The Role of Religion in Economic Growth

Submitted by

Celia McKoy

SALISES, UWI Mona Campus

For the

Sir Arthur Lewis Institute of Social and Economic Studies

6th Annual Conference

March 17-18, 2005

Kingston, Jamaica

2

Introduction

This paper consists of two sections. In the first I reflect on some aspects of Sir Arthur Lewis’ view of the role of religion in the economic growth of a nation. In “The Theory of Economic Growth”, Lewis examines the role of religion in shaping the values that determine people’s attitudes to work and the will to economise. He focuses on the ways in which various religions influence people’s beliefs.

However, the book does not present an analysis of any specific efforts made by religious groups to contribute to economic growth.

Since Christianity is the major religion in Jamaica, I discuss the influence of the church in shaping values that contribute to or detract from economic growth in this country, particularly over the five decades since this book was written. There is also discussion of the church’s own beliefs about its responsibility and how these beliefs have or have not been put into practice.

The second section of this paper reflects on some of the benefits and costs of economic growth as presented by Lewis. This paper examines these costs and benefits in light of current theories of development, in particular those views of economic development favoured by Christian economists such as Herman Daly and theologians like John Cobb Jr., William Watty and Burchel Taylor. There is no single economic system that may be rightly defined as a Christian system. The Bible does not give us a blue print to easily solve all today’s economic problems, however, “…we nevertheless find in the biblical traditions the shape of God’s economy to which, for Christians, our economic systems should correspond as much as possible under the conditions of history.” (Meeks 3)

3

Lewis on Religion and Economic Growth

Sir Arthur Lewis leaves us in no doubt about his focus in the writing of this text. It is as the title states, a book about economic growth and not the broader concept of development (in its many definitions) on which we tend to focus our attention these days. In the introduction he clearly establishes the following: that his focus is on growth in economic output and not the distribution of that output, and that the definition of ‘economic’ does not extend to concepts such as welfare or happiness (Lewis 9). He acknowledges that growth in output does not necessarily benefit everyone, as there may be increased inequity in the distribution of that increased income. He also acknowledges that growth does not necessarily improve welfare or buy happiness. Nevertheless this paper will focus on issues to do with development rather than just growth. The focus here is the role of religion and since religion is rarely ever concerned with mere growth it would not be very meaningful to discuss the subject purely from that angle.

The factors that contribute to economic growth are identified by

Lewis as the will to economise, the acquisition and application of knowledge, and increasing the amount of per capita capital and other resources. (Lewis 11) In his methodology, Lewis examines the nature of the environments that foster or hinder growth. In this analysis he looks at what institutions facilitate or impede growth, what are the beliefs that lead to the creation of these institutions and what causes one set of people to have one belief system or another. Lewis treats with the topic by investigating how economic relations, institutions and beliefs influence each of the three factors affecting growth. Sir

Arthur summarises the relations between economic growth and religion by 4 first asking two questions: Are some religious beliefs incompatible with economic growth and secondly, does religion have an independent effect in shaping economic behaviour or is it merely a reflection of the prevailing economic conditions? (Lewis 101, 106)

In answering the first question, the writer points out, among other things, that some religious beliefs encourage the contemplation of ways to increase productivity and “…teach that salvation can be reached through the discipline of hard and conscientious work, and do elevate the pursuit of efficiency into a moral virtue.” (Lewis 102)

Such religious beliefs will encourage economic growth while others will tend to hinder it. For example, most religions discourage the desire for material things and instead encourage the contemplation of things spiritual.

However, William Watty in a lecture entitled “Theology and

Development” points out that, “In traditional theology the spiritual is set in antithesis to the material, and this has contributed to the distortion of priorities of the Church so far as human development is concerned. One can find in Christian literature abundant evidence of the denigration of material concerns in the interests of spiritual welfare or spiritual compensations – a denigration which is sometimes hypocritical and often naïve.” (Watty 36) Watty goes on to say that what is found in the Bible is instead an antithesis of both the spiritual and material over against the carnal. He posits that a correction of this error has serious implications for Christian involvement in development.

