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Reaching for the Promised Land: the Role of Culture, Issues of Leadership and Social Stratification Within British Caribbean Christianity

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Reaching for the Promised Land: the Role of Culture, Issues of Leadership and Social Stratification Within British Caribbean Christianity REACHING FOR THE PROMISED LAND: THE ROLE OF CULTURE, ISSUES OF LEADERSHIP AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION WITHIN BRITISH CARIBBEAN CHRISTIANITY BY DOREEN MORRISON A thesis submitted to The University of Birmingham For the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY School of Philosophy, Theology and Religion College of Arts and Law University of Birmingham February 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT Caribbean communities in Britain are known for the high religiosity of their people, and yet as ‘popular’ as the Church appears to be, there is at the same time an over-representation of many in the criminal justice, mental health and social care systems. This thesis takes a new approach to examining the effectiveness of the Church in their lives; rather than examine its belief systems and rituals, it looks at the worship and personal experience of Baptists, the oldest inherited Christian denomination, through the lens of culture. It reveals through practices and experiences, that British Caribbean Christians continue to maintain an allegiance to inherited missionary prejudices against Caribbean culture, enforced by leaders, through a system of social stratification, resulting in self-loathing, alienation and dislocation. They are a people who respect biblical stories and particularly the story of the Exodus, which gives meaning to not just their religious, but social and political lives. This thesis theologically reflects on that story, reframing it to demonstrate that Moses is indeed to be celebrated, but not simply as one who leads God’s people out of Egypt, but to the Promised Land; being a successful prototype of a leadership founded on cultural inclusion. DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to three particular groups of people. My mother Lynette Maud Morrison, my maternal family, the Lawrence’s of Jamaica, and Caribbean saints long past who each in their own way have shown an unyielding commitment to God, and pointed the way to the Promised Land. ‘We are the sum total of all those who have gone before us’. Doreen Morrison ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been completed without the assistance of many people: Firstly, I must say a big thank you to those involved in the Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies within the department of Theology and Religion. To my supervisor, Prof Allan Anderson who travelled with me on this journey, in good times and bad, in sickness and at times some very challenging work. Dr Mark Cartledge, who gave me the opportunity to do a ‘dry run’ of aspects of my research methods, as I assisted him in the completion of a now published book. To my peers, students with whom I sat through monthly seminars, and who placed a critical eye, gave insight, encouragement and assistance, as well as challenged me to develop many ideas further. I would also like to thank administrative and library staff at the Orchard Learning Resource Centre, to whom I am indebted for their jovial disposition, and support, often notifying or holding resources they considered relevant to my work. Archivists at the Dixon Pentecostal Research Centre, Cleveland, Tennessee, the Angus Library, Oxford, the American Baptist Historical Society, Georgia, and Dr Brenda Haliburton, ABCUSA. Brenda Johnson for her support, assistance and sharing her skills by reading a poem in Patois, thereby bringing an important aspect of this research to life. Special mention must be given to Beverley Stubbs who over the years, provided a shoulder to lean on, pointed the way to much needed academic resources and requirements, which when sick I often overlooked. Dr Helen Ingram, who allayed fears, shared a passion for animals and provided much needed insight into the process of completing a PhD as a part time student. The fieldwork aspect of this research could not have been possible without the cooperation of the Pastor and Deacons of Cannon Street Memorial Baptist Church (CSMBC), Birmingham. I thank them for opening their church to be the subject of my research. I am especially grateful to all those who I was able to interview as a part of a focus group or in targeted interviews. I thank them for their openness and honesty, and hope that this goes some way in fulfilling their desire to ‘make it better for the next generation’. On a personal level, this research could not have been accomplished without the encouragement of the following, Dr Douglas Sharp and Chaplain G Wyche who simply encouraged me to be. My heartfelt thanks to Mrs Mignott, Mrs Bruce, and Deleyan Smith, and I will forever owe a debt of gratitude to Heather and Ian Loffman, Merryl Grossett, Audrey Jackson and Ralph Foster who have encouraged and offered unceasing support. Last but not least to my dog Bouncer, now gone, who was with me every step of the way, and sat at my feet during every chapter written. His presence meant that I had to get up every day, stayed the course and completed the project. