Muzikološki Z B O R N I K L Ii

Home , Dragotin Cvetko, Ljuba Prenner, Luda za tobom, Seek Bromance

MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL L II / 1 ZVEZEK/VOLUME

L J U B L J A N A 2 0 1 6

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 1 23.6.2016 9:58:06 Izdaja • Published by Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Glavni in odgovorni urednik • Editor-in-chief Jernej Weiss (Ljubljana) Asistentka uredništva • Assistant Editor Tjaša Ribizel (Ljubljana) Uredniški odbor • Editorial Board Matjaž Barbo (Ljubljana) Aleš Nagode (Ljubljana) Svanibor Pettan (Ljubljana) Leon Stefanija (Ljubljana) Andrej Rijavec (Ljubljana), častni urednik • honorary editor Mednarodni uredniški svet • International Advisory Board Michael Beckermann (Columbia University, USA) Nikša Gligo (University of Zagreb, Croatia) Robert S. Hatten (Indiana University, USA) David Hiley (University of Regensburg, Germany) Thomas Hochradner (Mozarteum Salzburg, Austria) Bruno Nettl (University of Illinois, USA) Helmut Loos (University of Leipzig, Germany) Jim Samson (Royal Holloway University of London, UK) Lubomír Spurný (Masaryk University Brno, Czech Republic) Katarina Tomašević (Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Serbia) John Tyrrell (Cardiff University, UK) Michael Walter (University of Graz, Austria) Urednici recenzij • Review editors Danijela Špirić Beard (Cardiff University, UK) Katarina Šter (Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Slovenia) Uredništvo • Editorial Address Oddelek za muzikologijo Filozofska fakulteta Aškerčeva 2, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija e-mail: [email protected] http://revije.ff.uni-lj.si/MuzikoloskiZbornik Prevajanje • Translations Urban Šrimpf Cena posamezne številke • Single issue price 10 EUR Letna naročnina • Annual subscription 20 EUR Založila • Published by Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete Univerze v Ljubljani Za založbo • For the publisher Branka Kalenić Ramšak, dekanja Filozofske fakultete Tisk • Printed by Birografika Bori d.o.o., Ljubljana Naklada 300 izvodov • Printed in 300 copies Rokopise, publikacije za recenzije, korespondenco in naročila pošljite na naslov izdajatelja. Prispevki naj bodo opremljeni s kratkim povzetkom (200–300 besed), izvlečkom (do 50 besed), ključnimi besedami in kratkimi podatki o avtorju. Nenaročenih rokopisov ne vračamo. Manuscripts, publications for review, correspondence and annual subscription rates should be sent to the editorial address. Contributions should include a short summary (200–300 words), an abstract (not more than 50 words), keywords and a short biographical note on the author. Unsolicited manuscripts are not returned. Izdajo zbornika je omogočila Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno dejavnost Republike Slovenije With the support of the Slovenian Research Agency © Univerza v Ljubljani, Filozofska fakulteta, 2016

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 2 23.6.2016 9:58:06 Vsebina • Contents

Marija Bergamo »ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA …« V spomin na Katarino Bedina

Lana Paćuka Aspects of Slovenian musicians’ activity in the musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo (1878–1918) Vidiki delovanja slovenskih glasbenikov v avstro-ogrskem Sarajevu (1878–1918) 11–26

Katarina Tomašević On the Paths of Béla Bartók’s Modernism Followers and Companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević Na sledi sledilcem in sopotnikom modernizma Béle Bartóka: Josip Slavenski in Marko Tajčević 27–40

Aida Islam, Stefanija Leshkova Zelenkovska Musical Elements in the Performing Approach: Sonatina in C for Two Pianos from a Macedonian Contemporary Composer Glasbene prvine v službi interpretacijskega pristopa: Sonatina v C za dva klavirja makedonskega sodobnega skladatelja 41–50

Ludim R. Pedroza The Joropo in Venezuela’s Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in José Clemente Laya’s Sonata Venezolana Joropo v venezuelski glasbeni moderni: kulturni kapital v skladbi Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye 51–72

Dimitar Ninov Functional Nature of the Cadential Six-Four Funkcionalna narava kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda 73–96

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 3 23.6.2016 9:58:07 Andraž Poljanec Akustične lastnosti timpanov in njihova povezava z inštrumentalno prakso The Acoustic Properties of Timpani and their Connection with the Instrumental Practice 97–120

Zoran Potočan Analiza zvena višjih in srednjih moških pevskih glasov s historičnih posnetkov Analysis of the Timbre of High and Middle Voiced Male Singing Voices in Historical Recordings 121–145

Karmen Brina Kodrič, Hotimir Tivadar Instrumentalna fonetična analiza pétih samoglasnikov in pravorečje popularnega pétega besedila popevke Instrumental and Phonetic Analysis of Sung Vowels and the Orthoepy of Sung Lyrics of Popular Slovene “popevka” Songs 147–169

Sonja Weiss Medicine for Body or Soul? Philosophical Reconstruction of the Role of Music in Ancient Healing Practices Zdravilo za dušo ali telo? Filozofska rekonstrukcija vloge glasbe v antičnih zdravilskih praksah 171–187

Barbara Sicherl Kafol, Olga Denac, Jerneja Žnidaršič Interest of Slovene Students in Listening to Various Musical Genres Interes slovenskih študentov za poslušanje različnih glasbenih zvrsti 189–205

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 4 23.6.2016 9:58:07 Recenzije • Reviews 207–222

Disertaciji • Dissertations 223–230

Imensko kazalo • Index 231–241

Avtorji • Contributors 243–248

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 5 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 6 23.6.2016 9:58:07 M. BERGAMO • »ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA ...« Marija Bergamo

»ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA ...« V spomin na Katarino Bedina

Verz iz naslova – verz Mirka Kovača – posreduje generacijsko občutenje lastnega položaja v obdobju poslavljanja. Iz podobnega občutenja sledi nekaj misli, ki bi jih rada zabeležila ob odhodu kolegice in dolgoletne sopotnice v stroki. Tvegam zagrešiti preoseben pogled na pretekli čas, vendar samo takega zmorem. Izkušnja mi kaže, da z vsakim strokovnim prispevkom – enako kot z gesto, pogledom, obnašanjem – pravzaprav govorimo o sebi. Kdaj pravzaprav govorimo o drugem? S Katarino sva se spoznali v zgodnjih šestdesetih letih. Pravkar sem bila diplomirala na zgodovinskem oddelku beograjske Akademije za glasbo, ko me je leta 1962, ob dru- žinskem obisku v Ljubljani, profesor Ukmar, s katerim so bili v stiku moju starši, povabil na diplomski izpit Boruta Loparnika na zgodovinskem oddelku ljubljanske Akademije. Zame nepozabno popoldne, nov ritual, primerjave. Po izpitu izčrpna debata v Slonu. Katarina, še študentka, je bila prijazno središče dogajanja. Z nekdanjih rednih letnih sestankov študentov raznih akademij smo se bežno poznali, zdaj poglobili znanstvo. Naslednji skoraj dve desetletji smo se »spremljali od daleč«, vedeli drug o drugem, kaj kdo počne, srečevali na Zagrebškem biennalu, prevajala sem slovenske prispevke za Zvuk, zbirala gradivo za Bilten Zveze skladateljev … Generacija si je gradila svoj »prostor pod soncem« s skupnim imenovalcem naših hotenj: z vsemi močmi podpreti stroko, vgraditi svoj delež, biti koristen. Zavedali smo se, da smo na začetku, da nas je premalo, da so možnosti šibke, vendar entuziazma ni manjkalo. »Delamo na etični pogon,« je tedaj formuliral Andrej Rijavec, ko sta z Jožetom Sivcem krepko podprla profesorja Dragotina Cvetka pri utemeljevanju (1962-1964) in organiziranju dela Oddelka za muzikologijo na Filozofski fakulteti. V dveh drobnih kabinetih so, skoraj kot zarotniki, kovali učne načrte, zbirali zunanje sodelavce, nabavljali strokovno literaturo. (Še danes kažejo knjižnične signature Oddelka za muzikologijo iz 60-ih let preteklega stoletja značilne poteze Rijavčeve pisave.) Začetki institucionalizacije stroke že na Akademiji za glasbo – enako kot nato na Filozofski fakulteti – so bili zelo trdi. Pravo pionirsko delo. Menim, da si malokdo danes lahko predstavi, kako je delati brez kopirnih strojev, avdio opreme, solidne knjižnice, brez prave predavalnice. Kljub temu je bilo delo uspešno, organiza- cija vse trdnejša, ugled Oddelka v širšem prostoru vse večji. Ožjemu predavateljskemu timu so se pridružili zunanji sodelavci, na povabilo profesorja Cvetka je biblioteko leta 1971 prevzela Katarina Bedina. Petnajst let, vse do prehoda v predavateljske vrste, jo je vzorno vodila. Sproti je izpopolnjevala in posodabljala knjižni fond, spremljala nove objave, sugerirala nabavo, sprejemala želje in naročila, opozarjala na članke v strokovnih

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 7 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 revijah, ki jih ne kaže spregledati. Poleg tega je bila v tej mali skupnosti ljubezniva in vedno prisotna pomoč v organizaciji dela, urnikov, pri stikih s študenti, tajnica Oddelka. Ne- pogrešljiva opora. Oddelek je za Katarino postal drugi dom. Vzporedno je nadaljevala svoje strokovno izpopolnjevanje, magistrirala je (1979/80 z razpravo o Francu Šturmu), doktorirala (1984 z disertacijo o fenomenu sonatne oblike in njeni fizionomiji v slovenski tvornosti za klavir), objavljala prispevke v Muzikološkem zborniku, Grlici, Naših zborih, Zvuku, pripravljala radijske oddaje, recenzije, številna gesla za enciklopedije in leksikone (Slovenski biografski leksikon, Enciklopedija Slovenije, Muzička enciklopedija Jugoslovanskega leksikografskega zavoda in dr.). Natančnost in zanesljivost sta bili del njene narave, dragoceni za delo na Oddelku. Predavateljskemu timu sem se na povabilo prof. Cvetka leta 1981 pridružila tudi sama. Z veliko željo prispevati svoj delež, »pokriti«, po dogovoru, nekatera dotlej de- ficitna strokovna področja. S Katarino sva se poslej bližje spoznali, pozneje delili isti kabinet. Družabno agilna mi je odprla tudi vrata svojega doma. Z Borutom smo v troje absolvirali ure pogovorov o glasbi, o novih knjigah, o koncertnih dogodkih. Vedno ob gostiteljskih delikatesah njene izvrstne kuhinje. Ko je Katarina leta 1986 kot docentka prevzela, ob klasicizmu, predvsem izbrana poglavja zgodovine slovenske glasbe in začela graditi svojo pedagoško fizionomijo so se najini strokovni nazori močneje kon- frontirali. S časom tudi razhajali. (Nič nenavadnega, saj je danes jasno, da je tudi znanost družbeno početje in se različne paradigme kažejo v večnem stanju nadziranega spopada.) Ko danes, post festum gledam na procese in dogajanja v skoraj dveh desetletjih skupnega strokovnega in pedagoškega dela vseh nas, se mi prav razlike v prijemih, pogledih na snov, na teoretične podstati, pa v osebnostni staturi vsakega od nas, ne na koncu tudi v značajskih potezah – rišejo v pozitivnejši luči kot takrat, ko jih je vsakdan znal negativno konotirati. Prav naše razlike so namreč študentom razstirale pahljačo možnih pristopov strokovni snovi, različna videnja istega, kreativna prestavljanja pou- darkov, različno utemeljene vrednostne sodbe. Bilo je to plodovitejše od enoglasja, ki pravzaprav zavira, ker utrjuje le eno resnico, metodo, koncept. Mislim, da mi izidi dajejo za prav. Današnja slovenska srednja in mlajša muzikološka generacija, ki tako uspešno in internacionalno odmevno zaznamuje podobo stroke, je izšla iz naše šole. Nasleduje in potentno razvija prav to mnogoličje pristopov. Upa si spregovoriti z osebnim angažmajem, zavzeti lastno stališče, seveda z rigorozno znanstveno argumentacijo. Različni so, izrazito profilirani, ustvarjalni. Ponosna sem na njih. »Glasbi je potreben zgodovinski čas«, piše Leon Stefanija. Res je. Samo v njegovem okviru je možno brati tudi muzikološke dosežke; brez vrednotenja, ki je vedno prepuš- čeno prihodnosti. Naš generacijski muzikološki čas se mi iz današnjega vidika kaže kot protisloven: po eni strani je bil gotovo stabilnejši od današnjega; adlerjanski temelji in dosežki sjajne nemške muzikologije druge polovice 20. stoletja, že odomačeni pri nas, so zagotavljali teoretično podstat za lastne raziskave in analize. Zgodovinska matrica, ki temelji na vzpostavljanju in risanju vzročno-posledičnih sosledij ter zasledovanju logične kontinuitete dogajanj je bila še polnoveljavna. Z ideološkimi okviri smo se znali nositi in jih največkrat ignorirati. Po drugi strani pa je tema tako imenovanega zamudništva predstavljala tisto točko, na kateri so se – v navezavi na njeno aktualnost že med dvema svetovnima vojnama – razvijali nestrpni polemični spopadi. Zastopniki

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 8 23.6.2016 9:58:07 M. BERGAMO • »ČAS SEM, KI ODHAJA ...« evolucijske postopnosti v glasbenih snovanjih niso pristajali na hitro dohajanje zamu- jenega in takojšnjo vključitev domače glasbe v obzorja najsodobnejših estetik in tehnik po svetu, ki so motivirale njihove nasprotnike. Dinamično muzikološko prizorišče kaže pestro pahljačo opozicijskih stališč. Posebej pri obravnavi tem, ki se nanašajo na glasbo 20. stoletja. Bilo je nekako samoumevno, da se je treba opredeliti, se individualno pozicionirati, postaviti na pravo stran. Iz takšne situacije je treba brati muzikološko literaturo našega časa. Zaslediti je, vsaj v ozadju, vedno nekakšno binarno opozicijskost: nacionalno–kosmopolitsko, tradicionalno-moderno, nazadnjaško-avantgardno, staro- -novo, kot da bi vso resnico življenja glasbe kazalo poiskati prav z njihovo pomočjo. Katarina je od vsega začetka videla sebe na strani novega in je tej ideji ostala zvesta do konca svoje muzikološke poti. Od Slavka Osterca do Vinka Globokarja je razpela svoj argumentacijski lok in s pristno, skoraj bojevniško dikcijo zastopala osterčevsko našo stvar. Od diplomske naloge s temo o Slavku Ostercu (1964), prek vrste izvirnih prispevkov v Muzikološkem zborniku in drugje v naslednjih treh desetletjih se je vedno znova vračala na njegovo delo, ki ji je bilo vzor. Končno je leta 1995, ob stoletnici skla- dateljevega rojstva, zbrala in uredila Zbornik ponatisov o življenju in delu Slavka Oster- ca (Varia musicologica 2) z uvodno študijo Nazori Slavka Osterca v tradiciji v glasbi in o glasbemnem nacionalizmu. Ko danes beremo njena izvajanja se poraja občutek, da se je na nek način istovetila ne samo z njegovimi idejami, temveč tudi z njegovim vihar- nim, nebrzdanim tonom, »znanim preziralnim tonom do vsega, kar je omejevalo razvoj slovenske glasbe« – kot je zapisala. Osterčeva radikalna drža ji je imponirala. Kot da bi ji bil Osterc ponudil tisto predinterpretacijsko zaveso, o kateri govori Milan Kundera. Katarinini muzikološki teksti pričajo, da je s poglabljanjem v nikakor naključno izbrane odlomke zgodovinskega gradiva in obravnave izbrane tematike pravzaprav gradila občutek sebe v zgodovini, vzpostavljala povsem osebni razgovor tako s preteklostjo kot s svojim časom. Njen ton ni nikoli nevtralen. Z izbrušenimi formulacijami in inventiv- no leksiko, v jeziku vrednem občudovanja, se bori za svoje protagoniste, vzpostavlja lastne kriterije, vrednoti, riše kontinuitete. (Že Nietzsche je pisal o tem, da je zgodovina vedno »v procesu izdelave«.) Tako razpravlja o razvojnih tokovih slovenske glasbe, o zgodovinskih ishodiščih identitete slovenskega glasbenega dela. Zelo kritično. (Na »plus stran« je knjižila, denimo, svobodomiselni nazor, strokovni naboj, popolno odgo- vornost ljudi, ki se poklicno ukvarjajo z glasbo, zahtevne in v svet obrnjene glasbene kriterije, na »minus strani« pa je ugotavljala med drugim premoč ideološkosti, zbegano javno mnenje, poplitveno umevanje glasbe, provincialnost, ozkost, razcepitev glasbenega mišljenja …) Ta kritični koncept pridobi ponekod skoraj ritualni ton. Posebej v poznejših besedilih, ko se je uveljavljala kot zaščitnica muzikološke stroke in borec za njeno veljavo kot nacionalne vede v novem družbenem kontekstu. Neutrudljiv druž- beni angažma jo je vodil v vrsto odborov, komisij, žirij, do prodekanstva na Filozofski fakulteti. Svoja stališča je izražala jasno in pri njih neupogljivo vztrajala. Danes imam občutek, da je močno želela biti del timskih projektov in akcij, čeprav jo je njen značaj v tem omejeval. Težko je sprejemala drugačno mnenje. Njeni študenti pričajo o trdi in neizprosni šoli. Verjamem jim. Zahteve v seminar- jih so bile jasne, neizvršitev ali ugovorov ni tolerirala. Mislim pa, da ji je večina danes zelo hvaležna. Edina med nami je mukoma vztrajala pri skrbni, natančni, tehnično

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 9 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 neoporečni izdelavi muzikološkega aparata (tehnike opomb, načinov citiranja, navaja- nja virov in literature), tega dodatnega ogledala muzikologa. Ko danes berem novejša muzikološka izvajanja, ki razpolagajo z naknadnimi pogledi na glasbene fenomene 20. stoletja – s teoretično prečiščenimi matricami za obravnavo modernizma, avantgarde, pa tudi antimodernizma, z vzpostavljeno terminologijo in jasno definiranimi pojmi, s priročnimi vpogledi v razne tuje muzikološke smeri in šole (ne samo nemško, danes predvsem angleško) – se zavedam, da se je čas ene muzi- kološke generacije iztekel. Muzikologija na Slovenskem je danes institucionalizirana in internacionalizirana. Upam pa, da se bodo iz tekstov naše generacije, tudi iz Katarini- nega muzikološkega dela, dala razbrati pričevanja o življenju glasbe pri nas v bližji preteklosti, ki je danes že zgodovinsko obdobje ter z blago simpatijo odkrivati Katarinine »sanje o pomenu nove glasbe za izpolnitev generacijskih nalog« kot je svoje in njene ideale formuliral Jakob Jež in se hkrati z nostalgijo vprašal, ali »se bodo časi entuziazma za odkrivanje novih zvokov še kdaj v širšem obsegu ponovili?«. Seveda bodo na dlani tudi naša neodgovorjena vprašanja, zadrege in slepe ulice, naši razmislekov o glasbi, ker je življenje, kakršnega smo živeli in ga poznamo odvisno od naših idej, te pa vedno nehajo biti veljavne prav pred usodnim trenutkom. Mlajši morda še ne dojemajo, da so zmote starejših bile neizogibne, ker so del njihovega časa, tako kot bodo tudi njihove napake del časa, ki ga sami živijo. Muzikologija je vedno s svojim razpravljanjem soudeležena pri proizvajanju diskurza, ki sicer pripada glasbi, vendar je esencialno ne določa, temveč ji pripisuje le relativne kulturološke lastnosti, ki predmetu dajejo recentni vrednostni status ali pomen. Nič drugače kot vsak drugi diskurz o umetnosti. Ne vem, če bi se Katarina z menoj strinjala, verjetno se – kot po navadi – ne bi. Vem pa, da jo bomo zagotovo mnogi obdržali v prijateljskem spominu.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 10 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... UDK 78.07(=163.6)(439.5Sarajevo)“1878/1918“ DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.11-26

Lana Paćuka Akademija za glasbo, Univerza v Sarajevo Academy of Music, University in Sarajevo

Aspects of Slovenian musicians’ activity in the musical life of Austro- Hungarian Sarajevo (1878–1918) Vidiki delovanja slovenskih glasbenikov v avstro-ogrskem Sarajevu (1878–1918)

Prejeto: 2. oktober 2015 Received: 2nd October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: Avstro-Ogrska, Sarajevo, slovenski Keywords: Austro-Hungary, Sarajevo, Slovenian glasbeniki, glasbeno življenje musicians, Musical life

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Članek prinaša zgoščen vpogled v delovanje slo- The paper provides a concise insight into the venskih glasbenikov, ki so živeli v Sarajevu med vla- activity of Slovenian musicians residing in Saraje- davino Avstro-Ogrske. Poleg aktivnosti slovenskih vo during the Austro-Hungarian administration. glasbenikov na kolektivni ravni se članek ukvarja Besides the Slovenian musicians’ activities at the tudi s prizadevanji posameznikov in hkrati s priza- collective level, the paper discusses their individual devanji iz gledišča gostujočih umetnikov. Slovenski endeavours and also endeavours from perspective gostujoči umetniki, kot denimo s področja operne of guest artists. Guest Slovenian artists such as umetnosti, so bili eni najbolj cenjenih ansamblov, Slovenian opera, was one of the most renowned ki so obiskali avstro-ogrsko Bosno in Hercegovino. ensemble that visited Austro-Hungarian Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Socio-historical contexts

The complexity of the musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo can be discussed from a few different angles and perspectives, one of them certainly referring to the impacts of certain national groups on the circumstances of musical trends’ development of the time. The discussion of the given issue in the 1878–1918 period becomes even

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 11 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 more interesting if we have in mind that the West-European side of the musical life of Sarajevo, as the centre of Austro-Hungarian administration in B&H,1 was in its infancy and thus characterized by the absence of institutional form of musical life and the reduction to music practice dependent on individual endeavours in a particular area of musical activity.2 A set of individual endeavours made up the main backbone of musical life, building gradually its mosaic-like structure where each, even apparently less essential element, was crucial for the construction of a larger, coherent whole. Interestingly, individual endeavours in the area of musical life were typically initiated by national groups who in the first decades of occupation were mostly of foreign origin.3 Foreign artists were in charge of sowing the first germs of the West-European musical culture, and they spread their influence in two ways: through settlement and continued activity in Sarajevo and B&H, and through shorter tours that greatly enriched the picture of concert life of the time. In these contexts, it is possible to track and get an insight into the role of Slovenian musicians in the development of Sarajevo musical life in the period 1878–1918. Therefore, the discussion of the topic that opens the issue of the significance and role of Slovenian musicians is universal, since it touches upon the very core of the B&H musical life in the period of Austro-Hungarian administration, and it can be claimed that Slovenians’ activity is the picture of the musical life of Bosnia and Herzegovina, only “smaller”.4 Actually, in the national diversity in B&H Slovenian musicians made up only one cell, though a cell whose patterns of functioning were also the patterns of functioning of the musical life as a whole. Thus, although according to the 1910 census

1 Occupation of B&H by Austro-Hungary officially started with the decision of the 25th Berlin Congress in 1878. Over the 40 years duration of the occupation, Sarajevo has the position of the capital, while its transformation from an Oriental into West-European system of values was attached a great significance. All the new socio-political and cultural ideas were first implemented in Sarajevo, with the aim of creating a political and economic centre which would be the ideal model for establishing a modern social order in B&H. In the very beginning of the occupation, construction of electricity distribution network, water supply and drainage system, electric tram started in Sarajevo, while the construction of railway led to the opening of many state-owned enterprises and thus to the increasing inflow of foreign employees, which ultimately resulted in the changed demographics of the city. Under the new authorities, the city also changed its visual identity and became a model for sending a message of a successful mission of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in B&H. Robert Donia, Sarajevo: Biografija grada (Sarajevo: Institut za istoriju, 2006), 88–91. 2 Arts were viewed as one of the most powerful weapons in propagating state authorities, which in the case of musical life meant nourishing music to the extend and in the form which was the most suitable for promoting the key values of the new administrative regime. In other words, Austro-Hungary did not initiate the development of musical trends at the level of music institutions in any planned or systematic way, and the musical life therefore developed as a result of general socio-cultural happenings. The regime supported and encouraged the development of more complex forms of the cultural and then musical life in small doses, which resulted in a lack of the comprehensive and complete formation of musical institutions. Actually, the ultimate reach of the musical institutions development in the Austro-Hungarian period can only be viewed through the discourse of a few formed musical institutions (schools of music, music/singing societies, travelling theatre groups) and primarily through the discourse of the form of a musical event (public concert, parties, musical get-togethers, dances, etc.). Lana Paćuka, “Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave (1878–1918)” (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2014), 57. 3 Most foreigners in B&H came from the Serbocroatian-speaking region (50.76% of the total number of foreigners), and they were followed by Germans, Poles, Czechs, Hungarians, Slovenians, Romanians, Slovaks, etc. The immigrants were mostly concentrated in Sarajevo, and then in Tuzla. Iljas Hadžibegović, Postanak radničke klase u Bosni i Hercegovini i njen razvoj do 1914. godine (Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1980), 117–118. 4 Slovenians’ activity in the B&H musical life is the subject of fairly few papers, one of them is Vedrana Tičić’s master’s thesis “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini” (2012). However, the thesis primarily focuses on the data on Slovenian musicians’ activity after the First World War (1918), while their engagement in the period of Austro-Hungarian administration is not discussed in great detail.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 12 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... data as few as 1,181 Slovenians lived in Sarajevo,5 their participation in the musical life, in terms of quality, had the same outlines as the activity of other, more numerous ethnic groups inhabiting B&H, since the activity of both depended on the socio-political circumstances, i.e. cultural patterns that were strictly controlled and imposed by Austro-Hungarian authorities. Slovenians started arriving to B&H immediately after the beginning of the occupation, together with other immigrants, in the form of skilled labour that Austro-Hungary badly needed for implementing the “civilizing” ideas. And while the first years of occupation mostly saw the inflow of Germans, Austrians, Czechs, Hungarians and Itali- ans, Slovenians started settling after 1905, and the most frequents towns of their choice were Sarajevo, Banja Luka, Zenica, Tuzla, Mostar, Prnjavor and Prijedor.6 By profession, immigrants of Slovenian origin were forestry workers and miners, artisans, clerks, en- trepreneurs as well as intellectuals, teachers, cultural officials and scientists who went to the listed B&H towns depending on the needs of service. Since, in the vision of Austro-Hungarian authorities, Sarajevo was supposed to be a socio-cultural model for the development of all the other B&H towns, it is not surprising that most intellectually oriented Slovenians such as professors, teachers and cultural officials chose the B&H capital as their place of residence. This was proved by Jakob Žnidaršič, a respectable teacher and principal of Great Grammar School,7 who came to Sarajevo early in 1880 and, together with a few cultural officials became one of the pioneers of the development of Slovenian community in this region.8

Involvement in musical flows or on the collective aspects of Slovenian musicians’ activity

Although the Slovenian community in Sarajevo was not numerous, Slovenian immigrants tried to get actively involved in the newly-arrived developments of the socio- cultural life. One of the key forms of Slovenians’ involvement in social and cultural circumstances was the establishment of cultural-educational societies, as a reflection of the desire for preserving and nourishing their own culture and tradition. These mo- tives were in line with immigrants’ general needs, since they were trying to transfer cultural patterns from their environments to Bosnia and Herzegovina, and one of the

5 Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Popis stanovništva,1910; Vedrana Tičić, “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini” (Master thesis, University of Sarajevo, 2012). 6 Tičić, “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini,” 20. 7 Great Grammar School in Sarajevo was founded in the fall of 1879, and was the first high-school institution in B&H established during the Austro-Hungarian administration. It could be attended by pupils regardless of nationality and religion, and was considered one of the most elite schools of Austro-Hungarian B&H. The backbone of its curriculum consisted of courses in science, and a great attention was paid to music education as well. Music-related courses such as singing and violin-playing were designed to develop a sense of music culture, musical literacy, and the development of musical taste. What singled the Great Grammar School out compared to other educational institutions was fully qualified teaching staff, who were also the backbone of the Sarajevo cultural life. Todor Kruševac, Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom 1878–1918 (Sarajevo: Veselin Masleša, 1960), 403–404; Spomenica Prve gimnazije u Sarajevu – prilikom proslave 50-godišnjice (1879.–1929.) (Sarajevo: Državna štamparija, 1929), 26. 8 Jakob Žindaršić was born in Košana in 1847, and died in Sarajevo on 19 October 1903. He was one of the first Slovenian immigrants to Sarajevo and was actively involved in pedagogy. Tičić, “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini,” 20.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 13 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 most frequent ways of achieving these goals was the idea of association.9 Still, the idea of association on B&H soil had a somewhat different path than in other European countries, because for Austro-Hungary it was a direct danger of rousing national awareness among the local people, which could ultimately threaten its strategy in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Actually, Austro-Hungary strove to suppress and stifle political friction based on national impulses with promoting religious values. On the other hand, they tried to unify cure and turn it toward West-European standards, whereby the unique Bosnian nation, language and thought would be directed toward the idea of the unified Austro-Hungarian Empire.10 In order to achieve the set goals, the ideas on the formation of the first societies were viewed with a high degree of caution. The caution was obvious to the extent that, in the first ten years of occupation, the authorities did not allow any form of association regardless of continuous requests and enquiries.11 Still, a few associations, primarily of international character, managed to be formed in Sarajevo in the first years of occupation, and their basic goal was to nourish conviviality without national signs or ideas.12 Under the described conditions, characterized by strictly controlled socio-cultural life, Slovenians gathered around two cultural-educational societies, known as “Sloven- sko omizje“ [Slovenian panel] (1897) and „Slovenski klub“ [Slovenian club] (1910).13 Although they had fewer members than other, larger international and national societies of the time, Slovenian societies were also thoroughly involved in nourishing their own culture, tradition, as well as general education of their members. Thus, for example, „Slovenski klub“ had a rich library and reading room and, according to some sources, an agile singing choir that regularly participated at social events.14 Along the same lines, social parties were organized, primarily aimed at nourishing and promoting the national culture, as well as gathering together members of the Slovenian community in Sarajevo. It should be noted that such gatherings were generally well received by public, and were covered by the press of the time, with favourable comments on

9 Paćuka, “Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave (1878–1918),” 93. 10 Sarita Vujković, U građanskom ogledalu. Identiteti žena bosanskohercegovačke građanske kulture 1878–1941 (Banja Luka: Muzej savremene umjetnosti Republike Srpske, 2009), 21. 11 Out of fear that uncontrolled association could have disastrous consequences to the system, the supreme commander Filipović issued a public order, as on November 1878, which says that no association could be formed nor start working without his permission. Kruševac, Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom 1878–1918, 411; Đorđe Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine (Sarajevo: Štamparija “Bosanska pošta”, 1930), 4–5. 12 The first associations formed in Sarajevo were the “Vatrogasno društvo” [Firefighters’ charity] (1880), “Frauenverein” [Ladies’ society] (1885), and “Männergesangverein” [Men’s choral society] (1887). These societies were under the strict control of the regime, and due to a lack of laws on associations police regulations on public order and peace were used for these societies. Pursuant to regulations, authorities could prohibit a society for even the slightest impropriety, with the explanation that its activity poses a direct disturbance of the state order. Therefore even the associations’ statutes included the obligation that they would allow authorities to access to all the activities, starting from sessions, get-togethers, public parties and their programs. In the context of preparations of public performances or potential musical events, strict censorship was frequent and the events used to be prohibited due to programs that authorities did not consider proper, i.e. suitable for the given occasion. Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine, 5; Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Društva i ustanove – statistički podaci. 13 Tičić, “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini,” 21; Pejanović, Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercegovini za vreme austrijske vladavine, 84. 14 According to Vedrana Tičić (“Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini”, 21), “Slovenski klub” had a permanent singing choir, active until 1993, which is also indicated by texts in periodicals of the time. However, these claims cannot be supported by archival documents, since the available archival institutions in B&H do not have the preserved materials of the society.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 14 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... Slovenians stationed in Sarajevo; the same applies to the party by “Slovensko omizje” in 1907: “Last night, Sarajevo Slovenian colony, so well liked among our citizens, gathered in small premises of the Community Centre. After all, Slovenians are like closest and dearest brothers to us, by blood and language, by temperament and strivings. Their parties are well liked due to their familiar, spontaneous significance; high officials, artisans, officers – all like a family.”15 The popularity of parties organized by Slovenians was even greater due to the comprehensive program conceived in line with the well-established practice of national societies of the time. Programs were typically of mixed character, made up of musical items interwoven with national elements, and shorter plays that referred to significant moments of Slovenian history. It was the case with the party by “Slovensko omizje” which, besides national and patriotic tunes of Slovenian origin, featured the humorous piece Berite Novice by Levstik and Kersnik.16 Other programs of “Slovensko omizje” were conceived in a similar way; however, in the context of music program contents, parties organized by “Slovenski klub” were far more significant. “Slovenski klub” typically organized their events on the premises of Community Centre [Društveni dom]17, and the events were intended exclusively for the invited and selected members of Sarajevo society. Musical repertoire was performed by the society members, and in case of extensive repertoire they also engaged soloists, who were not necessarily part of the society. Similar applied to orchestral accompaniment, and items of instrumental character were assigned to the society’s tambura or orchestral ensembles, and ensembles active in Sarajevo at the time.18 The society usually organized such parties, with somewhat richer musical programs and visiting artists, for charity purposes, and one of the most successful was the party organized on the 18th of February 1911 in the Community Centre, named „Predpustno veselico”. Revenue from ticket sales was intended for the school group “Ćirilo i Metod“, and good earnings was to be ensured by the diverse musical program interwoven with Slovenian composers’ works: “1. Fuček: ‚Triglavska koračnica‘, music. 2. Soboj: ‚Ouvertura‘, music. 3. Vilhar: ‚Ljubičica‘, mixed choir. 4. Gervais: ‚Zašto zlato‘, men’s choir. 5. Šonc. ‚Kar si, boš zdaj

15 [ “U malim prostorijama Društvenog doma sakupila se je sinoć sarajevska slovenska kolonija, koja uživa toliko simpatija u našem gragjanstvu. Ta Slovenci su nam po krvi i jeziku, po ćudi i težnjama najbliža i najmilija braća. Njihove su zabave omiljele sa svog familijarnog, neprisiljenog značaja; visoki činovnici, obrtnici, časnici – svi kao jedna obitelj.” ] Anonym. “Pokladna zabava ‘Slovenskog omizja’ u Sarajevu,” Hrvatski dnevnik, February 9, 1907, 8. 16 The source does not cite full details about authors. Ibid. 17 Community Centre, presently known as the National Theatre of Sarajevo, was opened on the 1st of February 1899 with a ceremony that featured the joint appearance of the Croatian Land Theatre of Zagreb and Croatian Choral Society “Trebević”. The opening of the Centre was an extremely important event for the cultural life of Sarajevo, which finally got a serious theatre building, constructed by contemporary standards. Community Centre was visited by well-established West-European musicians (Fritz Kreisler, František Ondřiček, Bronislaw Huberman, etc.), and its opening allowed an appropriate place for performing theatre and music pieces to many visiting theatre troupes and local choral societies. Paćuka, “Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave (1878–1918),” 62. 18 There were not many existing instrumental ensembles in Sarajevo, since choral societies were the crucial part of performing practice. It should be noted here that the backbone of musical life consisted of amateur ensembles, both in case of choral societies and that of instrumental ensembles, which worked under their auspices. With respect to instrumental practice, the only permanent professional musical group included military bands, whose playing contributed to all significant musical events in the city; there were also a few instrumental ensembles such as “Civilna muzika [Civilian Music], “Salonski orkestar” [Salon Orchestra] and „Veteranska kapela” [Veteran Chapel]. Thus, e.g., Parlour Orchestra used to appear at dancing and carnival evenings organized by “Slovenski klub” and typically performed Slovenian national melodies. Anonym. “Eine Faschingsunterhaltung im ‚Slovenski klub‘,” Bosnische post, January 27, 1913, 2.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 15 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 ostala‘, mixed choir. 6. Verdi: ‚Trovatore‘, duo Miss Nina Mijić and Mr. Josip Malogorski. 7. Ritschel: ‚Venac slovenskih pesmi‘, music.”19 Besides their own societies where they nourished their culture and tradition, Slove- nians had a well-developed cooperation with other singing societies and instrumental ensembles in Sarajevo. A notable example is the cooperation with the “Trebević” Croa- tian singing society (1894), whose members regularly attended parties and performances by Slovenian associations, partly because some Slovenian musicians were “Trebe- vić” members themselves.20 The cooperation often went a step further, and “Trebević” itself tried to mark significant dates of Slovenian history and culture. This claim is illustrated by the ceremony honouring the 100th anniversary of the birth of great Sloveni- an poet dr. Franc Prešern (1800–1849), held in the hall of Community Centre on the 9th of Decembre 1900. The organization of the event, accompanied with the concert program, was aided by “Trebević” members, members of the Biciklistički klub “Soko” [Bicycling society “Sokol”], as well as by a few Czechs and, of course, Slovenians.21 The entire event had a charity character, and the revenue was intended for raising a memorial to Franc Prešern in Ljubljana. In order to attract as many people as possible, the program had a declamatory-musical character22, and was performed by members of “Trebević” men’s and women’s choir conducted by the famous Croatian composer Blagoje pl. Bersa (1873–1934).23 Public welcome the joint initiative of Slovenians and “Trebević” Croatian Choral Society, which is proven by lines published in Sarajevski list: “Prešern’s festivity in “Trebević” was celebrated on Saturday evening before the full hall of audience, who accompanied the entire schedule with a great satisfaction and lively applause.”24 The atmosphere of the event was complemented by Slovenian folk costumes worn by the event participants, as well as by a greeting dispatch sent to “Trebević” board by Ljubljana mayor.25 The described examples, though few, picturesquely show the ways of Slovenian musicians’ involvement in the musical developments of the time. Slovenians in B&H shared the socio-cultural destiny with other immigrants, and their collective gatherings in the form of organizing Slovenian societies and associations are also an indicator of how and in what way the immigrants’ community on B&H capital tried to organize their socio-cultural life. Besides, the idea of association initiated by foreigners was the segment of musical life of West-European type that was first accepted by broader B&H circles as well.

19 [“1. Fuček: ‚Triglavska koračnica‘, glazba. 2. Soboj: ‚Ouvertura‘, glazba. 3. Vilhar: ‚Ljubičica‘, mješ. zbor. 4. Gervais: ‚Zašto zlato‘, muški zbor. 5. Šonc. ‚Kar si, boš zdaj ostala‘, mješ. zbor. 6. Verdi: ‘Trovatore’, duet ggjica Nina Mijić i g. Josip Malogorski. 7. Ritschel: ‘Venac slovenskih pesmi’, glazba.“] Anonym. “Slovenski klub,” Večernji sarajevski list, February 17, 1911, 2. 20 Some of the prominent Slovenian musicians in the Sarajevo musical life such as Viktor Šonc and Alojz Ričl were members of the “Trebević” Croatian Choral Society. Their activity will be discussed in more detail further in the paper. 21 Anonym. “Stogodišnjica Prešernova,” Sarajevski list, December 9, 1900, 2. 22 The source does not mention the program items. Ibid. 23 Blagoje Bersa served as the main choirmaster of the “Trebević” only for a few months, i.e. in the second half of 1900. Although he was negotiating further engagement with “Trebević” management, reasons of private and professional nature soon took him from B&H capital to Split. Interestingly, Bersa’s appearance at the ceremony dedicated to Franc Prešern is one of few public appearances he had in Sarajevo that was noted by B&H press. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond “Trebević” pjevačko društvo, kutija III. 24 [ “Svetkovina Prešernova u ‘Trebeviću’ proslavljena je u subotu na večer pred dupke punom dvoranom slušalaca, koji su sav raspored propratili velikim zadovoljstvom i živahnim pljeskanjem.”] Anonym. “Iz društava,” Sarajevski list, Decembre 12, 1900, 2. 25 Ibid.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 16 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... Individual aspects of Slovenian musicians’ activity

In the individual segment of activity, Slovenian musicians were somewhat less prominent compared to other immigrants’ groups inhabiting Bosnia and Herzegovina. The explanation could be sought in the fact that compared to Czechs, Germans or Au- strians, they were a less numerous community inhabiting B&H capital. Still, their own, individual engagements revealed an equal enthusiasm and commitment to raising musical life to a higher level. Their work did not produce long-lasting results; however, it was the general destiny of individual endeavours, which were related to more serious and artistically more demanding undertakings (e.g. opening music schools, professional music performing groups, etc.). The responsibility for such a situation was borne by the unsystematic relationship of Austro-Hungary toward the institutionalized forms of musical life, rather than individuals whose activity, regardless of its scope, made up the only real picture of musical life. Actually, the set of individual endeavours was the driving force allowing the daily existence of Sarajevo musical life, without exclusive dependence on occasional visits by foreign musicians. Therefore it can be claimed that the individual aspect of Slovenian musicians’ activity revealed through intertwining of pedagogical, conducting and randomly composing activity made up the backbone of Sarajevo daily musical life. One of the first Slovenian names noted by available sources is the name of Alojz Ričl.26 Ričl’s activity in Bosnia and Herzegovina was first documented in 1896, when he appeared in the capacity of choirmaster of the Croatian Choral Society “Majevica”.27 The society was founded in Tuzla in 1896, and Ričl is mentioned as one of its first cho- irmasters. It is obvious that Ričl did not remain “Majevica” choirmaster for a long time, since sources mention him as one of key conductors of “Veteranska kapela” [Veterans’ Chapel] 28 since 1897.29 As early as in 1898, he was replaced as a conductor by VIljem F. Wlassak30, while Alojz Ričl’s name is associated with the work of “Civilna muzika” [Civilian Music].31 Actually, the orchestra “Civilna muzika” was conducted by Ričl throughout its existence, and his committed work contributed to its recognition, and to the fact that in a short time period it became one of significant orchestras of the city of Sarajevo. The significance of the “Civilna muzika” was even greater because Ričl managed to attract both immigrants and local amateurs into artists’ ranks, which was one of the first cases of including B&H population in the developments of orchestral music-making.

26 The available sources do not provide an insight into accurate biography data except for the fact that he was an artist of Slovenian origin. Tičić, “Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini,” 25. 27 Miradet Zulić, “Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni 1878–1992” (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2008), 28. 28 “Veteranska kapela” was founded around 1897 under the auspices of the “Veteransko društvo” (1896) [Veterans’ society] activities, as his legitimate instrumental ensemble. Chapel survived for an unexpectedly long time for the conditions of musical life of Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo, all until the beginning of First World War (1914). According to the announcement of reputable annual Bosnischer Bote of 1899, Chapel was the only professional orchestral group besides military bands. Anonym. “Handel- und Gewerbetreibende der Hauptstadt Sarajevo – Musikkapellen,” Bosnischer Bote III (1899): 214. 29 It is necessary to emphasise that Ričl was “Majevica” board member until 1900. Zulić, “Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni 1878–1992” (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2008), 221. 30 Anonym. “Iz društava (Mali vjesnik),” Sarajevski list, Mart 13, 1898, 2. 31 Continuous data on the work of “Civilna muzika” are found in the time range between 1902 and 1914. Paćuka, “Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave (1878–1918),” 147.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 17 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 His acquaintances and contacts with various national groups in B&H and immigrants’ community paved the way for the orchestra, and “Civilna muzika” thus performed at performances and parties of then popular singing, educational and workers’ associations. It is well known that the orchestra used to appear at both at parties organized by “Trebević”, as well as by “Tipografsko društvo” [Typographers’ Society] and the already mentioned “Slovenski klub”. The orchestra adjuster their repertoire depending on the occasion, and it thus included pieces of national character if it performed at national societies’ parties. A step ahead in the work of „Civilna muzika“ were certainly independent concerts within elite city cafés and restaurants, such as Café Royal.32 On these occasions, the orchestra performed Vienna melodies, couplets, pieces by European and Slav composers, as well as those by their chapel master. Actually, besides his conducting activities, Ričl occasionally tried his skill at composing. He mostly composed pieces for the „Civilna muzika“ orchestra, in the form of popular medleys and wreaths, which were typically based on stylizing folk melodies of Croatian and Slovenian origin. Reporting on the „Civilna muzika“ concerts, the press of the time also registered many premiers of Ričl’s creations such as Karišik hrvatskih pjesama, Karišik narodnih pjesama, Potpurij hrvatskih napjeva, and Venec slovenskih pesmi.33 Besides Alojz Ričl who, as a “Civilian Music” conductor, was an active participant in the concert life, Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo commit to memory another name significant for the development of musical life. It was the name of Josip Hladek Bohinjski (4 February 1879, Kranjska–7 February 1940, Maribor)34, whose rich conducting activity in the last years of occupation had a significant impact on the improvement of musical life quality. He started his conducting career in Sarajevo as the kapellmeister of the Garrison music in 1914. He served at this position until 1918, when Austro-Hungarian Empire left the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.35 Still, when arriving to Sarajevo, Hladek certainly did not anticipate that he would stay there for as long as three decades, performing a multiple role of kapellmeister, music pedagogue and organizer of musical events. Hladek’s leading of the Sarajevo garrison music was focused on emphasizing concerts of the selected music program. Due to the winds of war, Hladek’s 40-member orchestra appeared on the premises of Military casino [Vojni kasino], performing pieces

32 Anonym. “Werbung,” Bosnische post, April 4, 1913, 4. 33 Anonym. “Slovenski klub,” 2; Anonym. “Tipografsko veče s igrankom (Društvene vijesti),” Sarajevski list, January 10, 1914, 2; Anonym. “Hrvatsko pjevačko društvo u Sarajevu (Društveni život),” Sarajevski list, December 31, 1909, 3; Anonym. “Zabavno sijelo,” Hrvatski dnevnik, September 4, 1906, 5; Anonym. “Program današnje zabave,” Hrvatski dnevnik, October 10, 1906, 8. 34 Josip Hladek started acquiring his music education after five completed grades of High School and three grades of Academy of Commerce. He started studying music within Philharmonic Society of Ljubljana, and continued his training in Vienna with Franz Lehar. Although he primarily worked as a military chapel master, he played the violin, and was involved in singing and music theory. He was fluent in a few languages, including Italian, German, and Croatian, and could use Czech if needed. According to the available sources, he was married to Marija Riboli until 1922. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K138; Marica Špendal, “Hladek (Chladek)-Bohinjski Josip,” in Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 2 (Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1974), 142. 35 In his book Slavuj povrh Trebevića, Zdravko Milošević says that in the period 1915–1920, Josip Hladek also served as the main choir master of Croatian society “Trebević”. However, the available archival sources show otherwise, i.e. that it was a respectable artist of Czech origin Bogomir Kačerovský (1873–1945) who served as “Trebević” choir master in the period 1912–1917. Over the last year of occupation, the society worked with decreased capacity, and due to the horrors of the wind of war, the choir master position was alternately filled by the society members who remained in Sarajevo. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond “Trebević” pjevačko društvo.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 18 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... composed by the European greats such as Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Johannes Brahms, Franz Schubert, Richard Wagner, Edward Grieg and many others. Hladek also introduces appearances of orchestra with soloists into the concert practice of garrison music, whereby the role of soloist was also given to the renowned names of the time. Thus, one of successful concerts conducted by Josip Hladek was a concert that took place in Wartime cinema, with the music program that consisted of segments from Wagner’s Parsifal, then Concerto for piano and orchestra in a-minor by E. Grieg, and Concerto for violin and orchestra in g-minor by Max Bruch. The role of soloist was given to August Janković (violin) and Angelo Kessissoglu (piano) who, judging by press reports, professionally performed their part of the job.36 Besides his success in conducting, Josip Hladek showed his skill as an excelling music pedagogue. He selflessly transmitted his knowledge to pupils of the Great Gram- mar School, where he officially started working as a music and singing teacher in 1919. He stayed at the Grammar School until 1923, when he was transferred to Banja Luka.37 Although his contributions to the promotion of musical life in Austro-Hungarian Sara- jevo were obvious, Hladek experiences the true recognition of his career in the period between the two world wars (1918–1941), working as a music pedagogue in the District School of Music in Sarajevo [Oblasna muzička škola Sarajevo] (1920), then as a member of the Quartet of Philharmonic association District School of Music, as well as the first conductor and accompanist in the National Theatre of Sarajevo.38 Another Slovenian musician active during Austro-Hungarian administration in B&H was of similar likings. It was Viktor Šonc (Tomaj kraj Sežane, 1877–29.10.1964, Ljubljana), who proved himself as a conductor and pedagogue. After studying composition in Prague (1901– 1904) and private singing classes with the professor of Pra- gue conservatory M. Wallerstein and professor Kotzebna in Dražgjani (1903–1907), he went to Dresden for further training and stayed there from 1907–1909.39 Then he arrived to Sarajevo, where he immediately initiated the opening of a privately-owned school of music. The school was supposed to open on the 15th September 1909 and music training included lessons in singing and piano playing. The press of the time wrote favourably about Šonc’s abilities, stating that singing methods he had learned at European schools were one of the best.40 However, what actually happened with Šonc‘s idea is not known, since the available sources on this initiative disappeared. Still, Viktor Šonc continued developing hid pedagogical abilities within the activity of Croatian singing society “Trebević”, where he worked as the main choir master in the period 1910–1911, when he was replaced by Bogomir Kačerovský41. According to “Tre- bević” society rules, choir master tasks included teaching basics of singing and music theory, and Šonc continued this practice even after he left the choir master position.