Watty continues in his discussion of traditional theology by outlining what he refers to as the false antithesis created between heaven and earth. He contends that the real antithesis is between both heaven and earth on the one hand and hell on the other “…for hell is 5 the state of God-abandonment, whereas earth is the place where the Lord of heaven visited and redeemed His people.” (Watty 37) If people are taught that consideration of the material is un-spiritual, that they need not be concerned about the conditions in which they and others live here on earth while they wait for heaven’s rewards, they will not be likely to engage in contemplating the ways to achieve economic growth as outlined by Lewis.

However, this does not mean that the spiritual has no place in discussions of economic growth. In the face of circumstances that would otherwise result in despair, hopelessness and fatalism, it is the hope offered by belief in God in Christ that enables many persons to continue planning and working in efforts to bring increased income and its various benefits to themselves and the wider community. It is the belief in a just and righteous God that makes it possible for them to continue in the face of injustice and unrighteousness. It is the ‘pie in the sky’ that keeps the faithful working today because they know that better will really come, as promised by the Bible and not by the politician. These beliefs can and do result in behaviour that has a positive impact on economic growth and, more importantly, development.

Lewis second question is, “Does religion have an independent effect in shaping economic behaviour or does religion merely reflect economic conditions?” (Lewis 106) According to Lewis, some argue that religion accommodates economic change, and as such religion neither hinders nor promotes economic change. Lewis disagrees and says that even if religion were always to give way to economic interests it could still slow down the rate of change in the society. Furthermore he asserts, “It is possible for a nation to stifle its economic growth by adopting passionately and intolerantly religious doctrines of a kind which are incompatible with growth. Or it is possible for conversion 6 to a new faith to be the spark which sets off economic growth.” (Lewis

107) He gives the example of the centuries-old Hindu consideration of the cow a sacred and therefore not used in economic activity.

A form of Christianity was brought to this region with the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. The Europeans were here for the purpose of enriching themselves and the ‘gospel’ they brought was one of the tools to be used in that mission. They brutally exterminated the native populations of the islands and just as brutally dragged another set of people across the Atlantic and enslaved them here, still for the express purpose of enriching themselves. Their religion had nothing to do with the message of Jesus Christ. I do not think it was Christianity at all. It was every thing that Jesus was against and was really an elaborate exercise in taking the name of the

Lord in vain.

Religion as a tool of the dominant economic powers was used to teach the dominated how to be servile slaves and eventually peaceful peasants. According to Ashley Smith, “Traditional Christianity is presented with a real challenge to provide an honest interpretation of the task of development in today’s world. It is for this reason that the typical Marxist model of development in terms of the restructuring of society and traditional human relationship advocates either the destruction of institutionalised Christianity or the removal of

Christian faith from the scene of any serious debate on the issue of human development. Of course, experience has shown that in societies which have for centuries used the Judeo-Christian scriptures as the source of their values, the idea of either ignoring or abolishing the

Christian tradition is a meaningless one, and any serious attempt to put it into practice can be counter-productive and obstructive to the process of development.” (Smith 35) 7

However, Rev. Garnet Roper, in his comments on Dr. Trevor

Munroe’s paper “Revolutionary Change and Religious Freedom”, indicates that religion is presented “…in almost monolithic terms and depicted almost only in terms of its aberrations.” (Roper 74) In presenting the role of religion, particularly Christianity, in the development of people in the region we often see such a one-dimensional portrayal.

Though Roper is referring specifically to Marxism, the point he makes applies to other sources of the criticism. He further states that, “If diversity in Marxism is to be acknowledged, then Marxism, itself, must be prepared to acknowledge religious diversity and see that religious control and intolerance be judged as possible aberrations within the religious system.” (Roper 74)

Lewis asserts that religion leans heavily on the side of the status quo, thus favouring social stability rather than either growth or decay. According to Lewis “…the role of religion is almost always restrictive. This is because religion almost always puts the virtues of obedience, duty and obligation above all others, and especially above the virtue of justice, which sometimes conflicts with the others

– and which is any case mainly a matter for the secular power.” (Lewis

103)

In a published speech “Religion As an Agent of Change”, Dr.

