century (Pérez-Bujarrabal,
411 2014), covered by macrophytes (Comín et al., 1983), and most likely subjected to subaqueous
412 pedogenesis (Demas et al., 1996). These soils have been exposed during periods of low water
413 level in the lake, which have been longer and/or more frequent in recent decades (CHE, 2003).
414 The formation of these soils results from alternating episodes of flooding with fresh to
415 hypersaline water, and subsequent drying, analogous to a tidal environment.
416 Soils of the palustrine downwind plain are regularly truncated and subjected to a constant
417 process of rejuvenation, as shown by the buried horizon and the grain size sequences of GA35;
418 the truncated sequence of GA57, which is common in subaqueous soils (Demas and Rabenhorst, CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
419 1999); and the frequent lithological discontinuities (Figure 8). The presence of hiatuses in the
420 sediments of Gallocanta Lake has been previously identified from limnological data (Rodó et al.,
421 2002).
422 Two main discontinuities affecting the palustrine plain are identified based on the presence of
423 wavy boundaries. These discontinuities are associated with different episodes of lacustrine and
424 detrital material sedimentation. A deep limit, at about 100-120 cm in the upper terraces, suggests
425 a relationship with the predominant alluvial-littoral sediments underlying the lake bottom. This
426 erosive episode is more evident in soil profiles at the outermost fringe of the palustrine area,
427 GA55 and GA56 (Figure 8). A shallower discontinuity, at a depth of about 30-40 cm in the
428 lowest terraces (Figure 8) suggests episodes of renewed flooding due to a rise in the lake water
429 level and the input of detrital material from the main lake.
430 A simplified pedogenetic model of the palustrine area consists of a sequence of gray lacustrine
431 layers overlaying reddish detrital layers. The lacustrine layers have a high CCE content (mean =
432 37%) and low gravel content (mean = 3%). Their thickness increases with terrace level. The
433 detrital layers, which in places are capped with sandy channels and bars, have a low CCE content
434 (mean = 6%) and consist of quartz gravels (51%) probably with an alluvial-littoral origin.
435 Lacustrine fine-grained gray layers overlay the detrital and frequently erosive reddish layers
436 (Figures 9 and 10). Locally, semi-lacustrine layers with a high content of both CCE and gravels
437 occur at the base of the lacustrine horizons, usually with a wavy lower boundary, or are
438 intercalated with lacustrine materials (e.g., at GA33, Figure 10).
439
440 4.5. Lacustrine terraces and historical records of water occurrence
441 Figure 11 shows that only the lowest terraces are susceptible to flooding from the maximum
442 water levels recorded over recent decades. The lake water level needed to cover the median
443 elevation of the uppermost terrace is 4.5 m. This elevation corresponds to a surface extent of CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
444 about 2300 ha, comparable with the 1800 ha and 4 m depth estimated by pioneering studies in
445 the 19th century (Pérez and Roc, 1999). In 1974 the surface extent of the lake water was
446 estimated to be 1505 ha and, recently, it has decreased to 500 ha (CHE, 2003). Evidence for the
447 extent of the water surface during flooding events includes the limited records of water level
448 measurements from the 1970s recorded by CHE (2003), occasional aerial photographs from the
449 past century (Pérez-Bujarrabal, 2014), and remote sensing data (Díaz de Arcaya et al., 2005;