36 Anonym. “Drugi simfonički koncert sarajevske posadne glazbe u ratnom kinu (Sarajevske novosti),” Sarajevski list, Mart 5, 1918, 2. 37 Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K138. 38 For more details on Josip Hladek Bohinjski’s activity in the period between the two world wars see: Hadžić Fatima, “Muzički život Sarajeva između dva svjetska rata (1918–1941)” (PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2012), 327. 39 Dragotin Cvetko, “Viktor Šonc,” in Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 3 (Zagreb; Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1977), 509; Anonym. “Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru,” Hrvatski dnevnik, September 1, 1909, 2. 40 Anonym. “Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru,” 2. 41 Anonym. “B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo – Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo,” Bosnischer Bote XV (1911): 382; Anonym. “B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo – Vereine und Korporationen in Sarajevo,” Bosnischer Bote XVI (1912): 484.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 19 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Actually, the government annual Bosnischer Bote published the information that Šonc served as a singing commissioner in the period 1911–1912, which means that together with then active “Trebević” conductors, he was involved in the process of preparing and rehearsing music programs.42 The listed examples of Slovenian musicians’ activity are certainly an indicator of the significance of immigrants’ individual activity in various segments of musical life. In the same time, it is the evidence that there was a strong will and desire to raise the musical life to a higher, professional level; however, the desires lacked the administrative system support which in these, as well as in many other cases, failed to come.

Slovenian musicians in the role of guest artists: Case of Slovenian opera

Unlike most immigrants who were tied to B&H with their job, visiting musicians came to Sarajevo in order to perform at occasional concerts. Although they stayed for too short a time to make any permanent impact, their role was obvious in terms of familiarizing masses of the Bosnian population with eminent world artists, performances and repertoires. The trademark of these events included professionalism, technical and artistic skill, and typically cherry-picked music repertoire. The visiting artists, i.e. ensembles that were characterized by excellence include the visit of Slovenian opera of Ljubljana.43 The Opera visited Sarajevo in the first half of June 1907; and together with the visit by Opera group of Brno (1902), Italian opera of Milan (1902) and Croatian National Theatre of Osijek (1908), it was one of the highest quality musical groups that visited Sarajevo over the 40 years of Austro-Hunga- rian occupation. Actually, during its stay in B&H capital, Slovenian Opera performed true masterpieces of opera art, which in the theatre life was a major deviation from the usual performances of operettas, musical farces and pieces of Orpheum character. In other words, opera groups such as Slovenian Opera familiarized B&H audience with contemporary and artistically high-quality musical selections. Judging by writings in the press, public was looking forward to Slovenian Ope- ra, and the first information on the ensemble appeared about fifteen days before the group’s arrival and the visit scheduled for the 1st of June 1907.44 Thus, for instance, Sa- rajevski list45, a renowned newspaper and public gazette of the National Government for B&H, informed the public that Slovenian Opera intends to come to Sarajevo from Osijek (Croatia), where critics praised its performances. Further, they said that there was a great interest in the visit in Sarajevo, with the comment that the public hoped for:

42 The data taken from Bosnicher Bote contradict Cvetko Dragotin’s writings (“Viktor Šonc,” in Muzička enciklopedija, 509), which say that after his position as a choir master in Sarajevo Šonc went to Trieste in 1911, where he served as a school principal until 1927. 43 The present name of the institution is: Narodno gledališće Opera im Balet Ljubljana [Slovenian national theatre, opera and ballet Ljubljana]. However, the paper uses the name used by available sources, i.e. Slovenian opera of Ljubljana. 44 Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” Hrvatski dnevnik, May 16, 1907, 8. 45 Besides Sarajevski list, the Opera visit was also covered by all the other significant dailies and periodicals, whether they supported the regime or were nationally oriented. Press that published writings on the visit includes: Bosnische post, Sarajevski list, Hrvatski dnevnik i Srpska riječ.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 20 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... “beautiful musical enjoyment, and it is evident that the Slovenian group will experience a nice response by Sarajevo audience.”46 Next, periodicals reported that after a long time Sarajevo audience would have the opportunity to hear excelling opera singers, top masterpieces, which will be a rare enjoyment for the concert life.47 Interestingly, Croatian newspapers published extremely favourable articles on the visit, euphorical- ly inviting the public to Slovenian Opera performances: “Once again we recommend to everybody to come to the theatre, since they are both artists and our blood, our brothers Slovenians. Cheers!”48 According to the original plan, Opera intended to appear at eight performances over its fifteen-day stay in B&H capital; they included top pieces such as Traviata, Rigo- letto, Turbadur (G. Verdi), Lucia da Lammemoour (Gaetano Donizetti), Faust (Charles Gounod), The Jewess (Formental Halévy), Carmen (Georges Bizet) and Nikola Šubić Zrinjski (Ivan pl. Zajc)49, while the star of the ensemble was the famous tenor and once first singer of Zagreb opera Ernesto Ritter von Camerotta.50 Besides Camerotta, other opera soloists are listed (Maruša Skalova, M. Peršlova, Vida Kočevarjeva, Jan Zach von Zahov, Jan Ouržednik, Adolf Ranek, Julius Betetto, Rudolf Bukšek)51, and press reports attach the a great attention, through quoting and paraphrasing clips from reviews, which had previously written about their performing abilities. Thus, for example, words of praise were used to describe opera diva Maruša Skalova, for who was said to have a clear intonation, resounding voice and dramatic expression.52 Attention was also paid to chapel master Benišek, as well as to the entire orchestra, with the words that they were extremely successful in complementing and completing the soloists’ play.53 In general, the organization of the event and ticket sales were the responsibility of the renowned city bookstore and music equipment store Albert Thier in the Fra- njo Josip’s Street which, due to a great interest among the public decided to print the program booklets with the libretti of operas performed by the Slovenian ensemble.54 Printing the program booklets and libretti, which abbreviated versions were published in Sarajevski list and Hrvatski dnevnik showed a clear organizers’ desire to bring significant musical creations in the area of opera composing closer to the broader B&H public which, on the other hand, should contribute to the audience’s thorough prepa- ration for the performances of Slovenian Opera. Expectedly, such initiatives were also supported by branches of Austro-Hungarian administration infiltrated in the activity of Sarajevski list and city printing shops owned by immigrants, since it was a way of direct promotion of the West-European musical culture. After exhaustive information in the press, Sarajevo public joyfully welcome the beginning of the Slovenian Opera of Ljubljana visit. On the stage of Community Centre,

46 [“lijepom muzikalnom uživanju, a očevidno je, da će slovenska družina naići na lijep odziv publike u Sarajevu.”] Anonym. “Slovenska opera iz Ljubljane,” Sarajevski list, May 31, 1907, 2. 47 Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” Hrvatski dnevnik, May 16, 1907, 8. 48 Anonym. “Slovenska opera u Sarajevu,” Hrvatski dnevnik, May 17, 1907, 5. 49 Anonym. “Musik,” Bosnische Post, May 14, 1907, 4. 50 Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” Sarajevski list, May 15, 1907, 2. 51 Anonym. “Theater und Musik,” Bosnische post, May 18, 1907, 3. 52 Anonym. “Slovenska opera u Sarajevu,” 5. 53 Ibid. 54 Anonym. “Slovenska opera u Sarajevu,” Sarajevski list, May 15, 1907, 2.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 21 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 the ensemble performed in the crammed hall, and the creation selected for the first appearance was Faustus by Charles Gounod. Judging by writings in the press, the performance was extremely successful, and the author of a review in Hrvatski dnevnik states: “The opening performance of ‘Faustus’ was solemn and magnificent. Never before has Sarajevo experience something similar. The audience watched the scenes with their breath stopped, and tense thought (...).”55 The report also devoted a few lines to the most impressive moments of the performance, whereby Maruša Skalove’s singing in the leading role of Margarit made a special impression on the author: “She performed the scene ‘with the mirror’ with such a skill that can be achieved only at a good school, and we thought it is impossible that we are in Sarajevo. She sings high tones calmly and with ease, strongly and beautifully. Her singing and playing were complemented by her imposing appearance, and she thus made a unique Margarit creation.”56 The opera ensemble performed the other pieces with equal success, and a great audience’s interest made the ensemble to expand its repertoire and perform, besides the planned eight operas, Ksenija by Viktor Parma, The Beautiful Galatea by Franz von Suppé, Pagliacci by Ruggeiro Leoncavallo, and The Bartered Bride by Bedřich Smetana. This decision by the Slovenian Opera management certainly proved the extent of the repertoire and capacity of this opera house. Still, although most part of the visit went on without significant lapses in organization and performance, there were minor embar- rassments, one of them being the surprisingly poor attendance at the performance of Leoncavallo’s Pagliaccio (12 June), which was harshly criticized in Hrvatski dnevnik. The author addressed brittle words to the public considering the empty hall of the Commu- nity Centre the “defeat of Sarajevo audience”.57 The unexpectedly poor attendance may have been due to the fact that this piece was performed only a few days after an incident that accompanied the performance of Zajc’s opera Nikola Šubić Zrinjski.

Performance of the opera Nikola Šubić Zrinjski: two versions of an event

The performance of Zajc’s opera masterpiece known as Nikola Šubić Zrinjski was scheduled for the 8th of June 1907; interestingly, however, this creation was the only nationally-oriented one on the repertoire of Slovenian Opera that aroused inter-national misunderstandings between Bosnia and Herzegovinian Croats and Serbs. The misunderstandings that resulted in newspaper clashes between two most significant national papers in Austro-Hungarian Sarajevo, Hrvatski dnevnik and Srpska riječ were due to preventing Serbian pupils of the Great Grammar School to buy tickets and attend the performance. The performance itself experiences no problems, and was greeted with

55 [“Svečana i veličanstvena je bila otvorna predstava ‘Fausta’. Nikada do tada nije Sarajevo doživjelo nešto slična. Sa zaustavljenim dahom u grudima, napetom mišlju pratila je publika prizore (...)”] Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” Hrvatski dnevnik, June 3, 1907, 4–5. 56 [“Prizor ‘s ogledalom’ izvela je sa toliko umjeća, koje se postizava samo dobrom školom, e smo mislili, nije moguće da smo u Sarajevu. Visoke tonove pjeva mirno i lahko, jako i divno. Svome pjevu i svojoj igri doprinijela je impozantna njena pojava te je od Margarete stvorila kreaciju svoje vrsti.”] Ibid. 57 P. “Kazalište,” Hrvatski dnevnik, June 12, 1907, 2–3.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 22 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... the approval of B&H Croats, who expressed their satisfaction with loud applause, and with the address by the chairman of the “Trebević” Croatian singing society, who publicly thanked the ensemble members for their visit to Sarajevo. Then a few “Trebević” singers sang the Croatian anthem Lijepa naša domovino, which aroused the additional loud acclaims in the audience.58 However, newspaper writings in Srpska riječ soon showed that the Serbian part of B&H population was seriously offended, and the intonation of articles such as “Croa- tian Feast in Sarajevo” [Hrvatsko slavlje u Sarajevu]59 pointed to the burst of national intolerance, which Austro-Hungary had been trying to quench or at least reduce to a minimum since the first day of occupation. The degree of the seriousness of the situation resulting from a seemingly innocent event was revealed in every word: “On Saturday, Slovenian opera group performed Zajc’s opera ‘Zrinjski’ in the Community Centre. This occasion was used by our ‘furtimas’ (op.a. Croatian clericalists) to show once again who they are and what they are like. Instead of being happy because they had the opportunity to show to the others a beautiful brainchild of Croatian musicians and a glorious image from Croatian past, they used the evening for their clericalist purposes. But under whose order, whose Vefehl, did they refuse to give tickets to many Serbian pupils at the box office?”60 Besides, the article calls for a comprehensive police investigation, suspecting that the incident was staged, and that there was a possibility that the opera management had been involved in it.61 Hrvatski dnevnik gave a sharp reply to these accusations. Fully quoting the statements of Srpska riječ, Hrvatski dnevnik said that they did not want to start newspaper correspondence, and invited all the conscientious and unblended citizens to ignore the provocations. Still, the newspaper could not totally refrain and condemned the “detestable lies and accusations” in an unpleasant tone, requesting the accountability of the newspaper’s editor-in-chief.62 The epilogue of the story was starting the investigation about the improper be- haviour of high-school pupils from the ranks of B&H Croats. The investigation was conducted by members of the Great Grammar School management and representatives of Austro-Hungarian police. The investigation established that one of the pupils started publicly, in a challenging way stressing out his political colour, by writing in the newspaper, singing in the street and in the theatre, and that individual students had indeed prevented Serbian pupils from entering the theatre hall.63 On top of it, the teachers’ assembly decided that pupils of Sarajevo Great Grammar School would be allowed to go to any future public performances, theatre and concert events only upon the approval by their headmaster. On the other hand, no Slovenian Opera’s guilt or involvement in the incident was ever proved. However, upon the original request by Srpska riječ, the ensemble repeated the performance of Zajc’s opera at the end of their

58 Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” Sarajevski list, June 12, 1907, 2. 59 Anonym. “Domaće vijesti,” Srpska riječ, May 30 (June 13), 1907, 3. 60 [ “U subotu davana je od slovenačke operske družine u Društvenom Domu, Zajčeva opera ‘Zrinjski’. Ovu priliku upotrebiše naši furtimaši (op.a. hrvatski klerikanci), da se opet pokažu, ko su i kakvi su. Umjesto da se raduju, što bi imali priliku da drugim pokažu krasan umotvor Hrvata muzičara i jednu sjajnu sliku iz hrvatske prošlosti, oni ovu večer upotrebiše u svoje furtimaške ciljeve. Ali čijom naredbom, po čijem Vefehlu ne dadoše mnogim Srbima đacima na kasi karte?”] Ibid. 61 Ibid. 62 Anonym. “Srpska riječ i obraz,” Hrvatski dnevnik, June 12, 1907, 3. 63 Anonym. “Dakle ipak!,” Srpska riječ, June 5 (June 19), 1907, 3.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 23 23.6.2016 9:58:07 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 visit. The repeated performance of Nikola Šubić Zrinjsk took place on the 14th of June 1907, in the crammed hall of the Community Centre.64 Interestingly, the regime-oriented papers did not publish a word about the accompanying misunderstandings of the prominently national nature. Newspapers such as Sarajevski list focused their writing on the quality of performance, describing the beauties and artistic values of Zajc’s creation, and making incidental and irrelevant comments such as one about the shortage of theatre space.65 Bosnische post reported in the same manner, and its reports addressed only the musical performance, while data on the Sarajevo pupils’ improprieties could not be read in this renowned paper. At the same time, this was an indicator that Austro-Hungarian regime tried to deliberately hush up writings that spurred or dealt with inter-national turmoil among B&H population. Unfortunately, this was an established phenomenon in both political and socio-cultural life of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In a sense, the deliberate pushing of the national issues to the back burner, and emphasizing the socio-political atmosphere that encouraged cultural uniformity and unity were the only way in which Austro-Hungary tried to deal with strong national currents that were shaking Bosnia and Herzegovina.

At the end …

When viewing different aspects of Slovenian musicians’ activity in Sarajevo musical life, one gets the insight into the significance of their activity in the development of musical culture in these regions. Although Slovenians were a less numerous immigrant community in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the story of their road is universal, since it concisely shows the process and main players in the birth of the West-European musical culture in these regions. The process accompanied with collective and individual patterns of immigrants’ activity, as well as with sporadic visits by foreign artists made up the main artery of musical life. On the other hand, the visit of Slovenian Opera is the evidence of complex socio-political situation in B&H, which Austro-Hungary tried to resolve in re- pressive measures, which – as the time unfortunately showed, were just an unsuccessful attempt of the Empire to preserve its political dominance in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Bibliography

Archival sources Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Fond Popis stanovništva, 1910. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond “Trebević” pjevačko društvo. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Personalni dosijei II, sign. K138. Sarajevo. The Archives of Bosnia-Herzegovina. Fond Zemaljska vlada za BiH, Društva i ustanove – statistički podaci.

64 Bosnische post wrote that after Sarajevo the Opera was supposed to visit Tuzla and perform operas Faustus, Nikola Šubić Zrinjski, Trovatore and Glocken von Corneville there. Anonym. “Theater und Musik,” Bosnische post, June 13, 1907, 3. 65 Anonym. “Slovenska opera,” 2.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 24 23.6.2016 9:58:07 L. PAĆUKA • ASPECTS OF SLOVENIAN MUSICIANS’... Literature Cvetko, Dragotin. “Viktor Šonc.” In Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 3. Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1977, 509. Donia, Robert. Sarajevo: Biografija grada. Sarajevo: Institut za istoriju, 2006. Hadžibegović, Iljas. Postanak radničke klase u Bosni i Hercegovini i njen razvoj do 1914. godine. Sarajevo: Svjetlost, 1980. Hadžić, Fatima. Muzički život Sarajeva između dva svjetska rata (1918–1941). PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2012. Kruševac, Todor. Sarajevo pod austro-ugarskom upravom 1878–1918. Sarajevo: Vese- lin Masleša, 1960. Paćuka, Lana. Muzički život u Sarajevu u periodu Austro-Ugarske uprave (1878–1918). PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2014. Pejanović, Đorđe. Kulturno-prosvetna humana i socijalna društva u Bosni i Hercego- vini za vreme austrijske vladavine. Sarajevo: Štamparija “Bosanska pošta,” 1930. Špendal, Marica. “Hladek (Chladek)-Bohinjski Josip.” In Muzička enciklopedija, ed. Krešimir Kovačević, vol. 2. Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1974, 142. Spomenica Prve gimnazije u Sarajevu – prilikom proslave 50-godišnjice (1879.–1929.). Sarajevo: Državna štamparija, 1929. Tičić, Vedrana. Slovenački muzičari u Bosni i Hercegovini. Master thesis, University of Sarajevo, 2012. Zulić, Miradet. Muzički život u Sjeveroistočnoj Bosni 1878–1992. PhD diss., University of Sarajevo, 2008.

Periodicals Editorial. “Voranzeige.” Bosnische post. May 15, 1907, 8. P. “Kazalište.” Hrvatski dnevnik. June 12, 1907, 2–3. Bosnische post. “Eine Faschingsunterhaltung im ‚Slovenski klub‘.” January 27, 1913, 2. Bosnische Post. “Musik.” May 14, 1907, 4. Bosnische post. “Theater und Musik.” June 13, 1907, 3. Bosnische post. “Theater und Musik.” May 18, 1907, 3. Bosnische post. “Werbung.” April 4, 1913, 4. Bosnischer Bote. “B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo – Vereine und Korporationen in Sara- jevo.” XV (1911): 382. Bosnischer Bote. “B. Landeshauptstadt Sarajevo – Vereine und Korporationen in Sara- jevo.” XVI (1912): 484. Bosnischer Bote. “Handel-und Gewerbetreibende der Hauptstadt Sarajevo – Musikka- pellen.” III (1899): 214. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Slovenska opera u Sarajevu.” May 17, 1907, 5. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Nova škola za pjevanje i za poduku u glasoviru.” September 1, 1909, 2. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Pokladna zabava ‘Slovenskog omizja’ u Sarajevu.” February 9, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Program današnje zabave.” October 10, 1906, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Slovenska opera.” May 16, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Slovenska opera.” May 16, 1907, 8. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Slovenska opera.” June 3, 1907, 4–5.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 25 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Hrvatski dnevnik. “Srpska riječ i obraz.” June 12, 1907, 3. Hrvatski dnevnik. “Zabavno sijelo.” September 4, 1906, 5. Sarajevski list. “Slovenska opera.” May 15, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. “Drugi simfonički koncert sarajevske posadne glazbe u ratnom kinu (Sarajevske novosti).” Mart 5, 1918, 2. Sarajevski list. “Hrvatsko pjevačko društvo u Sarajevu (Društveni život).” December 31, 1909, 3. Sarajevski list. “Iz društava (Mali vjesnik).” Mart 13, 1898, 2. Sarajevski list. “Iz društava.” Decembre 12, 1900, 2. Sarajevski list. “Slovenska opera iz Ljubljane.” May 31, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. “Slovenska opera u Sarajevu.” May 15, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. “Slovenska opera.” June 12, 1907, 2. Sarajevski list. “Stogodišnjica Prešernova.” December 9, 1900, 2. Sarajevski list. “Tipografsko veče s igrankom (Društvene vijesti).” January 10, 1914, 2. Srpska riječ. “Dakle ipak!” June 5 (June 18), 1907, 3. Srpska riječ. “Domaće vijesti.” May 30 (June 12), 1907, 3. Večernji sarajevski list. “Slovenski klub.” February 17, 1911, 2.

bogatim glasbenim programom, medtem ko lahko POVZETEK individualne vplive zaznamo zlasti na področju di- rigentstva, poučevanja in občasnega skladateljskega Skupinske in posamezne dejavnosti slovenskih dela. Najbolj znana imena slovenskega porekla, ki glasbenikov v glasbenem življenju Bosne in Her- so se zapisala v glasbeno zgodovino Sarajeva, so: cegovine in njihovi občasni obiski te regije so bili Alojz Ričl, Josip Hladek Bohinjski in Viktor Šonc. živa slika imigrantske skupnosti, ki je bila dejavno Ti so obenem najbolje poosebljali individualne udeležena pri razvoju zahodno-evropskih glasbe- podvige, saj je njihovo delo predstavljalo glavno nih trendov v Sarajevu, glavnem avstro-ogrskem oporo tedanjega mestnega glasbenega življenja. administrativnem središču Bosne in Hercegovine. Po drugi strani pa je obisk Slovenske opere iz Slovenci so prišli z drugimi priseljenci v Sarajevo Ljubljane (1907) živ prikaz, kako odvisna je bila in v Bosno in Hercegovino v prvih letih okupa- Sarajevska gledališka scena od tujih gostovanj, ki so cije ter se vključili v njim sicer nove kulturne in bosansko-hercegovskemu občinstvu ponujali redko glasbene trende. S tem so neposredno prispevali priložnost spoznati izbrane glasbene programe. k razvoju glasbenega življenja v teh regijah. Na Poleg tega obisk Slovenske opere ponuja bežen kolektivni ravni lahko opazimo, da se je njihova vpogled v kompleksnost politične realnosti Bosne dejavnost zgostila okrog slovenskih društev, kot in Hercegovine, ki je bila vseskozi izpostavljena sta bila »Slovenski klub« in »Slovensko omizje«, ki mednarodnim sporom. Le te pa so posledično hudo sta organizirala glasbene zabave in predstave z pretresali družbeno-politično sceno.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 26 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... UDK 78.036(497.1) DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.27-40

Katarina Tomašević Muzikološki inštitut Srbske akademije znanosti in umetnosti, Beograd Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Belgrade

On the Paths of Béla Bartók’s Modernism Followers and Companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević Na sledi sledilcem in sopotnikom modernizma Béle Bartóka: Josip Slavenski in Marko Tajčević

Prejeto: 16. oktober 2015 Received: 16th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: Béla Bartók, Josip Slavenski, Mar- Keywords: Béla Bartók, Josip Slavenski, Marko ko Tajčević, glasbeni modernizem, Balkan Tajčević, musical modernism, the Balkans

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Poglavitni namen tega prispevka je ponovna pre The main aim of this paper is to re-examine the učitev modalnosti vpliva skladatelja Béle Bartóka v modalities of Béla Bartók’s influence as a com- prvi polovici 20. stoletja na najbolj razširjen, »nacio- poser during the first half of the 20th century to nalno usmerjen slog« v nekdanji Jugoslaviji, pri če- the main, dominantly “nationally oriented style” mer sta obravnava dva Bartókova mlajša sopotnika in the former Yugoslavia, focusing on two of – skladatelja Josip Slavenski (1896–1955) in Marko Bartók’s somewhat younger contemporaries – the Tajčević (1900–1984), pomembna predstavnika composers Josip Slavenski (1896–1955) and Marko evropskega medvojnega glasbenega modernizma. Tajčević (1900–1984), prominent representatives of European interwar musical modernism.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 27 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 On the paths of Béla Bartók’s modernism Followers and companions: Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević1

To be able to work, one must have a zest for life, i.e. a keen interest in the living universe. One has to be filled with enthusiasm for the Trinity of Nature, Art and Science.

Bartók Béla

There is no doubt that the development of art music and music scholarship, particularly ethnomusicological, in the former Yugoslavia(s),2 were strongly marked by the echoes of the complete activities and creative achievements of Béla Bartók (1881–1945). The main aim of this paper is to re-examine and discuss the modalities of Bartók’s influence as a composer during the first half of the 20 th century, focusing on two of Bartók’s somewhat younger contemporaries – the composers Josip Slaven- ski (1896–1955) and Marko Tajčević (1900–1984).3 Their creative contributions to the dominant, nationally orientated stream in interwar period can be considered pro- portional to those realised by Bartók in the Hungarian musical culture. In addition to shifting the stylistic horizons towards the areas of modernism, the achievements of Slavenski and Tajčević allowed Yugoslav music, as an integral part of the Balkan region, to step out of the local and into the European musical scene and to be recognised and highly esteemed within the family of the so-called “modern national schools” of their time. Perhaps even more importantly, encouraged by Bartók’s new and fresh anti-Romantic approach to folklore, both Slavenski and Tajčević enriched the musical palette of the then modern world with new colours, rhythms, harmonies, agogics and, above all, specifically anti-classical forms, thereby, following on from Bartók’s interests, opening the door for the musical world of the Balkans to be permanently, to this day, recognised as one of the most exciting and colourful musical territories on the planet.

1 This article was written as part of the project Serbian musical identities within local and global framework: traditions, changes, challenges (No. 177 004) funded by the Serbian Ministry of Education, Science and Technical Development. 2 We have in mind Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1919–1929), Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1929–1944) and Socialistic Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1992). 3 Both Slavenski and Tajčević belong to the music histories of former Yugoslavia(s). However, since it was neither planned, nor possible that the leading music historians of the former SFR Yugoslavia create or try to (re-)construct one unique history of Yugoslav music, the place of the two prominent composers of their times remained on the “unstable” cross-roads of the separate Serbian and Croatian music histories. At first glance, Slavenski’s starting position was more “comfortable”, since the both sides have showed a great interest in “appropriation” of composer’s achievements; later on, Slavenski’s case proved to be more difficult and complexed. See Jim Samson, Music in the Balkans (Leiden – Boston: Brill, 2013) [Chapter: Serbo-Croat, sub-chapter: Who owns Slavenski], 369–376. On the other hand, example of Marko Tajčević as a Serb born in Austro-Hungary, can serve as the best example why music histories should not be written (only) from the ethnical perspectives; Tajčević’s overall fruitful activities and remarkable opus realized in the former Yugoslav (today Croatia’s capital) city of Zagreb before 1940, when he finally decided to move to Belgrade, have not been recognized at all in the first most prominent history of Croatian music by Josip Andreis, “Razvoj muzičke umjetnosti u Hrvatskoj,” in: Andreis–Cvetko–Djurić-Klajn, Historijski razvoj muzičke kulture u Jugoslaviji (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1962); See also, for example, Katarina Tomašević, “Duh vremena u delima i delatnostima Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića,” in Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], ed. Dejan Despić (Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, 2004), 5.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 28 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... One of the aims of this paper is to bring to mind numerous forgotten, very little known or insufficiently researched shared moments, which most intimately link the three composers’ artistic biographies as well as the strategies, poetic and aesthetic con- stants in their opuses.4 Completely justifiably, without the name of Béla Bartók, a respectable review of the 20th century’s history of music cannot be conceived. 5 We are witnessing, however, a situation where some of the leading historical reviews of international importance, designed with the pretension of being the most thorough and most ambitious in terms of comprehensiveness,6 have marginalised or completely disre- garded entire regions of the European musical arena and left as “white” areas of the history of music large “territories” of the creative work of many renowned and, even in the not so distant past, internationally highly acclaimed composers of the Euro- pean Southeast. With regard to the Serbian, Croatian and Yugoslav music of the first half of the 20th century, these composers are not only Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević, whose work in the orbit of Bartók’s modernism will be the main topic of this discussion, but also key representatives of the previous generation of Serbian composers: Petar Konjović (1883–1970), Miloje Milojević (1884–1946) and Stevan Hristić (1885–1958), to mention here only the most prominent of the epoch of early modernism; their works had already in the their lifetime experienced not only the highest acknowledgement in their country, but also considerable recognition abroad. With rare and, subsequently, all the more significant exceptions such as, for example, the recently published book Music in the Balkans by Jim Samson (2013), dedicated on the whole to the traditional, art and popular music(s) of the Balkans, 7 the achievements of the key composers from the former Yugoslavia still, most commonly, escape the attention of both contemporary western music historiography, and the comparative scholarly studies within the area of research into the musical identity of modern Europe.8 Consequently, this paper has opted to first address some undeniably interesting data from the early 1920s, which will take us directly to the “main stream of the story” of Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević as followers and companions of Béla Bartók on the path of European musical modernism.

4 This article emerged from my much shorter and differentely conceived report “Modalities of Béla Bartók’s Influence on the Serbian Music in the first half of the 20 th Century”, presented on the conference Bartok’s Orbit, Budapest, 22.–24. March 2006. 5 See Richard, Taruskin, “Why You Cannot Leave Bartók Out,” Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae T. 47, Fasc. 3/4 [Bartók’s Orbit. The Context and Sphere of Influence of His Work. Proceedings of the International Conference held by the Bartók Archives, Budapest (22.–24. March 2006). Part I (Sept., 2006)] 2006: 265–277. 6 See, for example, Nicolas Cook and A. Pople, The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Music (Cambridge – Cambridge University Press, 2004) and Richard, Taruskin, The Oxford History of Western Music (Oxford – New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2009, 2nd ed. 2010). 7 Samson, Music in the Balkans. 8 Regarding the problems related to the incidence and representation of the so-called “small musical cultures” in the general western histories of music, encyclopedic and lexicographic editions, see, e.g.: Melita Milin, “General Histories of Music and the Place of European Periphery,” Музикологија [Musicology] 1 (2001): 141–148, Katarina Tomašević, “Musical Modernism at Periphery? Serbian Music of the First Half of the Twentieth Century,” in Rethinking Musical Modernism, eds. Dejan Despić and Melita Milin (Belgrade: SASA and Instititute of Musicology SASA, 2008), 83–103. and Melita Milin, “The Place of Small Musical Cultures in Reference Books,” in Music’s intellectual history, eds. Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mckenzie (New York: RILM Intellectual Centre and The City University of New York, 2009), 653–658.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 29 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 The first story. Josip Slavenski

It is 1930, the time immediately after the completion of the New Music Festival in Berlin, and the “witness-narrator” is the eminent Austrian musicologist Alfred Einstein (1880–1952). Summing up the impressions of the previous few years of the Festival, Einstein notes: “The year of 1924 was the year of the discovery of Josip Slavenski”.9 It was at the Fourth Donaueschingen Chamber Music Festival (Viertes Danaueschin- ger Kammermusikfest, 19–20 July), when Slavenski’s First String Quartet, having gone through a gruelling selection from 250 works, was superbly executed in an interpretation by the Prague “Zika Quartet” (Zika/ Czechoslovak/ Prague Quartet). It should be mentioned that in the same year of 1924, besides Slavenski’s Quartet, the programme of the same festival also included performances of compositions by Erwin Schulhoff (1894–1942), Anton Webern (1883–1945) and Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), among others. This was the first international success of Josip Slavenski, opening the door to the Schott publishing house from Mainz, which at that time also acquired exclusive rights to print his works.10 For the main topic, another fact, also from the late 1920s, further points to his success. According to airtime statistics regarding contemporary music broadcast on Ger- man radio, published in the journal Melos (Berlin, 1920–1934),11 during October 1929, of a total of 157 hours of broadcast music, most time, 1h 50min, was occupied by the works of Paul Hindemith (1895–1963). They were followed by the compositions of Igor Stravinsky (1882–1971), with 1h 45min, Arnold Schoenberg, with 1h 40min and Béla Bartók, with 1h 15min, while the next “position”, with a total of 1h 5min, was shared between Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) and the key protagonist of this “story”, Josip Slavenski. In the same year, the music of Zoltán Kodály (1882 –1967), Bartók’s closest associate and a prominent representative of Hungarian music of the time, was given 40 minutes of airtime on German radio stations.12 Who, then, was Josip Slavenski, the composer who, for a moment, lit up the musical sky of Europe?13 Although many readers of Muzikološki zbornik are entirely familiar

9 Alfred Einstein, “Festival Neue Musik,” Berliner Tagblatt, 19 June 1930, according to Eva Sedak, Josip Štolcer Slavenski, skladatelj prijelaza. Svezak prvi (Zagreb: Muzičko informativni centar Koncertne direkcije Zagreb – Muzikološki zavod Muzičke akademije u Zagrebu, 1984), 241. 10 In the Schott publications, a total of 33 works by Josip Slavenski appeared – 12 instrumental and 21 choral. 11 See the RIPM [Retrospective Index to Music Periodicals (1760–1966)] database. Accessed 16 October, 2015, http://www.ripm. org/?page=JournalInfo&ABB=MEL. 12 Taken from Melos, the news was also published by the Belgrade journal Muzički glasnik [Musical Herald] (November–December 1931). According to Sedak, Josip Štolcer Slavenski, 248. 13 The life and work of Josip Slavenski was the subject of a detailed study of the musicology of the former Yugoslavia. For an exhaustive bibliography of Slavenski up to 1984, see Sedak, Ibid., 261–269. After the break-up of the SFRY, his work still attracts the equal attention of musicologists in both Croatia and Serbia. See, e.g., Eva Sedak, “Nationale Musik oder die Konstruktion des Nationalen als Musik am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts”, in Kompositorische und soziokulturelle Aspekte der Musikgeschichte zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa. Konferenzbericht, Leipzig 2002, eds. Helmut Loos and Stefan Keym, (Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag, 2004), 7–30. The results of a more recent research published in Belgrade, see, e.g., in the collection of texts Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba [Cyrillic], ed. Mirjana Živković (Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd – Muzikološki institut SANU – SOKOJ MIC, 2006). About Slavenski’s contribution to the history of Serbian interwar music see in my book: Katarina Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada. O dijalogu tradicionalnog i modernog u srpskoj muzici (1918–1941) (Beograd – Novi Sad: Muzikološki institut SANU – Matica srpska, 2009), e.g. 24–27; 153, 167–170, 184–186, 237–245. See also Danijela Špirić-Beard, Border – Bridge – Crossroads: the Construction of Yugoslav Identity in Music (1835–1938) and the Case of Josip Štolcer Slavenski: PhD diss. (Cardiff University, 2012). Considerable attention was also devoted to Slavenski by Jim Samson in the aforementioned book Music in the Balkans, 369–391.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 30 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... with the answer to this question, regarding its function in the main topic, the choice of data from the composer’s early biography will be addressed in brief. Ten years younger than Bartók, Josip (Štolcer) Slavenski was born in northern Cro- atia, in the region of Medjimurje, in Čakovec, in 1896. From his father, a local baker, he inherited an exceptional gift for music, and from his mother, whom he described as a “living music archive”, he acquired a deep sense for the Medjimurje and, generally, the traditional music of the Balkans. In the beginning of association with music, Slavenski was an autodidact; the richness of the folklore of his homeland left in him the deepest mark, as he was already from his early youth fascinated with the sounds of church bells and aliquot tones. Only when he was sixteen, did Slavenski acquire his first, classical knowledge of music. In Varaždin, where he was schooled, Slavenski fervently studied the Well-tempe- red Clavier (Das Wohltemperierte Klavier) by J. S. Bach (1685–1750) and Beethoven’s (1770–1827) piano sonatas. For the young, ambitious musician, being educated in Budapest was crucial, and it was here that he attended the Conservatory for two and a half years, between 1913 and 1916. During his first year he studied harmony and counterpoint with Zoltán Kodály. The recorded testimonies show that the professor immediately recognised the great talent and passionate nature of the student from Medjimurje. According to Lajos Kiss, Kodály used to say that Slavenski “was full of enthusiasm and a desire for more knowledge”, and thus “in addition to compulsory tasks, (…) he produced numerous canons of every kind”.14 Throughout his second and third year, Slavenski studied counterpoint and musical forms with Victor Herzfeld, Sziklosz taught him instrumentation, score-reading and acoustics, and Géza Molnár – aesthetics and history of music. World War I marked a temporary suspension of schooling for the remarkable student: he spent the next two years on the frontline of the war. Josip Slavenski would reminisce about his Budapest studies with reverence. Accor- ding to him, the significance of this incomplete three years of studying was invalua- ble, especially with regard to mastering the techniques of counterpoint and acquiring knowledge of acoustics.15 In Budapest he had already developed a particular affinity towards these fields, since at that time he, in a similar way to Bartók, determined his future lifelong fascination and preoccupation with numbers, proportions and the golden ratio, as the common denominators of nature, science, art in general, and music in particular, which collectively, in the case of Slavenski, subsequently resulted in his attempts to establish the theory of “astroacoustics”.16 What further drew Slavenski the modernist closer to Bartók was an inclination toward experimenting and the incessant conquering of new sound-territories. It was Bartók himself who, in 1911, with his piano piece Allegro barbaro, made the first re- volutionary, anti-Romantic step in that direction, announcing an entire stream of

14 Milana Slavenski, Josip (Beograd: Muzička škola “Josip Slavenski” – SOKOJ–MIC, 2006), 45. 15 For more details on Slavenski’s study years in Budapest, see Slavenski, Josip, 43–48. 16 More on this topic can be seen in a very interesting and noteworthy article by Vlastimir Peričić, “Josip Slavenski i njegova ‘astroakustika’,” Međimurje 7 (1985): 117–127 [The same article was also published in German language, in Musiktheorie, 3, Heft. I (1988): 55–70].

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 31 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 composers’ modern interpretations of the spirit of Balkan music. Slavenski had already joined him on this path with his works as a student in Budapest – the piano pieces which represent the first, earliest examples of polytonality and the employment of sharp dissonances in Yugoslav music. What was, however, crucial for the subsequent creative identity of Josip Slavenski was the close collaboration with Kodály and Bartók in their ethnomusicological work. Despite the fact that Bartók never taught Slavenski (at that time, Bartók was the head of the Piano Department), it can be assumed that the two of them had already met at the very beginning of Slavenski’s studies at the Conservatory. This is testified to by an interesting anecdote that Slavenski, many years later, would gladly retell to his students. Du- ring his first year of attending the course of harmony, Professor Kodály never ceased to wonder why his otherwise talented and diligent student persistently and stubbornly harmonised a given melody in a minor tonality, using B flat instead of B. The student’s response that he preferred it in such way, i.e. that it was “more beautiful like that”, did not convince the professor, who subsequently complained to his colleague Bartók on one occasion. In solving this “riddle”, Bartók exhibited profound intuition and perspi- cacity, asking his student to sing a few songs from his native region, Medjimurje. In these tunes, which were etched in Slavenski’s musical memory and consciousness from his earliest childhood, Bartók found his answer and joyfully exclaimed “Eureka!” It was the characteristic B from the mixolydian mode, typical of melodies from Medjimurje, which drew Slavenski toward the so-called “erroneous” harmonisation.17 From that point on, Bartók took an increased personal interest in the gifted student. Aware of the destitution he was fighting against, he invited Slavenski to participate in the ethnomusicological work in exchange for a modest payment. The student was entrusted with the transcription of Kodály’s and Bartók’s melographic notations into clean copies. Having thus been in immediate contact not only with both of the researchers, but also with the material from the field, Slavenski would later often say that he had never in his life learnt more about folklore than from listening to Kodály’s and Bartók’s comments and discussions. Also, the foundation of his future, creative attitude to folklore and traditional music was gradually formed directly under the influence of Bartók. “I had the most direct access possible to his methods of research”, he emphasised many times.18 His immediate proximity to the leading figures of Hungarian modernism completely determined the future orientation of Josip Slavenski: in Kodály’s and Bartók’s

17 See Slavenski, Josip, 46–47. 18 According to the recollections of Milana Slavenski, although the young student from Medjimurje had, in fact, respect for both Kodály and Bartók and their “unquestionably scholarly and artistic pursuit of truth”, he felt “here and there, and not overly seldom, that they do not manage to consistently and utterly overcome their, perhaps even unconscious, but deep-rooted sense of national supremacy, when in the folklore of their neighbours, of subordinate Medjimurje in particular, see and underscore the primacy and predominance of the Hungarian influence. This is why his patriotic Medjimurje heart suffers and rebels.” (Slavenski, Josip, 47). The patriotic indignation and revolt would, in Slavenski, reach its zenith several decades later, following the arrival in Belgrade of a copy of Bartók-Lord’s book Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs (1951). For further details on the subject, see Sanja Radinović, “Stanislav Vinaver, Ježef Debreceni, Josip Slavenski i Bela Bartok u etnomuzikološkom diskursu (ili: o mogućim posledicama jedne stare polemike),” in Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, ed. Mirjana Živković, 239–255. Concerning the marginalia of the renowned Serbian ethnomusicologist Miodrag Vasiljević, noted on the pages of the Serbian translation of Bartók-Lord’s study, see Jelena Jovanović, “Marginalije Miodraga Vasiljevića o studiji Bele Bartoka Morfologija srpsko-hrvatskih narodnih melodija,” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 6 (2006): 365–393.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 32 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... music, or, possibly, midway between their individual musical expressions, Slavenski found the key to his own creative path. Having spent two years on the frontline of the war, in 1921, Slavenski resumed his studies in Prague, at the Department of Composition, under Josef Suk (1874–1935) and Vítězslav Novák (1870–1949). In the Czech capital in those years (1921–1923), at the concerts of the International Society for Contemporary Music, he could become acquainted with the latest avant-garde trends of contemporary music and of the Second Vi- ennese School. However, like Bartók, having neither the inclination nor an understanding for avant-garde projects of deconstructing tradition, in Prague, Slavenski devoted himself to the study of the musical past, primarily of the masters of polyphony, form and harmony. “At that time”, Slavenski noted “my best friends were Palestrina (1525– 1594), Bach and Beethoven”;19 in the same way, these masters played their part as the greatest “teachers” and role models in Bartók’s “evolution” as well. From the more recent past, both of them were drawn most to Debussy (1862–1918), whose innovative solutions related to harmonic language later led them towards the areas of modality, then bi- and polymodality, as well as to a markedly colouristic treatment of harmony and orchestration. The first major international success of Josip Slavenski was the aforementioned First String Quartet from 1924. However, despite the accolades gained abroad, for many reasons it seemed as if Slavenski was not welcome in Zagreb, where he initially planned to settle after his studies and start a professional career. “The musical world [of Zagreb], having originated from higher social strata and having been brought up on classics, (…) looked down on Josip’s Medjimurje plebeity”, as Milena, Slavenski’s life partner, noted in her memoirs.20 Still, even more than that, an obstacle to the acceptance of Slavenski in Zagreb his conspicuously modern, impulsive researcher’s attitude towards folklore, which was at odds with the moderate, dominant streams of the Croa- tian musical Moderna at the beginning of the third decade. Unaccepted within the academic circles of Zagreb, in 1926, Slavenski permanently settled in Belgrade, from that time joining completely the trends of Serbian music as part of the Yugoslav region. It is necessary, however, to underline that Josip Slavenski, an otherwise leftist at heart, by his intimate orientation was, above all, a Yugoslav and a humanist. For him, music was the highest religion, a golden bridge to the brotherhood of all people, which would later, in the mid-1930s, be testified to most convincingly by his inspired and famed cantata Symphony of the Orient [Symphony of the Orient], or Religiophony [Religiofonija] (1934). A further identified instance of the converging poetics of Bartók and Slavenski occurred at the time when Slavenski, during his sojourn in Paris in 1925, found himself in the wider circle of the Zenitists, the avant-garde artists from Yugoslavia, who, similar to the Dadaists and Futurists, maintained the belief that the old world of Western Eu- ropean culture was completely worn-out, having no capacity to further restore itself. The Zenitists opposed the idea of the Europeanisation of the so-called “small nations” in the Balkans with an idea and programme for the “Balkanisation of Europe”. Josip

19 Slavenski, Josip, 57. 20 Ibid., 63.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 33 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Slavenski was not nearly as radical as this movement’s leading poets and writers.21 Pur- suing, in a creative sense, the concept and spirit of Bartók’s Allegro barbaro, but also recognising in the rustic, rural, archaic layers of folklore the most fertile seeds for the transformational potential of contemporary music towards a new and authentic sonority and aesthetic, at that time Slavenski already found himself in the same field of ideas cherished by the “modern national schools” of the first half of the 20th century, out of which emerged the achievements of Stravinsky and Prokofiev (from the so-called “Russian period”), Leoš Janáček (1854–1928), Zoltán Kodály and Béla Bartók himself.22 The closest connection to Bartók is perhaps associated with Slavenski’s inclination towards polyphonic forms and an archaised expression. Convincing confirmations of the closeness of certain compositional procédés of Bartók and Slavenski could be provided by numerous examples, of which, on this occasion, only two characteristics are highlighted. These are the final movements of Bartók’s Fourth String Quartet (1928) and Slavenski’s Second ‘Lyric’ Quartet (1928), both composed in the form of a fugue, and two symphonic dances – Bartók’s Hunga- rian Peasant Songs (1933) and the closing “Bulgarian Dance” of Slavenski’s Balkano- phony suite (1927). The suite Balkanophony, on this occasion, also deserves closer attention. Stri- ving for an integral representation of Balkan music, Slavenski realised the suite in eight movements, throughout which the genres of dance and song alternate: 1. Serbian Dance; 2. Albanian Song; 3. Turkish Dance; 4. Greek Song; 5. Romanian Dan- ce; 6. My Song; 7. Bulgarian Dance. Thanks to the composer’s publisher – Schott, the score aroused the interest of the renowned conductor Erich Kleiber (1890–1956), who also quickly ensured the Balkanophony’s world premiere. Under the baton of Kleiber, Slavenski’s suite was very successfully premiered by the members of the Belgrade and Zagreb Philharmonic, at the “Under the Linden Trees” theatre in Berlin (“Theater unter den linden”), on 25 January 1929. Thereafter, Balkanophony, with a total of 82 foreign performances, triumphed across Europe and the world: with interpretations by the greatest conductors of the time, it was performed in Buenos Aires (Kleiber), again in Berlin (Walter), Athens (Mitropoulos), Wiesbaden (Bölke), Munich, Warsaw, Hamburg, Nuremberg, Prague, in Russia, Copenhagen, Paris, Lon- don, etc.23 Completing the picture with regard to the points of intersection between the artistic biographies and composers’ poetics of Bartók and Slavenski, a few key moments

21 On Slavenski’s connections with the Zenitist movement, see, e.g.: Sanja Grujić, “Veze Josipa Slavenskog sa zenitističkim pokretom,” Međimurje 4 (1983): 53–63; Melita Milin, “Tonovi naricanja, melanholije i divljine – zenitistička pobuna i muzika,” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): 131–144; Katarina Tomašević, “Istok-Zapad u polemičkom kontekstu srpske muzike,” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5: 119–130; Slavenski, Josip, 71–74; Irina Subotić, “Two Self-Portraits of Josip Slavenski,” New Sound [Novi zvuk] 33 (2009): 65–76. 22 See the assessment of Josip Slavenski’s position within the circle of the aforementioned composers in a noteworthy article by Bojan Bujić, “Daleki svijet muzikom dokučen,” Izraz VII/11 (1963): 327. 23 For more details with regard to the international performances and the reception of Balkanophony see, e.g.: Roksanda Pejović, “Prilog monografiji Josipa Slavenskog. Mišljenja kritičara o njegovim kompozicijama u vremenu od 1920–1941. godine,” Zvuk 3 (1981): 51–58; Ana Kara-Pešić, “Prepiska Josipa Slavenskog: odjeci kompozitorovih dela u inostranstvu,” [Cyrillic] Novi zvuk [New Sound] 15 (2000): 117–126; Tatjana Marković, “Internacionalna delatnost Josipa Slavenskog u svetlu njegove korespondencije,” in Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, op. cit., 30–55. For one of the most relevant contemporary musicological insights into the cycle, see Samson, Music in the Balkans, 381–382.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 34 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... which firmly position both of these creators in the field of modernism will now su- ccinctly be indicated. Let us start with Bartók’s famous words, cited in the motto of this text. Like Bartók, Josip Slavenski also possessed a “zest for life” and the seed of an ever conscious, inquisitive, creative quest for the underlying universal principals of “Nature, Science and Art”.24 Being, like Bartók, a great lover of spending time in nature, Slaven- ski was an avid mountaineer and an amateur astronomer, a true modern Pythagorean, equally immersed in both the micro-physical world of atoms and the periodic system of the elements, as well as the macro-world of the cosmos and its harmony. Believing, as did Bartók, in the uniqueness of the elements upon which the entire universe rests, he tirelessly sought the meaning of musical aesthetics in forms “that have not yet been corrupted by the Western man’s hand”.25 Resembling Bartók in temperament, in whom tenderness and passion coexisted equally, Slavenski was a master of lyrical expression and of warm chanting tunes, but also, in the same way, exhibited an affinity for vehe- ment, robust dancing rhythms, at times achieving a musical expression of pronounced rudimentary force. In the process of shaping his individual musical speech, Slavenski, like Bartók, in works inspired by folklore, strived to achieve a synthesis of a seemingly “barbaric pri- mitivism” and the so-called “rational constructivism”.26 Deeply interested in the phenomenon of pure, “untainted” folklore, as was Bartók, he confined himself neither to the region of his native Medjimurje, nor to the Balkans, as his wider musical homeland. Similarly to Bartók, he travelled the whole world as a result of music, realising, for example, in the Symphony of the Orient, fruitful creative dialogues with Arabic, Turki- sh, Jewish and Indian musical traditions. Like Bartók, he essentially believed that true progress in music can be achieved only with the new synthesis of western and eastern traditions.27 In light of this, it is therefore not a coincidence in the least that Bach, Beet- hoven and Debussy were shared role models of both composers.28 Nevertheless, the manner in which Bartók treated folk melodies was most likely the main guiding force for Josip Slavenski. Not infrequently would they both quote a tune in its original form, and would not vary it in succeeding occurrences. Inste- ad, they would intervene on the “periphery”; unaltered, the tune would be repeated a number of times, which would ultimately result in an increase in tension, until the climax at the very end of the composition, or its segment. Comparative analysis of their mutual, typically modernistic compositional procedures identifies a few additional significant characteristics: these are monothematic thinking, an abundant and diverse

24 On the reflections of Bartók’s relationship with nature in his creative poetics, see Maria Anna Harley, “‘Natura naturans, natura naturata’ and Bartok’s Nature Music Idiom,” Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice, T. 36, Fasc. 3–4 [Proceedings of the International Bartok Colloquium, Szombathely, July 3–5, Part I] (1995): 329–349. 25 A fragment of Slavenski’s response to the questions posed to contemporary Yugoslav composers in the journal Muzika [Music], in 1928, is paraphrased here; see “Anketa o nacionalnom muzičkom stilu,” [A survey on the national music style] [Cyrillic] Muzika, I/5–6 (1928): 158. 26 Ibid. 27 “Anketa...,” 158; see also Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada, 24–27. 28 Bartók’s assessment of Debussy’s music and its reflections on Bartók’s works is convincingly written about by László Vikárius, Modell ès inspiráció Bartók zenei gondolkodásában. A hatás jelenségének értelmezéséhez [Model and inspiration in Bartók’s musical thinking: toward the interpretation of the phenomenon of influence] (Pécs: Ars Longa Jelenkor Kiadó, 1999); see also a more detailed account of Vikárius’s book, written by Klára Мóricz, “The Anxiety of Influence and Comfort of Style,” Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice T. 40, Fasc. 4 (1999): 459–474.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 35 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 use of polyphonic, contrapuntal techniques, as well as the harmonic language, often grounded in modality and the pentatonic. To demonstrate each of the aforementioned characteristics would require a separate study. Consequently, the focus here is on one unusual circumstance, which also, in a specific way reveals the relatedness between Bartók and Slavenski. Despite everything that has thus far been discussed, Josip Slavenski would, actually, vigorously and briskly decline to make any comments on the possible influence Bartók had on his evolutionary path as a composer. And not only Bartók’s influence, but anyone else’s as well! Even of himself, he would rather refer to as an autodidact, asserting that everything “new” that his music might possibly have brought, “he learnt from the very folklore, and not from the music of others”.29 Thus, he once again stood shoulder to shoulder with his great Hunga- rian contemporary, who himself, as László Vikárius convincingly and inspiringly wrote, by attempting to escape his personal anxiety of possible visible influences, found in folklore not only his psychological refuge, but also the most powerful ally for concealing the traces of inspiration that he would find, in different stages of his work, in the models of the art music of both his predecessors as well as his contemporaries.30

The second story. Marko Tajčević

In contrast to Slavenski, Marko Tajčević, a dedicated supporter of the national idea in music and a great admirer of the legacy of Stevan Stojanović Mokranjac (1856–1914) – the founder of Serbian musical Romanticism, never felt the need to conceal the origin of the initial impulse which directed him toward the path on which he would win recognition as one of the most prominent representatives of the interwar Yugoslav and European musical modernism. Tajčević was only twenty-five when in Zagreb, where he lived and worked at the time, he heard Bartók’s music for the first time at a concert in 1925, and somehow managed to obtain the scores for the piano compositions. “The first time I was leafing through Bartók’s works”, Tajčević openly admitted, “I was astonished. I felt something special, the rebirth of novelty in music and that absorbed me instantly”.31 The first powerful creative echo of his fascination with Bartók soon occurred in Tajčević, resulting, in 1926, in the creation of the piano cycle Seven Balkan Dances [Sedam balkanskih igara]. The subsequent recognition of this youthful accomplishment of Marko Tajčević convincingly confirmed that the cycle was a true masterpiece, one of those rare and, therefore, quite extraordinary, crucial achievements that have the power to divert dominant trends of national music toward new, hitherto unexplored and unconquered sound-territories. Along with the works of Josip Slavenski, the Seven Balkan Dances by Marko Taj- čević are considered not only the most indicative accomplishments of the national

29 Tomašević, Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada, 243. 30 Cf. Móricz, “The Anxiety of Influence…,” 461. 31 Dragoslav Adamović, Razgovori sa savremenicima. Ko je na vas presudno uticao i zašto? [Cyrillic] (Beograd: “Privredna štampa”, 1983), 252–254.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 36 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... musical modernism, but also among the most successful representatives of the contemporary musical views of the Balkans in the first half of the 20th century. In musicology and music-theory literature, it has already been established that there is a wide range of relatedness between Tajčević’s Dances and Six Dances in Bulga- rian Rhythm, with which Bartók’s Mikrokosmos concludes.32 Obvious analogies can easily be discerned in other examples as well, by comparing, for instance, “Bagpipe Music” (Mikrokosmos, No. 136) with the first dance of Tajčević’s cycle. Similarly to Slavenski’s Balkanophony, Tajčević’s Seven Balkan Dances achieved great international success: they found their way into the repertoire of Artur Rubinste- in, Ignaz Friedman, Nikolai Orlov, Kendall Taylor, and others. The renowned violinist Jascha Heifetz performed them worldwide, adapted for violin and piano,33 whereas the eminent German pianist Walter Georgii ranked them alongside “top-class Eastern European music, which includes the piano suite from Stravinsky’s Petrushka, Czech Dances by Bohuslav Martinů (1890–1959), Romanian Dances and Six Dances in Bul- garian Rhythm by Béla Bartók.” (...) “A rich burning dance rhythm and a full-blooded musical tissue give this opus an elemental power”, Georgii wrote in 1950.34 There is no doubt that Georgii rightly acknowledged Tajčević’s Dances in the same sphere in which the “Balkan segment” of Bartók’s opus was realised. This innovative picture of what were, up to that point, unexplored and unfamiliar musical soundscapes of the Balkans, as a zone of intersecting and permeating influences coming from the East and West, North and South, echoed as a real challenge to the musical world of the European West. That the chosen path, sensed in the aura of Bartók’s modernism, was right, Slavenski and Tajčević received confirmation with the exceptionally favourable international reception of Balkanophony and Seven Balkan Dances, the compositions which widely open the way for the integration of the than Yugoslav music onto the world’s stage. In the coda of this paper, the following should be noted: although Josip Slavenski and Marko Tajčević, as composers, emerged from the very orbit of Béla Bartók, they did not, however, remain as mere satellites of the Hungarian master, but equal to him, as followers and companions, they participated in the exciting modernistic adventure of creating a new and fresh, rich, colourful and beautiful musical universe, in which Balkan and Eastern European folkloric traditions experienced, in a Bakhtinian sense, a “celebration of their rebirth”.