Hyacinth Boothe notes that religion’s influence on the society has not always been positive. “The fact is that many peoples of the world would have encountered ‘religion’ as a dogmatic, closed system, nationalistic, repressive, and an upholder of the status quo.

Atrocities have been committed in the name of religion.” (Boothe 7) In

“The Babylonish Captivity of the Church in the Caribbean” Dr. Burchel

Taylor asserts, “…principally, the Church in the Caribbean is in

Babylonish Captivity, not as a new development, but rather as a 8 continuation of its historical orientation…” (Taylor 8). He continues to declare “The Church has not freed itself in its context so that, in freedom and without fear for its own security, it may challenge structures that have perpetuated a way of life that embodies injustice.” (Taylor 8).

Religion seen as ‘keeper of the status quo’ is only one aspect of the issue however, and Sir Arthur cautions against taking this already broad generalization too far. He reminds us that there are prophets who from time to time arise to denounce the status quo and seek to initiate change. The power of these prophets however is usually limited against that of the religious establishment who are often in bed with the secular powers. Despite this, the role of the prophetic voice cannot be ignored. Lewis encourages us to look not only at the religious views of those who may oppose change but also of those who seek to initiate change.

9

Responsibility of the Church: Beliefs and Practice

Established religion has been shown time and again to be on the side of the oppressors, to be the maintainer of the status quo.

However to write off religion as a whole and Christianity in particular as incapable of being anything but a tool of the dominant against the dominated is too easy. Even within the church there has been the tendency to do this, to give in to the world’s view of church as impotent in the face of the evils of the day. We become disheartened at how far off we are from the standards clearly set by Jesus and react with self-recriminations and focus only on the failures.

I do not advocate that we hide our heads in the sand and pretend that all is well, because that is clearly not the case. However, to ignore the rest of the church’s role in bringing about positive change in societies for those who need it most will not be a true picture of our history nor of the present. The prophetic voice in the wilderness, the agent for change in the midst of the establishment has been a real and potent factor in religion and indeed the life of the wider society.

In drawing a reference from Catherine Albanese’s America:

Religions and Religion, Hennelly makes the point that there is ordinary religion and extraordinary religion. Ordinary religion is comfortable with the status quo. It is about living well within society’s boundaries and honours the ranks assigned and institutions created by that society. Extraordinary religion on the other hand “…is not definitively assimilated into the “ordinary” culture; these terms

“chart the unknown and suggest how it beckons people away from their more ordinary concerns.” Furthermore, “…extraordinary religion often encourages religious activity not only on the part of the community but also on the part of separate individuals who tune themselves with 10

particular intensity to the message delivered to the community.” In

short they become the mystics and prophets of the community.” (Hennelly

337-8)

In “Community Formation: A Study of the ‘Village’ in post-Emancipation

Jamaica”, Audley Reid makes the point that as Emancipation neared, neither the planters

nor the Colonial Office in England had any plan for the resulting new society. “The

burden and responsibility of economics, politics, and community formation was assumed by the missionaries.” There was little provision for the education of the ex-slaves, no rural medical care, and public health services were allowed to deteriorate. Not only were the former slaves without property and employment, their former masters were themselves in dire economic circumstances. “By the time slavery was abolished in 1834 and the black majority might take a free hand in the economy, the bottom had dropped out of sugar, and the years of prosperity were passed. For the last one and three-quarter centuries, the Caribbean can be classified as a region of poverty” (Reid, C., 40).

The missionaries of the Non-conformist churches knew they had to do more than just preach to the slaves and agitate for their freedom.