450 Castañeda and Herrero, 2009).
451 The oldest reference evidencing water level fluctuation is the shoreline retreat of up to 200 m
452 mentioned by Hernández-Pacheco and Aranegui (1926). The variation in water level recorded
453 from 1977 to 1988 by Comín et al. (1983, 1990) is associated with annual and seasonal rainfall
454 changes. Seasonal changes in lake water level are from 20 to 60 cm every year (Comín et al.,
455 1990). At the beginning of the eighties the lake totally desiccated (Figure 11), whereas the
456 wettest period identified was 1970-1977, when the lake reached its maximum water level, 2.84
457 m, according to the scale monitored by Pérez-Bujarrabal (2014). Figure 11 summarizes the
458 quantitative and qualitative information available on Gallocanta Lake water level fluctuations
459 compiled from several authors (Aranzadi, 1980; Gracia, 1990; Comín et al., 1990; Rodó et al.,
460 2002; CHE, 2003) from 1944 to the present (Luna et al., 2014). A rough correlation is made
461 between wet/dry years obtained by applying the standard definition of normal years (Soil Survey
462 Staff, 2014) (A, Figure 11) and by compiling the observations from the literature regarding the
463 presence of water in the lake (B, Figure 11). The number of years with rainfall above or below
464 the normal year (Soil Survey Staff, 2014) is fewer than the number of dry, very dry, or wet years
465 compiled from the literature. The best correspondence between the two data sources are for the
466 wet period 1957 - 1977, and the dry period 1982 – 1984, as well as the following wet years
467 (1987-1991). In the last two dry decades, only five years have really been dry based on annual
468 rainfall estimates. CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
469 Figure 11
470 6. Conclusions
471 Photointerpretation based on aerial photopraphs taken in the summer of 2006 was crucial in
472 identifying the subtle landforms of the downwind palustrine area. Integrating LiDAR high-
473 resolution DEM with geomorphological photointerpretation provides consistency when
474 delineating the recent lacustrine terrace levels. The pronounced flatness of Gallocanta Lake,
475 together with intense and persistent unidirectional winds paralleling the marked elongation of the
476 lake, have produced predominant water and sediment transport towards the lee zone where
477 sedimentation processes have generated a set of lunettes forming a complex lacustrine barrier. A
478 palustrine area was therefore generated beyond the barrier, but which was still connected to the
479 main lake body through small inlets. As a consequence, the flat downwind palustrine area was
480 protected against the erosional action of waves, but was particularly sensitive to lake water
481 fluctuations. Several cycles of water fluctuations as part of a general trend towards desiccation
482 gave way to the generation of 5 stepped lacustrine terrace levels that display different
483 pedogenetic properties. At lake scale, the distribution, shape and topography of the successive
484 lacustrine terraces in the palustrine zone evidence a sustained retraction of the lake area which
485 seems to be a result of climatic drying, although brief re-flooding episodes have also been
486 identified. At a finer scale, the pedogenesis of soil terraces reveals morphological and
487 sedimentary changes including truncations and discontinuities in the soils. Pedogenesis has
488 resulted in a sequence of fine-grained, gray lacustrine layers with a thickness that increases
489 according to the terrace level, overlaying detrital and erosive carbonate-poor reddish layers. Our
490 findings show that there was a scant development of lacustrine sedimentation following an
491 intense period of predominantly detrital sedimentation, meaning an episode of high water level
492 in the lake is required to explain the distribution and surface expression of these deposits. The
493 downwind palustrine area of Gallocanta Lake provides a record of enormous edaphodiversity, CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
494 constituted by a variety of complex lacustrine environments where pedogenesis has been
495 strongly controlled by flooding episodes. The lacustrine materials found in the soils studied
496 confirm that the downwind area was part of the submerged floor of a much larger paleolake, and
497 in addition they indicate past palustrine conditions. The next step in the research will be the
498 dating of the different terraces in order to evaluate the rate at which pedogenetic processes have
499 acted in this fluctuating environment.
500
501 Acknowledgements
502 This article has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness under
503 project AGL2012-40100 and supported by the Andalusian PAI Research Group no. RNM-328.
504 E. Luna was financed by a fellowship from Aragón Government, Spain. Orthophotographs and
505 LIDAR data were supplied by the Spanish National Geographic Institute (Instituto Geográfico
506 Nacional). Rainfall data from Tornos were provided by the Spanish Meteorological Agency
507 (AEMET) after contract no. L2 990130734.
508
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737 CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
738 Table 1. Selected metrics of each of the five terraces as obtained from LiDAR data. C.V: 739 coefficient of variation.