32 For a meticulous comparative analysis of the compositions, illustrated with score examples, see the article by Anica Sabo, “Bela Bartok – Marko Tajčević,” in Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], ed. Dejan Despić (Beograd: SANU, 2004), 113–131. 33 Vlastimir Peričić, Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji (Beograd: Prosveta, s.a.), 540. 34 Walter Georgii, Klaviermusik (Zürich: Atlantis Verlag, 1950), according to Dejan Despić, Marko Tajčević (Beograd: Udruženje kompozitora Srbije, 1972).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 37 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Bibliography

Adamović, Dragoslav. Razgovori sa savremenicima. Ko je na vas presudno uticao i zašto? [Cyrillic] Beograd: “Privredna štampa”, 1983. Andreis, Josip. “Razvoj muzičke umjetnosti u Hrvatskoj.” In Andreis–Cvetko–Djurić- -Klajn, Historijski razvoj muzičke kulture u Jugoslaviji. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1962. “Anketa o nacionalnom muzičkom stilu.” [Cyrillic] Muzika, I/5–6 (1928): 152–159. Bartók, Béla and Lord, Albert. Serbo-Croatian Folk Songs. Text and Transcriptions of Seventy-Five Folk Songs from the Milman Parry Collection and a Morphology of Serbo-Croatian Folk Melodies. New York: Columbia University Press, 1951. Bujić, Bojan. “Daleki svijet muzikom dokučen.” Izraz VII/11 (1963): 324–337. Despić, Dejan. Marko Tajčević. Beograd: Udruženje kompozitora Srbije, 1972. Georgii, Walter. Klaviermusik. Zürich: Atlantis Verlag, 1950. Grujić, Sanja. “Veze Josipa Slavenskog sa zenitističkim pokretom.” Međimurje 4 (1983): 53–63. Einstein, Alfred. “Festival Neue Musik.” Berliner Tagblatt, June 19, 1930. Harley, Maria Anna. “‘Natura naturans, natura naturata’ and Bartok’s Nature Music Idiom.” Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice [Proceedings of the Internati- onal Bartok Colloquium, Szombathely, July 3–5, Part I] T. 36, Fasc. 3–4 (1995): 329–349. Jelena, Jovanović, “Marginalije Miodraga Vasiljevića o studiji Bele Bartoka Morfologija srpsko-hrvatskih narodnih melodija.” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 6 (2006): 365–393. Kara-Pešić, Ana. “Prepiska Josipa Slavenskog: odjeci kompozitorovih dela u inostranstvu.” [Cyrillic] Novi zvuk [New Sound] 15 (2000): 117–126. Marković, Tatjana. “Internacionalna delatnost Josipa Slavenskog u svetlu njegove korespondencije.” In Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba, [Cyrillic] edited by Mirjana Živ- ković, 30–55. Beograd: Fakultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd – Muzikološki institut SANU – SOKOJ MIC, 2006. [Melos] RIPM. Accessed 16 October, 2015. http://www.ripm.org/?page=JournalInfo& ABB=MEL. Milin, Melita. “General Histories of Music and the Place of European Periphery.” Музикологија [Musicology] 1 (2001): 141–148. Milin, Melita.“Tonovi naricanja, melanholije i divljine – zenitistička pobuna i muzika.” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): 131–144 Milin, Melita. “The Place of Small Musical Cultures in Reference Books.” In Music’s intellectual history, ed. by Zdravko Blažeković and Barbara Dobbs Mckenzie, 653–658. New York : RILM Intellectual Centre and The City University of New York, 2009. Móricz, Klára. “The Anxiety of Influence and Comfort of Style.” Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarium Hungarice T. 40, Fasc. 4 (1999): 459–474. Pejović, Roksanda. “Prilog monografiji Josipa Slavenskog. Mišljenja kritičara o njegovim kompozicijama u vremenu od 1920–1941. godine.” Zvuk 3 (1981): 51–58. Peričić, Vlastimir (s. a. [1969]) Muzički stvaraoci u Srbiji, Beograd: Prosveta. Peričić, Vlastimir. “Josip Slavenski i njegova ‘astroakustika’.” Međimurje 7 (1985): 117–127. [On German language published in the journal Musiktheorie , 3, Heft. I (1988): 55–70].

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 38 23.6.2016 9:58:08 K. TOMAŠEVIĆ • ON THE PATHS OF BÉLA BARTÓK’S ... Radinović, Sanja. “Stanislav Vinaver, Ježef Debreceni, Josip Slavenski i Bela Bartok u etno- muzikološkom diskursu (ili: o mogućim posledicama jedne stare polemike).” In Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba [Cyrillic], edited by Mirjana Živković, 239–255. Beograd: Fa- kultet muzičke umetnosti Beograd – Muzikološki institut SANU – SOKOJ MIC, 2006. Sabo, Anica. “Bela Bartok – Marko Tajčević.” In Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyrillic], edited by Dejan Despić, 113–131.Beograd: SANU, 2004. Samson, Jim. Music in the Balkans. Leiden – Boston: Brill, 2013. Sedak, Eva. Josip Štolcer Slavenski, skladatelj prijelaza. Svezak prvi. Zagreb: Muzičko informativni centar Koncertne direkcije Zagreb – Muzikološki zavod Muzičke akademije u Zagrebu, 1984. Sedak, Eva. “Nationale Musik oder die Konstruktion des Nationalen als Musik am Ende des 20. Jahrhunderts.” In Kompositorische und soziokulturelle Aspekte der Musik- geschichte zwischen Ost- und Westeuropa. Konferenzbericht, Leipzig 2002, ed. by Helmut Loos and Stefan Keym, 7–30. Leipzig: Gudrun Schröder Verlag, 2004. Slavenski, Milana. Josip. Beograd: Muzička škola “Josip Slavenski” – SOKOJ–MIC, 2006. Subotić, Irina. “Two Self–Portraits of Josip Slavenski.” New Sound [Novi zvuk] 33 (2009): 65–76. Špirić-Beard, Danijela. Border – Bridge – Crossroads: the Construction of Yugoslav Identity in Music (1835–1938) and the Case of Josip Štolcer Slavenski: PhD diss. Cardiff University, 2012. Taruskin, Richard “Why You Cannot Leave Bartók Out.” Studia Musicologica Academi- ae Scientiarum Hungaricae T. 47, Fasc. 3/4 [Bartók’s Orbit. The Context and Sphere of Influence of His Work. Proceedings of the International Conference Held by the Bartók Archives, Budapest (22–24 March 2006). Part I. (Sep., 2006)] (2006): 265–277. Taruskin, Richard. The Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford – New York: Oxford University Press, 2005, 2009, 2nd ed. 2010. Tomašević, Katarina. “Duh vremena u delima i delatnostima Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića.” In Delo i delatnost Mihaila Vukdragovića i Marka Tajčevića [Cyril- lic], edited by Dejan Despić, 3–11. Beograd: Srpska akademija nauka i umetnosti, 2004. Tomašević, Katarina. “Istok–Zapad u polemičkom kontekstu srpske muzike.” [Cyrillic] Muzikologija [Musicology] 5 (2005): 119–130. Tomašević, Katarina. “Musical Modernism at Periphery? Serbian Music of the First Half of the Twentieth Century.” In Rethinking Musical Modernism, ed. by Dejan Despić and Melita Milin, 83–103. Belgrade: SASA and Instititute of Musicology SASA, 2008. Tomašević, Katarina. Na raskršću Istoka i Zapada. O dijalogu tradicionalnog i modernog u srpskoj muzici (1918–1941). [Cyrillic + Summary on English, 363–366] Beog- rad – Novi Sad: Muzikološki institut SANU – Matica srpska, 2009. Vikárius, László. Modell e`s inspiráció Bartók zenei gondolkodásában. A hatás jelenségé- nek értelmezéséhez [Model and inspiration in Bartók’s musical thinking: toward the interpretation of the phenomenon of influence]. Pécs: Ars Longa Jelenkor Kiadó, 1999. Živković, Mirjana, ed.. Josip Slavenski i njegovo doba. [Cyrillic] Beograd: Fakultet mu- zičke umetnosti Beograd – Muzikološki institut SANU – SOKOJ MIC, 2006.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 39 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

POVZETEK nadaljnjega koraka raziskave. Ne glede na dejstvo, da sklepi v članku jasno pokažejo, da njuno glasbo Ni dvoma, da sta celostno delovanje in kreativni in svet idej prepredajo mnoge skupne značilnosti, dosežki Béle Bartóka (1881–1945) odločilno vpli- ki sodijo v kontekst modernizma, kako je bil Slaven- vali na razvoj muzikologije in etnomuzikologije, v ski, enako kot Bartók, zaskrbljen glede modernistič- nekdanji Jugoslaviji. Glavni namen dotične raziska- nih vplivov in kako je, znova vzporedno Bartóku, ve je raziskati in pretresti modalitete Bartókovega našel zatočišče pred to skrbjo v ljudski glasbi (Cf. skladateljskega vpliva v prvi polovici 20. stoletja. Vikárius 1999). Poudarka sta na Josipu Slavenskem (1896–1955) in Drugi je Marko Tajčević, srbski skladatelj, ki je Marku Tajčeviću (1900–1984), dveh pomembnih živel in delal v Zagrebu do leta 1940. V nasprotju s skladateljih jugoslovanske medvojne glasbene Slavenskim je Tajčević prostodušno priznal pomen zgodovine. Slavenski in Tajčević, ki sta bila zave- lastnega navdušenja nad Bartókom: v svojem iska- zana balkanski ljudski glasbi, torej glasbi njune nju novosti v glasbenem izrazu mu je Bartókova domovine, sta ustvarila – vsak po svoje – nov, svež in klavirska glasba služila kot vzor in ga v najširši inventiven glasbeni jezik, čigar ekspresivna svežina meri spodbudila h komponiranju njegovih pri- in kakovost sta dosegla velik odmev v tujini. Slaven- vlačnih in tehnično zahtevnih Sedem balkanskih ski je mednarodno zaslovel zlasti s svojo slikovito iger. Zadnji del predstavlja mednarodno recepcijo suito za orkester Balkanofonija (1927), medtem ko Tajčevićevih dosežkov. je Tajčević zablestel s svojim učinkovitim ciklom za V zaključnih opazkah so potrjene začetne premise: klavir Sedem balkanskih iger (1926). Kljub dejstvu, kljub dejstvu, da najdemo v opusih Slavenskega in da so med vojnama obe deli večkrat po vsem svetu Tajčevića na široko posejane sledove Bartóka, ta igrali slavni orkestri, tema dvema jugo-vzhodnima izjemna skladatelja ne smemo imeti za posnemo- Bartókovima sopotnikoma še zmeraj posvečajo valca madžarskega mojstra; prav nasprotno, nista zelo malo pozornosti. Nedavno izjemo predstavlja bila zgolj uspešna Bartókova naslednika, ampak knjiga Music in the Balkans avtorja Jima Samsona tudi sopotnika na skupni, razburljivi dogodivščini (Leiden – Boston: Brill, 2013). ustvarjanja novih, sodobnih in barvitih slik bal- Sprva je prikazana zgodnja biografija Josipa Slaven- kanske glasbene tradicije. skega, kjer je izpostavljen študij na Konservatoriju v Budimpešti (1913–1916). Slavenski je tedaj pomagal Kodályju in Bartóku pri njunem etnomuzikološkem delu. V primerjavi z drugimi jugoslovanskimi skladatelji je Slavenski (naj)bolje poznal Bartókovo delo in njegove moderne ideje, postopke in strategije. Prikazati podobnosti med njima predstavlja bistvo

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 40 23.6.2016 9:58:08 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA • MUSICAL ELEMENTS ... UDK 78.082.3.035(495.6) DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.41-50

Aida Islam, Stefanija Leshkova Zelenkovska Pedagoška fakulteta »St. Kliment Ohridski«, Skopje Akademija za glasbo, Štip Faculty of Pedagogy “St. Climent Ohridski”, Skopje Music Academy, Štip

Musical Elements in the Performing Approach: Sonatina in C for Two Pianos from a Macedonian Contemporary Composer Glasbene prvine v službi interpretacijskega pristopa: Sonatina v C za dva klavirja makedonskega sodobnega skladatelja

Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Received: 12th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: makedonsko sodobno glasbeno Keywords: Macedonian contemporary art music, ustvarjanje, neoklasicizem, Tomislav Zografski, So- neoclassicism, Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina v C, natina v C, interpretacijske značilnosti performing details

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Tomislav Zografski (1934–2000) je predstavnik Tomislav Zografski (1934–2000) is one of the re- srednje generacije sodobnih makedonskih skla- presentatives of the middle generation of modern dateljev. V makedonsko glasbo je uvedel osnovne Macedonian composers. He introduced into Mace- prvine neoklasicizma. To stilno usmeritev je Zograf- donian art music the basic elements of neoclassi- ski razvil v nekaterih glasbenih delih na področju cism. Zografski, in some of his works, develops komornega in simfoničnega ustvarjanja. this stylistic direction in the fields of chamber and symphony music.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 41 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Introduction

Tendencies of the neoclassical musical discourse present in the cultural environments of 20th century Europe. And also penetrate into the Macedonian musical creation through aesthetic choices of some of the composers for the acceptance of the determinants of this style. In the previous theoretical thought devoted to the work of Macedonian composers, the name of Tomislav Zografski is interpreted as a composer whose works, with some variations, were realized in the neoclassical manners of S. Prokofiev and I. Stravinsky.1 Neoclassicism in the Macedonian musical creation began at the time when this style was largely abandoned. Namely, the first neoclassical work of I. Stravinsky, by which is defined the beginning of neoclassicism, was written in 1923 (Octet for Wind Instruments), while the first neoclassical fruits in the field of the Macedonian art music ripened 30 years later, more precisely in 1954–1955, with the work Ten Miniatures for Piano by T. Zografski. During the same period of his student days, the composer wrote Sonatina in C for two Pianos, and by analyzing it in this paper, we wish to profile it as a typical representative of the neoclassical tendency in Macedonia. In this work, we are aiming to determine the degree of representation of Neoclassi- cism’s stylistic–aesthetic principles, in the function of its interpretation attributes. We achieved the operationalization of the intended goals and objectives by analyzing the sheet notes––partitures, as well as the sound recordings of the work, focusing on the expressive elements individually.

1. The characteristics of Tomislav Zografski work

Tomislav Zografski is one of the prominent representatives of middle generation, who incorporated the basic elements of Neoclassicism, which he developed in several works in the field of chamber and symphony work. In his creative opus that contained 141 works with a wide genre range, he had achieved a perfect balance between the old traditions and the modern musical trends. His works comprised of vocal and instrumental, orchestral, chamber, choral, and film music. In the later stages of his development, he evolved toward more modern expression seeking a new ways in the contemporary music influenced by the “Polish School” (K. Penderecki and W. Lutoslawski). Under this influence, in his works he often used con- structive principles of baroque and early classical style, promoting restoration of the expressive possibilities of the earlier.2 In contrast to the earlier Macedonian composers whose musical works were mainly based on folklore, but Zografski used it rarely. Melody lines are clear, built on reminiscences on the classical themes, by using quotes that can be felt mostly in the Sonatina in C for two pianos and the Symphony in E-flat, where the spirit of Viennese classics

1 Dragoslav Ortakov, Muzichkata umetnost vo Makedonija (Skopje: Makedonska revija, 1982), 124. 2 Raleva Zanina, Akulturaciskite i enkulturaciskite procesi vo makedonskata sovremena muzika niz prizmata na eden stip i eden avtor – Tomislav Zografski: magisterski trud, 2001.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 42 23.6.2016 9:58:08 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA • MUSICAL ELEMENTS ... prevails. In contrast to these works, compositions without quotations can be found in the creative opus of Zografski, such as Fantasy Chorale.3 Conceptual aesthetic properties of Zografski modernize the stylistic features of music from the previous generations of Macedonian composers, with tendencies of developing compositional and technical achievements to the level of European music of the 20th century, based on his personal beliefs, educational level and his personal expression.4

2. Sonatina in C for two pianos

In the overall creativity of Macedonian contemporary music until the beginning of the new millennium only three sonata cycles were written for two pianos: Sonatina in C and Sonata for two pianos by T. Zografski and the Sonata for two pianos by S. Tosevski, created in 1965, being, therefore, closer to the modern tonal idiom characteristic for that period. The Sonatina in C for two pianos (1955), which is the subject of our analysis, is a typical example of our attempt to implement European neoclassical manners, especially characteristic for I. Stravinsky, to the world of the fertile Macedonian creativity. By fostering the sonata cycle as a form inherited from the past, the author has retained the general framework of its external structure, often making changes in the internal structure of movements.

2.1. Structural analysis

Genre and form

In the analysis of the genre and form of Sonatina for two pianos, what mostly stands out is the successful balancing of the classical form, combined with a more modern harmonic and tonal language on one hand, and the content of the music on the other. The title “sonatina”, a diminutive of sonata, alludes on a sonata cycle of a smaller scale––in this case, in three movements––within which is effected a reduction of technical–composition means. By choosing the form, in order to correspond with the genre, the composer applied a simplified style of expression that is based on a bright transparent infantile character, with the exception of the second movement with the emergence of a minor key that incites specific serious and sad feeling. Sections of movements are constructed on the basis of several types of form-shaping principles, such as changed repetition, development and principle of contrasting. The first movement Allegro, which contains harmonic syllable and four-voiced homophonic texture, represents the traditional sonata form, where, at expressing the thematic material, larger units (periods) are used, with the exception of the development section

3 Branko Karakas, Muzichkite tvorci vo Makedonija (Skopje: Makedonska kniga, 1970), 99–101. 4 Toma Proshev, Sovremena makedonska muzika (Pula: Istarska naklada, 1986), 179.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 43 23.6.2016 9:58:08 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 containing more fragmentary material. In fact, the theme material is built on motif, which as a practice is characteristic of classicism, or more specifically for the works of Beethoven. In terms of form, the second movement Andantino is a triple form (a b a1) with the independent parts indicating higher music-syntactic wholeness. Polyphonic aspects constitute the conceptual tissue of the first and reprised part of the movement (a and a1). The dominance of metrorhythmic pulsation in the contrapuntal layering in the first part (a), which has polyphonic features, gives the impression of constructing according to the principle of aurally noticeable metrorhythmic similarity. Period in the second part (b) is constructed according to the principle of repetition of wholes (T-S). The formal structure of the third movement Allegro molto is a rondo with two themes. The first part is characterized by the rhythmic motorics typical for the classical final movements while part b shows greater rhythmic standstills by which the composer reached full contrast in terms of expressive elements. Coda is a combination of the thematic material of the two parts. The Sonatina is based on half-cadences and a fewer number of authentic and perfect cadences.

Quotes The significance of the quote in this Sonatina and the work, in general, has certain aesthetic functions, with the role of form-shaping factor and the factor that initiates historical conditionality and variability of the artistic conceptions. The most recognizable quote in this Sonatina with authentic version is the musical material of the second movement of the Sonatina for piano KV 330 in C Major by Mozart. That is, both versions make up the middle section of the three partitioned movements.

Example number 1: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Sonata KV 330, II.

Example number 2: Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina in C, II.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 44 23.6.2016 9:58:09 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA • MUSICAL ELEMENTS ... The difference that Zografski made at integrating this motif refers to the accompanying section that from obstinate form transforms to spread chords of a given tonality. The quotes that are used in other movements are taken from Sonata op. 2 No. 3 for piano, as well as the Spring Sonata for violin and piano in F major by Beethoven.

Example number 3: Ludwig van Beethoven, Violin “Spring” Sonata in F, I.

Example number 4: Tomislav Zografski, Sonatina in C, III.

Melodic and melodic waves

The melodic progression as the bearer of the genre features in this Sonatina helps in the function of rising and declining the tension. The graphic line of melody, consisting of interval jumps of smaller and larger scale, is supported by the accompanying voice, which makes it even more intensively emphasized. The contrast on the melodic level is partly achieved by changing the accompaniment which transits into a thick pulsating of motifs. Introduction of polyphony in the first part of the second movement greatly contributes mainly to the linear upward progression of the melody, with the exception of the initial bars containing three smaller waves persistently tending to climb to the highest tone (c3).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 45 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 The dashing character of the third movement is expressed more vividly with the continued downward progression of the whole melodic wave, despite the small oscil- lations that adorn and exuberate this progression. Articulation analysis inevitably leads us to the aspect of one of the important expressive elements. The manner in which the tones are grouped in this work takes us back to the classical period in which typical connecting of a small number of tones in one span represents reversing of the form of string articulation into piano articulation.5 Actually, the articulation phrasing of the whole Sonatina fully meets the principles and the way of phrasing, typical for the 18th century, in which ligatures didn’t protrude beyond the framework of bar features.

Harmonic structure

Harmonic structure is within the expanded major–minor system, a result of the individual harmonic language of Zografski, specific for the period in which the work has been created despite the fact that at that time were present diverse techniques of composing with expressed tonality. As alluded to by the title of the composition, its specific tonal center, i.e., in C, in homophonic texture in which the thinking runs horizontally––each line runs separately. For these reasons, it isn’t about the tonalities, but its about the tonal center. With the tendency of including polyphonic elements, the author transforms the harmonic syllable into monodic–harmonic mode, as for example, in the development section of the first movement, in section a of the second movement, and in the second theme of rondo in the third movement. Modes that are met in the work have a phonic function, and therefore they cannot be treated in the spirit of the old church modes, where relations of the tones had a certain character (D,T, nota repercusa, nota finalis, etc.). A contrast of tones is also noted, that is, a bitonal character of the polyphonic tissue which founded on the two sound sequences that are complemented functionally. The tonal centers are based on the distance of half-degree, such as E major–D major or B flat–D minor, as a result of the distance of a small second resulting from the same major third chords. The continuous transformation of modes from harmonic to monodic–harmonic is one of the ways that Zografski implements for emphasizing the contrast of the parts in this Sonatina.

Rhythm and meter

The rhythm of Zografski in this Sonatina breathes with the temperament and the spirit of rhythm of the classical period, successfully adapted to the spirit of modern rhythmic–metric idiom. The eight-note pulsation with sporadic rhythmic delays, by

5 Clive Brown, Classical and Romantic Performance Practice (Oxford: University Press, 1999), 235.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 46 23.6.2016 9:58:09 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA • MUSICAL ELEMENTS ... which is constituted the rhythmic pattern of this Sonatina, fully corresponds to the spirit of the composition filled with life, transparency, and ease. The factor responsible for the absence of more complex rhythmic structures is a result of the identification of classical rhythmic patterns on one side, and an adequate reflection of the genre on the other side. Which differentiates the first movement from the other ones is the presence of horizontal polymetric as, one of the features of Macedonian ambient, as well as of the contemporary music. The important role of the metrical concept in defining the character-genre form is largely attributed to higher meter, which is mostly responsible for the unification of bars around a central bar, thus shaping large groups. Its precisely this element that is the key to surpassing the static of music which is replaced by focusing toward the emphasis, and in that way musical thought is moved. In terms of music interpunction, the emergence of a new texture which defines the new part of the form occurs mostly on a strong beat part (tròhēj) in this sonatina. The exception is in the second movement, in which a rhythm moved for a certain period of time to the right affirms the iambic measure as a prime mover.

Texture

The visual perception of musical notation of Sonatina in C reveals the style and genre of the work by the manner of its organization vertically. Transparent texture located in the ambitus (range) of middle register, dominance of the constant rhythmic pulsation, accompanied by Baroque-style progressions, contrasting the sections with homophonic and polyphonic texture inevitably show connection with the styles of the past periods, unity between baroque and classicism, as one of the characteristics of the neoclassical style.

Dynamics

The composer determined the rhythmic plan of Sonatina in C in details, thus contributing in finding out proper experiencing and interpreting of the smallest musical details peculiar to the nature of the work. The dynamic ambitus which ranges in the limits between p and ff fully corresponds to the spirit of the dynamic concept, supplemented by the presence of sf inherent to Beethoven. The primary attribute of strong dynamics for creating tension in the expression reaches its maximum of ff combined with sf, by highlighting dissonant chord as an expression of exclamation. Generally, the different dynamic symbols in this work have been used in two qu- alifications: 1) in achieving a certain contrast between sections as the basic feature of musical form that is constructed based on conflicts, and 2) for displaying more delicate details, like the culminations in the first movement, the game of contrasts between short motifs in the second and third movements.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 47 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Timbre

The dramaturgical effect of this work is placed in the central register, containing sound range within the timbre features of the baroque and classical period. Applica- tion of polar octaves from the register is usually in the function of highlighting the culminations.

Tempo

The exact determination of tempos in the Sonatina reflects the author’s intention to join the guidelines, although very often the choice of tempo depends on individual treatment and understanding of the musical content. In this sense, Allegro is supposed to be a reflection of joy, enthusiasm, and optimism that prevail. The Andante in the second movement is slightly moved to Andantino in the task of achieving fluid motion of the polyphonic syllable in the first part. Allegro molto, which is treated as being closer to Presto in the third movement, reflects the enthusiasm which prevails in the entire movement.

Interpretation

The sound result of interpretation of Sonatina in C assumes affirmation of transparency and high spirit, which is a prerequisite for satisfying genre affiliation. Integration of the “short string” phrases to a wholeness of a higher order, led by a sense of focusing on local and main culminations, is an important segment of the interpretation, which inspires liveliness to the music. Highlighting the change of character in the appearance of a new musical material (e.g., a second theme, developing section in the first movement) enriches musical interpretation with new aesthetic dimensions, new color, etc. Dedication to clearly stated guidelines in the partiture concerning dynamic conceptualization contributes to the enrichment of sound coloration, reaching its peak in culmination with fanfa- ronade sonority. Realization of fluidity of the second movement is achieved by refined running of the dynamic progression that extends into the broader plan. Highlighting the sf in the second part of the movement contributes in achieving the grotesque character and fulfilling the basic intention of the author during the performance. The enthusiastic and cheerful character of the third movement is enabled by an easy touché and focusing on target points, where relief dynamics is replaced by a continuous progression of sound––it culminates in ff at the end of the first part. And in that way is achieved a perfect wholeness. The use of una corda in the second theme of rondo greatly contributes to achieving a mystical atmosphere interwoven with the contrast and a massive part that should sound with all its strength and energy typical of a storm.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 48 23.6.2016 9:58:09 A. ISLAM, S. LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA • MUSICAL ELEMENTS ... The complementarity of supporting elements’ progression, especially the melodic structure, which constantly moves from one to the other piano, is one of the author’s very own characteristics. This provides an opportunity for equitable distribution of responsibility and highlighting evenly the interpretation skills of both artists and pianists.

Conclusion

Analysis of the Sonatina for two pianos in C of the contemporary Macedonian composer T. Zografski allowed synthesizing of essential components in the function of interpretation attributes. By determining the characteristics of expressive means–– musical form, melodic, harmonic structure, rhythm and meter, tempo, dynamics, timbre, and texture, we get a clear picture of the author’s conceptual determination in terms of the interpretation approach to work. For a more adequate and plausible interpretation, comparative analysis of the different interpretations of the recorded work plays an important role. Because they allow building the individual criteria that can be based on summarizing the positive parts of the realized performances, personal intentions and aesthetic views, by capturing the author’s style and conception, the conventions of time, and so on, especially when it comes to the recorded performance of the author’s work.

Bibliography

Brown, Clive. Classical and Romantic Performance Practice. Oxford: University Press, 1999. Ferguson, Howard. Keyboard Interpretations 14-19th Century. Oxford: University Press, 1998. Golaboski, Sotir. Istorija na makedonskata muzika. Skopje: Prosvetno delo, 1999. Jovich, Tihomir. “Polifonijata vo makedonskoto muzichko tvoreshtvo.” Godishen zbornik, god. 2, br.2, Shtip, FMU (2011): UGD, 69–79. Karakash, Branko. Muzichkite tvorci vo Makedonija. Skopje: Makedonska kniga, 1970. Krautz, Michel. The Interpretation of Music. Oxford: University Press, 1999. Mancev, Tome. Analiza na muzichko delo. Godishen zbornik, god. 2, br.2, Shtip, FMU (2011): UGD, 27–32. Ortakov, Dragoslav. Muzichkata umetnost vo Makedonija. Skopje: Makedonska revija, 1982. Proshev, Toma. Sovremena makedonska muzika. Pula: Istarska naklada, 1986. Raleva Zanina, Akulturaciskite i enkulturaciskite procesi vo makedonskata sovremena muzika niz prizmata na eden stip i eden avtor – Tomislav Zografski: magisterski trud. Fakultet za muzička umetnost/UKIM, Skopje, 2001. Schenker, Henrich. The Art of Performance. Oxford: University Press, 2000. Skoda, Badura, Paul. L’art de jouer Mozart au piano. Chastel: Edition Buc, 1980.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 49 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

POVZETEK Sonatina v C-duru za dva klavirja (1955), ki je predmet analize, predstavlja tipičen primer poizkusa Neoklasicizem se v makedonski ustvarjalnosti pojavi implementacije evropskih neoklasicističnih prvin, v obdobju, ko je bila drugod ta smer že skoraj poza- še posebej značilnih za I. Stravinskega. Upoštevajoč bljena. Ena prvih neoklasicističnih skladb je iz leta sonatni ciklus je Zografski obdržal splošne okvire 1954 oz. 1955, in sicer Deset miniatur za klavir To- njene zunanje konstrukcije, pri čemer je pogosto mislava Zografskega (1934–2000). Zografski velja spreminjal notranjo strukturo. V prispevku so pred- za enega izmed najpomembnejših predstavnikov stavljene bistvene kompozicijsko-tehnične prvine srednje generacije sodobnih makedonskih ustvar- kot tudi različni interpretacijski pristopi k delu. jalcev, ki v svoja dela uvaja prvine neoklasicizma.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 50 23.6.2016 9:58:09 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... UDK 78.082.2.036(87) DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.51-72

Ludim Rebeca Pedroza Univerza v Teksasu Texas State University

The Joropo in Venezuela’s Musical Modernity: Cultural Capital in José Clemente Laya’s Sonata Venezolana Joropo v venezuelski glasbeni moderni: kulturni kapital v skladbi Sonata Venezolana Joséja Clementeja Laye

Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Received: 12th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: joropo, sonata, Laya, analiza, Keywords: Joropo, Sonata, Laya, analysis, Venezu- Venezuela, nacionalizem ela, nationalism

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Venezuelska Šola nacionalne moderne (Escuela The Venezuelan Escuela Nacional Moderna Nacional Moderna) iz 30-ih in 40-ih let 20. sto- (1930s–40s) considered the joropo folk dance an letja je imela ljudski ples joropo za polnokrvno inherently rich musical expression that demanded sredstvo glasbenega izraza, ki je zahteval pozornost the spotlight of artistic autonomy. José Clemente umetniške avtonomije. Sonata Venezolana Joséja Laya’s Sonata venezolana (1946) demonstrates Clementeja Laye (1946) prikazuje, kako so sklada- how these composers transformed the framework telji okvir sonatne oblike preoblikovali z glasbeno of sonata form with the joropo’s musical presence. navzočnostjo joropa.

“It was with Aldemaro Romero’s Fuga con Pajarillo (1990) that the 23-year-old Du- damel sealed his fate as winner of Bamberg’s inaugural Gustav Mahler Conducting Competition in 2004.” So declares Berlin-based music critic Shirley Apthorp.1 Rome- ro’s Fuga con Pajarillo continues to share in Gustavo Dudamel’s visibility, receiving

1 Simón Bolívar Youth Orchestra of Venezuela, Fiesta, conducted by Gustavo Dudamel, recorded at the Centro de Acción Social por la Música, Sala Simón Bolívar, Caracas, 1/2008 (Deutsche Grammophon, 2008, compact disc, liner notes).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 51 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 broad international exposure on labels such as Deutsche Grammophon, in social engines such as youtube, and in the repertoire of non-Venezuelan orchestras. Dudamel’s choice of repertoire not only fulfilled the competition’s requirement that contestants bring a symphonic work from their own country; it also set the spotlight on the pajari llo, one of the many sub-genres of the joropo, a dance widely embraced by Venezue- lans as a national symbol. On first encounter with Fuga con Pajarillo, the average listener will be struck by its multidimensional contrapuntal vitality; music aficionados and scholars alike might also identify the ubiquitous sesquiáltera–the juxtaposition of triple and duple meters alternating with each other or in a simultaneous interplay. Within this interplay of meters, the rich syncopated discourse, rhythmic counterpoint, and juegos hemiolados (hemiolated games) create the “difficult to put together, but beautiful”2 musical identity of the joropo. It was during the 1930s that this musical identity was partially codified and assimilated into the academic domain by the leaders of the Escuela Nacional Moderna (ENM hereon),3 Vicente Emilio Sojo (1887–1974), Juan Bautista Plaza (1898-1965), and José Antonio Calcanò (1900–1978). Indeed, Aldemaro Romero’s successful rendition of the joropo stems from the groundwork established by several key compositions the ENM produced during the 1930s and 40s. Of these, Juan Bautista Plaza’s Sonati- na venezolana (1934) has received broad attention in various musicological circles, and has been exposed to an international audience through recordings and various editions.4 Other compelling works, such as the Sonata venezolana (1946) of José Cle- mente Laya (1913-1981), are recognized in international catalogues,5 but have received far less attention from scholars and musicians alike. Both compositions are notable in that they successfully codified musical elements that have become part of the cultural capital of Venezuelan composers to this day. Building on the ideas of cultural theorists Néstor García Canclini and Pierre Bour- dieu, I will argue that the ENM heard the joropo as an inherently rich form of musical expression, transporting its indisputable presence–not merely harvesting its isolated rhythms or melodies–from the world of song and dance onto the listening stages of the academy and the international field of music. The ENM established an autonomous field of music in Venezuela in part by codifying those musical qualities of the joropo they believed were deserving of the aesthetic spotlight. After a theoretical contextualization of the ENM, I will provide a rhetorical and sonic foundation for a substantial examination of the joropo. I will continue by engaging José Antonio Calcanò’s public review and analysis of the celebrated Sonatina venezolana (1934), composed by his colleague Juan Bautista Plaza. The traits that Calcanò identifies as successful in this work are expanded in the pieces of the early generation of graduates of the ENM, of which José Clemente Laya’s Sonata venezolana (1946) is

2 Ibid. I am borrowing Dudamel’s choice of words. 3 Escuela Nacional Moderna (Modern National School) is one of the epithets by which the early twentieth-century composition school in Caracas, led by Vicente Emilio Sojo (1887–1974), has come to be known. Other names include Escuela Nacionalista Venezolana and Escuela de Santa Capilla. José Pen` ín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. “Laya Morales, José Clemente,” and s.v. “Sojo, Vicente Emilio.” 4 See note 33. 5 Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist’s Repertoire, fourth edition (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013), 594.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 52 23.6.2016 9:58:09 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... a particularly interesting example. I will explore the first movement of Laya’s sonata, titled joropo, identifying how the impelling traits of the joropo absorb the defining aspects of sonata form, the quintessential structure of autonomy in the international field. Finally, conclusive remarks and issues regarding the joropo in the field will be posed for future studies.

The Joropo and the Foundation of the (Autonomous) Music Field in Venezuela

Scholars have approached the ENM in a variety of ways, producing celebratory studies of its modernizing projects and critical deconstructions of its socio-cultural legacy.6 Most recently, building on the theoretical platforms offered by Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm, and Ernest Gellner, Pedro Rafael Aponte argues that the ENM favored the joropo, among a rich diversity of regional traditions, as the homogenizing musical icon for Venezuela and, that it promoted the study of European composers and forms and the foundation of choral and symphonic entities, all of which the ENM considered crucial to modern artistic literacy.7 Aponte’s approach to invented traditions demonstrates, among other things, how the Sojo/Plaza/Calcan`o triumvirate strived to produce repertoire that audiences and critics would hear as both Venezuelan and aesthetically artful. In short, they were creating the audience, the repertoire, and the codes for hearing Venezuelan music as distinctively Venezuelan and artistically literate.8 From a Bourdieuian perspective, the ENM was effectively establishing a Venezu- elan academic field, that is, the educational and civic spaces where musicians could receive and exhibit sanctioned training. They were also building cultural capital—skills, techniques, rhetoric, and codes—that could meet the challenge of being heard as both Venezuelan and autonomously artistic. And they were carving out ambitious social spaces for the reception of their work, seeking symbolic capital, the recognition of national and international critics, the embrace of the broadest possible audience, and a place in the international music field. All three “competing principles of legitimacy” of the field, as theorized by Bourdieu, were central to the ENM’s project: “the recognition granted by the set of producers who produce for other producers . . .. the recognition of the ‘bourgeois taste . . .. the consecration bestowed by the choice of ordinary consumers . . . .”9 Indeed, like many other early twentieth-century Latin American ar-

6 On the celebratory side, see the highly regarded studies Marie Elizabeth Labonville, Juan Bautista Plaza and Musical Nationalism in Venezuela (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 2007) and Miguel Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza: Una vida por la música y por Venezuela (Caracas: Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones y Estudios Musicales Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1985); important critical studies include José Pen˜ín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. “Nacionalismo;” José Pen˜ín, “Plaza y el nacionalismo,” Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 38 (1998): 217–256; Fidel Rodríguez Legendre, Música, Sojo y caudillismo cultural (Caracas: Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1998); and the work of Pedro Rafael Aponte, to be cited at length in this article. 7 Pedro Rafael Aponte, “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960” (PhD diss., University of Pittsburgh, 2008). See especially chapters 4 and 5. 8 Ibid., especially 155–177. 9 Pierre Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production, or: The Economic World Reversed,” in The Field of Cultural Production, ed. by Randal Johnson (Columbia University Press, 1993), 50–51. This compilation of Bourdieu’s writings constitutes an excellent summary of his theoretical apparatus, aspects of which I have attempted to encapsulate in the italicized concepts of this section.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 53 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 tistic projects, the ENM sought both emancipation and democratization, two of the dimensions of modernity theorized by Nestor García Canclini.10 The academic spaces, the symphony orchestra, the concert choir, the search for a Venezuelan musical voice, the assimilation of contemporary international practices as well as the quintessential forms of absolute music–the sonata and the symphony–and not least, the music appreciation programs, all appeared to them as necessary vehicles for the creation of an autonomous music field. For Bourdieu, autonomous fields are social spaces that adhere to the belief of “art-for-art’s-sake,” and that eschew “functionality” and the approval of the masses. The ENM desired that field of aesthetic autonomy, yet they also wished it to remain populist to the core. This dynamic, “in its rejection of European domination but its internalization of its civilizing mission” has at times been read as “self-colonization.”11 Yet, in discussing the first phase of Mexican modernism in the visual arts, García Canclini invites us to resist self-colonization readings: “It was not so much the direct–transplanted–influence of the European vanguard that gave rise to the modernizing vein in the visual arts on the continent, but rather the questions of the Latin Americans themselves about how to make their international experience compatible with the tasks presented to them by developing societies . . . ”12. In looking at the “permanent conflict” that is the “unifying principle” of the field,13 as Bourdieu proposes, what are “the movements of affection and participation in solidary or complicit activities in which hegemonic and subaltern groups are needed,” García Canclini could ask.14 Indeed, the ENM sought to “occupy a space that is already occupied;”15 they desired to be part of the international music field rather than subvert it, and like all members of the field, they “believed in the game”16. In creating an emancipated aesthetic that would help them participate in the game–in the international music field, what questions did the ENM ask? How do their answers and actions suggest not only the invention of tradition and modernity, but also their hedonic regard for the musics practiced on their surrounding soil, their “affections” and “complicities”? In plain language, how does succumbing to the challenges of the modernization project allow the ENM to indulge in the “difficult but beautiful” intricacies of musics such as the joropo? García Canclini invites us to take these questions seriously, to look into the actions that take place beyond the symbolic projections of modernity and tradition, inside the coveted autonomous field of music in Venezuela.

10 Néstor García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures: Strategies for Entering and Leaving Modernity, trans. by Christopher L. Chiappari and Silvia L. López (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), 12–13. (Originally published as Culturas híbridas: Estrategias para entrar y salir de la modernidad, editorial Grijalbo, Mexico, D.F., 1990.) 11 See Aponte, “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960,” 25, where he cites Fernando Coronil’s arguments from The Magical State: Nature, Money, and Modernity in Venezuela (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 73. 12 Ibid., 50. Emphasis mine. 13 Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production,” 34. 14 García Canclini, Hybrid Cultures, 259. 15 Ibid., 75. García Canclini analyzes Jorge Luis Borges’s work, recognizing that “. . . to write, especially in peripheral countries, is to occupy a space that is already occupied.” 16 Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power, ed. John B. Thompson (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), 14.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 54 23.6.2016 9:58:09 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... On the question of “how do we create the national?”

In analyzing the writings of ENM leader Juan Bautista Plaza, along with the reception of his works, Aponte provides evidence of the difficult task these composers faced. On the one hand, their own eclectic inclinations at times confused critics and audiences who were not keen to accept their creations as “Venezuelan” simply on account of the nationality of the composer. On the other, while the ENM leaders were aware of the rich variety of genres cultivated in different regions of Venezuela, neither the critics nor the urban audiences appeared to share that awareness. Interestingly, Pla- za finds himself defending his Siete canciones Venezolanas (1932, “Seven Venezuelan Songs”) due to the apparent inability of one critic to hear anything “Venezuelan” in them; the critic particularly missed the presence of the joropo, which was the most broadly known vernacular genre in the country.17 Seemingly, the ENM leaders are initially pressed to favor the joropo as a possible answer to the question of how to create a “national” musical aesthetic. Aponte convincingly argues this point by discussing three other works by Plaza–including the Sonatina Venezolana (1934)–which draws strongly on the joropo and which proved to be successful with audiences and critics as “exemplars of Venezuelan music.”18 Even as they lamented the narrow knowledge of critics and audiences in relation to folk musics, one should not assume the ENM leaders were violating their own affections in favoring the joropo. Calcan`o does not spare effusive adjectives when describing the rhythm of joropo as “full of grace and exquisiteness,”19 and Vicente Emilio Sojo, well known for his admiration of vocal polyphony, often alluded (with a tinge of pride) to the polyrhythmic character of the songs and dances of the plains, which he believed to have sprung from the integration of Spanish sacred and secular techniques with the existing musical sensibilities of the laborers in the plains’ ranches.20 The joropo claims kinship with the family of the fandango, which was widely spread throughout Latin America since the eighteenth century. Like the fandango, the joropo is an umbrella genre that engulfs a rich variety of dance, vocal, and instrumental regional sub-genres, each with formulas of musical and choreographic elements codified among their pra- ctitioners. In short, that the joropo genre emerged as the most likely candidate to represent an overall Venezuelan aesthetic identity is understandable, given its diffusion, popularity, and appeal across various regions of the country. The work of art is an object of belief 21 in an autonomous field that must justify its meta-functionalist claim to existence, its “art-for-art’s-sake” motto. But the work of art is also a collectively experience-able, sonic object, or, at the very least, the work of art involves such a sonic involvement. This leads us to an interesting crossroad in contempo-

17 Aponte, “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960,” 161–162. 18 Ibid., 166. 19 José Antonio Calcan`o, “La sonatina venezolana de Juan Bautista Plaza,” El Nuevo Diario, Agosto 20, 1934; quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, 394. 20 See Vicente Emilio Sojo, “Carta del maestro Sojo al poeta Carlos Augusto León,” Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 21 (1987): 35–36. 21 “The work of art is an object which exists as such only by virtue of the (collective) belief which knows and acknowledges it as a work of art.” Bourdieu, “The Field of Cultural Production,” 35.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 55 23.6.2016 9:58:09 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 rary musicology; even though post-1980s musicology has engaged in uncovering the sociological underpinnings of classical (canonized) repertoires, it has done so relying on the sonic familiarity facilitated by an established system of listening codes. Thus, even as it eschews formalism, the musicology field speaks to a coterie of readers who, whether keen on celebrating or destroying the musical work in question, is ultimately sonically and rhetorically familiar with the work and/or the genres that have been codified by the very formalism it rejects. So it is that in much of their discourse scholars can bypass formalistic analysis altogether. With musical practices that fall far from the international canon and its systemic codes, critical analysis must involve a written listening; it must introduce key aspects of the sonic experience at the center of the work of art in question–in this case, the joropo.