With the coming of Emancipation, they now had to lead the way in helping the ex-slaves build a new society. According to Audley Reid, they realised they would have to lead in the “… institutionalization of family, church, social, and civic relationships and education” (Reid,

A., 49). The free villages established by the missionaries were very carefully laid out with provision for housing, small farming, schools and churches.

The missionaries ensured that, not only were the ex-slaves able to buy the plots of land, but that they had proper title to their lots.

In addition, “… the church and the missionaries as the architects of 11 community formation had a plan for the social and economic viability of these villages” (Reid, A., 51-52). According to Dick, “The Free

Village System was a deliberate policy by the Church to create a community, provide shelter, alternative employment, food production, self-sufficiency, security of tenure for family stability and political rights for the oppressed blacks.” (Dick 10)

The evolution in the nature of the Church’s involvement in the country’s development is seen in, among other things, the changes in education policy. According to Dick, by 1892 government policy in

England had shifted resulting in the State assuming responsibility for elementary education. The same change occurred in the Colonies meaning that the church was no longer solely responsible for the provision of elementary education but was now a partner with the state in this and other development efforts. In the 1942 book by J. Merle Davis entitled

“The Church in the New Jamaica: A Study of the Economic and Social

Basis of the Evangelical Church in Jamaica”, the author notes that the role of the Church was affected, not just by changes in government policy and thinking but by the growth of secular agencies and movements such as the Jamaica Welfare Limited, the labour unions, Land Settlement

Association and various civic organizations.

In the years following Emancipation, the Church continued to play the leading role in the improvement of conditions for the former slaves. Church leaders such as Paul Bogle agitated for improvement in the economic and political freedoms of the Blacks. C.S. Reid outlines three (3) major areas of the Church’s involvement in “Church, Morality, and Democracy”:

1. Agricultural Commodity Organizations: these were formed

to allow the small farmers to unite for the common good.

There was one such organization for each major crop. The 12

umbrella organization continues to be the Jamaica

Agricultural Society.

2. Literacy: the missionaries were personally involved in

educating the former slaves. The church has been the

sponsor of education at all ages: basic, primary,

secondary, tertiary, and adult non-institutional.

3. Cooperatives: these were “… a means of encouraging

economic independence and stability…” among the former

slaves. Some examples of these are People’s Cooperative

Banks and Thrift Clubs.

During the five decades since Sir Arthur wrote “The Theory of

Economic Growth” the church in the region has had mixed fortunes in its efforts to contribute to development. Since the creation of the

Caribbean Conference of Churches in 1973, the ecumenical effort in development has been lead by this organisation. The Christian Action for Development in the Caribbean (CADEC) has served as the development arm of the CCC and through its Development Fund has sought to stimulate and facilitate projects that have as their goal development that leads to a happier and healthier life for the Caribbean people (CADEC 5).

In his analysis of projects sponsored in the first ten years of the Development Fund, Robert Cuthbert concluded, “These projects indicated that, when provided with the necessary linkages to other institutions in society and when their goals coincided in the main with those of the CCC, they proved to be useful in generating employment and building community…Although the mobilisation of external resources has been an outstanding achievement of the CCC, the accompanying inability to garner a percentage of its financial resources from local sources leaves open the question of dependency as a feature of Caribbean 13 ecumenism.” (Cuthbert 108) Rev. Cuthbert further noted that the CCC had been unable to get its member churches to share its priorities and that this would hinder the ability of the organisation to contribute meaningfully to the development in the region. Unfortunately, I believe the situation today is just as bad if not worse.

Other church groups continue with various programmes, primarily in the areas of education and training, health care, and legal advisory services. Besides acts of charity that seek to alleviate the immediate concerns of poverty, the churches provide avenues to help persons change their lives, break the cycle of dependency and helplessness, and so participate in work, ownership of property, and the consumption of goods and services to meet their needs.

The challenge remains for the church to participate in the radical transformation of the powers and institutions that perpetuate the poverty and injustice which plague the majority in the region.