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: STATUS, RELIGION AND SOCIETY IN JAMAICA 24 1.1 THE CLASS SYSTEM 25 1.1.1 CHURCH AND PLANTOCRACY 26 1.1.2 COLOUREDS AND WHITE CREOLES 33 1.1.2.1 COLOUREDS 33 1.1.2.2 WHITE CREOLES 35 1.1.3 ENSLAVED AFRICANS 36 1.1.3.1 WORSHIPPING GOD 41 1.1.3.1.1 OBEAH 42 1.1.3.1.2 MYALISM 43 1.2 THE MISSIONARIES 45 1.2.1 NATIVE BAPTISTS AND THE BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY (BMS) 46 1.2.1.1 NATIVE BAPTISTS 46 1.2.1.2 BAPTIST MISSIONARY SOCIETY (BMS) 53 1.2.2 MAINLINE PROTESTANT DENOMINATIONS 56 1.2.2.1 THE NATURE OF MISSIONARY ACTIVITY 57 1.3 CHURCH AND GOVERNMENT COMBINE TO ENGINEER JAMAICAN SOCIETY 60 1.4 AFRICAN JAMAICAN RESISTANCE 70 1.4.1 THE LEADERSHIP CHALLENGE 70 1.4.2 THE GREAT REVIVAL (1860-1862) AND REVIVALIST CHRISTIANS 74 1.4.3 WORKING CLASS SELF-PROMOTION THROUGH THE CHURCH OF GOD (CoG) 80 1.5 CONCLUSION 84 CHAPTER TWO: MIGRATION AND ASSIMILATION IN BRITAIN 87 2.1 MIGRATION - WHO CAME AND WHY 89 2.2 THE DEVELOPMENT OF WORSHIPPING COMMUNITIES 93 2.2.1 THE BAPTIST CHURCH AN ACCEPTABLE CONTEXT FOR BELIEVING 94 2.2.2 CARIBBEAN PENTECOSTALS IN PURSUIT OF A CONTEXTUAL CHURCH 100 2.3 BRITISH CARIBBEAN YOUTH CHALLENGE THE STATUS QUO 109 2.3.1 THE PLEA FROM CHARISMATIC YOUTH 113 2.3.2 THE PLEA FROM PENTECOSTAL YOUTH 115 2.3.3 MUSIC MEDIATOR OF A DEVELOPING BRITISH CARIBBEAN CULTURAL IDENTITY 119 2.4 FITTING IN, BUT NOT FITTING TOGETHER AS THE CENTURY ENDS 122 2.5 CONCLUSION 127 CHAPTER THREE: CONTEXT OF STUDY AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 129 3.1 RESEARCH ETHICS 129 3.2 THE WEST MIDLANDS AS THE CONTEXT OF THIS STUDY 131 3.3 THE CONTEXT OF THIS STUDY – CANNON STREET MEMORIAL BAPTIST CHURCH (CSMBC) 132 3.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 136 3.5 RESEARCH METHOD 136 3.5.1 METHODOLOGICAL TRIANGULATION 137 3.5.1.1 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION 138 3.5.1.2 DESCRIPTION 140 3.5.1.3 FOCUS GROUPS 140 3.5.1.4 INTERVIEWS 142 3.5.1.5 DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS 142 3.5.1.6 AUDIO ANALYSIS 143 3.5.2 GROUNDED THEORY 144 3.6 THE PROCESS 145 3.6.1 PREPARATION 145 3.6.2 FOCUS GROUPS 146 3.6.2.1 METHOD 148 3.7 TARGETED INTERVIEWS 150 3.8 ANALYSIS 151 3.9 AUTHENTICITY OF THE RESPONSES 152 3.10 VERIFICATION PROCEDURES 154 3.11 CONCLUSION 155 CHAPTER FOUR: SPEAKING FOR THEMSELVES: THE PUBLIC FACE AND PRIVATE VIEWS WITHIN CSMBC 157 4.1 LANGUAGE 157 4.1.1 PUBLIC FACE 157 4.1.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 162 4.2 FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN 170 4.2.1 PUBLIC FACE 170 4.2.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 172 4.3 LEADERSHIP - INCLUDING THE POSITIONING OF WOMEN 182 4.3.1 PUBLIC FACE 182 4.3.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 185 4.4 WORSHIP - MUSIC AND SONGS 194 4.4.1 PUBLIC FACE 194 4.4.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 197 4.5 DUPPIES, PROVERBS, DEATH RITUALS, FOOD AND ANCESTORS 200 4.5.1 PUBLIC FACE 200 4.5.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 201 4.6 PERSONAL APPEARANCE, CLOTHES AND HAIR 206 4.6.1 PUBLIC FACE 206 4.6.2 PRIVATE VIEWS 208 4.7 RELIGION AND CULTURE: A GROUP COVENANT 213 4.8 DISCUSSION WITH THE PASTOR 214 4.8.1 LANGUAGE 215 4.8.2 FAMILY, MARRIAGE AND CHILDREN 216 4.8.3 LEADERSHIP - INCLUDING THE POSITIONING OF WOMEN 218 4.8.4 WORSHIP - MUSIC AND SONGS 219 4.8.5 DUPPIES, PROVERBS, DEATH RITUALS, FOOD AND ANCESTORS 221 4.8.6 PERSONAL APPEARANCE - CLOTHES AND HAIR 221 4.9 CONCLUSION 222 CHAPTER FIVE: CULTURE, LEADERSHIP, SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND OTHER THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 224 INTRODUCTION 224 5.1 CSMBC ONE PEOPLE BUT TWO CULTURES 224 5.2 MISSIONARY LEADERSHIP AND ITS ROLE IN THE DESTRUCTION OF NATIVE CULTURES 226 5.3 LEADERSHIP PRIVILEGING ENGLISH CULTURAL VALUES WITHIN CSMBC 230 5.4 THE MAINTENANCE OF CULTURAL EXCLUSION THROUGH SOCIAL STRATIFICATION 240 5.5 THE CONSEQUENCES OF A CULTURE DENIED 251 5.6 A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CARIBBEAN THEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES 256 5.6.1 BRITISH CARIBBEAN AND ‘CARIBBEAN BRITISH’ PERSPECTIVES 256 5.6.2 CARIBBEAN PERSPECTIVES 266 5.7 CONCLUSION 271 CHAPTER SIX: MOSES, THE EXODUS AND ALTERNATIVE WAYS OF BEING 273 6.1 MOSES AND THE EXODUS AS CO-OPTED BY THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY 273 6.2 MOSES AND THE EXODUS 277 6.2.1 LITERARY CONTEXT 278 6.2.2 SOCIAL CONTEXT 279 6.2.2.1 EGYPT AND THE EGYPTIANS 279 6.2.2.2 THE HEBREWS 280 6.2.3 MOSES, GOD’S LEADER IN TRAINING 281 6.2.3.1 ROOTS 281 6.2.3.2 AN
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