Listening to the joropo

Many varieties of joropo continue to thrive in Venezuela to this day. We will explore one of the most broadly known and studied, the joropo llanero (“plains joropo,” also called “golpe,” and “pasaje,” both of which should be considered sub-categories).22 This joropo is associated with the plains regions of both Venezuela and Colom- bia, and in its most traditional form features the arpa llanera (the “plains harp,” a diatonic harp with a varying number of strings), the cuatro (a four-string small guitar), and the maracas.23 Figure 1 is a visual abstraction of the basic rhythmic functions of these instruments.

Figure 1: Joropo llanero, instruments and their rhythmic functions (with clave de corrido).

22 The seminal study of the joropo was undertaken by Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, and published in 1953. A second edition is available: Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, El Joropo, Baile Nacional de Venezuela, 2nd ed. (Caracas, Venezuela: E. Armitano, 1987). More recently, Claudia Calderón Sáenz has produced “Estudio analítico y comparativo sobre la música del joropo, expresión tradicional de Venezuela y Colombia,” Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 39 (1999): 219–256. An overview of the genre is offered in José Pen˜ín and Walter Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Bigott, 1998), s.v. “Joropo.” 23 The plains’ harp and the cuatro are criollo versions of the Baroque harp and vihuela that arrived in Venezuela during colonial times. Musicologist Alberto Calzavara discusses historical documentation of these instruments in chapters seven and eight of his Historia de la Música en Venezuela (Caracas: Fundación Pampero, 1987).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 56 23.6.2016 9:58:10 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... Traditionally, the harp is the foundational instrument of the ensemble. The harp’s treble strings at times carry a relatively lyrical melody. At others, they provide melodic counterpoint, alternating between 6/8 and 3/4 (as shown at the top of Figure 1), thus producing the ubiquitous sesquiáltera characteristic of the joropo and other Latin American genres.24 The harp’s bass strings–also called bordones–ground the music in one of several 3/4 patterns (Figure 1 shows one of the most common), interacting with the harp treble strings to produce a rich array of polyrhythmic encounters, like that shown in the first two measures of Figure 1 where the treble strings are in 6/8 against the 3/4 of the bordones (a vertical sesquiáltera). The cuatro player uses the rasgueo, an aggressive strumming technique; by alternating between open-hand strumming and closed-hand strumming, the cuatrista adds percussive, accented syncopations (Figure 1 shows one of the most common rasgueo patterns). In their most basic function, the maracas support the cuatro’s accents, although virtuoso maraqueros will greatly elaborate on the basic patterns. A more involved discussion of the relationship between the cuatro rasgueo and the harp’s bordoneo (here used as a verb) would require the distinction between two important rhythmic claves or “keys” in joropo: the clave de corrido (or corrio)–shown in Figure 1, and the clave de seis, where the bass strings switch to a “rest-quarter-quarter” pattern and the cuatro’s accented rasgueos fall on the first and fourth beats. Figure 2 is an abstraction of the clave de seis, as codified by joropo scholar Claudia Calderón: 25

Figure 2: Rhythmic key, clave de seis.

The characteristic rhythmic interplay of the joropo shown in Figures 1 and 2 represents only the foundational skeleton of what musicians actually perform. Ornamenta- tion, elaboration, meter migrations, and a variety of juegos hemiolados (“hemiolated games”) are expected. The rhythmic interplay that ensues from moment to moment in a joropo is notable. In performance, the interplay between the treble and bass registers

24 For an in-depth discussion of the sesquiáltera see Pedro Van der Lee, “Zarabanda: Esquemas rítmicos de acompan`amiento en 6/8,” Latin American Music Review 6, no. 2 (1995): 199–220. Although in Mexico and other Latin American countries the term sesquiáltera is used interchangeably with hemiola, in this article I will use the term hemiola for the migration of meters from triple to simple duple (from 3/4 to 2/4, for example), which is conspicuous in what joropo scholars call juegos hemiolados (hemiolated games). 25 For an in-depth discussion of these claves, see Calderón Sáenz, “Estudio analítico y comparativo,” 219–256. Many informal videos of this basic ensemble and of both claves are found in social engines such as youtube. The reader may look specifically for postings that feature harpist José Gregorio López.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 57 23.6.2016 9:58:11 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 of the harp becomes increasingly contrapuntal; perhaps in a desire to pursue this counterpoint more freely, many contemporary groups feature a bass player, acoustic or electric, freeing the harp to explore the treble line with more intricacy while playing with the bordones. This constant variation of horizontal and vertical rhythmic interplay is anchored by codified harmonic progressions that musicians learn by heart (much like the 12-bar-blues in the United States) and that are particular to a specific geograp- hic region. The trajectories of these harmonic progressions vary in length and formal structure, as illustrated in these selected examples from Claudia Calderón ‘s catalogue of nearly twenty patterns:26

Uni-partite patterns: Seis Corrido: (V-I-IV-V) in major Pajarillo Golpe de Seis: (V-I-IV-V) in minor Periquera: (I-I-V7-I-I-I7-I7-IV-IV-IV-II7-V-IV-I-V7-I) in major

Bipartite patterns: Merecure : A (I-I7-IV-IV-I-V-I-I) repeated + B (V-V-I-I) four times or more.

Tripartite patterns: Chipola: (I-IV/V-I-IV/V-I-IV/V-I-IV/V) and coda: (I7-IV-I-V) and modulation to dominant: (V-I/II-V-I/II-V-I/II-V-I/II-V) and coda: (I-V-Ii-I) and modulation to relative mi- nor: (VI-II/III-VI-II/III-VI-II/III-VI-II/III) and coda: (II-I-III7-VI); da capo.

In performance, a pajarillo may begin with a llamado (“call”), an introduction that va- ries in length, which eventually leads into the main harmonic cycle V-I-IV-V. The ensemble then will anchor itself to the harmonic cycle and release a different interplay of rhythmic and melodic counterpoint with each pass of the cycle. That interplay will also be anchored to one of the rhythmic claves delineated in Figures 1 and 2. Although an extended study of the joropo in performance is not possible here, I will allude to listening examples, which should be accessible as streaming audio from most libraries in universities around the world. In the album Sí, soy llanero (Smithsonian Folkways),27 track 3, the ensemble, Grupo Cimarrón, begins this pajarillo with a lyrical call, before engaging a harmonic progression rooted in the cadencia andaluza (the well known tetra-sequence of minor-major-major-major triads), which they realize on a clave the corrido. The pajarillo proper, now in the rhythmic clave de seis, starts approximately at 09:2428, and it is at this point we can hear each cycle of V-I-IV-V come to life anew as all the instruments explore the possibilities of the sesquiáltera, syncopation, juegos hemiolados, timbre percussive effects, etc. The prominent presence of what in functional harmony are called primary chords may invite the moniker of “harmonic simplicity” often bestowed on folk and popular

26 Calderón Sáenz, “Estudio analítico y comparativo,” 242–243. The Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. “joropo,” lists over fifty patterns, not all of which coincide with the information in Calderón’s catalogue. 27 Grupo Cimarrón, Sí, soy llanero: Joropo Music from the Orinoco Plains of Colombia, recorded at Audio Producciones Patrick Mildenberg, Bogotá, Colombia. Smithsonian Folkways Recordings SFW CD 40515, 2004, compact disc. 28 The time cue refers to the streaming library versions, which cue the overall length of the album, not each separate track.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 58 23.6.2016 9:58:11 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... musics. Let us resist this description. Beyond the particular ways we may hear the I-V polarity in the joropo, harmony is simply not the impelling element in this genre. “Har- mony” in joropo is a relatively stable platform on which rhythmic interplay–indeed, rhythmic counterpoint–stands and becomes the impelling factor. Put in a simpler, if reductive way, in joropo, rhythm “uses” pitch and harmony to create action, as opposed to the post-enlightenment interplay where melody and harmony create discourse by resting on relatively stable and repetitive rhythms. One could argue that the economy of harmonic change in joropo is crucial; it is what lures the ear toward the dynamic action created by rhythmic counterpoint. The phrase “simple harmonies” is not germane to a fair musical description of the joropo, and the ear inclined to listen for harmonic richness and syntax will miss the very voice of the genre. Thinking of rhythmic interplay in this way allows us one other important consideration: that several types of goal direction are evident in the various sub-genres of the joropo.29 An instrumental pajarillo, such as the one on track 3 of Sí, soy llanero, is very much goal directed, although not based on the principle of melodic or tonal return. Joropo listeners have expectations of tension-release related to the interplay between compound duple and triple meters; the interplay must not ground itself for too long on an overall 3/4 pulse; the 6/8 tension against the triple bordoneo is used–although not syntactically–to play with the listeners’ sense of tension and release. Tension and release are also achieved through what I call riff counterpoint, the constant juxtaposition of short, melodic gestures that are rich in rhythmic parlance, and that bounce with and against each other among all the instruments.30 This type of riff counterpoint is particularly evident on track 1 of Sí, soy llanero, which bears the same name as the album. In this track, the added voice of the bandola–a pear-shaped, small guitar whose strings may be strummed or plucked–provides counter-melodic/rhythmic riffs to the rich texture of the ensemble. The ensemble administers these riffs carefully, at times multiplying them and at times decreasing their number and degree of metrical tension. In addition to what we could call an episodic goal direction, grounded in meter and riff counterpoint, the principle of melodic return may also play a role in some joropos. Often, the codified patterns shown above are actually turned into full da capo forms, where musicians use the principle of return–in melody and tonal area–to recapitulate an initial section, but often with a more intensified riff counterpoint. In performance, for example, a pajarillo corrido can be goal directed in terms of the return of the opening melody of the vocal line, and, in terms of a heightening of the intensity of contrapuntal texture and percussive effects that accompany the melodic return; both can be heard in track 1 of Sí, soy llanero. This is particularly evident when the vocal element is present and a melodic, directional element is therefore in play. In a different variety of the genre–the Eastern Venezuelan joropo termed “joropo with refrain”–an ABAB alternation is evident, one that nevertheless grows in improvisatory intensity

29 A theorization of alternative ways of hearing goal direction (or recombinant teleologies) that has invigorated my own thinking on the matter is Robert Fink, Repeating Ourselves: American Minimal Music as Cultural Practice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). 30 For a more detailed exploration and application of the concept of riff counterpoint, see Ludim Rebeca Pedroza, “Merengue Meets the Symphony Orchestra: Interrogating Music as One and the Terrific Musical Experience at the Hollywood Bowl,” American Music 32, no. 3 (Fall 2014): 317–352.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 59 23.6.2016 9:58:11 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 with each repetition. Angular and syncopated vocal melodies also take on a directional and quasi-syntactic character in the Eastern joropo with refrain.31 The distinctiveness of the sonic experience of joropo resides in the various kinds of goal direction it presents, most of which are rhythmically, metrically, and texturally impelling, rather than harmonically directional.32 In describing such alternative species of goal direction, I have chosen to use the term impelling rather than syntactic or discursive, particularly to emphasize dynamics of tension and release that are not rooted in any analogy to communicative rhetoric or syntax. This constitutes a conceptual invi- tation to re-code listening rather than a rejection of directed listening. One could even argue that it is through the focused listening of this impelling distinctiveness that key repertoires of the Escuela Nacional Moderna were negotiated effectively. This proposition can be examined more closely through the writings of one of the leaders of the ENM, José Antonio Calcan`o.

Listening to the joropo in Plaza’s Sonatina venezolana (1934)

Juan Bautista Plaza’s Sonatina venezolana (1934)33 is entrenched in the musicology of Venezuela as one of the early, seminal successes in the domain of composition of the ENM. Calcanò explained the particulars of this success in an article-review published in the Nuevo Diario on August 20, 1934.34 In addition to providing insight into the listening sensibilities of Calcanò, the review is also significant in that it represents an early scholarly hearing of the joropo, several years before the first ethnomusicological study of the genre (1953).35 It is reductive of the genre as a whole, yet indicative of Calcanò’s careful consideration of a joropo as sonic experience. Calcanò begins by alluding to Plaza’s harmonic treatment, deeming it conservative, because the “tonal principles” governing the musical form (binary) and the absence of “harmonic originality in our folklore” so justify it.36 I read his choice of words–an absence of harmonic originality–not as a diatribe but as recognition that harmony is not what we listen for in this music. Calcanò quickly moves on to the musical elements that have caught his attention, melody and rhythm in particular. He praises Plaza for capturing the “intermittent” character of joropo melodies, “which is perfectly in tune

31 Listen to track 11 “Joropo Cruz Acuña” in !Y Que Viva Venezuela! Maestros del Joropo Oriental (Smithsonian Folkways Recordings, 2009). 32 See Robert Fink, “Goal-Directed Soul? Analyzing Rhythmic Teleology in African American Popular Music,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 64, no. 1 (Spring 2011): 179–238. Fink argues against the “antiteleological” analytical segregation imposed on many popular musics, and against scholars who have conceded “the entire domain of musical structure to the defenders of high art . . ..” As he argues for a number of dance-based genres, I would argue that the joropo does not reside in a non-descript state of jouissance, and does not resist analytical discourse. 33 The sonatina can be found in the international collection Latin-American Art Music for the Piano by Twelve Contemporary Composers (New York: G. Schirmer, 1942). A recording by Arturo Nieto-Dorantes can be found in Itunes; recordings by Beatriz Balzi and Raquel Boldorini can be found in Juan Bautista Plaza’s channel in youtube. 34 Most of the text of the review is published in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, 392–397. Other analyzes of this review are found in Aponte, “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960,” 172–177, and in Pen˜ín, “Plaza y el nacionalismo,” 251–253. 35 See note 22. 36 As quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, 393.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 60 23.6.2016 9:58:11 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... with the spirit of our popular dance music, given that in ‘golpes’ and ‘pasajes’ the melody almost disappears at times in an arpeggio or in a purely rhythmic fragment . . . .”37 In describing the “intermittent” character of joropo melodies, Calcan`o has pointed to the element I have called riff counterpoint. He is clearly not disappointed to find an absence of lyrical, directional, syntactic melodies. Calcan`o’s most exuberant language is reserved for the rhythmic aspect. “The richness of its rhythm is admirable, precisely as it comes to such a short composition; more than ten rhythmic formulas appear early on, of pure Venezuelan strain, applied with admirable cohesion and spontaneity.”38 He offers musical examples of these rhythmic cells–reproduced in Example 1 below–which point precisely to the conspicuous games of sesquiáltera central to the joropo.

Example 1: “Rhythmic Formulas” in Juan Bautista Plaza’s Sonatina venezolana (1934), as rendered by Miguel Castillo Didier.39

“It is in the rhythm where the expressive weight of this composition resides; it is the rhythm, which infuses that tireless and fluid vitality, that ultra-varied jocundity, that excitement, full of grace and exquisiteness.”40 Calcan`o’s affective exegesis embraces “rhythmic richness” with a zest comparable to the one implied in centuries of analyses of harmonic complexity in other repertoires. He continues: “The musical environment, which Debussy obtained principally through the harmonic element, is in this work

37 Ibid., 394. “Pudiera decirse que la melodía es intermitente en la pieza, lo cual está perfectamente de acuerdo con el espíritu de nuestra música popular bailable, ya que en los ‘golpes’ y ‘pasajes’ la melodía casi desaparece a ratos en un arpegio o en un simple trozo puramente rítmico.” 38 Ibid., 394. “La riqueza de su ritmo es admirable, como que tratándose de una composición tan corta, aparecen en la primera más de diez fórmulas rítmicas, de pura cepa venezolana, aplicadas con una justeza y una espontaneidad admirable.” 39 Ibid. In an email communication dated December 3, 2015, professor Castillo Didier granted his permission for the reproduction of the example, and informed me that he extracted it from a printed version of Calcan`o’s review he in turn obtained from Plaza’s widow, Nolita de Plaza. 40 Ibid., 394–5. “Es en ese ritmo donde se concentra la carga expresiva de esta composición; es él quien le insufla esa vitalidad incansable y fluida, esa jocundidad variadísima, esa agitación llena de gracia y exquisitez.”

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 61 23.6.2016 9:58:12 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 achieved with rhythm, an always precise and defined rhythm.”41 The comparison to Debussy’s accomplishments may be read as a nod to the European literate vanguard and thus as part of the symbolic enactment where self-colonialism impersonates the “civilizing project” of modernity. It is well known, after all, that Debussy was admired in the circles of the ENM.42 Nevertheless, Calcan`o is a scholar who sees himself carving out a space for aesthetic autonomy, and under this light, the nod to Debussy is meaningful in that he recognizes in Debussy’s “musical environment” a novel way of making music impelling, something Plaza has achieved by capitalizing on the distinct features of the joropo. In summary, the question of “how to create the national” involved, in its complicity with the nation-building project, the affective, hedonic practice of reflective listening in relation to vernacular musics and doing so with unprecedented attention and gusto. In this context, reflective listening is my conceptual alternative to the conventional score- -centered analysis, as it involves not exclusively the analysis of a score, but the focused listening of musics that are conventionally rendered in aural environments–as the joropo still is. Even when these musics migrate to the academic domain, “score-analysis” still demands reflective listening, because performers recognize the joropo when they are learning the music. In the next section, my own reflective listening of Laya’s Sonata venezolana will take the form of a narrative from the perspective of a pianist raised in academic environments–both in Venezuela and the U.S–where sonata form is heavily codified. But I was also raised listening to joropos in the schoolyard, at friends’ ranches, and not least of all, in the concert hall. Mine is thus the reflective listening of an agent negotiating multiple capitals.

Musical Capital in José Clemente Laya’s Sonata Venezolana (1946)

In the academic space carved out by the ENM, musicians invited critics and the public to listen to the elements of the joropo that they experienced as distinctive and loaded with musical capital, that is, with the potential to be musical materials of impelling force on the listening stage. A little over a decade after Plaza’s Sonatina venezolana helped establish the joropo in the academic environment, a student of Sojo and one of the early-generation graduates of the ENM, José Clemente Laya, produced his Sonata venezolana (1946).43 Its first movement, titled simply joropo, can be heard as an example of the newly created musical capital. Laya’s oeuvre indicates that, like his fellow graduates, he was systematically tra- ined in the rudiments of the motet, the suite, the fugue, and the sonata, among other

41 Ibid., 394–5. “El ambiente musical de la obra, que Debussy obtenía principalmente con el elemento armónico, está aquí logrado con el ritmo, ritmo siempre preciso y bien definido.” 42 José Clemente Laya states: “As disciples of maestro Sojo, our formation began under the auspices of Mozart, with our eyes turned toward Debussy as the supreme objective.” As cited in Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. “Laya Morales, José Clemente.” 43 José Clemente Laya, Sonata Venezolana para Piano (Caracas, Venezuela: Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo, 1991).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 62 23.6.2016 9:58:12 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... standard Renaissance, Baroque, Classic, and Romantic forms.44 His Sonata venezolana (1946) features three movements: Joropo (Allegro) in sonata form, Canción (Ada- gio) in ternary form, and Bolera (Allegretto), a rondo. As Example 2 shows, his joropo begins with the expected call, where the bordoneo bass pattern is clearly present in the left hand, and the accents on beats one and three are “felt” in the pitch-register drop from E to B.

Example 2: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), mm. 1–4.45

As Example 3 shows, after this four-measure call, the long held note in the upper voice of m. 5 signals the emergence of a lyrical, directional melody, which soon enough acquires the angular and syncopated semblance of some joropo melodies (particularly the Eastern varieties). Yet, the pianistic language is contrapuntal, with other melodic fragments present and constantly traveling between three and four voices. Laya hints at the cuatro’s percussive closed strumming (labeled on m. 5) through the dissonant minor seconds, which roughly coincide with the rhythmic clave de corrido shown in Figure 1. Above all, the relentless, motoric activity at the suggested tempo poses a veritable challenge to the performer, who experiences the contrapuntal juggling of the entire ensemble in one body. Example 3 brings attention to the “home key”46 of the movement, E major, and shows a relatively continuous slice of the exposition, which I will now discuss.

44 For example, Laya’s works include, among others, the orchestral Suite venezolana (1947), the chamber Fuga para cuarteto de cuerdas (1947), the Suite al estilo barroco, sobre tema propuesto por Vicente Emilio Sojo (1946), and the Sonatina para Rosita (1946). For a complete catalogue see Pen`ín and Guido, Enciclopedia de la música en Venezuela, s.v. “Laya Morales, José Clemente.” 45 Musical content and expression marks in all Laya examples are based on the 1991 edition published by Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo in Caracas (cited in note 43); engraving and publication in this essay were undertaken with permission from the same institution. 46 I am using the terminology codified in William E. Caplin, Classical Form: A Theory of Formal Functions for the Instrumental Music of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven (Oxford: Oxford university Press, 1998).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 63 23.6.2016 9:58:12 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Example 3: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), mm. 5–23.

A musician raised in Venezuela will recognize the open strings of the cuatro in the left hand gesture found in measure 13. In the most common, reentrant tuning

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 64 23.6.2016 9:58:14 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... of the instrument, these pitches are A3, D4, F-sharp4, and B3. 47 School children are taught to sing these four notes to the words cambur pintón (“ripening banana”), as rendered in Figure 3:

Figure 3: Common tuning in the cuatro with mnemonic syllabication.

Playing the passage that begins in measure 5 provokes additional aural reminiscences. The floating melody in the upper voice launches itself on a sustained D-sharp, which to my ears recalls the long sustained pitch with which vocalists begin some joropos.48 The sustained D-sharp releases itself into a syncopated melody in m. 6, which then spins itself off by alternating between ascending riffs, sustained pitches, and syncopated and hemiolated bits (mm. 13 and 14). Supporting this upper melody is the bass line, which emphasizes the first and third beats by drawing the ears (and fingers) to the lower register (mm. 5 and 7). In subsequent measures, this bass line impersonates the rich bordoneo characteristic of virtuoso harpists (or bass players) in joropo, who far from repeating the same two or three-note riff, elaborate upon it. The pianist must also negotiate several counter-riffs that compete in interest with the upper-voice melody, a contrapuntal practice notable in Eastern joropos, where the harp treble co- unterpoints with the vocalist.49 The riff counterpoint is further enhanced through the sesquiáltera games of tension-release evident from measure to measure; for example, the juxtaposition of the 3/4 and 6/8 gestures in mm. 6 and 7 comes to a brief release in the solitary ascending gesture of measure 8. This ascending gesture continues to play a releasing role in its alternation with subsequent sesquiáltera sonorities in measures 9 and 11. Having identified the fundamental joropo elements that populate the pitch and rhythm fabric, one will begin to ponder the larger structural patterns that frame this fabric. Although sonorities that invite the hands and ears to identify with a functional “home key” are present (as in mm. 12–13, 15–16, 22–23, in Example 3), clear leading-tone motions to that key (E) are notably absent. Yet, pivotal arrivals at E major sonorities are immediately preceded by conspicuous juegos hemiolados, as indicated in measures 13–16, and 21–23 (Example 3). In a way, Laya is establishing the on-beat 3/4 bordoneo as a “rhythmic tonic,” 50 using the preceding hemiola duple groupings

47 On the history of the cuatro and its tuning, see Calzavara, Historia de la Música en Venezuela, chapter 8; and Luis Felipe Ramón y Rivera, “Sobre el origen hispano de nuestro cuatro,” Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 4 (1981): 38–51. 48 Listen to track 1 of Sí, soy llanero (cited in note 27). This long, opening sustained pitch is often found in the estilo recio (hard style) of the plains region; the melody, however, afterwards, acquires a more active and lyrical profile, such as that often found in the Eastern regions of Venezuela (the joropo oriental). Indeed, the melodies of plains’ joropo tend to be made up of short riffs that facilitate poetic improvisation and virtuoso improvisation. Laya’s melody appears to be a compound melody of various joropo styles. 49 For example, listen to track 14, “Golpe de Arpa y Estribillo” in !Y Que Viva Venezuela! 50 See Fink’s proposition regarding tonic rhythm in his “Goal-Directed Soul?”, 199.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 65 23.6.2016 9:58:14 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 as rhythmic cadential gestures. This practice continues in the ensuing measures (not shown in Example 3). In measure 27, we encounter an F-sharp major ninth chord that anticipates the expected modulation to the dominant in a sonata form. This “subordinate key,” B major, arrives unequivocally in m. 44, with an indication of cantabile, an unmistakable reference to the change in character expected in late-classical and early romantic subordinate themes. As shown in Example 4, this theme maintains a counterpoint between the left hand and right hand, but presents more constant patterns of syncopation and angular melodies that provide it with a distinctive identity. Most notably, the first four measures of this cantabile (mm. 44–47) are heavily grounded on a 6/8 pulse, which this time is anticipated in the cadential figures of mm. 40 to 43, suggesting not only a modulation to the dominant B but also to the 6/8 meter. Indeed, 6/8 pervades the entire cantabile, and the 3/4 bordoneos thus become the stuff of tension.

Example 4: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), cantabile theme in B major begins in m. 44.

A double bar and repeat signs point to the first 75 measures as the exposition of a sonata form. As shown in Example 5, measure 76 leads us into the development, which builds on the distinctive cambur pintón motif, now in B major, treated canonically and sequentially.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 66 23.6.2016 9:58:14 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ...

Example 5: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), beginning of the development.

These sequences continue for 25 measures before arriving at a concerto-like cadenza, evoking romantic piano practice. The cadenza takes us back to the opening call in a clear recapitulation; nevertheless, the return of the four-measure opening call and the pitch-by-pitch recapitulation of the music shown in Example 3, all happen in the key of A major rather than the tonic E. As Example 6 shows, the A major area smoothly takes us to its own dominant, E major, the overall tonic, in the voice of the cantabile theme. This type of return-emphasis is similar to the ones found in some balanced binary forms of the keyboard sonatas of Domenico Scarlatti. (This is precisely the comparison Calcan`o makes in reviewing Plaza’s 1934 Sonatina venezolana, a comparison that, for Aponte, reflects Calcan`o’s desire to ground the sonatina in the neoclassical movement of the twentieth century, and ultimately, in an overall narrative of Western music history.)51

Example 6: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), recapitulation of cantabile theme.

As Example 7 demonstrates, Laya closes the movement with the same riffs that closed the exposition. These riffs only obliquely drive the leading tone toward the tonic; rather, they tip-toe on pitches of the dominant, ultimately leading to a closing third-less E vertical structure elaborated by an F-sharp appoggiatura.

51 Aponte, “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960,” 176.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 67 23.6.2016 9:58:15 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Example 7: José Clemente Laya, Sonata venezolana (1946), movement I (joropo), end of the movement, mm. 187–189.

I will end this reflective listening by summarizing some of the ways in which Laya’s joropo negotiates the codes and techniques of the international music field. First, Laya’s tonal fabric springs from the ubiquitous melodic pattern that announces itself in m. 13: the cambur pintón motif from the cuatro’s open strings. Revisiting the call of the movement shown in Example 2, it is notable that the pitch relations from the onset are rooted in the intervallic relations of this motif. Moreover, the bordoneo descending figure reaffirms the quartal identity of the cambur pintón motif. The major-7th chord that inaugurates the primary-key theme in m. 5–as well as numerous “tall” chords throughout the movement–could be heard as directly inspired by the impressionistic language so admired in the early nationalist circles of Venezuela. Or, they could simply echo the conspicuous major-second sonorities that are suggested by the tuning of the cuatro. Likewise, the preponderance of angular melodies and the importance of the open fourth and fifth intervals square well with the initial call and the intervallic identity of cambur pintón. All in all, Laya is composing “with the tones of a motif,” to borrow Schoenberg’s words, grounding the musical fabric in a cohesive pitch relationality borne by the bass bordoneo and the cuatro. Second, in his use of sonata form, it is notable that Laya chooses to recapitulate the opening theme in the subdominant, a tonal center that elevates the gesture of the initial rising fourth of the cambur pintón. This choice aligns with the quartal-intervallic universe Laya has created, one that I have attempted to visually represent in Figure 4. This visual conceptualization encapsulates my hearing of the E, not as a mono-linear tonic, but as a pivot pitch between B and A that relates to the three main areas of the sonata form in quartal relationships, which in turn harken to both the cambur pintón and the bordoneos of the bass harp strings. This should not suggest that goal direction plays a weak role in the movement. The recapitulation in A rather than E does not debilitate the sense of return, nor does it clash with the goal-directed sensibilities of the joropo itself, in which the principle of return is not foreign. Rather, the return in the subdominant emphasizes “homeness”–a sense of arrival–through intervallic relationships rather than through a single pitch “tonic.” Third, Laya dispenses with the gradual intensification of riff counterpoint and juegos hemiolados, as is customary in popular joropos; instead, he uses these elements as

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 68 23.6.2016 9:58:15 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ...

Figure 4: Quartal relationships in the sonata framework of Laya’s joropo.

impelling devices of tension/release, not only from measure to measure, but in the cadential motions toward, and as markers of identity for each of the sonata-form themes. Finally, Laya’s appeal to virtuosity–arguably a requirement of the international music field at the turn of the century–seems to spring from the distinctiveness of the joropo as well. Under the pianist’s fingers, the visceral, motoric energy of the joropo comes to life and the rhythmic counterpoint is pervasive, enveloping the performer in the “jocundity” of the genre. The technical challenge is augmented by the juxtaposition of a fully directional melody with the intermittent counterpoint of the inner voices and the bordoneo. In this article I have shown how the pitch fabric, the sonata form, and other elements commonly associated with the autonomous field of music, are absorbed and transformed by the joropo’s presence. Indeed, it would be difficult to argue that Laya harvested the joropo in order to insert isolated melodies or rhythms into the thematic framework of the sonata form. That Laya, like many of his colleagues and teachers with other works, chose to call this a Venezuelan sonata (sonata venezolana) and the movement squarely by the name of the dance rather than the more abstract “allegro,” is perhaps telling of the particular beliefs invested on these sonic objects. This brings us full circle to our initial inquiry: In the creation of an emancipated aesthetic, what questions did the ENM ask? If one of these was “how do we create the national,” another was “how do we concurrently create the modern-artistic.” One answer may be said to have been Calcan`o’s concept of stylization, which also provides fodder for a closing platform that may facilitate future study of the music field in Venezuela.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 69 23.6.2016 9:58:17 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 The Joropo in the Music Field: Stylization, Elevation, and Multiple Capitals

“What is truly astonishing is the achievement of an elevated stylization with our very own musical elements, given that these elements present us with difficulties that initially appear insur- mountable, as one presumes to handle them in superior spheres without muddling their character. This is something we, Venezue- lan composers, have been striving toward for years, and are only now reaching; in past works we were able to stylize insufficiently, so much so that those works barely deserved to be considered the individual work of a creative artist, given that we could almost confuse them with pieces of pure popular strain.”52

Calcanò’s praise for Plaza’s 1934 Sonatina venezolana employs rhetoric that may invite readings of self-colonialism. Indeed, today, the term elevation conjures imperial- ist baggage, particularly the idea of “simple” vernacular musics being elaborated with the academy’s tools of “complexity.” A Bourdieuian perspective invites us to resist this direct projection of the fields of power and class struggle onto the autonomous field. On the one hand, acknowledging that Calcanò’s rhetoric (and that of his colleagues) contains a degree of condescension toward popular musics should not obfuscate the implications of the very concerns he is expressing: The “originality” and “artistry,” i.e. the coveted stylization associated with the “superior” sphere of autonomy cannot be achieved at the expense of a “muddling” of the character of popular musics. Plaza speaks in similar terms, when alluding to composers running the risk of destroying “the intimate vitality” of the “popular arts.”53 As I have argued, Calcanò’s reflective listening of Plaza’s Sonatina venezolana more than suggests a deep respect and affection for the inherent qualities of the joropo in its own social environment. To put it simply, the ENM chose the joropo not because they read potential complexity in its simplicity, but quite the contrary, because they read it as inherently complex, rich, and exuberant. All in all, in the universe of belief of the ENM, we could read the nascent (Venezuelan) autonomous musical work as a conceptual technology–a carving tool to be used with care–and the superior sphere as a platform of display–the earned spotlight of autonomy–for the artist and his/her affections. On the other hand, the autonomous field is a social arena, even as it operates according to its own logic. In Venezuela–as in other Latin American countries–the music field was not forged entirely by wealthy artists in opposition to a popular artisanal

52 Quoted in Castillo Didier, Juan Bautista Plaza, 392–93. Translation and emphasis mine. “Pero lo que sí raya en lo asombroso es haber logrado esa elevada estilización con nuestros elementos musicales propios; pues estos ofrecen dificultades a primera vista insalvables, cuando se pretende manejarlos dentro de esferas superiores, sin que pierdan nada de su carácter. Eso lo venimos buscando los compositores venezolanos desde hace an˜os, y solo ahora es cuando se empieza a lograr; pues en las obras anteriores a esta que nos ocupa solo se había podido estilizar en un grado insuficiente, tanto que apenas merecían esas obras ser consideradas como obra individual de un artista creador, pues casi se confundían con las obras netamente populares.” 53 Juan Bautista Plaza, “Apuntes sobre estética Musical Venezolana,” Revista Literaria no. 35 (Cubagua: Caracas, 1939): 10–12; quoted in Pen˜in, “Plaza y el nacionalismo,” 229.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 70 23.6.2016 9:58:17 L. R. PEDROZA • THE JOROPO IN VENEZUELA’S MUSICAL MODERNITY ... field; it was claimed and built largely by musician-artisans, who had themselves been forged in the “sub-fields” of the church, the dance floor, and the civic band, among many others. Indeed, the old, wealthy mantuano class cultivated music only as a di- version and did not consider its professional pursuit appropriate to its rank. The acknowledged leader of the ENM, Vicente Emilio Sojo, was born in this artisanal circle, in a family of limited means whose mixed-race background has been explored by musicologists.54 Sojo’s training in his hometown of Guatire took place with Regulo Rico, church composer, member of the Unión Filarmónica (which cultivated a variety of choral and orchestral repertoires), estudiantina and band director, performer in fiestas and serenatas, in short, a musician versed in popular music genres and Mozart and Beethoven alike–a musician of multiple musical capitals.55 In the context of this artisanal music field, Calcanò’s historicism’–which was only touched upon in this article–also provokes interesting questions; Calcanò is indeed constructing a continuity between the ENM’s output, the joropo, and the Scarlattian school of clavecinists, perhaps in an effort to highlight Venezuelan “tradition” as a protagonist in the grand historical narrative of the international field.56 Post Calcanò musicologists such as Alberto Calzavara and Mario Milanca Guzmán, however, consider this a socially grounded continuity, not merely a historicist construction. Their research has brought to light the documented reality that since colonial times, native-Venezuelans, slaves, mu- lattos, “poor whites”–in short, members of the artisanal class–have been the recipients of European-based musical training (particularly counterpoint) in the harp, the vihuela, and the organ. 57 The work of these scholars suggests that it was in the very bodies of these musicians–as opposed to in an abstract interchange between fields–where that training mutated with the Afro-Venezuelan and Native-Venezuelan practices that were also theirs. In short, these artisanal musicians accumulated a multiplicity of musical capitals while navigating the difficult socio-political arenas imposed on them. The ENM’s first generation of graduates was populated by many musicians who were versed in the artisanal field of music making, and who claimed their autonomous space by engaging in a reflective listening of the myriad musical manifestations they themselves practiced. They explored the joropo and other vernacular musics with the conceptual technologies of absolute music: the sonata, the symphony, the suite, the fugue. Theirs was a nationalism of immense eclecticism.58 As they gained exposure to the international field of music, they expanded their objects of musical affection and cautioned themselves against an “excessive cult to folklore”59. To this day, the music field in Venezuela does not define itself in opposition to the popular field; rather, it is generously populated by artists who move comfortably between the spaces of academic and popular musics, and who invest heavily in both (Aldemaro Romero being an

54 See in particular Guido Acun˜a, Maestro Sojo (Caracas: Editorial Arte, 1985), 55–66. 55 José Pen`ín, “Regulo Rico, Maestro de Sojo,” Revista Musical de Venezuela, no. 38 (1998): 40–44. 56 See Aponte’s argument in relation to this in his “The Invention of the National in Venezuelan Art Music, 1920–1960,” 155–177. 57 Calzavara, Historia de la Música en Venezuela, 59–60; Mario Milanca Guzmán, La música venezolana: de la colonia a la república (Caracas: Monte Ávila Latinoamericana, 1994), 119 and especially the section titled “Los pardos en la música colonial venezolana.” 58 For a discussion of the background musicianship and the overall tendencies in the compositions of the ENM’s early graduates— many of which were decidedly non-nationalist—see Aponte, “The Invention of the National,” 178–206. 59 Pen`in, “Plaza y el nacionalismo,” 246.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 71 23.6.2016 9:58:17 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

example). This is an autonomous field carved out of complex affections and complicities with multiple capitals that reside in the singular body of each musician. As much in its repertoire as in its difficult past and present dynamics, it poses compelling challenges for future studies of music as emancipated aesthetic.

POVZETEK prav joropo za središče svoje glasbene estetike. Zavoljo zvočne in retorične osnove srednji del razi- Joropo, ples, ki ga ima večina Venezuelcev za skuje t. i. joropo llanero (»nižinski joropo«); njegove svoj nacionalni simbol, se je mednarodni javnosti tradicionalne instrumente, in sicer cuatro in harfo, predstavil zlasti z deli Aledamara Romera in s sesquiáltero – sopostavitev dvojnih in trojnih taktov posredništvom dirigenta Gustava Dudamela. Ro- –, refrenski kontrapunkt, juegos hemiolodos (igre merove, a tudi druge akademske predelave joropa hemiol) in vrsto ciljnih usmerjenosti, ki so značilne temeljijo na estetskih predlogah, ki so jih uveljavile za žanr. Ta odsek pojasnjuje, zakaj je ENM določene ključne skladbe Šole nacionalne moderne (ENM) značilnosti joropa slišal kot glasbeni kapital, torej v 30-ih in 40-ih letih minulega stoletja v Venezueli. kot elemente poganjajoče jasnosti, ki bi lahko Ena izmed njih, Sonatina venezolana Juana Bau- bili dejavniki v osnovanju emancipirane estetike. tista Plaze (1934), je v muzikoloških krogih naletela Javna ocena in analiza, ki jo je za slavno Sonatino na veliko posluha in dosegla tudi mednarodno venezolano (1934) skladatelja Juana Bautiste Plaze občinstvo s pomočjo posnetkov in različnih izdaj. zapisal José Antonio Calcan`o, prikazuje mnoge Druga dela, kot denimo Sonata Venezolana Joséja značilne elemente. Clementeja Laye (1946), pa so sicer navedena v Zaključni del raziskuje nekoliko manj znan joropo mednarodnih katalogih. V dialogu s kulturnima Joséja Clementeja Laye, enega od učencev ENM-ja teoretikoma, Néstorjem Garcío Canclinijem in Pier- iz 40-ih let 20. stoletja. Prvi stavek Layeve Sonate rom Bourdieujem, članek argumentira, da je ENM venezolane – sonatne oblike – pretkano združuje joropo prepoznal kot po sebi bogat glasbeni izraz kode in tehnike mednarodne klasične glasbe s in prenesel njegovo glasbeno navzočnost – ne zgolj tistimi, ki so značilne za joropo. Najprej zveneča s tem, da bi odbral posamezne ritme in melodije struktura stavka izide iz četvernih razmerij, ki so – iz sveta ljudske pesmi in plesa v glasbene dvo- značilne za uglašenost cuatra (A3, D4, Fis4 in rane akademskega sveta in na odre mednarodne B3). Nato Laya izbere ponovitev glavne teme v klasične glasbe. V teoretskem smislu je šola ENM subdominanti, tonalnem centru, ki privzdigne ustanovila samostojno področje glasbe v Venezueli, gesto začetnega dviga kvarte v uglašenosti cuatra. delno prav s kodifikacijo glasbenih prvin joropa, Naposled Laya učinkovito osnuje tekmujoče 3/4 in za katere so njeni predstavniki menili, da zahtevajo 6/8 takte kot polarne elemente, ki spremljajo teme pozornost umetniške avtonomije. na toniki in dominanti. Pod črto lahko rečemo, Začetna kontekstualizacija v članku se osredini na da Laya ponazarja, kako so ti skladatelji preobli- simbolno projekcijo nacionalizma in modernosti v kovali okvir mednarodnih glasbenih sredstev za ENM-jevem temelju, a hkrati razkriva »afekcije« in doseganje avtonomije – zlasti sonatne oblike – s »razloge«, ki so vodile do tega, da si je ENM izbral karakterističnimi elementi joropa.

My sincere thanks go to the reviewers of this journal for their comments, and to Roberto Ojeda Tovar, Coordinador General Estratégico de la Fundación Vicente Emilio Sojo for his kind and prompt processing of the permissions involved in my engraving of excerpts from Laya’s Sonata venezolana.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 72 23.6.2016 9:58:17 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR UDK 781.4 DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.73-96

Dimitar Ninov Univerza v Teksasu Texas State University

Functional Nature of the Cadential Six-Four Funkcionalna narava kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda

Prejeto: 15. oktober 2015 Received: 15th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: harmonija, akord, funkcija, kadenca Keywords: harmony, chord, function, cadential

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Prispevek predstavlja idejo, da kadenčni kvart In this article I support the idea that the cadential sekstakord ni zgolj dominanta z dvema akordu tu- six-four is not a mere dominant with two non-chord jima tonoma, ampak edinstven bi-funkcijski akord, tones, but a unique bi-functional chord which ki pooseblja boj med toniko in dominanto. Takšen embodies a conflict between tonic and dominant. koncept omogoča razlago vseh mogočnih pojavnih This concept allows the explanation of all possible oblik tega akorda v glasbeni literaturi. appearances of the cadential six-four in the music literature.

In most harmony sources available today, the cadential six-four chord is conventionally interpreted as a dominant with two accented non-chord tones in the form of a double suspension or appoggiatura.1 This widely shared notion is summarized in Walter Piston’s statement that “this is actually a dominant chord in which the sixth and the fourth form appoggiature to the fifth and third respectively”.2 While this linear approach provides an illustration of the typical manner the cadential six-four is employed, it falls in contradiction with occasional appearances of that chord where its structural equality with the tonic triad is being explored, i.e. when non-chord tones or chromatic chords resolve into the cadential six-four as if they resolve into a tonic. Thus, the cadential six-four’s capacity to serve as a point of resolution – to be embellished as a chord on its own – becomes an au- dible argument against the claim that this chord is nothing more than a mere dominant.

1 In this essay the general concept of appoggiatura as an accented non-chord tone, regardless of melodic contour, is adopted. 2 Walter Piston, Harmony (New York: W. W. Norton Piston 1941), 117.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 73 23.6.2016 9:58:17 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Along this line, I felt the need to offer a broader concept of the cadential six-four chord that covers theoretically all of its possible occurrences. This idea, briefly mentioned in some harmony books from the past century, and shared by a number of musicians with whom I had discussions, expanded into the current essay. Here I maintain the idea that the cadential six-four is a bi-functional chord: a tonic above a dominant bass. The difference between “two non-chord tones to the dominant” and “a tonic above a dominant bass” is essential in the understanding of phenomena that do not fit the usual description of the cadential six-four. More specifically, I will examine the following situations: 1) the nature of the perfect fourth in a six-four chord and beyond; 2) the cadential six-four compared to a genuine dominant with suspensions; 3) the resolution of non-chord tones into the cadential six-four; 4) the resolution of altered chords into the cadential six-four; 5) the similarity between the cadential six-four and the accented passing tonic six-four; and 6) the extension and free arpeggiation of the cadential six-four. The last situation on my list has been briefly inspected by David Beach in his third article on the cadential six-four.3 However, he describes the cadential six-four as a plain dominant chord. The polemics among David Beach, Joel Lester, and Allen Cadwallader mainly concern the issue of whether or not the cadential six-four may be a legitimate support of scale degree 3 in the fundamental line, as understood in Schenkerian terms.4 In my essay I offer a different perspective of analysis concerning the functional ambivalence of the six-four and its potential to serve as a point of resolution. While my ambition is to arrive at a compelling theoretical solution, the deliberations and the examples provided herein are not exhaustive. In the Mozart excerpt given below, Joel Lester hears the cadential six-four “syntactically as a collection of non-harmonic tones on the arrival of the dominant”.5 David Beach, on the other hand, hears the same chord followed by V as one of two chords “re- presenting a single harmonic function (V),” and he adds that “the common bass note is root of both chords”.6 On my part, I hear the chord in question as an arpeggiated tonic triad above a dominant bass:

Example 1: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in G, K. 283 (I), measures 7–10.

3 David Beach, “More on the Six-Four,” Journal of Music Theory 34/2 (1990b). 4 See David Beach, “The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Fundamental Line,” Journal of Music Theory 34/1 (1990a); Beach, “More on the Six-Four,”; Joel Lester, “Reply to David Beach,” Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992); Allen Cadwallader, “More on Scale Degree Three and the Cadential Six-Four.” Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992). 5 Lester, “Reply to David Beach,” 199. 6 Beach, The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Fundamental Line,” 81.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 74 23.6.2016 9:58:18 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR Notice how the tone G in the left hand (which is deemed to be a suspension producing a dissonant fourth) leaps upward to become a seventh of the dominant chord. Leonard Ratner writes in his textbook of harmony that the cadential six-four chord “is built from the tonic triad, with the fifth of the chord in the bass. It has the special quality of being unstable, so that the upper voices, the root and the third of the triad, tend to settle downward by step into dominant harmony”.7 Ratner claims the cadential six-four within the sphere of the tonic, but he points out its instability caused by the second inversion. Alexander Raichev goes further by stating that, “functionally, it is best to regard the cadential six-four chord as a bi-functional sonority in which a conflict between two functions is taking place. This creates tension, so characteristic for bi- functional chords, which resolves in the next stable function [stable triad] that occurs by necessity”.8 Similar position is taken by Plamen Arabov who writes: “The cadential six-four has a tonic structure; functional surrounding by S (sometimes T) and D, and functional meaning – prevailing dominant function with a tonic layer above”.9 Note that he says “a tonic layer above” – not “two non-chord tones above” – and the difference between the two categories proves significant, as we shall see further. Arnold Schoenberg’ position is close to that of Raichev’s and Arabov’s. He notices: “There is then in the six-four chord a conflict between its outward form, its sound, and its inner constitution. Whereas its outward form indicates, for example, the Ist degree, its constitution, its instinct demands the Vth degree”.10 Two main points attract our attention in the citations above: 1) none of the four authors mentions the presence of a dissonant fourth in the structure of the cadential six-four; and 2) none of them thinks that the cadential six-four contains non-chord tones. I will address these points separately further down.

On the Nature of the Perfect Fourth

Behind the perception of the cadential six-four as a dominant chord with one consonant and one dissonant suspension (appoggiatura) stands the notion of the perfect fourth as a dissonant interval under certain conditions – namely, when the lowermost voice in the texture is involved in the formation of that interval. This principle stems from the aesthetics of the old masters of polyphony, and it has become a major argument for musicians who treat the cadential six-four as a dissonant structure. With the advent of homophony it has been realized, however, that the employment of major and minor triads in second inversion does not necessarily create the same perception of dissonance as it does in a typical 16th century polyphonic situation. For example, Je- an-Philippe Rameau considered the perfect fourth a consonance under all circumstances, as he wrote: “Similarly, the fourth arises from the inversion of the perfect chord

7 Leonard G. Ratner, Harmony: Structure and Style (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 110. 8 Alexander Raitchev, Хармония [Harmony], 3rd ed. (Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo, 1974), 42. 9 Plamen Arabov, Хармония с аранжиране за хор [Harmony with Arrangements for Choir] (Sofia: Muzika, 1991), 43. 10 Arnold Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, trans. Roy Carter (Berkeley: University of California Press, [1922] 1983), 76.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 75 23.6.2016 9:58:18 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 and, being a consonance, its progression is unlimited”.11 In support of his study, Rame- au cites Gioseffo Zarlino, who, in his fundamental treatise Le istitutioni harmoniche (1558) “treats the fourth as a consonance in practice” because “it is the inversion of the fifth”.12 In his deliberations, Zarlino, according to Rameau, leans on the scholarship of Ancient Greeks and on the calculation of interval ratios. In accord with the notion of the perfect fourth as a consonant interval, Rameau considers the six-four a consonant chord which has the same root (fundamental bass) as the “perfect chord” it is derived from. However, he points out that both the sixth chord and the six-four chord must be called “imperfect” because “their properties di- ffer from those of their source”.13 Therefore, Rameau admits that chord inversions do not possess the stability of the root position triad. In his article “An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chords,” Norman Wick draws a contrast between the aesthetics of Jean Philippe Rameau and Gottfried Weber, on the one hand, and the ideas of Carl Philip Emanuel Bach and Johann Heinichen, on the other. The former two musicians supported the “vertical notion” of the six-four chord, and the latter two favored the more linear approach of the figured bass tradition.14 According to Bach and Heinichen, the fourth above a bass tone is always a dissonance, and their opinion is in agreement with the principles of the strict 16th century counterpoint. This view, strongly supported by such influential writers as Heinrich Schen- ker and Carl Schachter seems to have become a prevailing notion today. Norman Wick summarizes the concept about the dissonant fourth:

“The fourth above the bass in a six-four functions ordinarily as a suspension, appoggiatura, passing tone, or neighboring tone. It is a dissonant tone whether it is called a fourth or an eleventh. This fact remains true despite any arguments about which pitch is acoustically stronger in the vertical sense (the bass or the fourth above it), and despite any assertions that the six-four is just a less perfect form of some root position triad.”15

Following the general logic of Norman Wick’s statement, the reader seems to be left with two options to choose from: a. Genuine triads in second inversion do not exist – what looks like a second inversion triad is actually a dissonant, accidentally obtained sonority that can never be considered a substitute for a root position chord; b. Genuine triads in second inversion do exist, but they are dissonant derivatives of a root position chord, even if this chord is a consonant triad.