These require fundamental changes in thought patterns and belief systems, both for those within and without the church. The church’s position on development must be articulated to the members first and then to the world. It has to be taught and reinforced. The distortions in theology that have been taught through the centuries need to be countered with the liberation found in Caribbean Theology.

The various individual efforts at involvement in the process should be the actions that help to inform the continued theological reflections on the matter.

Does the church see itself as having a part to play in the effort to achieve development and if it does, what is that part? How has the church fulfilled its mission in this regard? And just who is this

‘church’ to which we refer? This paper will not answer all these questions but to begin with the last question, we will consider 14

‘church’ to be as delineated by Burchell Taylor for the purposes of his lecture “The Babylonish Captivity of the Caribbean Church”. He defines the church there as “…the Collective Christian Presence variously expressed in, and identified with, ecumenical collocations, doctrinal and confessional alignments, denominational and other institutional bodies and structures, and hierarchical or leading figures. There is this basic awareness of a collective Christian presence to which people appeal, of which they have certain expectations, of which they are critical, which they shun, from which they fall away or to which they claim they belong.” (Taylor 2-3)

Why should the Church concern itself with economic growth and development? The impetus for involvement, and indeed leadership, in the effort is largely internal. The internal impetus is based on the fact that the Bible champions the cause of the poor. “The Gospel ethic which determines Christian conduct in society, originated in the mission statement of Jesus summed up in terms of goods news to the poor. Mission to the poor is not an option for the church: it is an indispensable criterion” (Boothe 69). Mark Figureoa in “Economic

Change for the People and the Christian Message” states, “The message of Christ’s life and work is clearly that of an inseparable bond with the poor and down trodden, and a rejection of those who set themselves up over the people…Power, wealth, authority must serve the poor, not stand above them. The Christian value is always service above self; humility is at its centre.” (Figueroa 82)

The Caribbean Ecumenical Consultation took place in Chaguaramas,

Trinidad in November 1971. In “Church, Morality, and Democracy”, Rev.

C. S. Reid, himself a participant in the Consultation, indicated that the conference participants spent their time dealing with issues beyond their normal church agenda. They were “…zeroing in on the role of the 15

Church in the task of securing for the peoples of the Caribbean a fuller life – not only spiritual, but economic and social.” This role was not external to the Gospel but “… an explicit outworking of the mission which the Lord Jesus accepted for Himself.” In fact, one of the five major decisions taken by the conference participants was that the churches must be totally involved in Caribbean development. The creation of the Caribbean Conference of Churches (C.C.C.) in November

1973 was the result of a major organizational decision in Chaguaramas.

The CCC was intended to implement the mission envisioned at the conference (Reid, C. 30).

Taylor, however, in “Caribbean Theology” notes that at the

Caribbean Ecumenical Consultation for Development the Church was beginning to discuss issues with which it had not dealt on a widespread, ecumenical basis. Indeed that event highlighted the beginning of a Caribbean theological perspective. C.S. Reid continues to say that both the clergy and the laity are politically and theologically aware. They feel their Christian faith obliges them to respond in practical terms to the felt needs of the society. There is little resistance to the idea of the need for the Church to be involved. The question is usually about the nature of that involvement

(Reid, C. 44-45).

16

Development and Liberation

The focus of the Church as expressed by its various leaders is not economic growth for the sake of growth but rather development of the whole person, “…development in all aspects of human life: social, cultural, spiritual, and political as well as economic…” (CADEC 5)

Every aspect of the church’s faith, life and witness must be guided by theology. According to Ashley Smith, “Theology is the means by which he church understands itself.” (Smith 7) Despite the fact that the church can and does partner with other groups for the good of the society, the church takes its mandate, not from the people, the state, or popular opinions, but from God. This theological reflection must accompany action. There is a difference between praxis and mere practice. Lewin Williams refers to Richard Bernstein’s thesis “Praxis and Action” in which Bernstein emphasises that praxis is concerned with knowledge that seeks to cause change while action is just the execution of mundane activities (Williams 40). Not action that increases dependency and doesn’t change the future, but action that transforms structures and empowers the hitherto powerless to make their own opportunities and take advantage of those that already exist.