Elevation difference Elevation, m a.s.l. Surface m No. Between From lake Terrace patches Max Median Min CV ha % terraces bottom T4 12 1000.2 995.8 992.9 0.12 173.7 34 1.6 4.5 T3 21 997.2 994.2 992.8 0.06 128.8 25 0.5 3.0 T2 14 995.7 993.7 992.4 0.04 90.3 18 0.7 2.5 T1 6 994.6 993.0 992.2 0.03 60.9 12 0.2 1.8 T0 6 993.7 992.8 992.1 0.03 52.3 10 1.6 740
741 Table 2. Physical properties and main ions of the groundwater in the downwind palustrine area 742 of Gallocanta Lake.
2+ 2+ + + 2- - - - Depth EC Mg Ca Na K SO4 Cl HCO3 NO3 Sample pH -1 cm dS m meq L-1 GA33 155 7.3 87.1 989.6 32.1 756.7 3.6 721.8 991.2 10.0 63.2 GA34 130 7.3 83.0 736.2 34.2 709.4 5.7 526.5 1029.6 2.0 6.9 GA36 90 8.2 4.9 32.0 3.7 29.5 0.6 31.8 18.9 16.0 0.0 GA55 168 8.5 1.3 8.2 4.4 2.9 0.1 5.3 3.3 12.0 0.7 GA57 200 7.5 66.9 611.8 41.9 553.0 4.9 474.4 795.4 7.0 2.0 GA58 180 7.1 106.0 1083.4 36.0 1058.7 12.2 696.5 1545.4 5.0 4.7 743 CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
Table 3. Physical and chemical properties of the nine soils studied. *: Auger sampling. L: lacustrine, D: detritic, SL: semi-lacustrine; ECe: electrical conductivity of the saturation extract; SAR: sodium adsorption ratio; Mg/Ca: ratio in equivalents; pH: measured on the saturated paste; CCE: calcium carbonate equivalent; OM: organic matter; Rock fragments: weight percent. - Not determined.
Rock USDA Depth Munsell Color ECe CCE Gypsum OM Sand Silt Clay Silt/ Horizon Sediment SAR Mg/Ca pH fragments Textural Clay cm Matrix Mottles dS m-1 % class GA33 Typic Aquisalid 2.5Y 0-21 Az L 27.2 18.6 6.0 8.0 34.6 2.7 1.4 15.3 70.8 20.2 9.0 2.2 Sandy loam 5.5/3 21-28/39 Cz SL 2.5Y 6/3 7.5YR 5/8 38.6 22.6 14.1 8.2 32.0 <2 0.2 52.3 87.2 12.2 0.6 20.3 Sand 7.5YR Sandy Clay 28/39-54 top 2Cz L 51.1 25.3 16.0 8.2 32.4 <2 0.1 15.3 56.8 17.9 25.3 0.7 7/4 loam 28/39-54 down 2Cz L 2.5Y 8/3 44.7 23.5 14.0 8.2 48.4 2.4 0.2 6.3 50.2 7.2 42.6 0.2 Sandy Clay 7.5YR 54-160 3Cgkz D 10YR 6/6 2.5/1 and 40.7 22.3 13.9 8.0 4.7 2.0 0.1 40.7 59.4 24.5 16.1 1.5 Sandy loam 5Y 7/4 GA34 Typic Aquisalid 0-8/10 Az L 5Y 5.5/2 37.8 23.5 5.5 8.2 27.5 3.0 0.5 3.0 62.3 29.4 8.3 3.5 Sandy loam 2.5Y 8/10-25/30 Cz L 2.5YR 7/4 37.8 24.1 12.1 8.4 36.2 <2 0.3 5.6 49.0 34.0 17.0 2.0 Loam 7.5/2 2.5Y 7.5/4, 2.5Y 6/3 25/30-70 2Cgkz D 10YR 6/6 45.4 27.7 16.1 7.9 12.4 <2 0.1 41.0 70.8 18.4 10.8 1.7 Sandy loam and 10YR 6.5/6 7.5YR 70-117/120 3Cgz D 44.7 26.2 13.5 7.6 <2 <2 0.1 72.6 70.5 21.4 8.1 2.6 Sandy loam 5.5/6 117/120-135 4Cz D 5YR 4/6 59.7 31.8 12.8 7.5 <2 <2 0.0 28.1 91.5 8.3 0.2 41.5 Sand GA35 Typic Haploxerept Ap1 and 0-20 L 2.5Y 5/2 0.5 0.3 1.4 8.0 42.7 3.4 1.3 0.8 61.3 22.5 16.2 1.4 Sandy loam 2 20-37 Bw1 L 2.5Y 6/2 0.4 1.0 2.3 8.5 43.2 3.4 0.7 0.4 45.8 30.2 24.0 1.3 Loam CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