I think that both options suggested above are highly problematic because their logic stems from an unquestionable generalization on the quality of the perfect fourth

11 Jean-Phiplippe Rameau, Treatise on Harmony, trans. and ed. Philip Gossett (New York: Dover, [1722] 1971), 92. 12 Ironically, Rameau treats the eleventh as a dissonant interval that should be prepared and resolved, since for him the procedure of its derivation is different than the one producing the fourth (ibid., 92–93). 13 Rameau, Treatise on Harmony, 41. 14 Noramn L. Wick, “An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chrods,” Theoria 5 (1991): 61–73. 15 Ibid., 67.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 76 23.6.2016 9:58:18 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR when it includes the bass note. This logic ignores such factors as texture (polyphonic or homophonic), metric organization (strong or weak), and context (surrounding harmony). Moreover, it implies that the so-called arpeggiated six-four chord is also a dissonant sonority. It seems as though Norman Wick hears dissonant chords all over the place in those polkas, waltzes and marches which involve arpeggiated major and minor triads...It would not be an exaggeration to say that this implication goes beyond common sense. If Norman Wick were generalizing on such intervals as the second, the tritone or the seventh – dissonances whose inversions yield other dissonances – one could hardly object his position from tonal music’s perspective. But when an absolute conviction is expressed about the dissonant qualities of an interval whose inversion is a perfect consonance, a reasonable doubt arises. Schoenberg comments on the striking contradiction between the claim that the fourth above a bass note must be a dissonance and the principle that “the inversion of every perfect consonance yields a perfect consonance.” He exclaims: “That is too contradictory, not simple enough to be natural”.16 I cannot help agreeing with him. When I compare Norman Wick‘s concept of the dissonant fourth with the position expressed by J. P. Rameau, certain thoughts cross my mind. Rameau’s arguments that the inversion of a consonance produces another consonance and that a triad has two legitimate inversions stand up to reason. He did not feel the need to evaluate the quality of the fourth in a polyphonic texture, referring to a time when the principles of functional harmony had not crystallized yet. Having raised a reasonable suspicion about the true duality of the perfect fourth, Arnold Schoenberg questions the dissonant character of the six-four chord with the following words:

“Nevertheless, whereas in the actual dissonance tones sound together that can never in any arrangement be consonant, the tones of the six-four chord are in other arrangements absolutely consonant (triad, sixth chord). The demand of the six-four chord for resolution, to be treated as a dissonance, is thus by no means as stormy as that of a real dissonance. The six-four chord and the actual dissonance have only this in common, that in both lies a conflict that attracts attention, that seems to have a right to special consideration, to special treatment.”17

The assertion that [major and minor] six-four chords do not possess an actual dissonance is essential in Schoenberg’s statement. With this claim he seems to challenge those who attribute a “chameleonic” character to the perfect fourth but cannot explain convincingly the cause of its alleged metamorphosis. Let us compare the metrically strong or accented six-four chord with the weak or unaccented passing, pedal, and arpeggiated six-four chords:18

16 Schoenberg, Theory of Harmony, 75. 17 Ibid., 76. 18 The arpeggiated six-four occasionally occurs on an accented beat, but this does not alter its nature of a second inversion triad substituting for a root position triad.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 77 23.6.2016 9:58:18 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Example 2: Cadential, Passing, and Pedal Six-Four Chords.

Example 3: Arpeggiated Six-Four Chords.

Naturally, an arpeggiated six-four chord obtained through a melodic figure in the bass, represents an inversion of a root position triad. This is true even when this chord appears on an accented or relatively accented beat. Leonard Ratner confirms this concept by writing: “If the bass voice has melodic ornamentation of a triadic type, it may create a six-four position during the course of its action. In such cases, the six-four position needs to be bracketed by stronger positions of the same chord”.19 According to Norman Wick, however, we are supposed to hear a number of dissonant triads in the example above, since for him and many others any fourth above a bass tone is a dissonant interval. I have become curious about the process of acoustic and functional perception of genre music on the part of musicians who claim that all six-four chords are dissonant... Addressing the functional qualities of the passing and the pedal six-fours, Alexan- der Raichev writes: “As far as the function of the weak six-four chords is concerned, the problem is relative. When the harmonies change in a slow tempo, we perceive the six-four as an inversion of a certain function. In a moderate or especially fast tempo the weak six-four is functionally assimilated by the surrounding chords”.20 Regarding the weak six-four chords discussed above, Ratner’s and Raichev’s statements reflect a situation that has been observed in the homophonic style for a long

19 Ratner, Harmony: Structure and Style, 113. 20 Raitchev, Хармония [Harmony], 44.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 78 23.6.2016 9:58:18 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR time: the weak six-four chords are smooth and unimpressive, and the special conditions they are placed in help them to express the original function of the triad they stem from, with a minimum degree of ambiguity. In short, the weak six-four chords (major and minor) do not produce a dissonance, even though there is a perfect fourth between the bass and the root of the chord. But this is not all. Even in the cadential six-four chord, where the potential di- sagreement between the bass and the outer structure is made prominent by a metric accent and a connection to a dominant chord, the presence of a real dissonance is hard to prove. One simple acoustic phenomenon stands in the way: the structural equality of the six-four sonority with the tonic triad. This factor is explored compositionally in a variety of manners. Therefore, at best, one may argue that the cadential six-four possesses a simulated (or feigned) dissonance which reflects the functional duality embodied in that chord. This suggestion echoes Schoenberg’s opinion on the difference between the six-four chord and „the actual dissonance,“ which has been quoted above. The three principal intervals which stem directly from the fundamental tone in the harmonic tone series and represent no inversion of previously existing relationships are the perfect octave, the perfect fifth, and the major third. The perfect fourth is an inversion of the perfect fifth which is the third harmonic tone, produced directly by the source. Led by the observation that the inversion of a true consonance produces another true consonance, of which proof is given within the span of the first eight harmonics21, I propose the following evaluation of the qualities of the perfect fourth in various circumstances. A. Generally viewed, the perfect fourth is a true consonance. It may be perceived as a simulated dissonance when: a) it is a non-chord tone; b) it is a member of a chord whose dissonant quality depends on a genuine dissonance such a second, a seventh, or others (diminished or augmented intervals, for example). c) it is a member of a typical accented six-four chord such as the cadential six-four whose bass becomes a prominent acoustic phenomenon demanding its own over- tones. This phenomenon is not present in the typical unaccented six-four chords – passing, pedal, or arpeggiated – all of which are weak representatives of an original consonant triad. Even when a major or minor arpeggiated six-four chord falls on an accented beat, it is still a consonant triad.

B. If there is a general agreement that the perfect fourth is a consonance in a certain vertical arrangement, and if there is no general agreement on its dissonant qualities – even when it includes the bass note – a conclusion may be drawn that the fourth itself is not a reliable factor in the discussion of the functionality of the six-four chords. Only when it is viewed in correlation with such factors as functional ambivalence and metric accent does it become a facet in this regard.

21 Except the seventh harmonic which produces a dissonant interval.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 79 23.6.2016 9:58:18 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Genuine Dominant with Suspensions versus Cadential Six-Four

In the light of Walter Piston’s deliberations about the dominant function of the cadential six-four, the example below illustrates the steps of deriving that chord from a dominant triad – first the dominant appears with a single suspension, and then it occurs with a double suspension. In both cases, the suspended tones are resolved:

Example 4: Steps in the Supposed Derivation of the Cadential Six-Four.

Similar examples are displayed in many theory books as proof of the unquestionable dominant function of the cadential six-four. I agree that Example 4b visually demonstrates how a dominant function may be initiated through a double suspension and then carried out as a triad. Historically, the cadential six-four sonority may have been derived through linear motion as many other chords (if not all) have been. But once a chord has been evaluated aesthetically, composers begin to use it deliberately in a variety of manners, some of which exceed the limitations of originally implied procedures. Leonard Meyer calls this process a “shift from the constraints of linear counterpoint to those of vertical harmony” (Meyer 2000, 234-237). He also observes that “once harmony became a fully syntactic parameter, explicit discord, upon which contrapuntal action depends, could be dispensed with” (ibid.). In the case of the cadential six-four, the levels of dispensing with the idea of an “explicit discord” include but are not limited to: unusual resolutions of the “suspensions” by a leap or by a step in the direction opposite to the expected one; embellishments of the “discord” itself with suspensions and other non-chord tones; resolution of dissonant chords into the “discord”; and free arpeggiation of the „discord.“ An example of the first situation is shown below. It displays some of the melodic contours that are encountered above the complex Cad.6/4 – V (V7). The odd resolutions of the “suspensions” or “appoggiaturas” are shown with numbers that were left vertically unarranged to reflect more clearly the unusual motion. Notice also the motion of the fifth scale degree in the upper voices: Example 5 shows how different the treatment of the “suspensions” or “appoggiaturas” in the cadential six-four may be from the manner true suspensions and appoggiaturas resolve in counterpoint. These illustrations are enhanced by the striking case in the Mozart excerpt (Example 1), where the supposed „dissonant fourth“ performs an upward leap at a fourth to become a dominant seventh. The embellishment of the

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 80 23.6.2016 9:58:19 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR cadential six-four with non-chord tones and the resolution of dissonant chords into it will be reviewed in separate sections later.

Example 5: Unusual Resolutions of the “Suspensions” in the Dominant Chord.

Let us return to Example 4 that suggests how the six-four has been derived. The difference in the aural effects of 4a and 4b cannot be ignored: while on the downbeat of the second measure of 4a a dominant chord sounds with a suspended tone which makes the sonority dissonant and intense, on the downbeat of the second measure of 4b an ambiguous structure sounds that is lacking the same degree of intensity – the initiated dominant function in the bass is somewhat blurred by the structural equality of the vertical sonority with the tonic triad. While the label V6/4 seems to justify the physical operation, the aural expectation of a dissonant and an indisputable dominant chord at that very moment is not being met. The difference between the aural impacts of the two structures discussed in Example 4 suggests the idea of testing their genuine dominant qualities with a simple operation. We will use the same progressions, this time leaving the dominant chords on “their own,” that is, without resolving the suspended tones prior to their resolution into the tonic22:

Example 6: Test for the Presence of Genuine Dominant Qualities in V5/4 and V6/4.

As a result of this manipulation, the difference between Example 6a and Example 6b becomes striking: while the second chord in 6a maintains its dominant function and produces a convincing authentic resolution, its counterpart in 6b, stripped of a

22 The parallel fifths between tenor and soprano in Example 6a are allowed for the sake of keeping the tone E in the soprano, which visualizes better the operation in the upper voices.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 81 23.6.2016 9:58:19 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 real dominant support, fails to produce an authentic resolution and, combined with the following tonic triad, sounds like an arpeggiated tonic six-four on a downbeat. This is why no piece of music would ever end with such a fake cadence as Cad.6/4 – I. Noti- ce also the metamorphosis of the perfect fourth in Example 6b; as a result of the direct interaction between I6/4 and I5/3, it does not even operate as a simulated dissonance. The above experiment prompted a musician to exclaim that one could not expect from a “dismembered sonority” [the cadential six-four placed directly before a root position tonic] to behave like a dominant. I replied that a true dominant with suspensions never sounds like a “dismembered sonority,” even if it resolves directly into the tonic. Had the cadential six-four been a true dominant, it would have represented a self-sufficient chord which did not have to be followed by another dominant for its validation. The following illustration will put a final touch in this rationale. Compare the effect of a genuine dominant with a double suspension to the effect of a fake dominant with a double suspension (cadential six-four):

Example 7: Genuine Dominant with Suspensions versus Cadential Six-Four

The dominant seventh chord with a double suspension in Example 7a may be explained as an incomplete V13 sus chord. It does a convincing job in its direct connection to the tonic, eliminating the necessity of handling the suspensions prior to the resolution. In contrast, its counterpart in Example 7b fails to convince anyone in its dominant qualities – it needs a real dominant as a “moderator” between itself and the root position tonic. What inference could be derived from the examples we have just reviewed? I think it would be reasonable to declare that the cadential six-four is not a genuine dominant with suspensions, because it needs further functional clarification, while a true dominant with suspensions is always a self-contained function which does not need further clarification. Generally speaking, a major or minor six-four chord is heard as cadential when: a) it occurs on a metrically stronger position than the following chord; b) it is preceded by a subdominant, tonic, or submediant, and c) it is followed by the dominant.23 But even

23 Occasional exceptions of this principle occur; sometimes the cadential six-four is followed by VI, first inversion tonic, or some other chord, and the dominant is delayed or avoided. The impression may still be one of a cadential chord, because of the way it has been introduced as a metrically stressed triad. In some of those cases the perfect fourth is not treated as a dissonance, and the chord may receive another interpretation such as an accented tonic in second inversion (especially when followed by a tonic in first inversion).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 82 23.6.2016 9:58:19 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR when those conditions have been fulfilled, the cadential six-four still fails to qualify as a fully-fledged dominant. The examples and comments that follow will provide additional evidence in this regard.

Resolution of Non-Chord Tones into the Cadential Six-Four

In Example 8 the tone D is suspended above the cadential six-four chord. It resolves downward to C which, in its turn, becomes a suspension over the dominant harmony and resolves downward to B:

Example 8: Suspension and Resolution within the Cadential Six-Four (9-8 towards tonic‘s root).

This illustration raises the question: What is the function of the chord in the second bar? Those who are inclined to answer “The function is dominant” will have to explain the following discrepancies: 1. Why does the tone D – a member of the dominant – sound like a dissonant non- -chord tone above what is deemed to be a dominant function? 2. Why does the tone C – a non-chord tone to the dominant – sound like a chord tone above what is deemed to be a dominant?

How could a chord tone sound like a dissonant suspension, and a non-chord tone sound like a consonant resolution? On the other hand, if the answer is “The chord in question is bi-functional,” everything falls in place; the suspended tone collides with the tonic structure of the cadential six-four and resolves into it as if it resolves into a tonic triad. The dominant function, initiated by the bass tone, does not undermine the aural effect of suspension and resolution within the tonic component. Eventually, the entire cadential six-four, as a bi-functional chord, gives way to the dominant function claimed by the bass note. Example 9 is similar to the progression we have just reviewed. The tone F, suspended above the cadential six-four, resolves downward into E. Subsequently, E is treated as another suspension as it moves downward to D. Again, the suspended tone F, being a member of a dominant seventh chord, sounds like a foreign element to the chord that is deemed to be a dominant itself; and the tone E, a non-chord tone to the dominant, sounds like a resolution over that same “dominant” function:

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 83 23.6.2016 9:58:20 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Example 9: Suspension and Resolution within the Cadential Six-Four (4-3 towards tonic‘s root).

In the following excerpt from a Mozart sonata, the cadential six-four is embellished chromatically with passing tones in m. 154 and with a suspension in m. 155. The suspension, which would be oddly labelled 5-4 in reference to the bass note, is actually a disguised 9-8 suspension as referred to the root of the tonic, and this is how it would be perceived. The didactic Example 8 given above is drawn from cases like this one:

Example 10: Wolfgang A. Mozart, Piano Sonata in C minor, K. 457 (I), measures 153–156.

In the next excerpt Mozart introduces suspensions and passing tones to the cadential six-four and to the dominant, respectively:

Example 11: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in B-flat, K. 281 (I), measures 7–8.

Notice how the composer embellishes identically the tonic structure of the cadential six-four and the following dominant chord. This is illustrated in Example 12. The

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 84 23.6.2016 9:58:20 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR dominant function, initiated by the bass of the cadential chord does not undermine the aural effect of tonic embellishment in the layer above:

Example 12: Schematic Interpretation of Beat 2 from the Mozart Excerpt in Example 11.

A similar pattern is shown in Example 13, where the fifth, the third and the root of the tonic above the dominant bass are displaced by non-chord tones:

Example 13: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in A minor, K. 310 (I), measures 33–35.

These non-chord tones, accented by nature and clashing with the accompaniment, have the potential meaning of appoggiaturas as shown bellow. In a slower tempo and larger note values their effect would be more palpable:

Example 14: Schematic Interpretation of the 6/4 Portion from the Mozart Excerpt in Example 13.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 85 23.6.2016 9:58:21 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 In Example 15 Beethoven embellishes the cadential six-four chord with accented neighboring tones:

Example 15: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in A, Op. 2 No. 2 (IV), measures 6–8.

Notice also that I have labeled the first chord in Example 15 as an altered subdominant built on the second scale degree, instead of as a secondary dominant (V6/5 of V). The reason for that is the fact that the resolution into the cadential six-four does not represent a tonicization of V but occurs in a sonority that has a tonic structure. On the other hand, this resolution is not necessarily deceptive. I shall refer to this problem again later. Let us review Example 16 which is particularly interesting. Ironically, here the third and the fifth of the dominant triad embellish the cadential six-four on weak beats, in the form of anticipations:

Example 16: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in E-flat, Op. 7 (I), measures 11–13.

The next example displays a series of suspensions (beginning with a triple suspension over the II chord) introduced to each chord on the downbeat of each measure and resolved accordingly. An interesting feature is the direct comparison between an embellished cadential six-four and an embellished dominant chord; a double suspension (marked with an “x”) is emphasized over the cadential six-four and resolved into the tonic fifth and third degrees, respectively; then a suspension is introduced over the dominant structure and is resolved into the dominant fifth degree. The suspensions over the cadential six-four are nothing more than disguised 6-5 and 4-3 as referred to the tonic note:

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 86 23.6.2016 9:58:22 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR

Example 17: Frederic Chopin, Grande Valse Brilliante, Op. 18, measures 9–12.

Another excerpt from the same waltz illustrates a similar embellishment of the cadential six-four (Example 18). Here the tones suspended above it are both members of V7 as is the appoggiatura on beat two; they sound foreign to the tonic structure of the six-four into which they resolve. The arrival of V7, on the other hand, falls in conflict with the tones of the previous resolution and makes them sound like another double suspension above the dominant structure. Notice that the dominant chord tones are present in the left hand below the suspension. This is another direct comparison between an embellished cadential six-four and an embellished dominant:

Example 18: Frederic Chopin, Grande Valse Brilliante, Op. 18, measures 82–85.

Resolution of Altered Chords into the Cadential Six-Four

The examples presented until this moment revealed how non-chord tones treated the cadential six-four as a tonic. The various resolutions of entire altered chords into the cadential six-four are similar in effect. Such resolutions also allow one to draw a fine nuance between the function of an altered subdominant and that of a secondary dominant – a topic that is broad enough to generate another research paper. Here I will limit the discussion to several illustrations accompanied with explanations. If we look back at Example 15, we will realize that the F#7 chord does not function as a secondary dominant because no secondary triad is tonicized. On the other hand, it does not resolve deceptively, for its resolution does not bring “surprise”. If it did, we might label

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 87 23.6.2016 9:58:22 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 that function as a V7 of V which resolved deceptively into the cadential six-four. A customary explanation of this situation in most theory books would read: “This is a secondary dominant whose resolution into V is delayed by the appearance of the cadential six-four chord.” This explanation reveals the fact that the manner in which the altered chord resolves or “behaves” has not been taken into account. When this chord resolves into I, I6, and I6/4 (cadential or passing) it reveals one type of behavior, and when it resolves directly into V it reveals another type of behavior. The behavior of the chord is its harmonic function. The resolutions of the so-called “common tone diminished seventh chord” (which is either a II7 altered in major or a IV7 altered in minor), displayed below, sound identical, although the chord in Example 19c may not be a tonic but a cadential six-four instead. The bass of the cadential chord has a dominant function, but this does not change the behavior of the diminished chord – it still treats the six-four as a tonic structure and resolves into it accordingly:

Example 19: Resolutions of an Altered S II7 into the Tonic and the Cadential Six-Four.

To interpret the diminished seventh chord in 19c as a misspelled VII7 of V would be relatively inaccurate on account of the tendency of D# to resolve upward and the tendency of C to remain in place as a link to the following chord. These tendencies disclose the fact that D# is the actual root of the chord. On the other hand, in the resolution of VII7/V into V the tendencies change; the former root (D#) converts into a seventh (Eb) which resolves in an opposite direction; and the former seventh (C) becomes a fifth which also resolves downward. The differences between those two resolutions are illustrated below:

Example 20: Difference between the Resolutions of SII alt. and DVII of D.

The following music excerpt from a Beethoven sonata (Example 21) exemplifies the resolution presented in Example 20a. The departure from the diatonic II6/5 shows the origin of the altered chord that follows and resolves into the cadential six-four. Regardless of the original spelling, the tone B-flat (A#) is the actual root of the diminished seventh

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 88 23.6.2016 9:58:23 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR chord as it resolves upward to B. However, in G minor, the same chord would be spelled exactly as Beethoven did, and it will represent an altered IV7 chord. An interesting observation is the lack of tendency to resolve on the part of the seventh chord degree when the supertonic resolves into the cadential six-four or the tonic. This tone is the tonic note itself, and it simply remains in place as a link between the two chords. However, the dissonant interval between the seventh degree and the root (an augmented second between tenor and soprano, spelled here as a minor third) does resolve into a major third.

Example 21: Ludwig van Beethoven, Piano Sonata in G, Op. 14 No. 2 (II), measures 5–8.

Notice also the manner in which the cadential six-four connects the dominant in example 21; neither does it sound like a dominant with suspensions, nor do the “suspensions” resolve in the manner they are expected. Another “violation” is the appearance of the six-four on a beat which, although relatively accented, is weaker than the downbeat on which the dominant follows. These deviations, viewed in correlation with the fact that the cadential six-four appears as a chord of a temporary resolution, only reveal how diverse the exploration of that sonority could be. Other typical usages of altered subdominant chords resolving into the cadential six- four involve the chords containing a diminished third/augmented sixth. Functionally, they are no different from the common tone diminished seventh chord explored above. In Example 22, the II4/3 (b5) chord contains an augmented sixth as it resolves into the cadential six-four. The chord of resolution occupies a whole measure and it hardly sounds like a “dominant with a double appoggiatura,” given the combination between the compact sonority in the left hand and the accompaniment in the right hand:

Example 22: Frederic Chopin, Etude in E, Op. 10 No. 3, measures 16–18.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 89 23.6.2016 9:58:23 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Concerning the differentiation between altered subdominants and secondary dominants, a few more remarks need to be added. Many analysts would not pay attention to such functional nuances, while others would refuse to make a distinction. The expectation in practice is that different labels and different spellings will continue to circulate interchangeably. However, for those who are particularly attentive to the chord’s behavior in different contexts, distinction in functionality may be the preferred manner of analysis.

Similarity between the Cadential Six-Four and the Accented Passing Tonic Six-Four

A striking feature in the exploration of the I6/4 sonority is observed when it is introduced as a cadential six-four but is connected as a passing tonic six-four. Technically, the first six-four in the progression below is passing, but it is introduced on a downbeat and is preceded by a “dramatic” altered subdominant; unusual features for a passing tonic six-four which is typically found on weak beat, surrounded by diatonic subdominants:

Example 23: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Sonata in A, K. 331 (III), measures19–24.

A similar treatment of I6/4 is found in Beethoven’s Für Elise (Example 24). The middle section of the piece (mm. 45-52) represents a modulating period from F major to C major. In the second half of the period, what sounds like a cadential six-four in A minor is introduced after the tonic of F major to initiate a modulation from F to a. However, this idea is abandoned and the six-four sonority is treated as a passing common chord in a modulation to C major. Two versions of analysis are provided below to reflect two different possible perceptions:

Example 24: Ludwig van Beethoven, Für Elise [Bagatelle No. 25], measures 49–52.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 90 23.6.2016 9:58:24 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR The harmonic implications illustrated in Examples 23 and 24 suggest the following conclusion: although there is a marked functional difference between “strong” and “weak” six-four chords – for instance, the cadential six-four reveals a conflict between tonic and dominant which creates tension, whereas the passing tonic six-four is a substitute for a root position triad and does not create tension – the structural equality between them may be explored by shifting the metrical position of a weak six- four chord and making it sound like a strong, ambivalent six-four chord. This method produces “creative ambiguity” within a passage and arouses expectations related to a typical cadential six-four arrival – an approach to a cadence. One may loosely describe such operations as „fusion of a cadential six-four and a passing six-four.“

Extension and Free Arpeggiation of the Cadential Six-Four

The cadential six-four chord may be freely extended for as long as the composer’s common sense allows. This technique is typically applied in classical and romantic instrumental concertos at moments where a greater delay in the dominant entrance is sought. Naturally, such extensions, often presented in different forms of arpeggiation, do not sound like dissonant structures with non-chord tones, but create the effect of free re-arrangement of a tonic triad over a dominant bass, as in the following example:

Example 25: Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Piano Concerto in B-flat, Op. 23 (I), measures 436–440.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 91 23.6.2016 9:58:25 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Let us observe the following excerpt from Mozart’s Piano Concerto in C major. The six-four chord on the downbeat of m. 375 is introduced dramatically as cadential, but its subsequent occurrences in mm. 375-378 will probably be heard as pedal six-fours because of the brief alternations between dominant and tonic above the bass. Howe- ver, this “fusion” of cadential and pedal six-four is subordinate to the general impression of the cadential six-four being expanded for seven measures before the appearance of the dominant in m. 382. Interestingly, the brief dominant fluctuations in mm. 375- 377 are working as embellishments of the extended cadential six-four:

Example 26: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Piano Concerto in C, K. 467 (I), measures 374–384.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 92 23.6.2016 9:58:26 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR Other interesting features are the embellishment of scale degrees 3, 1, and 6 in the solo piano passage in mm. 378-379, and the tonic outline in the scale and accompaniment in m. 381. When we listen to those passages we do not associate them with “appoggiaturas” to the dominant, even though they occur above a dominant bass. The empirical evidence presented so far concerns such occurrences of the cadential six-four chord where its structural equality with the tonic triad is compositionally explored, revealing the potential of the cadential sonority to serve as a chord of resolution. This phenomenon naturally defies the conventional view of the cadential six-four as a dominant with non-chord tones. In relation to the various resolutions of non-chord tones and chromatic chords into the cadential six-four, a reductive analysis would place the embellishment of the tonic structure at one level, and the eventual resolution of the entire six-four into the dominant at another, deeper level. At that level, one may even call the cadential six-four “a dominant in a process of formation,” keeping in mind that this process does not involve a resolution of non-chord tones; rather, it represents a solving of a functional conflict between the tonic and the dominant in favor of the dominant function. In addition, as one has realized, this “dominant in a process of formation” does not have the character of a genuine dominant with suspensions, for the latter can be connected directly with the tonic and produce an authentic resolution, while the cadential six-four is incapable of such a feast. The notion of two functional levels in a chord is quite different from the notion of a chord with a double suspension – typically, non-chord tones and chromatic chords do not resolve into suspensions – they resolve into chords, and one such chord may be bi-functional. The bi-functionality does not undermine the aural effect of resolution of those elements into a vertical entity which coincides with the triad built on the first scale degree. For instance, as discussed in Example 10, the oddly looking 5-4 suspension in reference to the bass note of the cadential six-four (which deceives the viewer to think that this is a consonance which resolves into a dissonance!), will be aurally perceived as a dissonant 9-8 suspension to the root of the tonic triad. This perception has nothing to do with a simple “embellishment of the embellishment” – in fact, the tonic component in the cadential six-four is activated through the introduction of a non-chord tone to it, and ironically – this foreign tone is a member of the dominant triad! Consequently, to recognize two functional levels in the cadential six-four – a tonic and a dominant – means to dismiss the absolute equalization of that chord with a dominant function. In Schenkerian analysis the cadential six-four is not recognized as a separate entity with its own character; it is explained as an ornamentation of the dominant chord, even at the surface level. Therefore, the various appearances of that chord as a point of resolution seem to pose a problem before a Schenkerian analyst, even if he or she did not recognize that. As it has already been stressed, typically, non-chord tones and chromatic chords do not resolve into ornamentations – they resolve into chords. The analyst may choose to address this problem by: 1) revising the analytical methods so that a new perspective of viewing the cadential six-four as a vertical entity opens; or 2) explaining all these resolutions into the cadential six-four as phenomena that occur

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 93 23.6.2016 9:58:26 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 at a non-existing level, i. e. “above the surface,” or 3) pretending that such a problem does not exist. As far as the label V6/4 is concerned, it looks rather confusing when attached to a six-four chord which has a tonic structure. This situation is revealed in the following comparison:

Example 27: False Coincidence in the labelling of Two Different Structures.

If only figured bass numbers were used, both chords in the boxes would be correctly labelled as six-four structures. But when the same Roman numeral is attached to both of them, it confuses the eye and the mind, for it concerns two entirely different sonorities. Well, some musicians would not label the chord in Example 27b on the grounds that it is a part of a “tonic prolongation”. The matter of functional prolongation may be a subject of heated debates, and the analysis of a music excerpt in this respect will depend on different factors such as: metrical position, tempo, subscription to rigid definitions, and personal bias. Concerning example 27b, one may either leave the label as it is, or place it in parenthe- sis, or omit it. These actions will depend on one‘s goal at the moment: to be concrete, or to generalize. Whichever the situation, labelling the passing six-four is not a mistake, and when analysts do that, they may be willing to avoid any possible confusion between that chord and the cadential six-four, whose label shall be different. To the objection that one cannot mechanically separate the V6/4 label from the entire V6/4–5/3 complex, one may reply that, had the cadential six-four been a true dominant with suspensions, such a separation would have been perfectly possible, as in V7sus4 – I, or V7sus6/4 – I, for example. In the two latter cases, both dominants are separated from the possible additions of V7/3 and V7/5/3, respectively, because true dominants with suspensions may move directly into the tonic (depending on style), without spoiling the effect of an authentic resolution.

Summary and Final Remarks

The main points of my observations regarding the cadential six-four are summarized in the following list: • The perfect fourth, which is regarded either as a consonance or as a dissonance – depending on the arrangement of a given sonority, the context, and the aesthetics of a musical epoch – fails to serve as a solid argument in favor of an unquestionable dominant function of the cadential six-four chord.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 94 23.6.2016 9:58:26 D. NINOV • FUNCTIONAL NATURE OF THE CADENTIAL SIX-FOUR • The tension within the cadential six-four is not caused by a dissonant fourth, but by a functional conflict between tonic and dominant. • While a genuine dominant chord with suspensions produces an authentic resolution even if the suspensions are not resolved prior to its motion into the tonic, the cadential six-four chord – placed directly before a tonic triad – fails to produce an authentic resolution. This means that it is not a genuine dominant with suspensions. • Occasionally, non-chord tones and altered chords resolve into the cadential six-four chord. Such resolutions bring forth the structural equality of the six-four with the tonic triad, and they would be impossible if the cadential six-four were a dominant with two non-chord tones. • Occasionally, a six-four may be introduced as a cadential chord but connected as a passing chord; this phenomenon reveals its structural equality with the tonic. • When the cadential six-four is freely extended or arpeggiated, the aural effect is not one of moving around non-chord tones above a dominant bass, but one of arpeg- giating a tonic triad above a dominant bass.

The idea of the cadential six-for as an intrinsic combination of tonic and dominant opens the door to the explanation of all possible occurrences of this chord. Its functional duality is caused by two factors: 1) metrical prominence which turns the bass tone into a contrasting element to the upper structure, and 2) special functional surrounding (by S and D or T and D). As for the weak six-four chords (passing and pedal), they do not possess that degree of functional duality because they appear in different conditions related to the absence of metrical prominence, the presence of a smooth bass line and a uniform harmonic encirclement. These factors help us to perceive the weak six-four chords as triads in second inversion. On the other hand, the arpeggiated six-four does not necessarily have a smooth bass line but, being a part of an arpeggiated triad, it leaves no doubt about its qualities of a second inversion chord. I believe this discussion has been persuasive enough to suggest the following conclusion: Granting the cadential six-four a full license of being a dominant is no less erroneous than declaring it as a tonic in second inversion. The cadential six-four is a bi-functional chord in which a unique conflict between the two most polar harmonic functions – tonic and dominant – is manifest.

Bibliography

Arabov, Plamen. Хармония с аранжиране за хор [Harmony with Arrangements for Cho- ir]. Sofia: Muzika, 1991. Beach, David. “The Cadential Six-Four as Support for Scale Degree Three of the Funda- mental Line.” Journal of Music Theory 34/1 (1990a): 81–99. “More on the Six-Four.” Journal of Music Theory 34/2 (1990b): 281–290. Cadwallader, Allen. “More on Scale Degree Three and the Cadential Six-Four.” Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992): 187-198. Grigoriev, Stepan. Теоретический курс гармонии [Theoretical Course of Harmony]. Mos- cow: Muzika, 1981.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 95 23.6.2016 9:58:26 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Hadjiev, Parashkev. Хармония [Harmony], 5th ed. Sofia: Muzika, 1976. Lester, Joel. “Reply to David Beach.” Journal of Music Theory 36/1 (1992): 199–206. Meyer, Leonard. “Nature, Nurture, and Convention: The Cadential Six-Four Progressi- on.” The Spheres of Music. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2000. 226–251. Piston, Walter. Harmony. New York: W. W. Norton, 1941. Raitchev, Alexander. Хармония [Harmony], 3rd ed. Sofia: Nauka i Izkustvo, 1974. Rameau, Jean-Phiplippe. Treatise on Harmony. Trans. and ed. Philip Gossett. New York: Dover, [1722] 1971. Ratner, Leonard G. Harmony: Structure and Style. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. Riemann, Hugo. The Nature of Harmony. Trans. John C. Fillmore. Philadelphia: Theo. Presser, 1886. Schoenberg, Arnold. Theory of Harmony. Trans. Roy Carter. Berkeley: University of California Press, [1922] 1983. Wick, Norman L. “An Historical Approach to Six-Four Chrods.” Theoria 5 (1991): 61–73.

POVZETEK prostem arpeggiu, ustvarjajo zaznavo premikajočih se toničnih triad prek basa na doinanti in ne gre Običajna razlaga kadenčnega kvartsekstakorda kot toliko za prestavitev para zunajakordičnih tonov dominante z dvema poudarjenima neakordičnima znotraj akorda na dominanti. V članku je ob tem tonoma izpušča pomembno značilnosti, ki je po- predstavljen tudi drugačen pristop k razumevanju redkoma raziskana: njegovo strukturno enakost s vloge čiste kvarte. toničnim kvintakordom. Ko je kadenčni kvartse- Raziskava želi podkrepiti idejo, da je kadenčni kstakord obogaten z zunajakordnimi toni ali ko se kvartseksakord edinstven dvofunkcijski akord, ki različni alterirani akordi vanj razvežejo, postane pooseblja boj med toniko in dominanto. ta akord začasna točka razveza in njegova tonična Glavne premise mojega eseja izhajajo iz klasičnih vloga pride bolj do izraza. Razlika med dominanto pristopov k harmonični funkcionalnosti, ki jo je z zadržki in kadenčnim kvartsekstakordom posta- osnoval J. P. Rameau, razvili pa Hugo Riemann, ne očitna tedaj, ko se vsak od teh akordov razreši Rimsky-Korsakov, Arnold Schoenberg, Walter Piston, neposredno v toniko: prvi ustvari avtentično razre- Benzion Eliezer, Plamen Arabov in drugi, ki so imeli šitev, četudi se zadržki ne razrešijo takoj, drugemu tonalnost za polje dinamične interakcije med tremi pa takšna razrešitev na uspe in mu mora slediti do- glavnimi funkcijami harmonije: toniko, subdomi- minanta. Stavki, kjer je kadenčni akord zastavljen v nanto, dominanto in njim pripadajočim akordom.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 96 23.6.2016 9:58:26 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... UDK 780.622.11 DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.97-120

Andraž Poljanec Dvor 12, 1210 Ljubljana-Šentvid

Akustične lastnosti timpanov in njihova povezava z instrumentalno prakso The Acoustic Properties of Timpani and their Connection with the Instrumental Practice

Prejeto: 23. oktober 2015 Received: 23rd October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: timpani, pavke, akustika timpanov Keywords: timpani, kettledrums, acoustics of timpani

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Opravljenih je bilo že mnogo raziskav o akustičnih While there is much knowledge and research on lastnostih timpanov, neraziskan pa je vpliv različnih the acoustics of timpani, there is a lack of scientific tehnik igranja na njihov zven. V svoji raziskavi sem research on the playing technique. In my research I analiziral video in avdio posnetke ter primerjal in analyzed visual and audio recordings and discove- ugotavljal vpliv različnih palic, napetosti opne in red the impact on the sound color using different prijemov oziroma stilov igranja na barvo zvena. mallets, varying the tension of the membrane and played with different grips and styles.

UVOD

Timpani so instrumenti arabskega porekla. V Evropi so se kot manjši kotlasti bobni pojavili proti koncu 13. stoletja pod imenom nakers (iz arab. naqqareh), ki se je obdr- žalo še v 14. stoletju. Sprva so jih uporabljali v vojski, v parih oprtane na konjih. Tim- pane večje velikosti so v zahodno Evropo prinesli koncem 14. oziroma v začetku 15. stoletja. V Angliji so jih pozneje poimenovali kettle-drums (kotlasti bobni).1 Po začetni uporabi izključno na prostem, kjer so timpanisti v kombinaciji s trobentami improvizirali, značilna pa je bila tudi izrazita gestikulacija, so timpani v 17. stoletju prišli v dvora-

1 Prim.: Cecil Forsyth, Orchestration (New York: Dover Publications, 1982), 41.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 97 23.6.2016 9:58:27 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 ne raznih evropskih dvorcev skupaj s trobentami, rogovi in oboami.2 Tekom stoletij je po zaslugi skladateljev njihova vloga v orkestru postajala vse večja. Izraz timpan izhaja iz latinske besede tympanum oziroma iz grške tympanon, kar pomeni boben. Ime timpani se večinoma uporablja v množini, ker v praksi igramo na več bobnov, ki jih v francoščini imenujejo timbales, v angleščini kettle-drums ali timpani, v nemščini pauken, v češčini kotly in v italijanščini timpani. Slovenščina je najprej prevzela nemško ime in ga poslovenila v pavke, kar je bilo sprva splošno razširjeno. Postopno se je uveljavila različica timpani, ki jo uporabljamo vse pogosteje, lahko pa rečemo, da sta izraza timpani in pavke pri nas enakovredna. Ime kotli, ki bi bilo podobno kot v češčini jezikovno najbolj primerno, pa se v slovenščini uporablja zelo redko. Glavni sestavni deli timpanov so masivno podnožje, na katero je pritrjen običajno bakren kotel – resonator, ter opna, ki je napeta čez kotlov rob. Opna je najprej namo- tana okrog nekoč lesenega, danes kovinskega obroča, malce večji železni obroč pa jo osredišči in s pomočjo dolgih jeklenih vijakov napenja ob rob kotla. Napetost in s tem višino tona so v preteklosti spreminjali ročno z več krajšimi vijaki, razporejenimi po obodu železnega obroča, ali z vrtenjem kotla na navpični osi. Danes ima večina timpanov (razen znamenitih dunajskih, kjer s pomočjo T-ročaja dvigamo ali spuščamo cel kotel, ki pritiska na opno) v podnožje vgrajen pedal, s katerim prek omenjenih dolgih vijakov spreminjamo napetost membrane. S pedalom je povezan tudi kazalec, ki timpanistu omogoča vizualno nastavitev posameznih tonov. Sodobni komplet petih timpanov ima skupni obseg dobrih dveh oktav. Danes so timpani najpomembnejša tolkala v orkestru predvsem zaradi zmožnosti proizvajanja zvena točno določene višine, s čimer sodelujejo v harmoniji kompozicij kot basovski instrument s poudarjeno ritmično vlogo. Poleg tega imajo timpani največ- ji razpon v dinamiki oziroma so dinamično najbolj ekstremen instrument. Imajo torej velik vpliv na zvočno sliko celotnega orkestra.

Akustične lastnosti timpanov v povezavi z instrumentalno prakso

Na področju akustike timpanov so doslej opravili že vrsto raziskav, ki pojasnjujejo značilnosti nihanja membrane. Frekvence načinov nihanja idealne membrane je John W. S. Rayleigh izračunal že v 19. stoletju (The Theory of Sound, 1894).3 Velik napredek v razumevanju akustike timpanov je v zadnji četrtini 20. stoletja naredil Thomas D. Rossing, ki je raziskoval harmonski spekter pavk. Najsodobnejše delo s področja akustike timpanov pa je Timpani Tone (Steven L. Schweizer, 2010),4 v kateri najdemo tudi nekaj spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov glede na trdoto palice in napetost opne. Raz- iskovanje akustičnih vidikov različnih tehnik oziroma stilov igranja in prijemov palice pa je bilo doslej zapostavljeno, čeprav je jasno, da zven timpanov ni odvisen le od vrste in kvalitete instrumenta, ampak tudi od načina igranja timpanista.

2 Prim.: John H. Beck, Encyclopedia of percussion (New York, London: Garland publ., 1995), 201–202. 3 John W. S. Rayleigh, The Theory of Sound, vol. 1, 2. izd. (New York: Dover Publications, 1945, 1. izd. 1894), 330. 4 Steven L. Schweizer, Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 98 23.6.2016 9:58:27 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... Nihanje okrogle, idealne, proste membrane

Pri nihanju okrogle, idealne in proste membrane, tj. takšne s povsod enako debelino in enako napetostjo ter brez resonatorja – kotla, se pojavita dve vrsti vozliščnic: črtaste oziroma prečne čez središče opne in pa krožne. Na vozliščnicah je odmik opne iz ravnovesne lege ničen oziroma minimalen podobno kot pri vozlih na struni. Posle- dica nihanja vzbujene opne je torej frekvenčni spekter, sestavljen iz množice načinov nihanja oziroma vzorcev.5

Slika 1: Načini nihanja okrogle membrane6 (prir. A. Poljanec).

Slika 1 prikazuje 25 načinov oziroma vzorcev nihanja okrogle membrane; pod po- sameznim vzorcem je navedeno število vozliščnih krožnic (n) in vozliščnih premerov (p). Kot je razvidno, predstavlja že obod oziroma obroč okrogle membrane prvo voz- liščno krožnico – membrana pri prvem načinu (0,1) v celoti niha gor in dol nad ravno- vesno lego, v kateri je opna v mirujočem stanju. Za izračun frekvenc posameznih načinov nihanja uporabimo enačbo 1 T F= · J 2πr √ ρ pn

Enačba nam razkrije nekaj zakonitosti okrogle membrane: frekvenca je obratno sorazmerna s polmerom (r) – če polmer podvojimo, se frekvenca razpolovi, torej

5 Prim.: Murray Campbell in Clive Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics (New York: Schrimer Books, 1987), 412. 6 Bruno Ravnikar, Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike (Ljubljana: DZS, 1999), 60.

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 99 23.6.2016 9:58:27 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 se intonacija zniža za eno oktavo; poleg tega je frekvenca sorazmerna s korenom napetosti opne (T) – če želimo intonacijo zvišati za oktavo, moramo štirikrat pove- čati napetost.7 Izračunane frekvence načinov nihanja za idealno prosto membrano, ki bi teoretič- no nihala v brezzračnem prostoru, pokažejo zelo neharmonsko alikvotno vrsto, kar pomeni, da takšna membrana ne intonira.8

Nihanje membrane na kotlu – resonatorju

V realnosti je opna timpana napeta čez rob kotla. Udarec s palico vzbudi njeno nihanje, ki se prenese na volumen zraka v kotlu, zvočno valovanje pa se prenaša po okoliškem zraku. Masa zraka, ki pritiska na opno, ne samo da postopno zmanjšuje amplitudo nihanja (dušeno nihanje), ampak tudi zniža frekvence posameznih načinov nihanja. Očitno je, da membrana niha nekoliko počasneje kot v brezzračnem prostoru, če med nihanjem odriva zrak navzgor in navzdol.9 Vpliv na nižje alikvotne frekvence je zaradi večjih amplitud večji, na višje pa manjši.10 Poleg tega kotel kot resonator upočas- ni izzvenevanje posameznih načinov nihanja in poudari osnovno frekvenco nihanja.11 Rezultat vseh naštetih dejavnikov je, da membrana na kotlu intonira, izkaže pa se, da k tonalnosti prispevajo prečni načini nihanja.12

Točka udarca na opni

Točka udarca določa, kateri načini nihanja se vzbudijo. Osnovno pravilo je, da udarec v vozel ali na vozliščnico ne vzbudi pripadajočega načina nihanja.13 Tako npr. udarec v sredino opne vzbudi samo krožne načine nihanja, ker se v središču križajo vse vozliščnice prečnih načinov, ki so v tem primeru nevzbujeni. Nasprotno pa bo udarec povsem pri obroču teoretično vzbudil večino možnih frekvenc. Udarec v sredino sli- šimo kot zamolkel zven – vzbujeni so samo krožni načini. Udarec blizu obroča pa se sliši kot daljši ton (vzbujeni so tudi prečni načini nihanja). Pri timpanih je običajna točka udarca približno na eni četrtini razdalje od oboda proti sredini. Udarec v to točko usmeri večino energije v prečne načine nihanja, ki prispevajo k tonalnosti instrumenta. Udarec v center pa, kot rečeno, prečne načine nihanja zaduši.14

7 Prim.: Campbell in Greated, The Musician’s Guide to Acoustics, 412–413. 8 Prav tam. 9 Prav tam, str. 414. 10 Prim.: Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics, 2. izd. (Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1991), 167. 11 Steven L. Schweizer, Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 6. 12 Prim.: Hall, Musical Acoustics, 167. 13 Prav tam, str. 169. 14 Andreas Wagner, »Analysis of Drumbeats – Interaction between Drummer, Drumstick and Instrument« (PhD diss., Stockholm: Kraljevi inštitut za tehnologijo, 2006), 9.

100

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 100 23.6.2016 9:58:27 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... Raziskava nekaterih tehnik igranja na timpane

Namen raziskave je ugotoviti vpliv različnih prijemov palice in stilov igranja na barvo zvena, podobno kot je to mogoče doseči z uporabo različnih palic ali napetosti opne za isti ton. V raziskavi sem primerjal: • pet različnih palic (slika 3, tabela 2), • dve napetosti opne (tona c in f), • dve artikulaciji (legato in staccato), • dva različna stila oziroma prijema (francoski in ameriški), • tremolo s tremi različnimi pari palic.

Raziskava tehnik igranja je bila del magistrskega študija akustičnih lastnosti pavk in njihove povezave z instrumentalno prakso na muzikološkem oddelku Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani pod mentorstvom izr. prof. dr. Bruna Ravnikarja. Samo raziskavo pa sem opravil na Univerzi za glasbo in upodabljajočo umetnost na Dunaju pod vodstvom prof. dr. Matthiasa A. Bertscha, ki se sicer ukvarja z interdisciplinarnimi raziskavami na področ- jih akustike, psihoakustike, psihologije, fiziologije, organologije in kognitivnih znanosti. Za analizo stika glave palice in membrane ob udarcu ter hitrosti palice sva uporabila visokohitrostno kamero Vision Phantom V12.1, ki omogoča počasno predvajanje hitrega posnetka in s tem natančno vizualno analizo. Kamero je posodil akustični oddelek dunajske Univerze za glasbo in upodabljajočo umetnost. Visokohitrostni posnetki so bili narejeni z več tisoč slikami na sekundo. Tabela 1 prikazuje razmerje med normalno film- sko hitrostjo in hitrim posnetkom. Dogajanje snemamo z npr. 2000 slikami na sekundo, nato pa predvajamo posnetek z normalno hitrostjo, pri čemer je gibanje palice izrazito počasno. Za analizo video posnetkov sem uporabil program Quick Time Player.

normalna hitrost 30 slik/s 1 s = 1 s hitri posnetek 2000 slik/s 1 s = 66,67 s = 1 min 6,67 s hitri posnetek 4000 slik/s 1 s = 133,34 s = 2 min 13,34 s

Tabela 1: Razmerje med normalno hitrostjo snemanja in hitrim posnetkom.

Slika 2: Visokohitrostna kamera Phantom V12.1 s tehničnimi podatki: do 6242 slik/ sekundo pri polni resoluciji (1200 x 800), hitrost zaslonke 1 μs.

101

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 101 23.6.2016 9:58:27 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Za zvočne posnetke posameznih udarcev sva uporabila mikrofon AKG C577WR (20–20000 Hz), ki je bil nameščen 15 cm nad opno. Za analizo zvočnih posnetkov sem uporabil program Audacity, ki omogoča prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov. Spektrogramske črte, ki prikazujejo spekter zvoka, se razlikujejo po barvi in dolžini glede na jakost in trajanje posamezne frekvence. Najmočneje izražene frekvence so obarvane belo, šibkejše pa rdeče, vijolično in modro. Dolžina črte pove, koliko časa izzveneva posamezna frekvenca. Za snemanja sem uporabil 26 inčni Slingerland timpan z membrano Remo Weatherking-Renaissance.

Udarci z različnimi palicami

Timpanisti uporabljamo številne različno trde palice, s katerimi dosežemo večje ali manjše razlike v artikulaciji, dolžini in barvi zvena. Zelo pomembna je masa palice, ki je odvisna od dolžine, materiala ročaja in glave. Lažje palice prinašajo svetlejši zven z manj očitnimi nižjimi zvočnimi alikvoti in bolj slišnimi zgornjimi, ki so neharmonski, težke lesene palice pa poudarijo osnovni ton in nizke alikvote.15 Palica za timpane je sestavljena iz ročaja in glave. V raziskavi uporabljene palice imajo ročaje iz bambusa ali lesa in glave iz plute ali lesa. Glava je obložena z različno debelimi ovoji iz filca ali pa je brez prevleke.