William Watty in “From Shore to Shore: Soundings in Caribbean

Theology” declares that it is Christianity that has been the inspiration of social reform. He asserts that only in recent decades has the Church abdicated this role and has become turned in on itself

(Watty 21 – 22). The Theology of Liberation arose in Latin and Central

America. The proponents “…opposed the globalization of Western culture.” According to Nafziger, Liberation Theologians such as

Gutierrez believe that developing countries should free themselves of domination by Western capitalist interests and control their own 17 political destiny. (Nafziger 32) Burchell Taylor, in drawing a reference from the work of Jon Sobrino states “The Theology of

Liberation is associated with Karl Marx’s approach which is not satisfied with giving theoretical answers with practical action loosely attached as a secondary interest. It seeks to see the world for what it is and to change it through practical action which is regarded as a priority.” (Taylor 22)

According to Dale Bisnauth, the proponents of Liberation Theology assert that an encounter with the Lord “…engenders an ethical indignation at the misery of the social reality of the poor, and a demand for a process for liberation that will overcome the contradiction between what is believed to be a loving God’s will for

His people and what the people in fact experience.” (Bisnauth 5)

Liberation theology however is rooted in the context of Latin

America. It has significance for the Caribbean context but this region has to do its own theology. According to Taylor, “Caribbean theology would be more concerned about the justice of God in the face of such manifest inequities that exist in the society. It may be seeking to deal with the question of how can we believe in the God who disclosed himself in Jesus Christ in a region in which the majority of people seem to be condemned to a marginal way of life. It may be dealing with the question of what do principalities and powers, and God’s deliverance of his people from them, mean in our Caribbean context.

Caribbean theology will have to face the question of what does the uniqueness of Christ mean in the presence of other religious forms that make ultimate claims on their adherents.” (Taylor 19)

In “The Lab, the Temple and the Market”, all four contributors presented the view that a purely materialistic approach to development is inadequate. The religions represented in the publication - 18

Christianity, Islam, Hindu, and the Baha’i Faith - all propose a view of development which embraces and focuses on the dignity of human life and the need for the total development of the person and community rather than just the accumulation of material goods. According to

Baum, the Protestant and Roman Catholic Churches “…have denounced the purely economic understanding of development…and…have expressed in public statements their solidarity with the poor and their commitment to analysing their own societies and the world system from the perspective of the marginalized and excluded.” (Baum, 63-64)

The message of the Bible remains despite the many failings of the messengers to deliver it properly. Despite the dubious history of the church in this region and others, the message of Christ has emerged and continues to be more clearly articulated. The Bible is clear in both the Old and New Testaments in its teaching on social justice and of liberating people from all kinds of oppression. It is replete with condemnations of both secular and religious authorities for their roles in robbing, oppressing and misleading people. Old Testament prophets and Jesus in the New Testament deliver strong messages of freedom, justice, righteousness, and care for the weak and vulnerable. Even among the much-maligned European missionaries there were those whose prophetic voice maintained the integrity of the faith and proclaimed the Gospel faithfully.

19

Benefits and Costs of Economic Growth

Lewis’ introduction enunciates that his focus is on growth and not the broader concepts usually associated with development. This may have been useful for his purposes in writing this book. However in looking at the role of religion in the society, limiting the discussion to growth and not broader development goals can be problematic, as religions tend to emphasise the non-material aspects of growth and development. However, in the Appendix he discusses the benefits of growth and thus ventures into areas that sound like development.

Lewis indicates that growth increases the range of human choices.

In giving man greater control over his environment, growth increases his freedom. It reduces the struggle for mere subsistence, gives freedom from many diseases, allows for more leisure and the provision of services, and permits the luxury of greater humanitarianism. These benefits accrue to women more so than men as in many societies it is the women who endure much of the drudgery involved in making a living.