37-70 Bw2 L 2.5Y 5/3 2.5 4.8 4.0 8.2 35.0 3.0 0.6 0.3 52.5 34.9 12.6 2.8 Sandy loam 10YR 4/1 70-100 2Aby L 2.5Y 4/2 and 10YR 10.4 10.4 4.8 8.1 25.0 2.4 0.4 0.8 50.4 35.7 13.9 2.6 Loam 7/5 10YR7/7 100-150 2Cgy1 L 2.5Y 6/6 16.5 11.7 3.4 8.1 39.6 2.1 0.1 0.1 41.6 32.6 25.8 1.3 Loam and 2.5Y 150-210 2Cgy2 L 10YR 7/7 22.6 14.2 3.8 7.9 33.2 2.4 0.1 0.6 40.8 39.3 19.9 2.0 Loam 7/3.5 210-250 * L - 24.1 15.1 3.7 7.8 25.3 16.0 0.1 0.0 65.0 26.7 8.3 3.2 Sandy loam 250-270 * L - 20.1 12.9 3.4 7.9 37.8 7.5 0.1 9.9 46.5 15.9 37.6 0.4 Sandy Clay Sandy Clay 270-290 * SL - 16.4 11.2 3.0 7.8 34.8 <2 0.1 20.9 55.1 20.6 24.3 0.8 loam 290-320 * L - 15.0 10.8 3.0 7.8 37.7 <2 0.1 3.1 43.9 25.1 31.0 0.8 Clay loam Sandy Clay 320-350 * L - 15.0 10.5 2.8 7.5 38.7 3.1 0.1 9.0 52.3 23.7 24.0 1.0 loam GA36 Typic Calcixerept 0-45 Ah L 2.5Y 4/2 1.0 2.7 4.3 8.5 26.7 4.0 2.5 0.9 49.7 30.4 19.9 1.5 Loam 45-57 AB L 2.5Y 5/1 10YR 6/6 2.7 10.3 12.8 8.7 49.5 2.2 0.4 0.0 35.3 37.3 27.4 1.4 Clay loam 57-80 Bwgk L 10YR 6/4 2.5YR 5/1 2.4 0.0 7.2 8.5 47.9 <2 0.3 0.1 26.6 37.1 36.3 1.0 Clay loam 10YR 80-120 Ck L 10YR 6/6 3.4 7.4 5.8 8.4 63.8 <2 0.1 1.6 76.0 11.5 12.5 0.9 Sandy loam 7.5/3 GA55 Typic Calcixerept 7.5YR 0-23 A1 L 1.7 1.0 12.3 8.6 30.8 4.0 3.2 0.0 82.2 14.0 3.8 3.7 Loamy sand 4/2 10YR 23-40 A2 L 1.7 2.8 11.9 8.5 30.3 0.0 1.1 5.5 71.5 22.4 6.1 3.7 Sandy loam 4.5/2 2.5Y Sandy clay 40-75 2Bgk L 2.5Y 7/8 0.9 1.3 1.9 8.2 50.9 0.0 0.6 0.5 64.9 13.7 21.4 0.6 7.5/3 loam 10YR 75-95/105 3Bk SL 0.9 0.8 1.2 8.1 29.9 0.0 0.2 38.9 83.7 8.1 8.2 1.0 Loamy sand 6.5/6 7.5YR 95/105-118/127 4C D 5Y 6/2 0.2 0.6 1.0 8.3 <2 0.0 0.1 35.0 85.5 13.6 0.9 15.1 Sand 5/8 2.5Y 5/4 118/127-168 5Cg D 10YR 5/8 0.4 0.6 0.8 8.1 2.2 0.0 0.1 53.6 67.4 26.9 5.7 4.7 Sandy loam and 5Y 5/3 CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
GA56 Typic Calcixerept 0-35 A L 2.5Y 5/3 0.8 0.6 1.1 8.0 23.9 2.2 1.5 0.9 64.7 25.3 10.0 2.5 Sandy loam Sandy clay 35-85 2Bk1 L 2.5Y 6/5 7.5 YR 4/6 11.8 4.9 5.4 8.1 38.4 <2 0.5 0.0 50.5 27.1 22.4 1.2 loam 10YR 85-100/105 2Bk2 L 7.5 YR 4/6 2.1 3.0 6.9 8.2 50.9 0.0 0.2 0.3 44.1 23.0 32.9 0.7 Clay loam 6.5/4 5Y 5.5/2 100/105- 10YR 3C SL and 7.5YR 1.2 1.8 5.5 8.2 16.5 0.0 0.1 15.4 