Slika 3: Palice, uporabljene v raziskavi.

Legenda delovnih oznak palic Splošna oznaka palic je XYZ+debelina filca, pri čemer pomeni: • X – material ročaja palice (B = bambus, L = les) • Y – material glave palice (P = pluta, L = les) • Z – material, s katerim je prevlečena glava palice (F = filc, 0 = brez prevleke) • debelina filca (zd = zelo debel, srd = srednje debel, t = tanek, zt = zelo tanek)

15 Schweizer, Timpani Tone, 10–12.

102

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 102 23.6.2016 9:58:28 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd BPFt LLFzt LL0 material ročaja bambus bambus bambus les les material glave (no- pluta pluta pluta les les tranji del) material prevleke zelo debel srednje tanek filc zelo tanek brez prev- glave filc debel filc filc leke premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 12,86 10,74-14,45 10,62-14,80 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 19,40 18,59 22,70 premer notranjega 24,05 19,97 16,02 17,20 22,70 dela glave [mm] masa palice [g] 26 26 27 51 54

Tabela 2: Tehnični podatki o palicah, uporabljenih v raziskavi.

Timpanisti uporabljamo različne palice glede na: • vrsto timpanov, • dinamiko, • artikulacijo, • barvo zvena, ki jo želimo doseči, • posebne efekte v sodobni glasbi.

Iz izkušenj vemo, da trdota in debelina glave ter masa palic vplivajo na zven timpana. Skupni imenovalec teh dejavnikov je časovna dolžina stika med glavo palice in opno, ki sem jo raziskal v tem poglavju. Prikaz odčitavanja časovne razlike hitrega posnetka med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno ter izračun dejanske časovne razlike za palico LL0 (leseni ročaj, lesena glava brez prevleke, masa je 54 g) na tonu f

Slika 4: Začetek stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 15,54 s).

103

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 103 23.6.2016 9:58:28 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 5: Konec stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 15,89 s).

Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 2000 slik/sekundo) med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno je 0,35 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0052 s oziroma 5,2 ms. Čas stika med glavo palice LL0 in opno na tonu f je 5,2 ms. Po enakem postopku sem izračunal čase stika med glavo in opno za ostale palice.

delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd BPFt LLFzt LL0 material ročaja bambus bambus bambus les les material glave (no- pluta pluta pluta les les tranji del) material prevleke zelo debel srednje tanek zelo tanek brez prev- glave filc debel filc filc filc leke premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 12,86 10,74-14,45 10,62-14,80 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 19,40 18,59 22,70 masa palice [g] 26 26 27 51 54 čas stika med glavo 6,8 ms 3,9 ms 3,3 ms 5,2 ms 5,2 ms palice in opno

Tabela 3: Tehnični podatki o palicah ter razultati časov stika med glavami palic in opno.

Pri palicah iz bambusa je časovna dolžina stika med glavo palice in opno premo sorazmerna z debelino filcaste prevleke glave, kar je pričakovano in povsem logično. Na prvi pogled pa sta presenetljiva podatka o časih stika pri lesenih palicah z zelo tankim slojem filca (LLFzt) in brez prevleke (LL0), saj bi pričakovali, da se trša glava hitreje odbije od opne kot mehkejša, pa tudi podatki o trajanju stika pri bambusovih palicah (BPFzd, BPFsrd in BPFt) kažejo na to. Vzrok za daljši čas pri lesenih palicah je njihova masa, ki je dvakrat večja kot pri bambusovih, in vpliva na občutno podaljšanje stika. Če primerjamo lesene palice z zelo tankim slojem filca in brez prevleke, je čas stika kljub

104

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 104 23.6.2016 9:58:28 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... večji trdoti lesenih palic brez prevleke enak, kar je očitno prav tako posledica razlike v masi, čeprav le za nekaj gramov. Če pomislimo na instrumentalno prakso, kjer si npr. želimo odigrati nek odsek tim- panskega parta čim bolj staccato, torej se trudimo za čim krajši stik med glavo palice in opno, bomo glede na to ugotovitev artikulacijo staccato lažje in učinkoviteje dosegli z bolj lahkimi palicami. Če pa želi timpanist skrajšati čas stika med glavo težke palice in opno, mora bolj aktivirati zapestje za čim hitrejši odboj palice ali pa poskrbeti za večjo hitrost palice, pri čemer mora paziti, da obdrži isto dinamiko.

Prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov za udarca z mehko in zelo trdo palico

Udarec s palico BPFzd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena z zelo debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki in staccato artikulaciji na tonu f z osnovno frekvenco 175 Hz

Slika 6: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka udarca z mehko palico (BPFzd).

Udarec s palico LL0 (leseni ročaj, lesena glava brez prevleke, masa je 54 g) v forte dinamiki in staccato artikulaciji na tonu f z osnovno frekvenco 175 Hz

Slika 7: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka udarca z zelo trdo palico (LL0).

105

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 105 23.6.2016 9:58:28 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Frekvenčni spekter pri udarcu z mehkimi in lahkimi palicami z debelo glavo seže do 2000 Hz, pri udarcu z zelo trdimi lesenimi palicami brez prevleke pa do 15000 Hz. Trde in težke palice zato zvenijo ostro v primerjavi z lažjimi in mehkejšimi. Pri palicah torej vplivajo na zven trije dejavniki: trdota in debelina glave ter masa palice.

Napetost opne

Postopek analize visokohitrostnih video posnetkov oziroma odčitavanje časovne razlike med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno ter izračun dejanske časov- ne razlike je bil enak kot pri primerjavi udarcev z različnimi palicami.

višina tona oz. napetost opne za: čas stika ton f (175 Hz) 4,3 ms ton c (131 Hz) 6,7 ms

Tabela 4: Čas stika med glavo palice in opno glede na njeno napetost oz. višino tona.

Čas stika je seveda krajši pri večji napetosti oziroma višjem tonu, kar timpanisti izkoriščamo za igranje v staccato artikulaciji, medtem ko tremolo na splošno raje odi- gramo na manj napeti opni. Iz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov izhajajo podobni zaključki. Pri tonu f z višjo napetostjo opne namreč posamezne frekvence izzvenijo 1 do 2 sekundi prej kot pri tonu »c«. Podobna razlika v napetosti opne je, če zaigramo ton »c« na 29 oziroma na 26 inčnem timpanu. Zato bomo ton »c« s staccato artikulacijo raje kot na timpanu z veli- kostjo 26 inčev zaigrali na 29 inčnem timpanu, kjer je napetost opne za isti ton višja. Poleg tega je pri večji napetosti membrane osnovni ton bolj poudarjen, prisotnih je manj neharmonskih frekvenc, torej je intonacija čistejša.

Legato in staccato artikulacija

Razliko med legato in staccato artikulacijo najlaže dosežemo z menjavo palic, če pa to ni mogoče, skušamo pri staccato artikulaciji s posebnim prijemom istega para palic skrajšati čas stika med opno in palico. Na timpanih zaigramo legato tako, da primemo palico čim bolj narahlo samo s palcem in kazalcem. Tako pride do daljšega stika med glavo palice in opno, rezultat pa je poln legato zven. Če želimo doseči ostrejši staccato zven, primemo palico s palcem, kazalcem in sredincem, s pomočjo zapestja pa povečamo hitrost odboja palice, s čimer dosežemo krajši stik med glavo palice in opno ter posledično bolj artikuliran zven.16

16 Prav tam, 28–29.

106

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 106 23.6.2016 9:58:28 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

Slika 8: Legato prijem.

Slika 9: Staccato prijem.

Prikaz izračunavanja povprečne hitrosti palice pri legato udarcu s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c

Slika 10: Palica med gibanjem navzdol v poševni legi (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 43,20 s).

107

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 107 23.6.2016 9:58:29 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 11: Glava palice se dotakne opne – začetek stika (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 51,19 s).

Hitrost palice

Andreas Wagner je v raziskavi udarcev na malem bobnu ugotovil, da hitrost palice vpliva na čas stika glave z opno, pri čemer je pri večji hitrosti čas stika krajši, ob tem pa se poveča dinamika igranja (npr. s forte na fortissimo).17 V svoji raziskavi na timpanih pa primerjam hitrosti različnih udarcev pri isti dinamiki (forte). Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila zaradi natančnejšega odčitavanja 4000 slik/sekundo) med poševno lego in začetkom stika z opno je 7,99 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 133,34 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0599 s oziroma 59,9 ms. Razdalja (r) od prijemališča do sredine glave palice je 0,282 m, kot α pa je 62°. Po naslednji enačbi izračunam lok, ki ga opiše palica od poševne lege do stika z opno: π 3,14 l= r · · · 180° α = 0,282 m 180° 62° = 0,3050 m S tema dvema podatkoma lahko izračunam povprečno hitrost palice: l 0,3050 m m v̄ = t = 0,0599 s = 5,09 s Povprečna hitrost srednje mehkih palic (BPFsrd) med poševno lego in začet- kom stika z opno pri legato udarcu s francoskim prijemom v dinamiki forte je 5,09 m/s.

Čas stika med glavo palice in opno

Prejšnja slika 11 prikazuje začetek stika med glavo palice in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 51,19 s).

17 Prim.: Wagner, »Analysis of Drumbeats«, 26.

108

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 108 23.6.2016 9:58:29 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

Slika 12: Konec stika med glavo palice in opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 52,06 s).

Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 4000 slik/sekundo) med začetkom in koncem stika glave palice z opno je 0,87 sekunde, kar je treba deliti s 133,34 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0065 s oziroma 6,5 ms. Čas stika med glavo palice BPFsrd in opno pri legato udarcu na tonu c je 6,5 ms. Po enakem postopku sem izračunal povprečno hitrost palice in čas stika med glavo palice in opno za staccato udarec.

Slika 13: Staccato udarec s palico BPFsrd v poševni legi med gibanjem navzdol (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c.

109

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 109 23.6.2016 9:58:29 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 14: Glava palice se dotakne opne – začetek stika pri staccato udarcu.

vrsta udarca povprečna hitrost čas stika med glavo palice [m/s] palice in opno [ms] legato 5,09 6,5 staccato 5,14 5,8

Tabela 5: Razlika med legato in staccato artikulacijo.

Na prvi pogled je presenetljivo, da je povprečna hitrost palice pri staccato udarcu le za 0,05 m/s višja v primerjavi z legatom. Vzrok za to je za 8° večji kot, ki ga opiše palica pri legato udarcu zaradi drugačnega stika glave palice z opno. Pri analizi video posnetkov udarcev za legato in staccato artikulacijo sem namreč pri obeh prijemih za začetek obravnave posnetka vzel enako višino glave palice oziroma enako lego palice v poševnem položaju. Ob dotiku z opno pa sta legi palice pri legato oziroma staccato udarcu nekoliko različni, zato se razlikujeta tudi kota, ki ju palica opiše med poševno lego in stikom z opno. Vzrok za različni legi palic ob stiku z opno je v tem, da pri legato udarcu stik glave palice z opno podaljšamo tudi z nekoliko bolj pošev - nim položajem glave glede na opno, kar je razvidno, če primerjamo sliki 11 in 14. Če bi preračunali povprečno hitrost na enak kot, bi bila razlika v povprečni hitrosti palice 14 krat večja.

Legato in staccato artikulacija – spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov

Legato udarec s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c z osnovno frekvenco 131 Hz

110

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 110 23.6.2016 9:58:29 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

Slika 15: Udarec legato.

Staccato udarec s palico BPFsrd (bambusov ročaj, glava iz plute je prevlečena s srednje debelim filcem, masa je 26 g) v forte dinamiki na tonu c z osnovno frekvenco 131 Hz

Slika 16: Udarec staccato.

Kot je razvidno s spektrogramov, seže sklenjen frekvenčni spekter pri legato udarcu malo čez 2000 Hz, pri staccato udarcu pa čez 4000 Hz, kar daje zvenu ostrejšo oziroma svetlejšo barvo.

Stili igranja na timpane

Pri stilu igranja je na prvem mestu prijem palice, pomembni pa so tudi gibanje roke, doprinos zgornjega dela telesa in stoječa ali sedeča namestitev timpanista. Pri francoskem stilu drži timpanist palico med prvim členkom kazalca in blazinico palca, ki je obrnjen navzgor, ostali prsti pa so zaokroženi okrog ročaja palice, vendar niso v stalnem stiku z njim. Takšen prijem omogoča bliskovit odboj palice in posledič- no bolj svetel ton. Pri francoskem stilu timpanist običajno igra stoje (tradicija) ali pa v višje sedečem položaju.18 Pri nemškem stilu držimo palico med prvim členkom palca in višje vzdolž kazalca, ostali prsti pa rahlo objemajo ročaj palice. Zven je zaradi igranja z navzdol obrnjenimi dlanmi nekoliko temnejši.19

18 Prim.: Schweizer, Timpani Tone, 14–15. 19 Prav tam.

111

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 111 23.6.2016 9:58:29 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Ameriški stil je nekje vmes – palico držimo na francoski način in igramo z navzdol obrnjenimi dlanmi. Ostali prsti malce močneje oprijemajo ročaj, močno zapestno gibanje pa zagotavlja hiter odboj palice.20 Avstrijski prijem je različica nemškega – palec je pomaknjen nekoliko višje, tako da je večji del blazinice v stiku z ročajem, kazalec pa je nekoliko bolj zaokrožen okrog ročaja. Pri dunajskem prijemu držimo palico s palcem in sredincem, kazalec pa uravnava smer palice. V raziskavi primerjam francoski stil oziroma prijem z ameriškim, ker ju stalno uporab- ljam v praksi, to pa je bistvenega pomena za relevantne rezultate raziskave. Kot je razvidno iz primerjave legato in staccato udarca, hitrost palice vpliva na čas stika glave palice z opno in s tem na zven timpana. Zato primerjam hitrosti palice tudi pri francoskem in ameriškem prijemu oziroma stilu. Pri analizi video posnetkov udarcev sem pri obeh prijemih za začetek obravnave posnetka vzel enako lego palice v vodoravnem polo- žaju. Postopek izračuna je bil enak kot pri legato in staccato udarcih.

Slika 17: Francoski prijem.

Slika 18: Ameriški prijem.

20 Prav tam.

112

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 112 23.6.2016 9:58:30 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

stil igranja oz. prijem povprečna hitrost palice [m/s] francoski 5,39 ameriški 6,34

Povprečna hitrost palice pri legato udarcu z ameriškim prijemom je višja za skoraj 1 m/s, kar je posledica aktivnejšega delovanja zapestja pri ameriškem stilu.

Francoski in ameriški prijem palice – spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov

Udarec s francoskim prijemom in palico BPFsrd (artikulacija legato, ton c)

Slika 19: Francoski prijem.

Udarec z ameriškim prijemom in palico BPFsrd (artikulacija legato, ton c)

Slika 20: Ameriški prijem.

Frekvenčni spekter dosega pri francoskem prijemu vrednosti do 3500 Hz, pri ame- riškem pa skoraj do 6000 Hz. Pri slednjem je torej prisotnih več višjih frekvenc, posledica pa je ostrejši oziroma svetlejši ton.

113

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 113 23.6.2016 9:58:30 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Hitrost palice in frekvenca udarcev pri tremoliranju v odvisnosti od trdote in mase palic

Tremolo izvajamo s hitro izmenjavo udarcev obeh rok. Potrebna hitrost oziroma frekvenca udarcev je odvisna od velikosti bobna in napetosti opne (velika napetost zahteva večjo frekvenco in obratno). Na prvi pogled se sicer zdi, da sta hitrost palic pri tremolu in frekvenca udarcev neločljivo povezani oziroma da gre tako rekoč za isto stvar, kar pa seveda ni res. Pri večji masi palic se je treba namreč zavedati, da timpanist vpliva na frekvenco udarcev z nižjo višino tremoliranja. Pri glasnem tremolu je treba upoštevati in po potrebi popravljati morebitno spremembo intonacije, ki se lahko malce zniža zaradi morebitnega raztegovanja opne. Oznaki za tremolo v notah sta »tr« ali pa tri črtice čez rep note. V partih Mozarta, Beethovna in Brahmsa je tremolo vedno označen s »tr«, črtice pa vselej pomenijo do- ločene notne vrednosti: ena črtica čez vrat note pomeni osminke, dve šestnajstinke, tri dvaintridesetinke itd. Izjema je npr. Berlioz, ki uporablja štiri črtice za tremolo. Vseka- kor je interpretacija odvisna od konteksta partiture in muzikalne logike. S tremolom na timpanih se skušamo približati dolgim tonom, ki jih izvajajo glasbeniki na drugih instrumentih. Pri tem je treba paziti, da posamezni udarci, ki jih nizamo v gostem zaporedju, niso preveč izraziti, kar najlaže dosežemo z mehkimi palicami. Večkrat pa se zgodi, da v skladbi potrebujemo trše palice za čim bolj jasno izvedbo določenih ritmičnih vzorcev, ki jim lahko takoj sledi tremolo, zato menjava palic ni mogoča. Glede na izkušnje timpanist prilagaja frekvenco tremoliranja glede na trdoto palic, namen raziskave pa je ugotoviti, kakšne so razlike v hitrostih palic. Pri tremolu, posnetem z visokohitrostno kamero v dinamiki forte, torej ugotavljam hitrost palice in frekvenco udarcev glede na trdoto in maso palic: • mehke lahke palice (ročaj iz bambusa, plutasta glava je ovita z zelo debelim filcem – oznaka BPFzd, masa 26 g), • srednje trde lahke palice (ročaj iz bambusa, plutasta glava je ovita s srednje debelim filcem – oznaka BPFsrd, masa 26 g), • trde težke palice (ročaj iz lesa, lesena glava je ovita z zelo tankim slojem filca – oznaka LLFzt, masa 51 g).

114

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 114 23.6.2016 9:58:30 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... Prikaz izračuna povprečne hitrosti palice pri tremolu z mehkimi lahkimi palicami

Slika 21 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) v zgornji legi (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 41,34 s) in kot, ki ga palica opiše do stika z opno.

Slika 22 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 46,03 s).

Razdalja od prijemališča do sredine glave palice je r (0,284 m), kot α pa je 63°. Po naslednji enačbi izračunam lok, ki ga opiše palica od zgornje do spodnje lege:

π 3,14 l= r · · · 180° α = 0,284 m 180° 63° = 0,312 m

Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (2000 slik na sekundo) med zgornjo in spodnjo lego leve palice je 4,69 s, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,070 s oziroma 70 ms. S tema dvema podatkoma lahko izračunam povprečno hitrost palice:

l 0,312 m m v̄ = t = 0,070 s = 4,46 s

Povprečna hitrost mehkih palic (BPFzd) pri tremolu v dinamiki forte je 4,46 m/s.

115

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 115 23.6.2016 9:58:30 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Tremolo z mehkimi lahkimi palicami – frekvenca udarcev

Prejšnja slika 22 prikazuje levo palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 46,03 s).

Slika 23 prikazuje desno palico (BPFzd) ob začetku stika z opno (tekoči čas hitrega posnetka je 7 min 52,22 s).

Časovna razlika hitrega posnetka (hitrost snemanja je bila 2000 slik/sekundo) med dotikoma leve in desne palice je 6,19 s, kar je treba deliti s 66,67 (glej tabelo 1), da dobimo dejanski čas, ki je v tem primeru 0,0928 s oziroma 92,8 ms. Časovni razmak med dvema udarcema je 0,0928 s, torej je število udarcev v 1 sekundi:

1 0,0928 s = 10,8/s Frekvenca udarcev pri tremolu z mehkimi lahkimi palicami (BPFzd) je 10,8/s.

Po enakem postopku sem prišel do povprečne hitrosti palic in frekvence udarcev tudi pri tremolu s srednje trdimi lahkimi in s trdimi težkimi palicami.

delovna oznaka BPFzd BPFsrd LLFzt material ročaja bambus bambus les material glave (notranji del) pluta pluta les material prevleke glave zelo debel filc srednje debel filc zelo tanek filc premer ročaja [mm] 12,06 12,67 10,74-14,45 premer glave [mm] 35,75 27,24 18,59 masa palice [g] 26 26 51 povprečna hitrost palice 4,46 m/s 4,85 m/s 4,38 m/s pri tremolu frekvenca udarcev pri 10,8/s 11,1/s 12,1/s tremolu

Tabela 6: Podatki o palicah in njihovih povprečnih hitrostih ter frekvenci udarcev pri tremolu.

116

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 116 23.6.2016 9:58:30 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ...

Povprečna hitrost pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami in z maso 26 g je bila v raziskavi 4,46 m/s, s srednje trdimi z enako maso pa 4,85 m/s, kar potrjuje izkušnjo, da timpanist pri tremoliranju s tršimi palicami poveča hitrost tremola. Pri trdih lesenih palicah z maso 51 g pa je bila hitrost tremola najnižja (4,38 m/s). Vzrok za to je dvakrat večja masa palic, ki otežuje dodatno povečanje hitrosti. Frekvenca udarcev pri mehkih palicah z maso 26 g je bila v raziskavi 10,8/s, pri srednje trdih z enako maso 11,1/s, pri trdih palicah z maso 51 g pa 12,1/s. Očitno je, da pri večji trdoti palic povečujemo frekvenco udarcev pri tremolu. Presenetljiv pa je podatek iz tabele 6 o najnižji hitrosti trde težke palice (LLFzt), pri čemer je frekvenca udarcev vseeno najvišja. Za razjasnitev tega na videz nelogičnega podatka moramo primerjati še amplitude tremola oziroma višine, do katerih sežejo različno težke palice med tremolom. S spodnje slike 24 je razvidno, da trde težke palice (LLFzt) dosežejo le 80% višine, do katere sežejo lahke bambusove palice pri tremolu v dinamiki forte. Timpanist si torej pomaga tako, da zniža amplitudo oz. višino tremola s trdimi palicami, s čimer poveča frekvenco udarcev kljub temu, da je hitrost palice nižja zaradi dvakrat večje mase palic.

Slika 24: Primerjava amplitud tremola oz. največjih višin (h) različnih palic (BPFzd, BPFsrd, LLFzt) pri tremolu.

Prikaz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov tremola z različnimi palicami

Slika 25: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola z mehkimi in lahkimi palicami BPFzd.

117

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 117 23.6.2016 9:58:31 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 26: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola s srednje trdimi in lahkimi palicami BPFsrd.

Slika 27: Spektrogram zvočnega posnetka tremola s trdimi in težkimi palicami LLFzt.

Glede na izvajalsko prakso timpanisti najraje izvajamo tremolo z mehkejšimi palicami, da so posamezni udarci čim manj očitni. Glede na primerjavo udarcev z različ- nimi palicami v prvem delu raziskave, je po udarcu s tršo palico prisotnih več višjih frekvenc, ki hitro izzvenijo, mehke palice pa poudarijo osnovni ton in nizke alikvote, ki izzvenevajo dalj časa. Tudi zgornji trije spektrogrami zvočnih posnetkov tremola kažejo podobne slike. Pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami so prisotne predvsem frekvence do 2000 Hz, pri srednje trdih palicah do 3500 Hz, pri trdih težkih palicah pa je frekvenčni spekter precej gost do 5000 Hz, posamezne frekvence pa sežejo do 7000 Hz. Tremolo s trdimi palicami ima zato ostrejši zven, poleg tega je jasnost intonacije manjša kot pri tremolu z mehkimi palicami, kjer pride bolj do izraza osnovni ton in nižje harmonske frekvence.

Zaključek

V raziskavi sem analiziral video in avdio posnetke in ugotavljal vpliv različnih prijemov oziroma tehnik timpaniranja na barvo zvena.

118

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 118 23.6.2016 9:58:31 A. POLJANEC • AKUSTIČNE LASTNOSTI TIMPANOV ... Visokohitrostni video posnetki, predvajani z normalno hitrostjo, pokažejo raz- lično dolge čase stika med glavo palice in opno, na kar vplivajo sestava in debelina glave ter masa palic, prav tako napetost opne, ki je obratno sorazmerna s časovno dolžino stika. Hitrost palice je odvisna od stila igranja in vrste prijema pri isti dinamiki (forte). Tako ima staccato udarec večjo povprečno hitrost v primerjavi z legatom po zaslugi bolj tesnega prijema palice in sodelovanja zapestja pri odboju palice od opne, čas stika med glavo palice in opno pa je krajši. Prav tako ima udarec v ame- riškem stilu večjo povprečno hitrost v primerjavi s francoskim zaradi aktivnejšega delovanja zapestja. Pri tremolu se z večjo trdoto palic povečujeta frekvenca udarcev in hitrost palic, s čimer skušamo čim bolj zabrisati učinek posameznih udarcev. Iz- jema pri hitrosti je tremolo s težkimi palicami, kjer je hitrost zaradi večje mase palic nekoliko nižja, timpanist pa poveča frekvenco z nižjo amplitudo oziroma višino tremoliranja. Iz spektrogramov zvočnih posnetkov je razvidno, da se barva zvena timpanov dejansko spreminja, kar lahko timpanist s pridom izkorišča pri izvajalski praksi. Ne le menjava palic, za katero med igranjem velikokrat ni dovolj časa, ampak tudi uporaba različnih tehnik in prijemov palic vpliva na barvo tona, ki jo iščemo glede na glasbeni okvir določenega dela skladbe, pri čemer se odločamo za zlivanje z orkestrom ali kontrastiranje. S takšnim pristopom lahko rečemo, da na timpane igramo in ne samo tolčemo.

Bibliografija

Beck, John H.. Encyclopedia of percussion. New York, London: Garland publ., 1995. Campbell, Murray in Greated, Clive. The Musician‘s Guide to Acoustics. New York: Schrimer Books, 1987. Forsyth, Cecil. Orchestration. New York: Dover Publications, 1982, 1. izd. London: Ma- cmillan, 1914. Hall, Donald E.. Musical Acoustics, 2. izd.. Belmont, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1991. Ravnikar, Bruno. Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike. Ljubljana: DZS, 1999. Rayleigh Strutt, John W.. The Theory of Sound. 2. izd.. New York: Dover Publications, 1945, 1. izd. 1894. Schweizer, Steven L.. Timpani Tone and the Interpretation of Baroque and Classical Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010. Wagner, Andreas. Analysis of Drumbeats – Interaction between Drummer, Drumstick and Instrument: PhD diss.. Stockholm: Kraljevi inštitut za tehnologijo, 2006.

119

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 119 23.6.2016 9:58:31 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

SUMMARY and the membrane. Velocity of the mallet depends on which type of the mallet grip or style is being The sound of the timpani is primarily defined by used in the same dynamics (forte). Therefore, the the type and material of the instrument, as well as staccato stroke has a higher speed of the mallet, through the playing style of the musician. While compared to a legato stroke, and the contact time is there is much knowledge and research on the shorter, on account of a tighter staccato grip and a instrument (e.g. the vibration characteristics of quick motion of the wrist during rebound. Equally, timpani heads), there is a lack of scientific research the American grip has a higher speed of the mallet on the playing technique. compared to the French grip because of the quicker This research focuses on the acoustical aspect motion of the wrist. The impact on the sound is of striking the timpani. The goal was to confirm seen from the spectrograms of sound recordings. whether a timpanist can perform different colours With tremolo, three pairs of mallets were tested. of the sound on the timpani, exploring different When harder mallets are used, the frequency of grips and playing styles to change the degree of the strokes and the mallet speed have to increase, articulation. Visual and audio recordings of striking tending to reduce the clarity of each stroke. There is the timpani were made, using five different mallets, an exception with the mallet speed: when tremolo varying tensions of membrane (c and f), played is played using hard and heavy mallets, the speed with two different articulations (legato, staccato) of the sticks is slightly lower because of the bigger and grips (French, American), plus tremolo was mass of the mallets, but we can increase the frequ- played with three different mallets. In order to ency with keeping them closer to the membrane. analyze them in slow motion, different strokes Different spectrograms of recorded sounds prove were first registered using high-speed camera with that the tone colour actually differs, so a timpanist several thousand pictures per second. Then sound should be aware that not only the changing mallets recordings of different strokes were made. but also the applying of different techniques could High-speed video analysis shows different contact change the colour of the sound, in accordance time between the mallet and the membrane, depen- with the musical context or the timpanist’s wish to ding on which mallet is used. It is, of course, longer blend with the orchestra. In instrumental practice, with soft mallets, but also the weight of the mallet timpanists also wish to follow the articulation de- plays a very important part. Results show that heavy mands of composers as much as possible, but there mallets have longer contact time although they are is often no time to change mallets while playing, so very hard. Increasing the tension of the membrane different grips serve very well to achieve a proper decreases the time of contact between the mallet colour of the sound.

120

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 120 23.6.2016 9:58:31 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... UDK 78.087.613(086.7) DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.121-145

Zoran Potočan Ravnikarjeva ulica 4, 1230 Domžale

Analiza zvena višjih in srednjih moških pevskih glasov s historičnih posnetkov Analysis of the Timbre of High and Middle Voiced Male Singing Voices in Historical Recordings

Prejeto: 10. september 2015 Received: 10th September 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: analiza zvena, pevski glasovi, his- Keywords: Timbre analysis, singing voices, histori- torični posnetki, akustične lastnosti pevskega glasu cal recordings, acoustic properties of singing voice

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Avtor v prispevku analizira zven pevcev, ki na iz- In the article, the author analyses the timbre of male branih historičnih posnetkih pojejo v slovenskem singers singing in Slovenian language in chosen jeziku. Iz digitalnih presnetkov starih gramofonskih historical recordings. Using timbre analysis of plošč (78 o/min) je s pomočjo zvenske analize digital copies of old 78-rpm records it is possible, mogoče, kljub slabši tehnični kakovosti posnetkov, despite lower technical quality of the recordings, dovolj zanesljivo sklepati o načinu fonacije takra- to deduce with sufficient reliability the manner of tnih pevcev in o estetskih značilnostih njihovega phonation of the male singers of the time and the izvajanja ter to primerjati z njihovimi in našimi aesthetic properties of their performance, as well sodobniki. as to compare it with their and our contemporaries.

Uvod

Predmet študije je analiza zvena (ang. timbre)1 solističnih pevskih glasov na presnet- kih historičnih zvočnih zapisov z gramofonskih plošč (78 o/min). Originalni posnetki so nastali v ZDA med letoma 1917 in 1931, ko so številna gramofonska podjetja, med

1 Christian Herbst, »Voice timbre in singing«, obiskano 11. 10. 2015, http://www.europeanchoralassociation.org/fileadmin/ redaktion/Dateien_Europa_Cantat/GA_Namur/ChristianHerbst_timbre_in_singing.pdf: 1.

121

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 121 23.6.2016 9:58:31 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 njimi vodilni gramofonski družbi Victor in Columbia, za komercialne namene snema- la pripadnike posameznih etničnih skupin priseljencev, tako tudi Slovence. Zgodnejši posnetki (do l. 1925) so bili večinoma posneti akustično, kasnejši (po l. 1927) pa iz- ključno električno.2 Na obravnavanih posnetkih3 se solistično pojavljajo višji (tenorji: Obrad Djurin4 – posnetek OD 01, Frank Plut5 – posnetka FP 01 in FP 02, Rudolf Banovec6 – posnetek AŠ RB 03) ter srednji (bariton: Anton Šubelj7 – posnetki AŠ 01, AŠ 02, AŠ RB 03) moški glasovi, ob spremljavi klavirja (posnetka AŠ 02 in AŠ RB 03), manjših instrumentalnih skupin (posnetki FP 01, FP 02 in AŠ 01) ali pihalne godbe (posnetek OD 01).8 Pevski solisti na analiziranih posnetkih izvajajo pretežno ljudsko glasbo in glasbo v ljudskem duhu, med njimi pa najdemo tudi slovenski samospev in operni duet. Med bolj znanimi avtorji skladb zasledimo Jurija Flajšmana, Antona Nedve˘da, Josipa Pav- čiča, Viktorja Parmo, Miroslava Vilharja in Bedřicha Smetano.9 Za primerjavo s pevci, ki pojejo v slovenskem jeziku, sta bila vzeta še posnetka dveh slavnih pevcev iz preteklosti – Enrica Carusa in Mattie Battistinija (MB 01, EC 01) ter posnetka dveh sodobnih slovenskih opernih solistov – Andreja Debevca in Roberta Vrčona (AD 01, RV 01). Osnovni namen prispevka je odgovoriti na vprašanje, ali je mogoče s historičnih posnetkov dovolj zanesljivo analizirati zven pevcev in iz tega sklepati o estetskih ter pevskotehničnih parametrih njihovega izvajanja. Tako na podlagi teoretičnih spoznanj o akustičnih značilnostih pevskega glasu in s pomočjo empirične analize zvena želi pokazati enega od pristopov k razlagi principov fonacije v funkciji glasbe. Teoretično se raziskava naslanja na Sundbergovo razpravo The Acoustics of the Singing Voice10, v kateri so predstavljena osnovna izhodišča za razumevanje povezave med fiziološkimi in akustičnimi zakonitostmi delovanja pevskega glasu, kar avtor pozneje nadgradi v The Science of the Singing Voice11. Glede na teoretična izhodišča je bila določena metodologija obravnave izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, predvsem določitev ustreznega frekvenčnega območja za analizo

2 Drago Kunej, »Med kodami skrita zvočna dediščina Slovencev«, Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva, letn. 54, št. 1 (2014): 23. 3 Posnetki so označeni z začetnicama imena in priimka pevskega solista ter zaporedno številko: FP 02 za drugi posnetek Franka Pluta ipd.. V primeru drugega vzorca z istega posnetka je dodana še mala črka: FP 02a ipd.. V kolikor je bil posnetek analiziran do 10kHz, je dodatno označena frekvenca: FP 01 10 kHz ipd. Če gre za duet, vsebuje oznaka začetnice imen in priimkov obeh pevcev: AŠ RB 03, na tem posnetku pojeta Anton Šubelj in Rudolf Banovec. Pod spektrogrami so posnetki enako označeni: FP 02 ipd. Ko gre za diagram vibrata, je dodana velika črka V: FP 02 V ipd. 4 Obrad Djurin (1885–1965), tenorist srbske narodnosti je v letih 1917 in 1918 posnel več slovenskih pesmi za založbo Victor, tudi pod psevdonimoma Obrad Žurin in Janez Gregorc (Charles F. Debevec, »Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): 103. 5 Frank Plut (1898–1978), tenorist iz Clevelanda je leta 1931 tudi kot solist snemal za založbo Columbia (Charles F. Debevec, »Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): 110. 6 Rudolf Banovec (1894–1978), lirični tenorist, 1918–56 angažiran v ljubljanski Operi (Slovenski biografski leksikon, obiskano 22. 6. 2015, http://sbl.zrc-sazu.si/tabid/59/Default.aspx?udt_374_param_detail=186). 7 Anton Šubelj (1899–1965), operni pevec, baritonist je med letoma 1928 in 1930 večkrat snemal za založbo Columbia (Charles F. Debevec, »Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): 109. 8 Pevski glasovi ter nekatera pihala in trobila so se tudi na zgodnjih posnetkih dokaj realistično zvočno zapisali (Drago Kunej, »Slovenski posnetki na gramofonskih ploščah z 78 o/min«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2 (2014): 16) 9 Urša Šivic, »Gramofonske plošče z 78 obrati na minuto - izraz ponarodelosti ali vzrok zanjo?«, Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, 2014): 156–159. 10 Johan Sundberg, The Acoustics of the Singing Voice (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977). 11 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987).

122

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 122 23.6.2016 9:58:31 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... tako historičnih, kot sodobnih posnetkov, glede na njihovo tehnično kakovost in akus- tične značilnosti pevskega glasu.

Metodologija analize izbranih posnetkov

Za analizo so služili deli digitalnih presnetkov (pod oznakami OD, FP in AŠ, 16 - bit, 44,1 kHz) gramofonskih plošč (78 o/min) iz Zvočnega arhiva GNI ZRC SAZU, za nekaj primerjav pa še posnetki iz arhiva avtorja (pod oznakami AD in RV, 16 - bit, 48 kHz) ter iz internetnih virov (pod oznakami MB in EC, 16 - bit, 22,05 kHz). Spektralna analiza frekvenčnega območja do 10 kHz dveh historičnih posnetkov (slika 1, 2) je pokazala, da je vzorce smiselno analizirati do 5 kHz, saj so harmonski toni pétih vokalov dovolj izraženi le do te frekvence. Praktično vsi formanti samoglasnikov se namreč nahajajo v območju do 3000 Hz12, višje pa so zaradi šuma ter nizke jakosti težko določljivi in kot taki ne vplivajo bistveno na zaznavo pevskega zvena. Takratne snemalne naprave so imele frekvenčni obseg le do približno 3 kHz13, zato analiza nad 5 kHz ni potrebna. Podobno velja tudi za današnje, tehnično precej boljše posnetke (slika 3, 4), kjer je popačenj in šuma veliko manj, frekvenčni obseg pa bistveno večji. Tudi v tem primeru je nivo zvočnega pritiska višjeharmonskih frekvenc petih vokalov nad 5 kHz praktično zanemarljiv.

POSNETKI: FP 01 10 kHz (slika 1); AŠ 01 10 kHz (slika 2); - AD 01 10 kHz (slika 3); RV 01 10 kHz (slika 4)14

Slika 1: FP 01 10 kHz.

12 Husnija Kurtović, Ozvučavanje (Beograd: Tehnička knjiga, 1985), 39. 13 Drago Kunej, Fonograf je dospel! (Ljubljana, Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2008), 225. 14 Z navpično črto je označena meja 5 kHz (slika 1), najmočnejša frekvenca, višja od 5 kHz (slika 2), osnovna frekvenca fₒ (slika 3, 4).

123

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 123 23.6.2016 9:58:31 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 2: AŠ 01 10 kHz.

Slika 3: AD 01 10 kHz.

Slika 4: RV 01 10 kHz.

124

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 124 23.6.2016 9:58:32 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... Po večkratnem poslušanju so bili določeni zvočni vzorci in s pomočjo računalniške- ga programa Audacity 2.0.2.15 izrezani deli posnetkov dolžine 20 s, na katerih se nahajajo mesta v skladbah, kjer petje zaradi tesiture, oz. dinamike prevladuje do te mere, da je instrumentalna spremljava dovolj pokrita in je spektrografska analiza pétega zvoka mogoča (največkrat najvišji ton v skladbi). Komentirani in med seboj primerjani so naj- značilnejši, oz. zanimivejši vzorci po izboru avtorja. Zapeti toni se med seboj, razen v do- ločenih primerih, razlikujejo tako po petem samoglasniku, višini in trajanju, kot tudi po funkciji v posameznih skladbah (prehodni ton, delni višek, zaključni ton, ipd.). Prav zato je rezultate težje primerjati, nenazadnje tudi zaradi različnosti tipov obravnavanih glasov. Z računalniškim programom VoceVista16 je bila opravljena vizualizacija frekvenčne- ga in dinamičnega spektra pétega zvoka (spektrogram) ter določitev osnovnih parametrov vibrata zapetega tona (hitrost in obseg). Tako dobljeni rezultati (slika 9 – 34) so, v povezavi s slušnim vtisom, služili kot osnova za določitev tipa glasu in različnih načinov ozvočevanja odzvočne cevi – vokalnega trakta pri posameznem pevcu17 ter za vrednotenje pevskega zvena in vibrata18, (tabela 1, 2, 3). Alikvotna vrsta in njena relativna jakost, formanti (Fn), ki podpirajo določene harmonske tone (Hn), ter morebitna prisotnost in pozicija klastra v območju pevskega formanta (PF) namreč bistveno vplivajo na barvo pevskega glasu in skupaj z vibratom v veliki meri določajo njegov karakter. Človeški glas je instrument, ki ga v ožjem smislu sestavljajo: pljuča – dovodnik energije, glasilke – oscilator ter grlo, žrelo, ustna in nosna votlina – rezonatorji. Akustične značilnosti takšnega rezonančnega prostora določata lega in oblika artikulatorjev: grla, mehkega neba, jezika, čeljusti ter ustnic, ki vplivajo na vzdolžni in prečni prerez vokalnega trakta – odzvočne cevi, v kateri se nihanje zraka oblikuje v zven.19 Zvok človeškega glasu je kompleksen zven. Sestavljajo ga: osnovna frekvenca (fₒ), ki je določena s hitrostjo enostavnega nihanja glasilk in mnoge višjeharmonske frekvence (Hn), kot posledica kompleksnega nihanja glasilk. Vokalni trakt je akustični rezona- tor, v katerem se zvok oblikuje v odvisnosti od frekvenc, prisotnih v spektru zvočnega izvora in od rezonančnih frekvenc vokalnega trakta – formantov (Fn).20 Bližje kot se alikvoti formantom nahajajo, večja bo njihova relativna amplituda. Tako se bistveno spremeni diagram osnovnega nihanja, pojavijo se dinamični viški na področjih formantnih frekvenc, ki jih določa geometrija vokalnega trakta. Zmanjšanje prereza takšne odzvočne cevi na mestu, kjer ima stojni val svoj minimum, ima za posledico znižanje frekvence določenega formanta in obratno, če se na istem mestu prerez cevi poveča, se s tem dvigne frekvenca tega formanta, sprememba pa vpliva tudi na vse ostale formante. Pri govoru in petju premikamo artikulatorje ter tako spreminjamo kombinacije formantnih frekvenc, ki jih naši možgani povezujejo z različnimi vokali (predvsem prvi

15 Audacity 2.0.2., brezplačen urejevalnik digitalnega zvoka (http://sourceforge.net/projects/audacity/, 11. apr. 2013). 16 VoceVista 3.3.7., računalniški program za analizo glasu (Miller, Donald G.,Resonance in Singing (Delaware: Inside View press, 2008). 17 Nathalie Henrich, John Smith, Joe Wolfe, »Vocal tract resonances in singing: Strategies used by sopranos, altos, tenors, and baritones«, obiskano 1. 11. 2013, http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/reprints/SATB.pdf: 1–3; Donald G. Miller, Resonance in Singing (Delaware, Inside View press, 2008), 34–40. 18 Richard Miller, The Structure of Singing (Belmont: Schirmer, 1996), 182–184. 19 Johan Sundberg, The Acoustics of the Singing Voice (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977), 104. 20 Ibid., 106.

125

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 125 23.6.2016 9:58:32 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 in drugi formant – F1, F2). Bolj kot so usta odprta, višja je frekvenca prvega formanta, pozicija jezika nad korenom je odločilna za frekvenco drugega in oblika vrha jezika za frekvenco tretjega formanta. Če primerjamo moški govor s petjem opernega pevca, opazimo v prvi vrsti nekatere kvalitativne spremembe v zvenu vokalov, ki so največkrat posledica znižane pozicije grla in s tem podaljšanja vokalnega trakta ter širitve spodnjega dela žrela. To se v zvenu odraža kot znižanje frekvenc prvih dveh formantov, pojavi pa se tudi povečanje amplitude v ob- močju med približno 2500 in 3000 Hz, kar imenujemo območje pevskega formanta (PF).21

POSNETEK: ZP 00 (Slika 5, 6)22

Slika 5: ZP 00.

Slika 6: ZP 00.

21 Ibid., 109. 22 Frekvenčni spekter govora basista (ton As, vokal a) z dobro vidnimi pozicijami prvih štirih formantov (slika 5) in petja basista (slika 6) v nizki legi (ton B, vokal a) z močno izraženim območjem pevskega formanta (Potočan, Zoran, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.), 2015.

126

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 126 23.6.2016 9:58:32 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... Fenomen pevskega formanta povezuje Sundberg z zbližanjem tretjega in četrtega (pétega) formanta, ki ojačita prisotne harmonske frekvence, kot posledica pa se pojavi dinamični višek v obliki klastra. Ta se pojavlja pretežno pri šolanih glasovih in je bi- stven za slišnost pevca, ki poje ob instrumentalni spremljavi. Pevski formant je prisoten v frekvenčnem območju, kjer orkester ni več tako izrazit, saj ta doseže največjo jakost pri približno 450 Hz, po tem pa amplituda dokaj strmo pada.23

POSNETEK: NG 00 (Slika 7, 8)24

Slika 7: NG 00.

Slika 8: NG 00.

23 Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 118–123.

24 Frekvenčni spekter petja basista (Ghiaurov, Nicolai, (izv.), Grandi Voci, Decca, 1963, (prod.), © 1996 Decca) v srednji legi (ton a, vokal a) s šibko (Slika 7) in v visoki legi (ton e¹, vokal o) z močno prisotnostjo orkestra (Slika 8).

127

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 127 23.6.2016 9:58:32 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Pri moških glasovih leži področje pevskega formanta približno pri frekvencah: 2300 – 2500 Hz pri basu, 2500 – 2700 Hz pri baritonu in 2700 – 2900 Hz pri tenorju.25 Za primerjavo med glasovi s historičnih gramofonskih plošč (tabela 1) so bili vzeti deli posnetkov, na katerih pojejo pevci podobno visoko, vsak izmed njih načeloma že v svoji visoki legi, t.j. nad drugim prehodom: tenor (Frank Plut, slika 11, 12), tenor (Obrad Djurin, slika 13, 14), bariton (Anton Šubelj, slika 21, 22) in tenor (Rudolf Ba- novec, slika 23, 24) Analiza delov posnetkov dveh sodobnikov (Enrico Caruso26, slika 17, 18 in Mattia Battistini27, slika 25, 26) je predstavljena za primerjavo z zvenom drugih dveh vzorcev zgoraj omenjenih tenorja (Frank Plut, slika 15, 16) in baritona (Anton Šubelj, slika 21, 22). V tem primeru pojeta tenorja isti ton, vokal je soroden, enako baritona (tabela 2). Podane so tudi vizualizacije vzorcev po enega tenorja (Frank Plut, slika 27, 28) in baritona (Anton Šubelj, slika 31, 32) za primerjavo z zvenoma dveh današnjih pevcev (Andrej Debevec28, slika 29, 30 in Robert Vrčon29, slika 33, 34), pri čemer pojeta tenorja isti ton in vokal, prav tako baritona (tabela 3). Sledi opis analize izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, ki so bili iz historičnih posnetkov iz- postavljeni kot najizrazitejši oz. najznačilnejši za posameznega pevskega solista in katere je mogoče primerjati med seboj ter s sodobnimi posnetki.

Izsledki - analiza izbranih posnetkov

POSNETEK: FP 01 (slika 9, 10) Na posnetku poje visok moški glas – tenor (Plut) odlomek iz Nedvê dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave. Gre za mesto dinamičnega in izraznega viška na koncu kitice, vokal je i in ton g1. Najmočneje je prisotna osnovna frekvenca (v nadaljevanju fₒ, oz. H1), torej prvi harmonik, podprt s prvim formantom samoglasnika (v nad. F1/H1), sledi ji četrti harmonik, ojačen z drugim formantom (v nad. F2/H4). Izstopa še sedma har- monska frekvenca v območju t.i. pevskega formanta (v nad. PF), okrog 2,8 kHz, poudarjena najverjetneje s pomočjo tretjega formanta (v nad. F3/H7), ki doda zvenu nekaj prezence (slika 9). Kljub legi nad tenorskim drugim prehodom (it. secondo passaggio), pevec ne pokriva v celoti, zato se kvaliteta samoglasnika z lego le malo spremeni, kar priča o visokem naravnem glasu. Zven je relativno poln, saj je dovolj zaznavna prisotnost prvih osmih harmonskih frekvenc z najbolj izraženo osnovno.30 Vibrato (slika 10) je zaradi pevčeve tendence, da bi ustvaril lokalni ekspresivni višek, nekoliko hitrejši, s srednjo spremembo tonske višine, nekaj več kot četrtine tona.

25 Jurgen Meyer, Acoustics and Performance of Music (Oxford, Springer, 2009), 124. 26 Enrico Caruso (1873–1921), italijanski tenorist. »Caruso je naredil gramofon in gramofon je naredil Carusa« (Jens M. Fischer, Grosse Stimmen (Berlin: Suhrkamp, 1995), 1). 27 Mattia Battistini (1856–1928), italijanski baritonist, imenovan tudi »kralj baritonov« (Fischer, Grosse Stimmen, 27). 28 Andrej Debevec (1959), tenorist, solist SNG Opera in balet Ljubljana. 29 Robert Vrčon (1960), baritonist, solist SNG Opera in balet Ljubljana. 30 Bruno Ravnikar, Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike (Ljubljana, DZS, 1999), 32.

128

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 128 23.6.2016 9:58:32 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Odlomek: »Kje prijazne ste višave«,31 »užil« (C-dur, g¹ - i; slika 9, 10)

Slika 9: FP 01.

Slika 10: FP 01 V.

POSNETEK: FP 02 (slika 11, 12; tabela 1) Tudi v tem primeru poje tenor, najverjetneje isti pevec (Plut), kot na prejšnjem posnetku. V odlomku iz valčka Viktorja Parme poje ponavljajoči se zlog la na tonu g1, ki je prehoden, vendar najvišji ton v tem delu skladbe. Najmočnejša je kombinacija F1/ H2, precej šibkejša pa F2/H4 (slika 11), iz česar bi se dalo sklepati, da je, zaradi nekoliko tršega zastavka (nem. Knödel), F2 dokaj visoko pozicioniran in zato podpira H4. V območju PF močno izstopa F3/H7, kar daje zvenu značilno svetlobo, nekoliko šibkejši je F4/H9. Vibrato ima zmeren obseg 55 c, je pa s 7,8 Hz relativno hiter (slika 12). Pevec s tem verjetno poskuša kompenzirati nekoliko prenizko intonacijo, z lajšanjem telesne opore (it. appoggio) in posledično sproščanjem grla pa v portamentu anticipira prehod na nižji ton, ki sledi v nadaljevanju glasbene fraze.

31 Kje prijazne ste višave (A. Nedvêd).

129

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 129 23.6.2016 9:58:33 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Odlomek: »Glasno bi zavrisnil«,32 »la« (B-dur, g¹ - a; slika 11, 12)

Slika 11: FP 02.

Slika 12: FP 02 V.