(Lewis 420). Other benefits presented in the text are the ability for poor countries to improve their political status internationally and the ability of c nation to increase the per capita provision of services to its citizens.

In his discussion of the costs of growth, Lewis indicates that some people argue that, “…economy costs too much in nervous energy and human happiness…” (Lewis 425). They also believe it is too often associated with what they consider to be the vice of materialism.

In concluding his analysis of the costs of growth, Lewis declares that some of the alleged costs may not be necessarily due to growth nor be intrinsically evil. These include, the growth and ugliness of urban areas, impoverishment of the working classes, and the growth of 20 individualism. He states that most persons are ambivalent about growth because while we enjoy its benefits, we also like the belief systems and social arrangements that we have been accustomed to even though they may be the cause of the poverty of which we are trying to rid ourselves. The matter of environmental degradation and the breakdown of communities as costs of growth will be examined in this section.

Lewis mentions environmental degradation briefly to say that those who are concerned about the issue forget that advances in science can create solutions to the problem. In addition Lewis states that the drain on the earth’s resources come more from rich countries than poor, so it is the rich who need to be counselled on environmental stewardship. This may be true but as with most everything else, it is much easier said than done (which of course does not mean that it shouldn’t be said or that it cannot be done). He leaps fifty years into the future to meet us here in 2005 as we see the refusal of the

United States to ratify the Kyoto Accord.

In the introduction of his book “Beyond Growth: The Economics of

Sustainable Development” Herman Daly admits that the subject of economics without and beyond growth needs to be worked out more fully.

Discussion of sustainable development requires that we change our view of how we relate to nature. He further states that, “This change in vision involves replacing the economic norm of quantitative expansion

(growth) with qualitative improvement (development) as the path to future progress.” (Daly 1) He asserts that the ecosystem is “…finite, non-growing, and materially closed.” (Daly 1) Daly identifies as forerunner to the current idea of sustainable development John Stuart

Mills’ 1857 concept of the ‘stationary state’ that meant “…a condition of zero growth in population and physical capital stock, but with continued improvement in technology and ethics.” (Daly 3) The modern 21 version of this idea is now espoused by many as the ideal for developing countries but not for the developed countries. Like Lewis,

Daly recognises that it is the rich and powerful countries that inflict the most damage on the environment but they are more difficult to police than the poor countries. Daly believes that growth in production and population must not push us beyond the ecosystem’s capacity to generate inputs and absorb the outputs associated with such growth. Once that point is reached, he believes further production should be for replacement purposes only though qualitative improvements would continue (Daly 3).

Both Mills’ ‘stationary state’ and the idea of limits being placed on quantitative growth have met with great resistance from classical economics. Mills’ ideas have been largely forgotten and the modern concept of sustainability given short shrift by those to whom it would be very inconvenient. Ecologists have been the main ones to turn on the economy as villain, both because of the high rate of use of inputs as well as the effect of the disposal of outputs. Most economists ignore the criticisms and say people want the economic goods produced by quantitative expansion (which is true). They further believe that technological advancements will take care of environmental concerns (Daly and Cobb 5). Great is their faith in the ability of modern man to create greater capacity for the earth.

Daly’s assertions about the need for sustainability in development to be preached to the developed nations does not mean that the developing nations can afford to ignore the issue of environmental stewardship. It is an issue of stewardship, which simply means that the non-human aspects of the creation are not the possession of the human race. God gave man the responsibility to tend and care for the land. Barry Wade in “Christian Stewardship and the Care of the 22

Environment” refers to the assertions of Lynn White that much of the problem of the environment is attributable to religious beliefs

(especially Christian beliefs): Our self-centered view of the world and our belief that in giving humans dominion over the world God meant for us to exploit it for our own purposes (Wade 48-9).