85.0 11.9 3.1 3.8 Loamy sand 110/117 6.5/5 6/8 7.5 YR 6/8 110/117- 4C D 10YR 5/6 and 7.5 YR 1.1 1.5 6.7 8.2 6.9 0.0 0.1 33.7 67.9 25.8 6.3 4.1 Sandy loam 135/145 2.5/3 7.5YR 135/145-170 4C2 D 7.5 YR 6/8 - - - - <2 2.6 0.0 62.7 73.8 20.9 5.3 3.9 Sandy loam 3.5/4 GA57 Sodic Calcixerept 0-22 A L 2.5Y 6/2 0.9 1.3 0.8 8.0 27.7 2.9 1.8 1.5 71.1 21.7 7.2 3.0 Sandy loam 10YR 22-42 Cy L 20.3 17.9 3.2 8.1 29.5 3.2 0.8 2.1 59.6 29.4 11.0 2.7 Sandy loam 5.5/2 10YR 10R 2/1 42-80 2Bgk D 22.6 19.1 5.9 8.1 14.9 <2 0.3 61.3 62.1 27.6 10.3 2.7 Sandy loam 5.5/8 and 5Y 6/2 80-110/120 2C D 5YR 4/6 5Y 6/2 19.1 18.3 7.9 7.9 8.1 <2 0.3 63.1 72.2 21.1 6.7 3.1 Sandy loam 110/120-135 3C D 5YR 4/6 10YR 6/3 25.2 20.0 10.5 7.9 <2 <2 0.1 4.0 70.7 24.4 4.9 5.0 Sandy loam 135-205 4C D 5YR 4/6 23.9 19.4 9.3 7.9 <2 <2 0.1 42.5 76.1 18.7 5.2 3.6 Loamy sand GA58 Calcic Aquisalid 0-4 Az L 10Y 5.5/1 5PR 2/1 70.7 33.4 5.6 8.0 23.0 9.3 1.6 14.2 56.3 32.7 11.0 3.0 Sandy loam 7.5YR 4-43/48 2Bkz SL 5PR 2/1 37.6 25.5 7.7 8.2 23.2 2.5 0.5 41.7 62.3 22.1 15.6 1.4 Sandy loam 4.5/6 43/48-85/97 3Ckz D 5YR 5/7 5PR 2/1 41.5 26.7 16.3 7.9 <2 2.5 0.2 57.8 63.6 29.4 7.0 4.2 Sandy loam 85/97-105 4Cgz D 10YR 5/8 38.7 25.4 24.1 7.6 <2 2.1 0.2 5.9 55.9 35.0 9.1 3.8 Sandy loam 5YR 105-127 5Cz D 47.7 27.0 20.0 7.4 <2 <2 0.1 64.9 72.9 21.4 5.7 3.8 Sandy loam 4.5/6 127-180 6Cz D 5YR 5/7 53.1 28.8 23.4 7.2 <2 <2 0.1 62.3 85.5 13.3 1.2 11.1 Loamy sand CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
GA59 Typic Calcixerept 0-20 A L 10YR 5/2 5.0 3.7 1.3 7.6 41.5 3.7 3.6 0.0 37.7 40.8 21.5 1.9 Loam 20-55 Bwg L 2.5Y 5/1 6.1 7.2 2.6 8.0 28.1 3.5 1.5 0.8 35.8 43.4 20.8 2.1 Loam 55-100/160 2Bgk SL 10YR 5/8 10YR 2.5/1 14.1 10.7 2.9 8.0 27.5 3.7 0.3 46.0 32.3 43.1 24.6 1.8 Loam 7.5YR 100/160-190 3Cg D 10YR 2.5/1 15.1 13.6 5.5 7.8 2.9 3.0 0.1 50.0 37.3 44.4 18.3 2.4 Loam 4.5/6 190-200 4Cg - 5YR 4/6 10YR 2.5/1 ------
CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
Figure captions
Figure 1. False color composition (RGB 543) of a Landsat 5TM image (from the U.S.
Geological Survey) acquired on 14/04/1987 showing Gallocanta Lake and its
downwind palustrine area partially flooded. The nearest weather stations, Los
Picos and Tornos, are marked. The wind rose shows the relative frequency and
direction of the moderate (2.0 to 5.0 m s-1) winter winds measured at a height of 2
m (modified from Martínez-Cob et al., 2010).
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CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