POSNETEK: OD 01 (slika 13, 14; Tabela 1) Vzorec vsebuje zaključek srednjega dela Vilharjeve pesmi Mila, mila lunica. Tokrat je zaslediti drugačen pristop k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Visok tenor (Djurin) poje tudi tu v visoki legi, le pol tona nižje, vokal pa je i, kar je eden od razlogov za to, da je naj- močnejši F1/H1 (slika 13). Prvi formant vokala i leži namreč precej nižje, drugi pa višje, kot pri samoglasniku a, zato je najbolj podprt prvi harmonik, torej osnovna frekvenca (fₒ), sledi pa mu skoraj enako močan F2/H6. Slednji je že na robu območja PF, ki vsebuje enakovredne H7, H8 in H10. Gre za izrazito lahek in visok tenor (it. tenore leggero), zato je vokal zapet odprto (it. aperto) in ostane, kljub visoki legi, kvalitativno nespremenjen. Vibrato (slika 14) je zaradi mirnega in liričnega mesta v skladbi manj izrazit.

32 Št. 9 Entrée – valček, Urh, grof celjski (A. Funtek, V. Parma).

130

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 130 23.6.2016 9:58:33 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Odlomek: »Mila, mila lunica«,33 »obljubila« (Des-dur, ges¹ - i; slika 13, 14)

Slika 13: OD 01.

Slika 14: OD 01 V.

33 Mila, mila lunica (F. Prešeren, M. Vilhar).

131

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 131 23.6.2016 9:58:33 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Vzorec Glas/ Ton/vokal/ Dina- Vibrato – F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ – pos- slika fₒ mika hitrost/ PF netek obseg FP 02 Tenor g¹/a mf 7,8 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7/ 11, 12 fₒ=393 Hz 55 c 2,7-3,5 kHz OD 01 Tenor ges¹/i mf 6,4 Hz/ F1/H1 F2/H6 F3-4/H7-9/ 13, 14 fₒ=367 Hz 59 c 2,6-3,7 kHz AŠ 02 Bariton f¹/a f 5,5 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6-8/ 21, 22 fₒ=354 Hz 73 c 2,1-2,8 kHz AŠ RB Tenor fis¹/a f 6,7 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H7 03 23, 24 fₒ=380 Hz 104 c 2,7 kHz

Tabela 134

POSNETEK: FP 02a (slika 15, 16; tabela 2) Isti posnetek, kot FP 02, le da na tem vzorcu tenor (Plut) poje zaključni ton Nedvê - dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave, vokal a na tonu b¹, ki je dinamični in obenem iz- razni višek pesmi. Lega je visoka, tako tudi dinamika. Izstopa ozvočevanje F2/H3 (slika 15), kar se ujema s spremembo kvalitete vokala a proti ae, s čimer je pevec prva dva formanta nekoliko zvišal in ju uglasil z drugim in tretjim harmonikom.

Odlomek: »Glasno bi zavrisnil«,35 »la« (B - dur, b¹ - a; slika 15, 16)

Slika 15: FP 02a.

34 Iz tabele 1 lahko kljub temu, da pojejo vsi v visoki legi, razberemo nekatere razlike v pristopu pevcev sodobnikov k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Na barvo posameznega glasu najbolj vplivata najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika (Fn/Hn), ki je označena v krepkem tisku ter višek v območju pevskega formanta (PF), v kolikor obstaja (gl. spektrograme). 35 Št. 9 Entrée – valček, Urh, grof celjski (A. Funtek, V. Parma).

132

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 132 23.6.2016 9:58:33 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Slika 16: FP 02a V.

POSNETEK: EC 01 (slika 17, 18; tabela 2) Podoben način ozvočevanja zasledimo na zvočnem vzorcu, kjer tenorist (Caruso) poje odlomek arije Maria Cavaradossija iz Puccinijeve opere Tosca. Ton je ravno tako b¹, le da je vokal o, ki ga spreminja v oa. S to prilagoditvijo vokalnega trakta doseže močno podporo F2/H3 (slika 17). Višek območja PF leži pri tem relativno nizko (cca. 2,3 kHz), kar daje zvenu baritonalni karakter, za razliko od zgoraj omenjenega tenorja, ki zveni svetleje, saj je njegov PF najizrazitejši pri okoli 2,8 kHz. Parametri vibrata (slika 16, 18) so pri obeh pevcih podobni in srednjih vrednosti.

Odlomek: »E lucevan le stelle«,36 »amato« (c-mol, b¹ - ô ; slika 17, 18)

Slika 17: EC 01.

36 E lucevan le stelle, Tosca (L. Illica, G. Giacosa, G. Puccini).

133

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 133 23.6.2016 9:58:34 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 18: EC 01 V.

POSNETEK: AŠ 01 (slika 19, 20) V tem primeru poje srednji moški glas, bariton (Šubelj) koroško ljudsko pesem Gor čez jezero, analiziran pa je zven vokala a na držanem tonu e1. Najmočnejša je druga har- monska frekvenca (slika 19), ki jo podpira prvi formant vokala, sledi pa ji četrta, podprta z drugim formantom (F1/H2, F2/H4). V območju t.i. pevskega formanta (PF) je najbolj izražen deveti harmonik, pri cca. 2,8 kHz, verjetno poudarjen s tretjim formantom (F3/ H9), kar prispeva k svetlejšemu zvenu. Zapeti ton leži načeloma na zgornjem prehodu za lirski bariton, kjer pa pevcu še ni potrebno pokrivati, kar kaže na višji glas (tenorbariton). Močnejša sta le drugi in četrti harmonik, zaradi česar zveni glas nekoliko manj polno, deveti pa je skoraj enako močan kot prvi in dodaja glasu prezenco. Vibrato (slika 20) ima povprečen obseg dobre četrtine tona in je hitrostno dokaj zmeren.

Odlomek: »Gor čez jezero«,37 »mamica« (G-dur, e¹ - a, slika 19, 20)

Slika 19: AŠ 01.

37 Gor čez jezero (koroška ljudska).

134

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 134 23.6.2016 9:58:34 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Slika 20: AŠ 01 V.

POSNETEK: AŠ 02 (slika 21, 22; tabela 1, 2) Na tem vzorcu poje lirski bariton (Šubelj) Pavčičev samospev Ciciban. Pevec poje vokal a na zaključnem tonu pesmi f¹. Najizrazitejša je kombinacija F1/H2, sledi ji F2/ H3 (slika 21), obe pa ležita relativno nizko, kar kaže na to, da je bil ton zapet pokrito (it. coperto). To potrjuje tudi sprememba kvalitete vokala, saj pevec a barva v temnejši oa.

Odlomek: »Ciciban teče v zeleni dan«,38 »dan« (F-dur, f¹ - a; slika 21, 22)

Slika 21: AŠ 02.

38 Ciciban (O. Župančič, J. Pavčič).

135

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 135 23.6.2016 9:58:34 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 22: AŠ 02 V.

POSNETEK: AŠ RB 03 (slika 23, 24; tabela 1) Na tem posnetku poje karakterni tenor (Banovec) z baritonistom Šubljem duet Kecala in Vaška iz Smetanove opere Prodana nevesta. Vokal je a in ton fis¹, podobno kot pri prejšnjem posnetku. Podobna je tudi slika frekvenčnega spektra in to kljub temu, da gre v tem primeru za višji glas. Tudi tu je namreč najmočnejši F1/H2, zelo blizu je F2/H3 (slika 23). Območje PF ima višek okrog 2,7 kHz in sovpada z diso- nančnim H7. Pevec poje zelo karikirano, zato tudi izrazit vibrato z obsegom dobre polovice tona (slika 24).

Odlomek: »Vem za mladenko«,39 »zlata« (G-dur, fis¹ - a; slika 23, 24)

Slika 23: AŠ RB 03.

39 Vem za mladenko, Prodana nevesta (K. Sabina, B. Smetana).

136

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 136 23.6.2016 9:58:34 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Slika 24: AŠ RB 03 V.

POSNETEK: MB 01 (slika 25, 26; tabela 2) V tem primeru poje baritonist (Battistini) odlomek dueta Rigoletta in Gilde iz Ver- dijeve opere Rigoletto. Pevec poje vokal o na tonu f¹, ki je prehoden, vendar najvišji in najizrazitejši v tem delu skladbe. Samoglasnik o odpira v oa in tako z zvišanima prvima dvema formantoma podpira drugi in četrti harmonik (F1/H2, F2/H4). Višek območja PF se nahaja pri 2,4 kHz, kjer dominira H7 (slika 25). Ta je prvi disonančni harmonik v alikvotni vrsti, ki pripomore v tem primeru k malce agresivnejšemu karakterju zvena. Tega pri Šublju ni zaslediti, saj se pri njem v območju PF izraziteje pojavi F3/H6, pri čemer je šesti harmonik konsonančen, nekaj prezence dodaja še kombinacija F4/H8. Parametri vibrata (slika 22, 26) so pri obeh baritonih primerljivi, srednjih vrednosti.

Odlomek: »Si, vendetta«,40 »solo« (As-dur, f¹ - ȏ ; slika 25, 26)

Slika 25: MB 01.

40 Si, vendetta, Rigoletto (F. M. Piave, G. Verdi).

137

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 137 23.6.2016 9:58:35 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Slika 26: MB 01 V.

Vzorec - Glas/ Ton/vokal/ Dina- Vibrato - F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ posnetek slika fₒ mika hitrost/ PF obseg FP 02a Tenor b¹/a f 7,0 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6/ 15, 16 fₒ=472 Hz 60 c 2,8 kHz EC 01 Tenor b¹/ȏ f 6,6 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H5-8/ 17, 18 fₒ=472 Hz 50 c 2,3-3,7 kHz AŠ 02 Bariton fₒ/a f 5,5 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H6-8/ 21, 22 fₒ=354 Hz 73 c 2,1-2,8 kHz MB 01 Bariton fₒ/ȏ f 5,7 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7/ 25, 26 fₒ=354 Hz 59 c 2,4 kHz

Tabela 241

POSNETKI: FP 01a (slika 27, 28); AD 01 (slika 29, 30); AŠ 01a (slika 31, 32); RV 01 (slika 33, 34); (vsi tabela 3) Oba tenorja (Plut, Debevec) pojeta vokal e na tonu e¹, torej med prvim in drugim prehodom (it. passaggio). Na historičnem posnetku poje pevec (Plut - isti posnetek, kot FP 01) odlomek iz Nedvȇ dove pesmi Kje prijazne ste višave, tokrat gre za ton e¹, vokal pa je ȇ . V spektru je najmočnejša kombinacija F2/H4, ki ji sledi F1/H2, v območju PF izstopa H8 pri okoli 2,7 kHz (slika 27). Prvi štirje harmoniki so zelo izraziti, zaradi česar zveni glas dovolj polno, k zaokroženosti zvena nekaj prispeva tudi delni višek obmo- čja PF. Na posnetku sodobnega tenorja (Debevec) slišimo niz samoglasnikov na istem

41 V tabeli 2 je predstavljena primerjava med dvema slovenskima pevcema in njunima sodobnikoma svetovnega formata. V tem primeru pevci s sorodnimi glasovi v isti legi na podoben način ozvočujejo vokalni trakt, vsaj kar se prvih dveh formantov tiče. Tako imata na razliko v barvi med posameznimi glasovi večji vpliv lega in jakost harmonskih tonov v območju pevskega formanta (PF, gl. spektrograme). Najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika posameznega vzorca (Fn/Hn) je v krepkem tisku.

138

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 138 23.6.2016 9:58:35 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... tonu. V njegovem spektru je najbolj poudarjen F1/H2, nekoliko manj F2/H3, v podro- čju PF je opaziti rahlo izstopajoča F3/H7 okrog 2,4 kHz in F4/H10 pri 3,1 kHz (slika 29). Relativno močnih je kar prvih deset harmonikov, kar daje glasu izrazito prodornost, v območju PF so opazno prisotni H7–10, ki dajejo zvenu značilno svetlobo. Frekvenca vibrata je pri obeh vzorcih identična, njegov obseg pa je na starejšem posnetku nekoliko večji (slika 28, 30).

Odlomek: »Kje prijazne ste višave«,42 »planine« (C-dur, e¹ - ȇ ; slika 27, 28)

Slika 27: FP 01a.

Slika 28: FP 01a V.

42 Kje prijazne ste višave (A. Nedve˘d).

139

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 139 23.6.2016 9:58:36 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Odlomek: »Aeiou«, »e« (e¹ - ȇ ; slika 29, 30)

Slika 29: AD 01.

Slika 30: AD 01 V.

Obravnavana baritona (Šubelj, Vrčon) pojeta vokal a na tonu d¹, ki leži za srednji moški glas, tako kot prej pri tenorjih e¹, v t.i. pasaži. Na prvem posnetku poje pevec (Šubelj - isti posnetek, kot AŠ 01) koroško ljudsko pesem Gor čez jezero. Ton d¹ je le- žeč, a prehoden, v spektru pa najbolj izstopa F1/H2, za njim F2/H4. V področju PF je višek precej visoko, okoli 3,1 kHz pri H10 (slika 31), kar prispeva k svetlejšemu zvenu glasu, ta je izrazito lirične narave. Sodobni bariton (Vrčon) poje na tem posnetku niz samoglasnikov na istem tonu. Najmočneje ozvočuje F1/H2, in le malo manj F2/H3, v območju PF je opazen višek pri H9, okrog 2,7 kHz, ki sodoloča značilen baritonalni zven, v tem primeru dramskega karakterja (slika 33). Vibrato je na starejšem posnetku močneje prisoten, je torej hitrejši in večjega obsega (slika 32, 34).

140

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 140 23.6.2016 9:58:37 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ...

Odlomek: »Gor čez jezero«,43 »mamica« (C-dur, d¹ - a; slika 31, 32)

Slika 31: AŠ 01a.

Slika 32: AŠ 01a V.

43 Gor čez jezero (koroška ljudska).

141

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 141 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Odlomek: »Aeiou«, »a« (d¹ - a; slika 33, 34)

Slika 33: RV 01.

Slika 34: RV 01 V.

Vzorec - Glas/ Ton/ Dina- Vibrato -hit- F1/Hn F2/Hn F3-4/Hn/ posnetek slika vokal/ fₒ mika rost/ obseg PF FP 01a Tenor e¹/ȇ mf 5,6 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H8/ 27, 28 fₒ=328 Hz 66 c 2,7 kHz AD 01 Tenor e¹/ȇ f 5,6 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H7-10/ 29, 30 fₒ=328 Hz 43 c 2,4-3,1 kHz AŠ 01a Bariton d¹/a mf 6,0 Hz/ F1/H2 F2/H4 F3-4/H10/ 31, 32 fₒ=301 Hz 81 c 3,1 kHz RV 01 Bariton d¹/a f 4,6 Hz, F1/H2 F2/H3 F3-4/H9/ 33, 34 fₒ=301 Hz 58 c 2,7 kHz Tabela 344

44 Iz tabele 3 je razvidno, da v tem primeru tako historični, kot današnji pevci s sorodnimi glasovi na podoben način ozvočujejo vokalni trakt, predvsem ko gre za prvi in drugi formant, večje pa so razlike v območju pevskega formanta (PF, gl. spektrograme). Najmočnejša kombinacija formanta in harmonika posameznega vzorca (Fn/Hn) je v krepkem tisku.

142

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 142 23.6.2016 9:58:38 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... Iz interpretacij diagramov in rezultatov v primerjalnih tabelah, kot tudi s pomočjo poslušanja izbranih zvočnih vzorcev, lahko v prvi vrsti razberemo podobnosti in razlike v pristopu posameznih pevcev k ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta. Primerjava štirih pevcev iz časa pred drugo svetovno vojno, ki pojejo na obravnavanih posnetkih v slovenskem jeziku, kaže na to, da kljub primerljivo visoki legi izbirajo različne načine ozvočevanja pevskega trakta (tabela 1). Prav tako se deloma razlikujejo rezultati slovenskih in italijanskih sodobnikov (tabela 2) ter slovenskih pevcev iz preteklosti in sedanjosti (tabela 3). Razlike niso le posledica »patine« na starejših posnetkih, ampak so predvsem rezultat povezave naravnih danosti posameznih pevcev z njiho- vim načinom fonacije in estetskim nivojem interpretacije. Na starejših posnetkih zvenijo pevski glasovi precej drugače kot na sodobnih, kljub temu, da pojejo vrhunski vokalni izvajalci na historičnih posnetkih v pevskotehničnem smislu podobno kot današnji poklicni operni pevci. Deloma je to posledica slabše teh- nične kakovosti posnetkov in drugačnih estetskih meril45 v zvezi z zvenom pevskega glasu, interpretacijo glasbe ter podajanjem besedila, včasih tudi z izborom samih skladb za snemanje. Predvsem ko gre za t.i. »naturščike«, oz. za pevce z bolj specifičnimi, včasih tudi manj zmogljivimi, ali pa le malo šolanimi glasovi, je zven izrazito drugačen kot pri opernih pevcih, naravno postavljeni glasovi zvenijo namreč dostikrat bolj »ljudsko«. »Naravni« in »umetni« pevci se najbolj razlikujejo v njihovih strategijah prilagajanja vokalnega trakta zahtevam izvajane glasbe. Operni pevci predvsem bolj konsistentno uporabljajo telesno oporo in vokalni trakt bolj konstantno uglašujejo, tako s pomočjo variabilno znižane pozicije grla, kot s prilagajanjem ostalih artikulatorjev, glede na viši- no tona ter péti vokal. Pevci spreminjajo geometrijo odzvočne cevi in s tem prilagajajo njene akustične lastnosti praktično za vsak ton posebej. Na ta način poskušajo, predvsem tisti šolani, spojiti zven posameznih registrov (fr. voix mixte)46 in se tako zvočno približati »zahodnemu idealu lepega petja«.

Sklep

Analize spektrogramov in parametrov vibrata se v večini primerov ujemajo s per- cepcijskimi ocenami posameznih posnetkov, t.j. z estetskim dojemanjem pétega zvoka in so kot take dobrodošel pripomoček pri določanju vzrokov in posledic nastajanja in dojemanja pevskega zvena. Tako lahko skozi poslušanje starejših posnetkov in ustrezno interpretacijo rezultatov meritev47 dovolj zanesljivo določamo lego, zven in karakter ter sklepamo o tipu glasu, le delno pa o njegovi nosilnosti in absolutni jakosti v prostoru. S poznavanjem vokalne tehnike in akustičnih značilnosti pevskega instrumenta lahko tako s pomočjo tovrstne vizualizacije pétega zvoka podkrepimo slušno predstavo o zvenu in karakterju posameznega pevskega glasu, kar nam nadalje omogoča tudi po- sredno določanje načina pevčeve fonacije, predvsem vlogo posameznih artikulatorjev

45 Pevski zven kot posledica naravnih zakonov in estetskih principov, slednji se skozi čas spreminjajo (Barbo, 2008). 46 Ivan Lhotka-Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1975), 41. 47 Pri poslušanju naši možgani “predelajo” vhodno akustično informacijo, ta pa je merljiva (Evangelos Himonides, »Mapping a beautiful voice : theoretical considerations«, obiskano 27. 10. 2013, http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/3927/1/Himonides2009Mapping25.pdf: 2–10.

143

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 143 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 pri ozvočevanju vokalnega trakta, deloma pa tudi značaj zastavka (fr. coup de glotte idr.) in telesne opore (it. appoggio). Izkušen opazovalec je sposoben že ob samem poslušanju vrednotiti nivo interpretacije določene glasbene tvarine in izluščiti posamezne estetske značilnosti njenega izvajanja (intonacija / ritem, izraz / intenziteta, zven / karakter, vibrato / tremolo, legato / portamento idr.), z empirično ponazoritvijo pa postanejo omenjene značilnosti samo še bolj evidentne. Ob zavedanju možnih odstopanj zaradi različnih prostorskih in drugih pogojev ter tehnike snemanja (v zgodnjem obdobju snemanja zvoka še ni bilo uveljavljenih norm in standardov48, so izrisi frekvenčnega spektra kljub starosti izvirnih posnetkov dovolj ilustrativni. Zato je odgovor na vprašanje, ali je mogoče s historičnih posnetkov dovolj zanesljivo analizirati pevski zven, vsekakor pritrdilen. Na podlagi tovrstne analize lahko tako sklepamo ne le o estetskem nivoju interpretacije in tedanji estetiki pétega zvoka, temveč tudi o nekaterih elementih vokalne tehnike takratnih pevcev.

Bibliografija

Izbrani zvočni viri

Posnetek: MB 01, Battistini, Mattia (izv.). Obiskano 28. 12. 2013. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S-COg50PZyM, Victor, 1921 Posnetek: EC 01, Caruso, Enrico (izv.). Obiskano 26. 12. 2013. http://www.youtube. com/watch?v=eKcPKVwEny0, Victor, 1909 Posnetek: AD 01, Debevec, Andrej, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan (prod.), 2013. Posnetek: OD 01, Djurin, Obrad (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Victor, 1917. Posnetek: NG 00, Ghiaurov, Nicolai, (izv.), Grandi Voci, Decca, 1963, (prod.), © 1996 Decca. Posnetek: FP 01, Plut, Frank, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, 1931. Posnetek: FP 02, Plut, Frank, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, 1931. Posnetek: ZP 00, Potočan, Zoran, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.), 2015. Posnetek: AŠ 01, Šubelj, Anton, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, 1928. Posnetek: AŠ 01, Šubelj, Anton, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, 1928. Posnetek: AŠ RB 03, Šubelj, Anton, Rudolf Banovec, (izv.), Zvočni arhiv GNI ZRC SAZU, Columbia, 1929. Posnetek: RV 01, Vrčon, Robert, (izv.), arhiv avtorja, Zoran Potočan, (prod.), 2013.

Navedena literatura

Barbo, Matjaž. Izbrana poglavja iz estetike glasbe. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, 2008. Debevec, Charles F.. »Slovenian recordings made in America prior to world war II«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št 2, 2014. Fischer, Jens M., Grosse Stimmen. Berlin: Suhrkamp, 1995.

48 Drago Kunej, »Kako hitro se vrtijo plošče z 78 o/min?«, Muzikološki zbornik, letn. XLVI, št.2 (2010): 177.

144

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 144 23.6.2016 9:58:38 Z. POTOČAN • ANALIZA ZVENA VIŠJIH ... Henrich, Nathalie, John Smith, Joe Wolfe. »Vocal tract resonances in singing: Strategies used by sopranos, altos, tenors, and baritones«. Obiskano 1. nov. 2013. http://www. phys.unsw.edu.au/jw/reprints/SATB.pdf Herbst, Christian. »Voice timbre in singing«,.11. okt. 2015. http://www.europeanchoralassociation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/Dateien_Europa_Cantat/GA_Namur/Christi- anHerbst_timbre_in_singing.pdf Himonides, Evangelos. »Mapping a beautiful voice : theoretical considerations«. Obiska- no 27. okt. 2013. http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/3927/1/Himonides2009Mapping25.pdf Kunej, Drago. Fonograf je dospel!. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2008. Kunej, Drago. »Kako hitro se vrtijo plošče z 78 o/min?«. Muzikološki zbornik, letn. XLVI, št.2, 2010. Kunej, Drago. »Med kodami skrita zvočna dediščina Slovencev«. Glasnik Slovenskega etnološkega društva, letn. 54, št. 1, 2014. Kunej, Drago. »Slovenski posnetki na gramofonskih ploščah z 78 o/min«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, 2014. Kurtović, Husnija. Ozvučavanje. Beograd: Tehnička knjiga, 1985. Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivan. Umjetnost pjevanja. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1975. Meyer, Jurgen. Acoustics and Performance of Music. Oxford: Springer, 2009. Miller, Donald G.. Resonance in Singing. Delaware: Inside View press, 2008. Miller, Richard. The Structure of Singing. Belmont: Schirmer, 1996. Ravnikar, Bruno. Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike. Ljubljana: DZS, 1999. Sundberg, Johan. The Acoustics of the Singing Voice. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1977. Sundberg, Johan. The Science of the Singing Voice. Dekalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987. Slovenski biografski leksikon. Obiskano 22. jun. 2015. http://sbl.zrc-sazu.si/tabid/59/Default.aspx?udt_374_param_detail=186 Šivic, Urša. »Gramofonske plošče z 78 obrati na minuto - izraz ponarodelosti ali vzrok zanjo?«. Traditiones, letn. 43, št. 2, 2014.

SUMMARY are also partially different. The differences mostly result from the natural features of individual singers The subject of study is the analysis of the timbre of in connection with the method of phonation and solo singing voices in historical audio recordings the aesthetic level of interpretation of each singer. re-recorded from 78-rpm records. The principal Analyses of spectrograms and vibrato parameters objective of this article is to find out whether a in most cases match the auditory perception of timbre analysis of male singers from older recor- individual recordings, i.e. the aesthetic perception dings gives adequate results for forming conclusi- of the sung sound, and are as such a welcome requ- ons concerning the aesthetic and vocal technique isite in determining the causes and consequences parameters of their performances. of generation and perception of the sung sound. The comparison of four male singers from the Thus, through listening to older recordings and period before World War II, who sing in the recor- with proper interpretation of measurement results, dings in Slovenian language and who are subject we can determine the tessitura, timbre and chara- to this research, has revealed that they tend to use cter reliably enough, and also make appropriate different methods of vocal tract tuning despite conclusions concerning the type of voice, while we their comparable upper range tessitura; the results can only partly estimate the carrying power of the of Slovenian and Italian contemporaries as well as singing voice and its absolute strength in the space. those of past and contemporary Slovenian singers

145

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 145 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 146 23.6.2016 9:58:38 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... UDK 784:81‘344 DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.147-169

Karmen Brina Kodrič, Hotimir Tivadar Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana

Instrumentalna fonetična analiza pétih samoglasnikov in pravorečje popularnega pétega besedila popevke Instrumental and Phonetic Analysis of Sung Vowels and the Orthoepy of Sung Lyrics of Popular Slovene “popevka” Songs

Prejeto: 12. oktober 2015 Received: 12th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: péto besedilo, pravorečje, péti in Keywords: lyrics, orthoepy, sung and spoken govorjeni samoglasnik, formant, neklasično petje vowel, formant, non-classical singing

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Bistvo sledeče obravnave je predstaviti uporabnost The aim of this study is to present the use of phone- fonetike v nejezikoslovnih raziskavah, kakršna je tics in non-linguitic researches and sciences such as glasba (petje). Besedila slovenskih pétih pesmi music and singing. Sung Lyrics of Slovenian songs/ pri nas fonetično še niso bila raziskana glede na poetry have not been investigated phonetically, ta- kakovost pétih samoglasnikov in formantnih fre- king into consideration their quality (vowel formant kvenc. Gre za lingvistično-muzikološko obravnavo frequency). The word is about musical art (lyrics), pétih besedil z izhodiščem iz pravorečne norme paying attention to the phonetic realization based (ortoepije) slovenskega knjižnega jezika, ki kaže upon the Slovene language and its norm, which na kakovostno artikulacijo pétih samoglasnikov v show excellent articulation of the sung vowels. primerjavi z govorjenimi.

147

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 147 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 1 Uvod

Slovenska (evropska) péta pesem ima začetke v gregorijanskem koralu1, v enoglasnih latinskih liturgičnih in polliturgičnih napevih, sprva brez inštrumentalne spremljave. Gre- gorijanski koral je edinstven zaklad enoglasne, čisto melodične glasbe, katere besedila so največkrat vzeta iz psalmov – izvenbiblični teksti so osnova za nespremenljive dele maše, poetični pa za himnuse2 in sekvence3. Od 15. stol. naprej pojejo v zboru tudi ženske, v umetni glasbi pa kot solistke nastopajo šele z začetkom 17. stol. Slovenska zborovska pesem sodi tako po številu pevcev glede na število prebivalstva kot kakovosti zborskega petja v vrh evropskega4 zborskega ustvarjanja, poleg vezane besede pa so v inštrumen- talni glasbi in petju živa tudi zvrstno prozna5 in dramska dela6. Petje je prestižno izražanje posameznikov, kadar gre za tehtno umetniško estetsko vrednost in na drugi strani izra- žanje čustev množice skozi resno, etno, kultno, plesno, programsko, zabavno ali sploš- no popularno glasbo (»šovbiznis«). Pévec (tudi vokalist) je oseba, ki glasbeno ustvarja z glasom, lahko solistično, s spremljavo drugih glasbenih inštrumentov ali v zboru; petje je eno- ali večglasno, solistično ali zborovsko izvajanje tonskih zaporedij s človeškimi glasovi, ki pa ni nujno vezano na tekst (jodlanje). Po I. Škariću7 je petje hoteno vodeno tvorjenje glasu, pri katerem zavestno nadziramo dimenzije glasu: ton, trajanje, glasnost, barva in ritem, po Toporišiču8 pa oblika izgovarjanja besedila takó, da se podaljša trajanje zlogov do določene mere (četrtinka, polovinka … kot enote trajanja), ton pa ostane nespremenjen; večinoma le vsak naslednji zlog menja tonsko višino.

»Pesem9 danes pomeni krajšo posvetno ali sakralno vokalno kompozicijo, lahko za enega ali več glasov, s spremljavo ali brez nje. Obstaja več vrst pesmi (ljudska, umetna, zborovska), izraz pa se največkrat nanaša na posvetno delo za glas, ki je lahko besedilo sámo ali melodija sama.«

1 Prozni napevi »so ali silabični (recitacije preprostih psalmov, evangelijev, lekcij in oracij, številne antifone, nekatere variante Creda) ali pa imajo krajše (Kyrie, Sanctus, Agnus Dei, Introitus, Comunio) oz. dolge melizme, tj. ‘tone, ki se pojejo na en zlog’ (Gradual, Tractus, aleluja, ofertoriji). Himnusi in sekvence so pretežno silabični, od napevov s proznimi teksti pa se navadno ločijo ritmični urejenosti in jasni členjenosti.« Katarina Bedina idr., Leksikon CZ - Glasba (Ljubljana, 1981), 100. 2 Lat. himnusi so grajeni strogo strofično, sprva obsegajo po osem kitic, ki se pojejo na isto melodijo, vsaka kitica pa ima po štiri jambske dimetre. Melodija je preprosta, silabična in pregledno členjena. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 108. 3 Ponavljanje motiva na različnih stopnjah tonske lestvice; rel. pesem pri maši med berilom in evangelijem. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 102. 4 Učna obveza učiteljev glasbe pri nas všteva zborovsko dejavnost; v tej prednjači Zavod svetega Stanislava - Škofijska klasična gimnazija v Ljubljani goji pet pevskih zborov v evropskem merilu, pôje polovica vseh dijakov. 5 Uglasbena proza (npr. Cankarjevi uglasbeni črtici Melodije in Veselejša pesem povest Očenaš hlapca Jerneja) se razlikuje od »prozne glasbe (prose music), ki pomeni vrsto glasbe, v katere zapisu so najpogostejši verbalni elementi, besede in stavki, ki so hkrati lahko, ni pa nujno, tudi napotki za izvajanje«. Nikša Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stoletja (Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2012), 286. 6 Opera je odrsko glasbeno delo, v katerem so pevci ob spremljavi orkestra hkrati igralci; znani slovenski libretisti so Ervin Fritz, Vinko Möderndorfer, Andrej Hieng, Ljuba Prenner, Ivan Cankar, Marjan Kozina, Oton Župančič, Fran Gerbič, Luiza Pesjak idr. Prvo opero Belín, napisano v slovenskem jeziku – po libretu Antona Feliksa Deva, ki se je ohranil v natisu iz leta 1780 v almanahu Pisanice – je uglasbil skladatelj Jakob Frančišek Zupan, alegorično sporočilo opere je naravnano proti tuji nadoblasti in poveličuje slovenstvo. 7 Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Šola retorike, 2005), 10. 8 Jože Toporišič, Enciklopedija slovenskega jezika (Ljubljana: 1992), 177. 9 Alison Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms (Oxford: University Press, 2004), 173.

148

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 148 23.6.2016 9:58:38 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... 2 Slovenska popularna pesem in popevkarstvo

Popularna glasba10 je »naziv za množično razširjeno glasbo v zadnjih stoletjih, ki se razlikuje tako od folklore kot od klasične ali umetniške glasbe. Od folklore se razlikuje po tem, da je harmonična, notirana in se ne razlikuje od območja do območja ali po et- ničnih skupinah. Brez velike natančnosti se povezuje z veliko vrstami glasbe, vključuje vpadljive melodijske formule, slike močnih čustev, inštrumentacijo z godali, zborom.« Moda popularne glasbe je spremenljiva11 in če je bila moda popevkarstva pri nas do osemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja enolična, je kasneje postopoma začela simpatizirati z ostalimi glasbenimi zvrstmi. Slovenska popevka12 je izvorno glasbeno kot besedilno kakovostno klasično zasnovana vokalna skladba. Slovenski skladatelji, avtorji besedil in pevci so ustvarili mnoge večne slovenske pesmi, številno predvajane in po`izvedê ne popevke, ki so postale slovenski evergrini13. Kakovostne (klasične) slovenske popevke se vračajo na lestvice najbolj poslušane glasbe. Popévka14 je v slovarju SSKJ utemeljena kot vokalna skladba v popularnem ritmu z vsebinsko nezahtevnim besedilom ali ‚ume- tniško nezahtevna pesem nasploh‘. Podobno jo opredeljuje leksikon glasbe (1981), le da pred sintagmo »vokalna skladba« pridodaja pridevek popularna. Po razlagi N. Gli- ge15 je popevka skladba, ki ima največji uspeh znotraj svoje zvrsti in je enaka uspešnici. Potemtakem sta popevka in uspešnica sopomenki, kar ustreza tudi prevodu ang. ‚hit‘. Popevko umešča v popularno in v zabavno glasbo, ne v pop glasbo, kot to navaja leksikon glasbe16 in deljeni avtorji. Takšno delitev bomo upoštevali tudi v tem članku, predvsem zato, ker fonetično analiziramo eno prvih slovenskih popevk (1964), iz časa, ko sta bila petje, besedilo še svobodna elementov tujih (zahodnih) jezikovnih primesi.

2.1 Nastajanje pesmi (popevke)

Pesem (popevko) tvorijo 1) skladatelj (aranžer z inštrumentalisti) 2) tekstopisec17 3) pevec oz. interpret(i)18, pri čemer lahko skladba nastane pred literarnim besedilom

10 ‘Popular music’ je v Združenih državah Amerike naziv za vrsto zabavne glasbe, katere glavni predstavnik je Frenk Sinatra z milijonskim ‘hitom’ Strangers in the night skladatelja Berta Kaempferta. Gligo, (2012), 257–258. 11 V dvajsetih letih charleston, v tridesetih big band in pesmi Gershwina, Porterja, Berlina in Kerna, v štiridesetih Bing Crosby in Frank Sinatra, v petdesetih in šestdesetih se pojavijo mladi poslušalci Elvisa Presleya, Beatlesov in Boba Dylana (Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stoletja, 258), po vzoru slednjega sta pri nas zaslovela Tomaž Pengov in Tomaž Domicelj ; doma se razvije v petdesetih letih in začetku šestdesetih avtorska popularna glasba jazzovskih prvin (pod okriljem RTV Slovenija deluje Revijski orkester Radia Ljubljana, danes Big Bend), z njo dobimo prve slovenske zimzelene melodije, zmagovalna imena Popevke pa permanentno pomembno soustvarjajo popularno glasbo vse do danes. 12 Festival Slovenska popevka poteka vsakoletno od l. 1962 (po zgledu San Rema in aktualnih sosednjih festivalov: Opatija, Split, Zagreb), z izjemo 1983–1998, po vmesni prekinitvi ponovno ob spremljavi orkestra. Vladimir Frantar, Enkrat še zapoj (Ljubljana: Mohorjeva družba, 2012), 15. 13 Npr. Mandolina, Orion, Poletna noč, Maček v žaklju, Vzameš me v roke, Med iskrenimi ljudmi, Samo nasmeh je bolj grenak, Dan neskončnih sanj … 14 Sprva se je imenovala šlager, ok. 1880 na Dunaju, kar je pomenilo vsakršno pri publiki priljubljeno udarno skladbo. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 213. 15 Gligo, Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stol., 257. 16 Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 213. 17 SP 2001 navaja le tekstopisec namesto besedilopisec, medtem ko SSKJ ne enega ne drugega. 18 tudi izvajalec

149

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 149 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 ali obratno; redko nastajata skladba in besedilo istočasno. Ideja (zamisel19 ali navdih) je osnova nastanku vsake pesmi. Avtorji besedil pa se ločijo tudi po tem, da besedila ustvarjajo primarno ali sekundarno glede na skladbo. Tematika (snov) glasbenega teksta v glavnini določa tematiko literarnega in nasprotno. Zaključno zvočno inštru- mentalno-vokalno podobo pesmi sklene glasbeni producent (tonski mojster) – tému snemalna oprema in ohranjen zapis ločenih zvočnih posnetkov omogočata dodajanje in odvzemanje, (post)produkcijsko spreminjanje20 lastnosti zvoka, največkrat: tona, barve, trajanja, jakosti, spremenjenih tudi glede na snemalni vmesnik (mikrofon)21. Konsonanca je končni smoter pesmi, preden je ta medijsko distribuirana oz. javno predvajana. K nastanku kakovostne pesmi (popevke) prispeva poprejšnja kakovostna komunikacija med ustvarjalci (skladatelj–tekstopisec–izvajalec–producent) v ten- denčnem zasledovanju kakovostne komunikacije s poslušalci22 (ciljno publiko), ki se razlikuje od zvrsti do zvrsti. Popevka tretje četrtine prejšnjega stoletja je kakovostno reprezentativna besedilno-glasbena kompozicija, najprimernejša za začetne fonetič- no-fonološke raziskave idr. lingvistične meritve znotraj muzikologije zaradi poetične (klasične) zasnove in kakovosti tako glasbe kot besedila. Danes lektorjev v glasbeni produkciji domala ni več, medtem ko so tí popevko do osemdesetih let prejšnjega stoletja pravorečno dosledno redigirali. Festival Slovenska popevka sicer še tendenčno vzdržuje glasbeno-literarno odličnost izbranih popevk, pri čemer se trudi ohranjati lépo slovensko besedilo in besedo23 kljub deljenim mnenjem o glasbeni, besedilni in pevski kakovosti moderne popevke.

3 Péto besedilo

V tem prispevku bo pozornost posvečena pesmi in besedilu popevke (angl. lyrics, hrv. riječi, nem. Liedtext) na izgovorni akustični ravni (dikcija), v prispevku imenovano péto besedilo24. Besedila klasičnih popevk se odlikujejo ravno v diahrono-sinhroni popularnosti besedil in pogostosti aktualizacije. Ni dobre popevke brez dobrega besedila, v popevki se glasbeni in literarni jezik dopolnjujeta, sodelujeta in eden drugega bogatita. Nepi- sano pravilo mnogih sodobnih avtorjev besedil »hit za vsako ceno« kapitalno naravna- nega globalnega glasbenega prostora25 (hitro in učinkovito) marsikdaj doseže svoj cilj za ceno slabše kakovosti glasbenega besedila in pravorečno slabše pevske izvedbe.

19 Sámo ime pove, da izvira iz misli posameznika. 20 tovrstno spreminjanje zvoka za petje in igranje ‘v živo’ ni značilno 21 Producent mikrofonu dodaja ali odvzema zvočne učinke po lastni presoji. Slabost mikrofona je, da slabo prenaša frikative, v kolikor oddaljenost ust od snemalnega mikrofona, jakost, artikulacija niso zmerno usklajene in akustično ustrezno uravnane. Prednost petja s pomočjo mikrofona (snemalne tehnike) je predvsem izboljšanje slišnosti – manj glasovnega napora, dolgotrajno ohranjanje glasbenega gradiva (pesmi) in ojačitev glasú z možnostmi repeticij, popravkov ter analize. 22 Empatičnost, tj. vživljanje v lastna čustva ter čustva ciljnih poslušalcev, in eidetika sta važni načeli ustvarjalcev tako glasbe kot besedil. 23 Najboljše besedilo in interpretacijo le-tega festival Slovenska popevka vrednoti in nagrajuje. 24 V glasbeni praksi uporabljamo poimenovanji: glasbeno besedilo ali »tekst«, z izjemo opernega libreta. 25 Število domačih avtorjev in imetnikov pravic l. 2015 (SAZAS) znaša 6.009, tujih 2 milijona in pol.

150

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 150 23.6.2016 9:58:38 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... Besedila pétih pesmi imajo povprečno strukturo: dve kitici, refren26, ponovljena kitica in refren27. V veliki meri se pozornost in pomnjenje osredinjata na refren, ki je kulmi- nacija péte glasbeno-besedilne kompozicije. Popevke lahko imajo atipičen refren ali namesto njega inštrumentalni del, refrena sploh nimajo, velikokrat imajo le t. i. razvito kitico. Glede na skrb za prestižnost pravorečne norme slovenskega knjižnega jezika in stremljenje h kakovosti in poetološkosti pétih besedil, ki so jih v zlati dobi Slovenske popevke (1962–1983) pisali kakovostni domači pesniki,28 je prav literarno-glasbena vrsta popevka najprimernejše raziskovalno gradivo za sledeče fonetične meritve pétih besedil. Besedila popevk so glasbi imanentna, za razliko od neuglasbene poezije niso namenjena branju ali govornemu interpretiranju (recitaciji, deklamaciji). Martin Luter je učil, da stori glasba29 besedo30 bolj razumljivo31. »Pesniški jezik mora takoj zbuditi živo in polno predstavo, vtisa ni mogoče niti preverjati niti popravljati.«32

»Besedna umetnina se bralcu razodeva kot nerazdružnost zvoka in smisla, ritma in simbolike, čustva, ideje in kompozicije. Eno podpira drugo, eno se z drugim spo- polnjuje in v bralcu, če je le delo v teh svojih sestavinah skladno, zapušča občutek estetskega zadoščenja.« 33

3.1 Pravorečje popularnih pétih besedil

»Ko govorimo o pravilnosti in čistosti knjižne slovenščine, mislimo navadno na pi- sani ali tiskani jezik. Od tod tudi izraz knjižni jezik. Pri tem pogosto pozabljamo, da je jezik najprej tisto, kar govorimo in slišimo, in šele potem tisto, kar pišemo, da je prvotnejša govorjena in ne pisana beseda, pisava je le zelo nepopoln zapis govora. Potemtakem ne more biti važno samo, kako pišemo, marveč tudi, kako govorimo. Pra- vorečje (ortoepija) določa pravilno in enotno izreko glasov in glasovnih skupin, besed in besednih skupin; hkrati opozarja na napake in daje navodila, kako se jih obvaruje- mo«34, je zapisal avtor prve samostojne knjižice Slovensko pravorečje (1946) in razisko- valec kulture slovenske reformacije Mirko Rupel. Petje se na segmentni fonetični ravni ne razlikuje bistveno od govora (péta beseda se je razvila iz prvotno govorjene), večje razlike nastajajo le na nadsegmentni ravni glasovja (trajanje, jakost, ton, ritem, premor, barva, agogika, dinamika). Učitelji petja in pevske tehnike se sklicujejo na znano pev-

26 Refren je večkrat ponovljeni, v besedilu in glasbi enak pripev, pogosto v drugačni izvajalski zasedbi kot prejšnje kitice (kitice: solisti; refren: zbor), posebej v pesmih in plesih; v inštrumentalni glasbi refrenu ustreza glavna tema v rondoju. Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 224–225. 27 V drugo z morebitno tonsko modulacijo navzgor. 28 E. Budau, D. Velkaverh (le popevke), G. Strniša, F. Milčinski - Ježek, C. Zlobec, S. Makarovič, E. Fritz, M. Košuta, B. Šömen, F. Souvan, M. Jesih idr. Gl. v Frantar, Enkrat še zapoj. 29 Znano je, da je lahko glasba z zvočno frekvenčno urejenostjo, metro-ritmičnimi zakonitostmi in foničnostjo, sredstvo za odpravljanje vrste težav s področja medicine: zdravljenje z zvoki, odpravljanje govornih in raznih drugih težav v surdopedagogiki, logopediji in govorni terapiji (afazične motnje) ipd. 30 Nanaša se na ‘božjo’. 31 Primož Trubar, Eni psalmi. (Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba, 1567), 91. 32 Matjaž Kmecl, Mala literarna teorija (Ljubljana: Založba M & N, 1996), 34. 33 Jože Toporišič, Besedni umetnik in družbena vloga književnosti (Ljubljana: 1976), 182. 34 Mirko Rupel, Slovensko pravorečje (Ljubljana: DZS, 1964), 3.

151

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 151 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 sko pravilo »poj, kot da govoriš«35, kar kaže na opiranje péte besede na poznavanje pra- vorečne govorne norme slovenskega knjižnega jezika. »Dober izgovor (dikcija) dodaja barvo, energijo, priteguje pozornost ter krepi legato (vezano) petje.«36 Dikcija (izreka) v petju upošteva pravorečno akustično produktivno-perceptivno kakovost glasu (fonema), izhajajočo iz fonetično-fonološke jezikovne standardizirane norme, pri čemer za- res pôjemo le samoglasnike (pri vsakem je nujno brezhibno odpirati usta). Soglasnike izrekamo kratko, s predvsem intelektualno vlogo semantično razmejujejo besedilo, povezujejo samoglasnike, ki opravljajo čustveno (estetsko) vlogo. Kakovostna dikcija pétih samoglasnikov upošteva standardno jezikovno-normativno barvno (formantno) razlikovalnost samoglasnikov, stabilno intoniranost (konsonančnost), zvenečnost in estetsko umerjeno resonančno ravnotežje s svetljenjem/temnjenjem37 (chiaroscuro). Slovenski samoglasniki so pévsko izvedê ni v temperirani uglasitvi (na osnovi terc, kot akordi), medtem ko govorjeni v naravni uglasitvi govornega aparata (višji – srednji – nižji register), na podlagi tega se glasovne »pevske lege razvrščajo v 1) sopran, 2) alt, 3) tenor 4) bas in različice: mezzosopran, kontraalt, bariton in basbariton. Oznake kot dramatski sopran, lirični tenor ali junaški bariton poimenujejo značaj glasu, njegovo zvočnost in uporabljivost v glasbeni praksi.«38

3.1.1 Pravorečna odstopanja

V petju se je še posebej v preteklih dvajsetih letih pri nas v popularni glasbi uveljavila zahodna tehnika petja v pulznem registru (ang. vocal fry ali glotal fry, slov. škri- pajoči glas), ki zajema najnižje frekvence normalnega govora (20–60 Hz), pevci pa se zavestno odločajo za stisnjeno, zadihano ali tekočo39 fonacijo glede na žanr popevke, posebej mladi posnemajo interpretacijo svojih idolov, največkrat tujih popularnih pevcev. Barva glasu po naravi izraža spol, osebnost in identiteto vsakega posameznega pevca, njegove kulture in naroda. Tako popularni pevci med najbolj predvajanimi – glede na lestvice IPF-a40 2009–2015 in SAZAS-a pôjejo s stisnjeno41 fonacijo, npr. pevke s tehniko pootročenega petja, nazalnega, pri čemer se deloma spreminja fonetična (pravorečna) podoba besed / sto glasov v meni pôjée / / zazibaš v sanje svôjée: /; ožajo izglasne samoglasnike / malo fantazijée / / malo čarovnijée /; / naj sijé v očeh /. Moški

35 Ivo Lhotka - Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja. Priručnik za nastavnike, studente i učenike solo-pjevanja, zborovođe i sve one koje zanimaju problemi pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 1975), 6. 36 Oren Brown, Discover Your Voice: How to Develop Healthy Voice Habits (London: Singular publishing group, 1996), 99. 37 V slušni fonetiki so svetli fonemi visokoformantni: i, e in zobniki; temni so nizkoformantni u, ozki o in ustničniki za razliko od glasbe, kjer velja dur: svetel in mol: temen. 38 Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 95. 39 Irena Hočevar-Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora. (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008), 47–48. 40 Zavod IPF je bil ustanovljen l. 1997, trenutno šteje Skupščina izvajalcev 2025 članov in 239 proizvajalcev fonogramov. Med najpopularnejšimi sodeč po lestvicah IPF v minulih petih letih so bili izvajalci: J. Plestenjak, Alya, Modrijani, N. Zorjan, Bilbi, E. Boto, D. Malalan, Muff, Kataya, Neisha, Tabu, N. Pušlar, Ditka, G. Gjurin, R. Bučar, Pliš, T. Kovač, April, Dan D, A. Godec, M. Rudan, Kataya, Victory, Magnifico, V. Kreslin, Siddharta, Nude idr. Gl. v Gregor Štibernik (ur.), Zbornik prispevkov mednarodnega strokovnega simpozija ob 10-letnici zbiranja nadomestil za sorodne glasbene pravice v Sloveniji (Ljubljana: IPF, 2014). 41 Primer petja s stisnjeno fonacijo v stilu angloameriškega načina pop petja je zmagovalna skladba EME 2015 (Maraaya), v kateri je barva glasu izrazito popačena z intencionalno zavestno spreminjano obliko (artikulacijsko odločilne) oblike odzvočne cevi. Postavlja se vprašanje identitete mlajših pevcev, glede na tujo, privzeto barvo glasu.