According to Norman Girvan in his paper “Economics and the

Environment in the Caribbean: The Case for a Marriage” Caribbean economists, both in academia and the public sector, have neglected the issue of the environment partly because it is considered a long-term problem and more a problem for the developed world than for us.

Technocrats are often occupied with the immediate problems of economic management. He points out that this neglect is worse when considered in the light of the “…extreme environmental-sensitivity of Caribbean economies.” (Girvan 25-6)

In the Caribbean, the environment has been subjugated to economic concerns from the time of sugar and slavery. Girvan refers to David

Watts’ documentation of the environmental degradation resulting from the growth of sugar plantations. Forests were cleared to make way for sugar cane cultivation. After Emancipation, the former slaves moved to the vulnerable watershed areas of the mountains where their children still live and this lead to deforestation, soil erosion, and declining soil fertility. He further points out the “If ignored, this will give rise to rapidly mounting economic and social costs – more frequent flooding and drought disasters; declining productivity of the land; growing import demand for food, fuel and timber; and increasing malnutrition.” (Girvan 27-8) Development of industries such as petroleum, bauxite, and tourism as well as continued destruction of various watershed areas and the pollution of waterways further exacerbates the problems for the region today. 23

In “Sustaining the Common Good: A Christian Perspective on the

Global Economy” John Cobb presents two antithetical models of development: the dominant model of growth as development and the model of community development. He describes the growth model as an assault on community. He quotes Karl Polyani as saying that the society has been subordinated to the economy, rather than having the economy serve the society. Peoples values are rationalised, they are taught to have insatiable wants, to put acquisition of material goods ahead of spiritual values, and to subordinate concern for their communities to their desire to acquire more goods for consumption (Cobb 56-7).

In “For the Common Good”, the writers assert that the homo economicus presented in traditional economic theory is individualistic, has insatiable wants, and experiences diminishing marginal utility as consumption of a good increases. This makes for sound price theory but does not paint a true picture of how human beings live and relate to each other. Excluded from homo economicus is concern for the satisfactions or sufferings of others, as these are not captured in market exchanges (Daly and Cobb 85-6). The writers further state that,

“…the use of the model influences actual behaviour away from community- regarding patterns toward selfish ones.” (Daly and Cobb 92)

Lewis takes a different view of individualism and economic growth. He expresses the idea that individualism creates greater conditions for growth than does being bound by a wide net of social obligations. He posits that individualism is intrinsically neither good nor evil. The problems mentioned by Cobb and Daly are real but are only a part of the picture. Individualism can also mean breaking away from traditional systems based on status, and the replacement with systems based on contract and equal opportunity. As such, this individualism can be a liberating force (Lewis 426). 24

Conclusion

In the words of William Watty “The issues of development, therefore, run deep. What is at stake is not just a New International

Economic Order or more favourable terms of trade, important though these are, but a new moral order based on deeper insights into the meaning of human life and the nature of relationships between persons and groups, as well as relationships of persons to their environment.”

(Watty 34)

We live in a fallen world. Until the kingdom of God is fully established here on earth, that will be the case. A reality we must reckon with is that no matter how good we get at reflecting on the issues, having intellectual discussions, implementing wonderful policies, this will still be a fallen world, rife with sin and its effects. Heaven on earth will come but it will not be the creation of our policies nor will it be the output of our brilliant conferences.

Much of what ails the world and leads to the exploitation of the powerless is purely the result of sin. People are wicked, selfish, hateful, vindictive and just downright evil. Economics will not solve that problem; it calls for repentance.

According to the Rev. J. Oliver Daley in the unpublished speech delivered at the Fiftieth Anniversary Lecture at the Bethel Baptist

Church in November 2004, “…repentance is not just personal, it is about institutions that need to be transformed… The church is the means by which that repentance must be proclaimed. We must clean up our own act. We must be an instrument for the gospel of repentance but must live the integrity of that call.” What does God require of us? As recorded by the prophet Micah, He expects us to do justice, love mercy and walk humbly with Him. 25

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