Figure 2. Geomorphological map of the downwind palustrine area of Gallocanta
Lake (see Figure 1 for general location). The nine soil profiles of the two soil toposequences studied, NW-SE and NE-SW, are marked.
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Figure 3. Boxplots of elevation for the five stepped terraces forming the downwind
palustrine area of Gallocanta Lake, obtained from LiDAR data. Interquartile range
box, medians and their confidence intervals, and outliers are represented.
Figure 4. Terrace topography extracted from LiDAR DEM (see Figure 2 for scale) and
the corresponding histograms showing the median (red vertical line).
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CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046
Figure 5. Photographs taken during dry seasons showing the terraces of the palustrine
area of Gallocanta Lake at different scales.
Figure 6. Soil salinity (ECe) of the studied profiles displayed for 25 cm-thick layers.
Profiles are colored according to their mean salinity: very strongly saline and
strongly saline soils are red; moderately saline soil is purple; and non-saline and
slightly saline soils are green.
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Figure 7. Soil profiles studied through the two perpendicular toposequences with
the particle size distribution and ECe values (in red), calculated for the 25-cm
thick synthetic soil layers.
Figure 8. Main morphological features of the soils studied along the NE-SW and NW-
SE toposequences.
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Figure 9. Scheme of the lacustrine, semi-lacustrine, and detrital materials along the two
toposequences studied.
Figure 10. Sequence of lacustrine, semi-lacustrine and detrital materials in four selected
profiles (GA33, GA34, GA56 and GA55).
Figure 11. The available water level records of Gallocanta Lake, including continuous
(line) and point (dots) measurements, and the mean elevation of the five lacustrine
41
CATENA 147: 372–385 (2016) http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2016.07.046 terraces in the downwind palustrine area of Gallocanta Lake. The colored horizontal lines along the bottom represent: A) annual rainfall from 1944 above
(blue) and below (orange) the normal year (Soil Survey Staff, 2014); and B) dry
(orange), very dry (dark orange), and wet periods (blue and dark blue) as described in the literature (see references in the text).
42