152

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 152 23.6.2016 9:58:38 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... pôjejo v nadsegmentih približano govoru, z manjšimi odkloni od naravnega (modalnega) registra in metroritmičnih idr. nadsegmentnih značilnosti govora, neizrazite artikulacije, vendar pravorečno ustrezne / v moji knjigi obrazov mi tvoj najlepši je /. Pri določenih pevcih je slušnozaznavno menjava registra v tretji register (pevsko- tehnično nezaželeno) in sredinsko, ne frontalno petje z omisijo / *etulji grejo v nebo / / da nas *majo radi /). V ženskih in moških pétih glasovih ima pomembno vlogo uzvočevanje čustev (s šepetanjem, mrmranjem, kričanjem ipd.), pogosto pomemb- nejšo kot pravorečje. Moški pevci npr. pôjejo ravnodušno neizrazito (mačističnost), medtem ko je v večini popularnih pétih glasov prisoten glotalni pulzni register, ki poudarja element očarljivosti (zapeljivost). Čutnost/senzualnost s preveč izdihanega zraka zmanjša jakost in razpoznavnost glasov, kar ob poslušanju pesmi zbuja željo po podnapisih. Inštrumentalni del skladbe pevci na določenih mestih interpretativno za- polnijo z interpolacijo zvenečih glasov (ie, ia, jee, uu, mmm …). Praviloma nenaglašene enklitike/proklitike postanejo naglašene, neustreznost ritma besed ritmu skladbe (ne- upoštevanje poudarjenih/nepoudarjenih metroritmičnih zakonitosti) pa lahko vodi v kršenje pravorečne norme pétega jezika: [vodá], zaljubljen[á], /zg[ô]r[á]j/. Tako je npr. péti kratki nenaglašeni /e/ v [celó] po trajanju in kakovosti blizu širokemu dolge- mu /ê / v govoru, kot npr. [sê lo]. Podobno je s pétim kratkim nenaglašenim in govorje- nim širokim dolgim /o/ [polétna noč : zapôje]. Zaradi pomanjkanja jezikovne cenzure so v slovenskih pétih besedilih slušnozaznavne napake: 1) Primer pleonazma / k tebi vleče moje me srce / 2) Napaka v skladnji (vezavi) / da ne pozabim jo /, / tisoč ljubic mi ne pogasi nemirno kri / 3) Vrinjen členek zaradi metričnega izida / prosil bom zate le / 4) Omisija oz. neslišna izgovorjava določenih konzonantov, posebej nezvenečih [poraz - *oraz] 5) Redukcija vokalov [jst rabm] 6) Fonetična napaka glede na normo v SSKJ (j/á/z ali j/ә/z) namesto /j`az], / nikôli ni tišina tako naglas zapela /, / sámo ti /; deikt postane pravorečno napačno polglasniško izrazit [təm] ali postane /a/ dolg [tám] namesto kratek [ta`m]. Pravorečno vprašljiv je kratko naglašen péti samoglasnik /a/ na poudarjeni dobi ali v izglasju / [čɘs] ča`s bo na moji strani / /moj si zra`k [zrɘk]/, ki se preglasi v dolgi fonem /ɘ/ ali pa pevec spremeni kračino, namesto [tə], v dolžino / brez nje bo življenje moje v [tê mo] šlo /. »Polglasnik je ne svetel, ne temen, ne strnjen glas«42, za petje premalo izrazit samoglasnik, s premalo koncentracijo zvočne energije. V popularnih pétih besedilih so slušnozaznavni: pogovorni péti jezik / tok sm pucala / ali narečno neknjižno naglaševanje glede na regionalno pripadnost pevca, napake bo- lezenskega izvora (npr. nosljanje, sigmatizem, hripavost43) in nepoznavanje izgovorne knjižne norme slovenskega jezika in fonetične ustreznosti (nepoznavanje naglasnega mesta, ozkih/širokih in dolgih/kratkih samoglasnikov). Drsna aproksimanta /v/, /j/, nosna /m/, /n/ so nasploh pri petju (predvsem džez) dolgo trajajoči soglasniki (primerljivo s samoglasniki) glede na govorjene, kar je (žanrska) specifika péte besede / jaz pa čaka[m] / / ker ga ljubi[m] / / drugačen kot pre[j] / in vplivajo na barvo (timbre) pétega samoglasnika, pred/za katerim stojijo.

42 Jože Toporišič, Slovenska slovnica (Ljubljana: Založba Obzorja, 2000), 49. 43 lahko pogojena s kajenjem in dejavniki slabe nege glasu, ki je prisotna v splošni popularni, neklasični glasbi

153

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 153 23.6.2016 9:58:38 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 4 Med govorno in pevsko interpretacijo

Slušno podobo jezika človek usvoji pred pisno besedo in branjem; »povezovanje grafemov in fonemov je naravni proces, ki se mu ni mogoče izogniti že ob prvem učenju branja44«. Govorni izraz je naraven in živ, pisni umeten in neživ. Govor je po besedah Iva Škarića »informacijsko-komunikacijski arhetip in pragmatično komunika- cijsko sredstvo, ki je obstajal pred pisavo, obstaja ob njej in neodvisno od nje«,45 petje pa po razlagi I. L. Kalinski »idealiziran govor«46. Miller znano pevsko pedagoško pravilo Si canta come si parla omeji na v veliki meri fonetično predpostavko in dopolni: »Pri petju gre za glasovno resonančno balansiranje, ki presega vsakršno govorjeno besedo, tudi umetniško, npr. profesionalnega teatra«.47 Kakovostna pevska (umetniška) izvedba je nedeljeno povezana z interpretacijo48, tj. prestavitvijo glasbenega teksta49 v živo glasbo ali literarnega teksta v živi jezik (péto besedilo) na način, da se najbolj doživeto dojameta, spoznata njegov pomen in vsebina. Katarina Podbevšek ločuje faze priprave na kakovostno umetniško interpretacijo literarnega besedila tihega–glasnega bra- nja50: 1) upočasnjeno tiho branje 2) izdelava govornega zapisa in 3) poskusno glasno branje. Omenjeno je dober primer kakovostne priprave tako na govorno interpretacijo kakor tudi pevsko interpretacijo literarnega besedila. Škarić51 deli interpretativno branje na navadno glasno branje, spikersko branje, interpretativno branje in dobro interpretativno branje. Dobro interpretativno branje v umetniški praksi je fonetično- fonološko52 najboljši približek govorjene umetniške besede péti. Govorna interpretacija besedila dopušča interpretu več »licentie poetice« predvsem na nadsegmentni ravni (trajanje, poudarek, ton, ritem, premor, barva, agogika, dinamika), medtem ko je pevska interpretacija deloma že predvidena, »omejena« s paradigmatično partituro in dopušča le manjše metro-ritmične oz. melodične odklone od s kompozicijo dolo- čene glasbene norme. Pevska interpretacija se spreminja npr. od arije do recitativa (dvojica z nasprotnim izraznim značajem) v smeri od pevske proti govorni – recitativ je silabično izrazit način monotonega petja, ki posnema ritem, poudarek in melodijo govora. Po značaju je na sredi med njima samostojna vokalna skladba izrazite melodike arioso, katere izvedba je natanko vezana na takt. Za šolane klasične pevce predstavlja enega najzahtevnejših koncertov recital, samostojni nastop glasbenega solista ob in-

44 David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language: second edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 212. 45 Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Šola retorike, 2005), 29. 46 Ivo Lhotka - Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja: Priručnik za nastavnike, studente i učenike solo-pjevanja, zborovođe i sve one koje zanimaju problemi pjevanja (Zagreb: Školska knjiga,1975), 4. 47 Richard Miller, On the Art of singing (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 52. 48 Gre za način uzvočitve Kako? in je nasprotje improvizacije (impromptu), v pomenu ‘brez vnaprejšnje priprave’. O improvizaciji govorimo v jazzovski pevski tehniki scat, izvajanju izbrane poljubne kombinacije semantično nepovezanih fonemov, zlogov, ki se pevsko subjektivno razvijajo v ritmu. 49 tabulature, generalbas, part, partiture 50 Katarina Podbevšek, Govorna interpretacija literarnih besedil v pedagoški in umetniški praksi (Ljubljana: Slavistično društvo Slovenije, 2006), 255. 51 Ivo Škarić, V iskanju izgubljenega govora (Ljubljana: Pravljično gledališče, 1996), 68. 52 »Govorimo, da bi nas slišali; slišali zato, da bi nas razumeli. To je pot od fonacijskega dejanja k zvoku kot takemu in od zvoka k smislu! Tu zapuščamo področje fonetike, discipline, ki proučuje zgolj motorični in akustični vidik glasov, in stopamo na novo področje, področje fonologije, ki proučuje jezikovni vidik glasov govorice.« Roman Jakobson, Lingvistični in drugi spisi (Ljubljana: Založba ŠKUC, Znanstveni inštitut Filozofske fakultete: 1989), 23.

154

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 154 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... štrumentu: tovrstno petje namreč zahteva ne le visoke fizične pripravljenosti temveč tudi skrajno psihološko zbranost (poznavanje količine besedila na pamet in glasovni napor). Gledališka igra, katere besedilo se govori ob spremljavi glasbe, melodrama, se nahaja na sredi med glasbenim in literarnim delom in združuje (tako kot opera/opere- ta, muzikal) vrste umetnosti: dramsko, literarno in glasbeno (plesno). Glasbena drama (nem. Musikdrama) je oznaka za opero v smislu celostne umetnine, enovitosti besedila in glasbe : nasprotje muzikalni drami, kjer je glasba le intermezzo. Ob koncu 18. st. razvit samospev (A. T. Linhart, D. Jenko, B. Ipavec, J. Flajšman, A. Nedved, A. Foerster, F. Gerbič idr.) – skladba za pevski glas in solistični inštrument – je pri nas priljubljen posebej v obliki literarno-glasbene komunikacije prekomponiranega samospeva.

4.1 Pevska interpretacija

Klasična vokalna pevska tehnika belkanto je podstat današnjemu lepemu petju in pomeni preprost ter speven vokalni stil brez virtuoznega okrasja. Glasbeno šolstvo pri nas vzgaja in izobražuje pevce za klasično petje resne glasbe in jazz petje – programi popularnih modernih glasbenih zvrsti ostajajo neformalna panoga zasebnih šol. Vsaka glasbena zvrst implicira svojevrstno pevsko tehniko glede na artikulacijsko fonetično spremenjenost odzvočnih mest in postavitev artikulatorjev – tako se petje operne arije razlikuje od petja popevke ali petje klasične popevke od jazz petja predvsem v barvi (timbru) glasu. Obstajajo vrste petja, ki ne vzbujajo večjega tonskega odmika od naravnega (modalnega) registra, v katerem govorimo53, in spet na drugi strani vrste petja, ki zahtevajo najzahtevnejšo agilnost glasu in telesni napor, obvladljiva le z dolgotrajnim šolanjem glasu. Pevci zborist, operni pevec in popevkar pojejo z različno glasovno barvo, dinamiko (pevci pojejo večinoma piano, forte, medtem ko le operni pevci pro- fesionalno fortissimo possibile). Prehajanje med različnimi glasbenimi zvrstmi je redko, operni pevec z izdelano tehniko estetskega petja belkanto54 redko zaživi v množični popularni glasbi ali pop pevec v klasični tehniki petja. Tako je npr. v zborovskem petju lahko moteč operni (pevskoformantni) glas, ki se ne zliva v zborovsko barvo in s svojimi formantnimi vrhovi (ang. peaks) kazi estetsko doživljanje barve celotnega zbora. »Najodličnejša dikcija se je razvila v petju, v katerem je vsebina besedila nosila velik pomen, prim. francoski šansoni. V belkantu morajo biti samoglasniki čisti, ne smejo privzeti neželene nosne barve, tudi ko bi v govoru morali biti zaradi fonoloških razlogov nosni.«55 Pevska tehnika izvorno temelji na dihu in uravnavanju aerodinamičnih sil v telesu med petjem. V skrbi za péti slovenski knjižni jezik ne moremo preskočiti pevčevega poznavanja in uporabe pevske tehnike: poznavanja lastnih resonančnih odzvočnih mest telesa, zmožnosti hkratne pozornosti pri metroritmičnem, melodičnem, harmonskem,

53 Parlando je hitremu naravnemu govoru podoben način petja, ki se je razvil zlasti v operi buffi v 18. in 19. stol. 54 Prediren glas klasične pevske tehnike belkanto ni izvedljiv (dosegljiv) nešolanemu pevcu brez dolgotrajnega usvajanja klasične pevske tehnike in zahteva največjo mero fizičnega napora ter produktivno-perceptivnega nadzora psihofizične uporabe odzvočnih makro- in mikroprostorov (predvsem v najvišjem »tretjem« registru glave). 55 Gordana Varošanec - Škarić, Timbar (Zagreb: FF Press, 2005), 237.

155

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 155 23.6.2016 9:58:39 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 besedilnem poteku skladbe in dikciji, temelječi na pravorečju besedilnega dela skladbe (izhodiščne gôvorne norme) ob upoštevanju izvajalnih označb56 skladateljskega dela kompozicije (artikulacijske, dinamične, agogične, izraznostne in izrazi za tempo). Pevec deluje glasovno produktivno-receptivno (po zakonu kroženja) s pomočjo sluha, s katerim uravnava intra- in ekstrazvočno gibanje na mikro in makro ravni, pri čemer zasleduje glavni cilj, tj. estetiko in evfonijo pétega glasu in besedila, v objetju inštrumentalnega – cilj je dosegljiv le s priučeno kakovostno »vokalno tehniko«, ki je ključni gonilnik dobre pevske interpretacije.

4.2 Fiziologija glasu

Dihanje je z ustvarjanjem subglotisnega zračnega tlaka osnova tako govoru kot petju, a petje v primerjavi z govorom porabi več zraka57. Pri petju navzgor pevec uporablja v glavnem trebušno dihanje58, pri petju navzdol pa prsno. Šolani pevci pri petju upora- bijo 50–80 % vitalne kapacitete59 za fonacijo, šolane pevke pa 45–75 %. Dihalna opora60 (it. appoggio, nem. Stütze) podpira glas in mu omogoča dovolj dolg izdih za petje, medtem ko prepona glas balansira61. Vzglasni frazni (besedni, silabični) samoglasniki imajo skupne lastnosti: fonacija sledi vdihu, ko je appoggio največji oz. je v pljučih največja količina vdihanega zraka, ki postopoma upada v smeri začetek–konec fraze. Izglasnim samoglasnikom je velikokrat inherentno podaljšano trajanje, navzočnost vibrata. Pri izurjenih pevcih je daljše pridržanje čvrste pevske opore (zračnega stebra) osnova kakovostnega petja, ki neposredno in pomembno vpliva na pevsko artikulacijo (dikcijo). Najpomembnejši pri petju so resonančni organi: žrelo62, nosna votlina, nosno-žrelna votlina, negibljivo trdo nebo (od zgornje čeljusti do mehkega neba), gibljivo mehko nebo (višanje in nižanje tona), nos, sinusi (zatilniški, lobanjski, ušesna, lična, očesna, čelna). Od odzvočnosti telesnih resonančnih organov je odvisna produktivno-percep- tivna kakovost péte besede. Oblika zvočne cevi je odvisna od pozicije grla63 (od glasilk) do ustnic. Na barvo in jakost glasu vpliva vsaka sprememba prostora. Goltna ožina loči ustno votlino od žrela, nje oblika64 pa je pomembna za petje, posebej za odpiranje registra glave in ustvarjanja višjih tonov. Grlo (larynx) predstavlja s podjezično kostjo

56 Izrazi, kratice in znamenja, ki podrobno določajo, kako izvajamo skladbo (npr. non legato, glissando …; p, f, ff, cresc. …; andante, adagio, allegro …; accelerando, ritenuto …; affettuoso, appassionato, audace …). 57 Med fonacijo je izdih močno podaljšan, postane tudi dvajsetkrat daljši od vdiha. /…/ Govorec uporablja za govor tudi ekspiratorni rezervni volumen. Tok zraka iz pljuč v izdihu skozi grlo je pomemben tudi za prozodijo. Irena Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora (Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008), 39. 58 Napake fonatornega dihanja (organske in funkcionalne: npr. površno dihanje, preglobok vdih, ki povzroči glasovno utrudljivost) lahko vplivajo tudi na kakovost glasu. Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 40. 59 Vitalna kapaciteta predstavlja volumen, ki ga maksimalno izdihnemo po maksimalnem vdihu. Odvisna je od starosti, spola, višine, konstitucije, teže in zdravstvenega stanja posameznika. Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 38. 60 prsna ali trebušna 61 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 40. 62 Žrelo je cev, ki poteka od baze lobanje navzdol, do višine 6. vratnega vretenca. 63 Grlo mora biti pri petju karseda spuščeno. 64 Šolani pevci ustvarjajo obliko t. i. zehanja med samim petjem zaradi doseganja odličnejše resonance.

156

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 156 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... funkcionalno enoto, sestavljajo ga subglotis, glotis (glasotvorni organ) in supraglotis65. Sluh, globoka in povrhnja senzibiliteta iz grla služijo na nivoju centralnega živčnega sistema za kontrolo izvedbe načrtovane fonacije, tako da se motorični program izvedbe fonacije vsak trenutek sproti popravlja na želeno raven: »Sluh je najpomembnejši kontrolni mehanizem pri govoru in petju. Nekateri pevci uspejo s treningom ojačiti tudi sistem kontrolne fonacije /…/, kar je pomembno, kadar govorijo oziroma pojejo v hrupu oz. ob močni inštrumentalni spremljavi in se sami ne slišijo«.66

5 Kakovost pétih samoglasnikov in prozodija

»Samoglasniki učinkujejo na sluh mnogo bolj blagoglasno kot konzonanti. Ker ima zračni tok prosto pot, zvene tudi bolj polno.« 67

Konzonanti v petju služijo povezovanju samoglasnikov, biti morajo kratki in nevsi- ljivi. Pevec pogosto spreminja trajanje samoglasnika ali višino tona (dvakrat, trikrat) znotraj istega samoglasnika; z glasbenim okraševanjem68 in vibratom69 lahko spreminja še dinamiko (messa di voce, tremolo). Perturbacija (spreminjanje) višine glasu znotraj pétega samoglasnika se imenuje jitter, perturbacija amplitude pa shimmer. Oba parametra, izražena v %, European Laryngological Society svetuje za akustično oceno fonacije70. »Fonetična znanost71 je v zadnjih petdesetih letih z možnostmi instrumentalnih meritev formantov, tj. koncentracije zvočne energije, izrazite zlasti pri samoglasni- kih in zvenečih glasovih, dokazala, da zmore natančno analizirati in določiti kakovost posameznih fonemov (v Hz).« Estetika živahnega pevskega tonskega gibanja v času in prostoru presega moč in učinek govorjene besede, predvsem v nadsegmentih (trajanje, jakost, ton, barva, ritem, agogika, dinamika) merodajnih fonemov – samoglasnikov, ki so pri petju izrazitejši in poleg formantne strukture omogočajo še natančne meritve alikvotnih tonov oz. višjih harmonikov72 samoglasnikov, ki skupaj pomembno

65 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 16–21. 66 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 43. 67 France Bezlaj, Oris slovenskega knjižnega izgovora (Ljubljana: Znanstveno društvo, 1939), 29. 68 Okraševanje (ornamentika) se nanaša na okraševanje melodije ali manjkrat harmonične linije. 16.–19. stoletja je bila umetnost okraševanja v zenitu oz. smatrana za pomembno virtuozno tehniko. Variirajo celotni deli skladbe ali samo prehodi (pasaže). Razširjeni sta dve vrsti okraševanja: preprosto tonsko obigravanje posameznega tona (ang. graces) ali bolj ekstravagantno okraševanje vseh prehodov, ki originalno melodijo povsem prikrije. Gl. v Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms, 132. Trilček (ang. trill, it. trillo) je pogost melodični okrasek iz hitre menjave glavnega tona z zgornjim sosednjim tonom ali poltonom ( v Latham, Oxford Dictionary of Musical Terms, 193); v klasični glasbi notiran, v zabavni pa spontan ali nameren del interpretacije/improvizacije, navadno glavnega pevca, manjkrat bekvokalov. 69 Vibrato je pojav kvantitativno obsežnejših samoglasnikov; gre za lahno nihanje višine tona glasu, ki nastane, ko pevec z dihom dolgotrajno podpira ton določene višine. Vibrato je naravni pojav človeškega glasu, do katerega prihaja zaradi ne zavestnih korekcij, ki jih pevec vrši, da bi obdržal ton na zadani višini, kadar ta dolgo traja; te korekcije se odvijajo v desetinki sekunde. Gl. v Lhotka – Kalinski, Umjetnost pjevanja, 65. Dolgi toni brez vibrata (komaj zaznavnega tonskega nihanja gor : dol) zvenijo neprijetno, če je pa tega preveč, se pretvori v tremolo, pevsko nezaželen izrazito tresoč glas, t. i. napako v pevski tehniki. 70 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 71. 71 David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language: second edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 427. 72 Alikvotni toni se hkrati z osnovnim oglašajo vsi ali pa se jih oglaša le del. Število nihajev a. t. je mnogokratnik števila nihajev osnovnega tona (Bedina, Leksikon Glasba, 14), medtem ko alikvotna tehnika petja zavestno ojači določene alikvotne tone v spektru posameznega pétega glasu (samoglasnika).

157

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 157 23.6.2016 9:58:39 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 vplivajo na spremembo barve glasu in na kakovost dikcije73. »Intervali74 si med harmoniki 1–6 sledijo: 1 in 2 (oktava), 2 in 3 (kvinta), 3 in 4 (kvarta), 4 in 5 (velika terca), 5 in 6 (mala terca). Ko je F0 nižja kot 100 Hz, so sosednji pari harmonikov manj razmaknje- ni kot znaša kritična frekvenčna razdalja, vsi lahko posledično prispevajo k raskavosti (angl. roughness). Ko je F0 višja, k raskavosti/hrapavosti prispevajo le tisti harmoniki, ki so pod mejo 20 % frekvence F0, ali če se izrazimo z glasbenim intervalom, male terce. Intervali, ki ločujejo sosednje harmonike, se bližajo tem bolj, višje kot se pomikamo v spektru. Če na primer presojamo frekvenčno območje, skupno altom75 in tenorjem (250–500 Hz), ugotovimo, da tvorijo raskavost le sosednji harmoniki nad četrtim. Sundberg76 vprašujoč Kaj je tako posebnega pri petju, pri pevcih? izhaja iz dihanja, fonacije in artikulacije, treh determinant petja. Ugotavlja, da glede na navedeno troje obstaja razlika v več pogledih med pevci in »ne pevci«. Vsem pevcem je skupno izhajanje iz estetske vrednosti in zasledovanje le-te. Pevci morajo po njegovo razviti neodvisno kontrolo parametrov glasu: kontrolo jakosti in tona (t. i. ‚pitch‘). Za govorca to ni značilno. Pevec mora najnatančneje odmeriti in ustvariti subglotisni pritisk vsled produkcije želene intonacije. Subglotisni pritisk konstantno narašča z naraščanjem vi- šine tona. V normalnem govoru je jakost glasú povezana s spremembo osnovne fre- kvence77. Nešolani pevec je prepoznaven po stisnjeni fonaciji, predvsem ob naraščajo- či jakosti, na drugi strani šolani pevec manj menjuje način fonacije med spreminjanjem jakosti petja in razvije večjo neodvisnost med tonom in jakostjo. Sprememba enega parametra za kakovostnega pevca ne pomeni nujno spremembe drugega.

5.1 Formanti

Formanti so v muzikološki terminologiji »naziv za alikvotne tone, ki od ostalih alikvotnih tonov odstopajo s svojo intenziteto oz. povečano amplitudo, kar daje zvoku barvo. Vsak glas ima svojo karakteristično barvo, odvisno od števila, razporejenosti in intenzitete posameznih formantov. Pri petju obstaja stalno frekvenčno področje (nem. Frequenzbereich), za vsak določen samoglasnik drugače, znotraj katerega se formanti pojavljajo, neglede na spremembo osnovne frekvence F0.«78 Temeljni grlni ton (F0) – temeljna frekvenca – nastane v grlu, število nihajev glasilk v sekundi določa višino F0, barva glasu (timbre) ter značilnosti posameznih glasov nastanejo v odzvočni cevi nad grlom in s pomočjo artikulatorjev79. Človeški govorni aparat80 oblikuje samoglasni- ške glasove, ki jih opredelimo s 4 ali 5 pomembnimi formanti. Višji kot je ton (pitch), nižja je vrednost prvega formanta (F1). Samoglasnika /i/ in /u/ imata torej nižja prva

73 Hočevar – Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 43. 74 Johan Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice (Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987), 109. 75 Ne obstaja zmeraj razlika v osnovni frekvenci med petjem moškega in ženske, vendar je razlika v barvi (timbre) precejšnja: tenorji pojejo npr. v zgornjem delu lastnega razpona, alti v nižjem delu svojega pevskega razpona. 76 Johan Sundberg »What’s so special about singers?« Journal of Voice. Vol.4, No.2, 1990: 107–118. 77 Povprečno razmerje v govoru je pribl. 0,4 poltona na en decibel (dB). Podvojitev subglotisnega pritiska poveča jakost za pribl. 9 decibelov (dB). Hočevar – Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 108. 78 Kovačević, Krešimir (gl. ur.), Muzička encikopedija I (Zagreb: Jugoslavenski leksikografski zavod, 1971), 596. 79 Hočevar - Boltežar, Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora, 43. 80 Basi imajo najdaljši vokalni trakt in soprani najkrajšega.

158

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 158 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... formanta, medtem ko /a/ višjega. Drugi formant, F2, kaže na sprednjost (odzvočno mesto) glasu. Odzadnji samoglasniki (glede na odzvočnost) imajo frekvenčno nizek F2, sprednji pa visok F2, prav tako ima pri F2 (o in u) »oblikovanost ustnic pomembno vlogo81.« Resonančno in artikulatorno odprti glasovi z F1 prisilijo dvig frekvence F2 in tako lahko z izračunavanjem razlike med F1 in F2 ugotavljamo »(ne)sprednjost« artikulacije samoglasnika. Zaokroževanje glasu vpliva na razmerje med F2 in F3 in krepi odzvočno mesto samoglasnika zadaj: nezaokroženi samoglasniki imajo sprednji, zao- kroženi pa zadnji F3. »Formant82 si je treba predstavljati ne kot tanko črto, temveč kot pas, ki obsega povprečno okrog 500 Hz (ožji je rad le F1, dobijo pa se tudi širši od 500 Hz).« Značilna prva dva formanta M. Vujnović83 deli na faringealne (žrelne) formante (F1), nastale z resonanco v grlni votlini in bukalne (F2), nastale v nosni/ustni votlini. F2 je samoglasniško kakovostno najbolj razlikovalen, zmeraj v odnosu do sosednjih formantov. Porazdelitev formantnih območij, spektralno različnih, ostaja pri govoru in petju v posameznih fonemih enako razdeljeno. Po Fletcherju sprememba višine tona naj ne bi spremenila mest omenjenih maksimalnih komponent84. Formantna področja so pri ženskah malo, pri otrocih bolj, pomaknjena proti višjim frekvencam v odnosu do formantov moških govorcev ali pevcev. Odnos med formanti, ne njihova absolutna vrednost, kaže na kakovost samoglasnika. »Prvi formant se nahaja v območju 200–750 Hz, drugi od 750–2200 Hz in tretji nad 2200 Hz.85« Višji formanti od F1 in F2 (od F3 naprej) so karakteristični bolj za določeno osebo kot za sam glas. Specifika péte besede pa je pevski formant, ki je potreben, da se šolanega pevca ali govornika sliši preko igranja orkestra ali petja zbora – v samoglasniških spektrih govorcev in netreniranih pevcev je odsoten. Sundberg86 opredeljuje pevskoformantno območje izhajajoč iz opernega petja: pevski formant predstavlja zlitje 3. in 4. formanta in se pojavlja na frekvenci 2300 Hz–3400 Hz, odvisno od višine glasu (pri basistu pri nižjih frekvencah, pri sopranistki pri višjih frekvencah). Samoglasniki se med seboj razlikujejo po barvi (timbre), tj. po svoji akustični sestavi. »V vsakem samoglasniku se pojavi dvojnost barve: barva vokala samega (samoglasniški timbre) in barva glasu govorečega. Barva samoglasnika je tipična, barva glasu pa indivi- dualna. Oba elementa se prepletata med seboj. Barva samoglasnika ima temeljno vrednost za govor.«87 Posebej pri večglasnem88 petju popularne glasbe je značilno petje v tercah, sekstah, unisono, pri čemer je pomembna ustrezna kombinacija obojega. Po Sundbergu89 »vocal tract tuning« (formantna uglasitev oz. umerjanje) pove- čuje nivo zvočnega oddajanja – predfonatorno pomaga pevcu izogniti se vokalnim

81 Tivadar Hotimir, Kakovost in trajanje samoglasnikov v govorjenem knjižnem jeziku (Ljubljana: doktorska disertacija 2008), 216. 82 Jože Toporišič, Glasovna in naglasna podoba slovenskega knjižnega jezika (Maribor: Obzorja, 1978), 126. 83 Momir Vujnović, Govorna akustika (Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada, 1990), 21. 84 Vujnović, Govorna akustika, 21. 85 Vujnović, Govorna akustika, 22. 86 Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 118. 87 Bezlaj, Oris slovenskega knjižnega izgovora, 35. 88 Duet je priljubljena glasbena in besedilna oblika, besedilopisec upošteva kompozicijsko izdvajanje, dialoškost oz. skladatelj melodični dualizem, prilagojeno spolu pevcev in njuni pevski legi. Najbolj razširjena oblika dvoglasnega popularnega petja pri nas je petje v terci – in z obrnjenim konsonančnim intervalom, petje v seksti. 89 Johan Sundberg, Filipa M. B. Lã and Brian P. Gill: »Formant Tuning Strategies in Professional Male Opera Singers«, Journal of voice, Vol. 27, No. 3 (2013): 278.

159

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 159 23.6.2016 9:58:39 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 hiperfunkcijam prehajanja med registri tako pri klasičnem in neklasičnem petju med sámo fonacijo. »Pevci bi naj glede na svetovno (konfliktno) pevsko pedagogiko: (1) uglasili F1 in/ali F2 z delnim tonom ‚harmonikom‘ (2) vzdrževali F1 in F2 konstantna, neodvisno od F0 in (3) uglasili F1/F2 s frekvenco tik nad najbližjim harmonikom, v izogib koincidenci harmonika in formanta. »Klasično petje se razlikuje od ne klasič- nega v konsistentnih in jasno sluhovno zaznavnih formantnih frekvencah, F1 in F2 pa se nagibata nižje pri klasičnem petju kot neklasičnem (razlika je posebej izražena pri visokih F0).«90

6 Opis gradiva

Za izvedbo fonetičnih instrumentalnih meritev je bilo treba posneti reprezentativno in kakovostno pevsko-inštrumentalno gradivo, primerno za fonetično-fonološke raziskave kakovosti pétih samoglasnikov. Gradivo je bilo posneto v obdobju 2012–2014 v glasbenem studiu (Ljubljana), snemanje pevcev (m in ž) je bilo izvedeno na mikrofon Rode NT200091 (studio condenser microphone), glasbena podlaga je bila predvajana preko slušalk AKG K270 studio (75 ohm); petje je bilo snemano z resolucijo 24 bit in 4800 kHz (daw-digital audio workstation): logic 9, version 9.1.8. v računalniško programsko okolje Apple Macintosh92. Snemanje je potekalo opiraje se na zapisano (natisnjeno) besedilo znotraj največ treh poizkusnih snemanj, za nadaljnje analize pa je bil izbran pravorečno-pevsko najboljši posnetek (izvedba) po dogovoru pevca in producenta. Fonetična analiza posnetkov pétega besedila je bila opravljana s pro- gramoma Cool Edit Pro 2.1 in Praat. Opravljena je selektivna in primerjalna obdelava podatkov (samoglasnikov). Prvi zvočni posnetek (pevka): iz posavskega – štajerskega – narečja, 45 let, zmaga na Slovenski popevki, Emi ter visoka uvrstitev na tekmovanju Eurovision Song Contest. Drugi zvočni posnetek (pevec): 51 let, zmaga na slovenskem tekmovanju za Pesem Evrovizije, nastopanje na festivalu Slovenska popevka in prejem več nagrad (najboljša interpretacija, pop pesem leta). Oba pevca (m, ž) sta še pevsko aktivna in medijsko prepoznavna. Analizirani so bili samoglasniki zmagovalne slovenske popevke iz l. 196493. Obliko besedila94 tvorijo tri epske štirivrstičnice in lirski pripev (refren) v obliki apostrofirane kitice95. Gre za reprezentativno popularno96 popevko (glasbeno in besedilno poetološko) s stališča kakovosti glasbene kompozicije, besedila in kakovostne izreke (dikcije)97. Kompozicija je baladna »(fr. ballade), ena od treh standardnih poetičnih oblik (kot rondo in virelai) ohranjena iz 14. in 15. stol., prvotno

90 Prav tam, 288. 91 Maximum SPL: 147 dB (@ 1% THD into 1k ohm) 157 dB (@ 1% THD into 1k ohm) with pad at maximum; Signal/Noise: 84 dB (per IEC651,IEC268-15). Sensitivity: -36 dB re 1 Volt/Pascal (16 mV @ 94dB SPL) +/- 2 dB. 92 MACBOOK PRO-Processor 2.5 ghz intel core i7,8gb,1333 mhz DDR3,500 gb SSD disk,15 inch. 93 Marjana Deržaj (1936–2005) je pesem zapela z izbrano in skoraj mistično temno barvo glasu – Deržajeva je nastopila na šestnajstih Popevkah – izvedla 24 skladb, l. 1974 prejela Zlato plaketo Slovenske popevke. 94 Uporabljena je oblika glasbenega besedila dodanega zvočnemu zapisu Za vse poletne noči Marjane Deržaj (1994). 95 V analizirani popevki razvita (razširjena) kitica nadomešča refren. 96 V letih 1997–2006 v kategorijah 100 (Radijski programi RTV Slo) in 110 (komercialne in nekomercialne radijske postaje) v skupnem seštevku, je analizirana pesem na 3. mestu po pogostnosti predvajanj (Glasilo Avtor, letn. 6, št. 2 (2008): 13). 97 Petje je solistično, brez stranskih vokalov.

160

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 160 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... plesna pesem«98, gre za žensko ljubezensko balado. Tekstopiska99 je pisala besedilo na že obstoječo glasbeno predlogo skladatelja100, zadnji (tako besedilni kot aranžerski popravki) pa so bili izvršeni združno (skladatelj–pevec–tekstopisec) z lektorjem, ki je skrbel za ustrezno knjižno pravorečje101. Na sinhroni in diahroni ravni gre za reprezentativno popevko, upoštevaje predvajanost, številne (post)produkcije in številne pevske (po)izvedbe mlajših generacij pevcev (Alenka Godec, Nuša Derenda, Anika Horvat, Nina Strnad, Perpetuum Jazzile idr.). S stališča predvajanosti (aktualnosti) med občim slovenskim prebivalstvom pol stoletja permanentno prisotne popevke in s tem večjega jezikovnega vpliva na povprečnega slovenskega poslušalca (govorca slovenskega knji- žnega jezika) smo izbrali neklasično (operno) petje za začetek raziskovanja pravorečja petja pri nas, saj ima popularna glasba s pétimi besedili velik in učinkovit vpliv na javno podobo knjižne slovenščine. V analizirani popevki je artikuliranih 213 pétih samoglasnikov (zlogov) odpetih v dvanajstosminskem taktu, hitrosti izvajanja M = 64. Kompozicija je v izvirniku zapisa- na v as-durovi102 tonaliteti; moška izvedba je po transpoziciji péta v b-durovi, ženska v a-durovi tonaliteti: analizirana péta melodija se giblje v tonovskem načinu B (m) in A (ž). Diareza (razloka) je v konkretni pesmi najpogostejši premor (pavza) akatalektič- nega jambskega heterosilabičnega verza in pétega besedila (melodije) nikjer ne preki- nja cezura. Besedilo vključuje poetične prvine glasovnih (asonanca103), besednih (ite- racija104, polisindeton105) pesniških figur. V pétem besedilu, zlasti prve kitice, ustvarja temačno ozračje s »temnimi izglasnimi (nizkoformantnimi) samoglasniki: nerazpršen /o/, nestrnjen in temen (/ɔ/) ter razpršen in temen (gravisen) /u/«106 ob koncu glasbenih fraz ter simultanih finalnih verznih oksítonov. Primeri izglasnih temnih (baladnih) samoglasnikov: / … bila je najin dom /; / … nebroj za luč /; / … ljubila se vso noč /; / … in nasmeh in poljub /. Samoglasniki so glede na finalni silabični (iktični) položaj izdatnejši glede na trajanje (kolikost). Skladatelj je za ritem izbral triole – te prav tako ustvarjajo baladno atmosfero – znotraj enega takta štiri, s katerimi sovpada nealterirana melodija, nato še péta beseda (onoma- topejska izbira fonemov zloga glasbene balade); struktura ritma (triol) je stopnjevana v

98 Latham, Dictionary of Musical Terms, 16. 99 Avtorica besedila Elza Budau, slovenska pesnica in pisateljica, je od l. 1963 ena vodilnih tekstopiscev več kot tisoč zmagovalnih slovenskih popevk, večine pisanih na glasbo – tako je besedila pisal tudi Dušan Velkaverh. 100 Skladatelj Mojmir Sepe je izbral glasovno (timbre) ustrezajočo izvajalko skladbe, altistko (povzeto iz pogovora s skladateljem), drugo uvrščeno zmagovalko prvega festivala Slovenska popevka, avtorjev C. Zlobca ter Slavka in Vilka Avsenika. 101 V zadnjem četrtletju 20. stol. se je poklic pevskega (studijskega) lektorja dokončno umaknil, sočasno s pluralizacijo medijev, samostojnega glasbenega podjetništva, pevcev in samostojno – od RTVSLO neodvisno –produkcijo. 102 As-dur je s štirimi nižaji temen akord, celotna pesem je izvorno péta s temnim zamolklim glasom (nefrontalna vokalizacija). 103 Notranja »akustična« rima / vsak zase zdaj / formantno strnjenega srednjega (nizkega) /a/ opravlja vlogo interference na sukcesivni osi, ponavljanje samoglasnika (ikta) iste kakovosti na nespremenjenem tonu, meritve pa kažejo, da ton pri petju (zraven podatka kje v frazi – inicialni, medialni, finalni legi se /a/ nahaja) spreminja tudi kakovost petega samoglasnika, vrednosti F1–F3. 104 Največkrat ponovljena sintagma, enaka naslovu popevke, besedilo začenja in končuje. V besedilu se ponovi še trikrat: na začetku prve in druge kitice, zadnjič pa v glasbeno in pevsko interpretativno najbolj dinamičnem zadnjem verzu/taktu (izvajanem cresc. in ff). Metroritmiko zadnjega takta spremeni upočasnjen tempo (diminuendo, ritard.), s čimer se podaljša trajanje (kvantiteta) tonov in emisija pétih samoglasnikov / za eno noč, poletno noč /. 105 Prim. / po pogled in nasmeh in poljub /. 106 Jože Toporišič, Slovenska slovnica (Ljubljana: Založba Obzorja, 2000), 45–48.

161

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 161 23.6.2016 9:58:39 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 smeri pesmi začetek–konec glasbenega stavka in celotne kompozicije107. Smer razvoja melodije vsebuje umirjeno tonsko sosledje, le mestoma večji intonančni preskok v obsegu oktave / vse ste-ne iz dreves / / samo na videz kdaj / (5., 25. takt) – ambitus gradiva as–des2 je najprimernejši pevskemu glasu (legi) alt. Četrtinske pavze (mesta vdiha) v partituri niso povsod označene, saj sam potek melodije in legato členjena melodija (z ligaturami) umevno nakazujejo možna mesta vdiha ob koncu glasbene fraze.

7 Rezultati meritev pétih samoglasnikov

Pesem od začetka do konca traja 186,03 sek., od tega je petja (fonacije) pri ženski 156,35 sek. in 29,68 sek. tišine (mesta za respiracijo oz. vdih), pri moškem je petja (fonacije) 147,74 sek., iz česar lahko sklepamo, da ženska pôje daljše samoglasnike kot moš- ki, ki torej pôje staccato (non legato) glede na žensko. Petje oz. izgovarjanje (ž) zloga v povprečju znaša 734 ms oz. 1,35 zloga/sek. Moški pôje (izgovarja) en zlog povprečno 694 ms ali 1,44 zloga/sek. Fonacija pétih samoglasnikov traja dlje v primerjavi z govor- jenimi108, kar kaže na povečano zvočno emisijo in kvantiteto samoglasnikov. Zaradi sklepne glasbeno-inštrumentalne misli se zaključni samoglasnik /o/ v [nóč] izrazito podaljša109 in traja osem dob110 (dve z ligaturo povezani celinki) oz. ± 10 sek. Ženska pôje finalni ozek samoglasnik /o/ z F0 = 442,6 Hz (jitter: 0,333 %; shimmer: 1,600 %) na tonu a1 z jakostjo 84,2 dB (gl. sonagram spodaj); medtem ko moški z F0 = 232,7 Hz na tonu b (jitter: 0,341 %; shimmer: 1,597 %) in z jakostjo 79,35 dB.111

Slika 1: Sonagram finalnega ozkega /o/ (ženska).

107 Uporabi ritmično preoblikovane triole (četrtinske, osminske in šestnajstinske), s čimer doseže gradacijo misli. 108 Včasih je veljalo, da je normalna hitrost izgovarjanja (govorjenih besedil) 5 zlogov/sek. 109 Péti finalni samoglasnik /za eno noč, poletno n[ọ]č/, traja v obravnavanih posnetkih ±10 sek, kar je atipično za govorjene samoglasnike: ozek govorjeni fonem /o/ traja povprečno 65–85 ms (gl. v Tivadar, doktorska disertacija). 110 Zadnji iktični izglasni /o/ traja pri pevcu 9,876 sek. in pevki 10,491 sek., to sta tudi kvantitativno izstopajoča péta samoglasnika analizirane popevke.

111 Zvišanje ravní zvoka za tri decibele pomeni podvojitev jakosti zvoka, vzrok je v zelo različnih vrednostih F0 (ton).

162

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 162 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... Iz sonagrama ženske je opazno, da perturbirajo112 skupaj z vibratom osnovne frekvence tudi vsi višji harmoniki, v drugem delu je viden izrazitejši vibrato od spodaj navzgor glede na gibanje F3 in F4 znotraj istega samoglasnika, ki se gibljeta aperiodično, nelinearno. Uravnano enakomerna F1 in F2, ki potekata pri večini vseh merjenih samoglasnikov linearno konstantno umirjeno ne glede na perturbacijo (vibrato, tremolo; jitter, shimmer) kažeta na kakovostno artikulacijo (petje) iz izhodišča pravorečja (dikcije). Ženska pôje v ambitusu 193–555 Hz, moški 93–305 Hz; z jakostjo 68,7–85,9 dB (moš- ki) in 69,2–85,6 dB (ženska), fonacija (petje) ženske je v povprečju jakostno močnejša. Glede na že izmerjene govorjene diference F2–F1 (Tivadar, Jurgec, Srebot - Rejec) pôje moški v povprečju bolj artikulirano zadnja samoglasnika /u/, /o/ in srednji samoglasnik /ə/ ženska pôje bolj artikulirana sprednja /i/, /e/, kot tudi /a/. (gl. Preglednica 1, 2) Upoštevanje slovenske knjižne norme je pri /a/, /e/, /o/ dosledna glede na Tivadarjeve meritve, ki je govorce ločil po spolu. Največji odklon pétih vrednosti moškega se je pokazal pri nenaglašenem /u/ v besedah (ljudje, ljubila, ljubezni) – glede na meritve Tivadarja113 znaša diferenca moškega govorjenega /u/ (F2–F1) 802 Hz, naše meritve moškega pétega samoglasnika /u/ pa so pokazale ± 300 Hz večjo diferenco (F2–F1) v primerjavi s Tivadarjevo (gl. Tabela 1, 2). Péti dolgo naglašeni /i/ ima v primerjavi z meritvami govorjenih samoglasnikov Srebot-Rejec114 pri pevki 6 % in pevcu 17 % večjo diferenco F2–F1 kot govorjeni. V primerjavi s formantnimi meritvami govorjenih samoglasnikov Petra Jurgca ima naglašeni /ɔ/ pri pevcu in pevki višji F2, pri pevki tudi F1, za ±200 Hz; polglasnik je pri ženski v F1115 in v F2 višji za ± 200 Hz glede na meritve Ti- vadarja. Samoglasniki so glede na rezultate F1–F4, dobljene na podlagi sonagramskih slik in frekvenčnih meritev, dobro »artikulirani« v primerjavi z govorjenimi, obogateni z višjimi harmoniki ter izrazitejšimi F3–F5, tj. dodano barvo (timbre). Ženski formanti se nahajajo (v Hz): F1 (300–1090), F2 (930–2740), F3 (1880– 3500) in F4 (3100–4700); moški formanti se nahajajo (v Hz): F1 (240–810), F2 (830– 2500), F3 (2000–3390) in F4 (3000–5000). Zaradi podaljšanega trajanja (kvantitete) se znotraj posameznega samoglasnika kakovost večkrat menja, in s tem formantna struktura, ki pa ostaja predvsem glede na F1 in F2 samoglasniško povečini ustaljena116. Ton ni znatno vplival na kakovost artikulacije samoglasnikov niti pri moškem niti pri ženski. F0 je odrazil slabše intonirane kratke samoglasnike na nepoudarjenih dobah, ton pa se je pokazal za ne toliko fonetično, kolikor glasbeno prvino. (Gl. primerjavo Graf 1, Graf 2) Fonološko razlikovalni so le prvi štirje formanti (F1–F4)117, izmed katerih F3 in F4 mestoma ne glede na F0 sovpa- deta, ravno tako, sicer sporadično, F4118 s slabše izraženim F5 (ta je pri višjih tonih

112 perturbacija je knjiž. ‚pretres, motnja‘ 113 Hotimir Tivadar, »Normativni vidik slovenščine v 3. tisočletju – knjižna slovenščina med realnostjo in idealnostjo,« Slavistična revija letn. 58, št. 1 (2010): 113. 114 Tatjana Srebot – Rejec, »Kakovost slovenskih in angleških samoglasnikov: kontrastivna analiza«, Jezik in slovstvo, letn. 34, št. 3 (1988): 59. 115 Po Sundbergu naj bi na visokih tonih F1 naraščal s stopnjo odprtosti spodnje čeljusti. Ta je za vsak samoglasnik specifična, tako kot pozicija ustnic. 116 Sundberg piše, da je splošna spektralna formantna uglašenost klasičnih pevcev linearno pravilnejša (bolj urejena) od neklasičnih pevcev. To potrjujejo analizirani samoglasniki péte slovenske popevke. 117 F4 je v veliki meri odvisen od dimenzij govorne (laringalne) cevi. Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 106. 118 F4 je pri altih višji kot pri tenorjih. Sundberg, The Science of the Singing Voice, 106.

163

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 163 23.6.2016 9:58:39 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 izrazitejši): spajanje dveh nikakor ne kaže na pevski formant119, ki ga frekvenčno stalno umerijo izurjeni klasični pevci, da bi pridobili slišnost v spremstvu orkestra, temveč zgolj na spremenljivo fonatorno dejavnost. Koartikulirane formantne tranzicije predsa- moglasniškega aproksimanta /j/ so posebej vprašljive v opravljenih analizah, ravno tako nosnika /m/ in /n/, ki kontaminirata trajanje in kakovost pétih samoglasnikov. Formantno vprašljive so tudi péte glasovne zveze na meji dveh morfemov ali besed: soglasniške, samoglasniške in samoglasniško-soglasniške. Analize pétih slovenskih samoglasnikov so pokazale, da je petje v večji meri pravorečno ustrezno, z izjemami neu- poštevanja alofona fonema /v/ v vzglasnem položaju v besedi [usƐ] in naglasne norme [toplô, čusteˆv]. Pravorečje ni upoštevano na mestih, kjer interpretacija (uzvočevanje čustev) prevlada dikcijo: distorzija glasu (glotalni vocal fry), kršenje f0, (de)crescendi- ranje120 jakosti samoglasnikov in močan nesimetričen vibrato. Besede z več variantami glede na mesto naglasa [nasmé(eˋ)h] so različno pevsko realizirane.

Fonem F1 (Hz) F2 (Hz) F2–F1 Dn /i/ 304,66 2.160,22 1.855,56 Kn /i/ 249,62 2.227,20 1.977,58 Nn /i/ 318,74 2.135,79 1.817,05 Dn /e/ 325,48 2.040,97 1.715,49 Kn /Ɛ/ 512,16 1.643,36 1.131,20 Nn /Ɛ/ 427,80 1.670,10 1.242,30 Dn /Ɛ/ 531,95 1.819,33 1.287,38 Nn /ɘ/ 449,23 1.489,38 1.040,15 Dn /a/ 623,46 1.373,69 750,23 Kn /a/ 537,98 1.467,84 929,86 Nn /a/ 579,47 1.351,65 772,18 Dn /ɔ/ 561,72 1.221,66 659,94 Dn /o/ 501,65 1.190,05 688,40 Kn /ɔ/ 514,63 981,88 467,25 Nn /ɔ/ 521,05 1.248,25 772,20 Dn /u/ 442,71 1.331,91 889,20 Nn /u/ 445,16 1.591,95 1.146,79

Preglednica 1: Povprečne vrednosti formantov F₁ in F₂ ter diferenca (Hz) pétih samoglasnikov (moški).

119 Nižanje larinksa je tipično artikulacijsko fonatorno dejanje, ki ustvarja pevski formant: pri basih je ta na 2,3 kHz, pri tenorjih na 3,2 kHz. Gl. v Sundberg, What’s so special about singers, 112. 120 popuščanje dihalne opore (zračnega stebra) je značilnejše za neklasične (nešolane) pevce

164

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 164 23.6.2016 9:58:39 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ...

Fonem F1 (Hz) F2 (Hz) F2–F1 Dn /i/ 398,76 2.500,03 2.101,27 Kn /i/ 379,71 2.483,47 2.103,76 Nn /i/ 406,85 2.512,78 2.105,93 Dn /e/ 524,32 2.373,71 1.849,39 Kn /Ɛ/ 785,47 2.018,81 1.233,34 Nn /Ɛ/ 688,10 1.950,57 1.262,47 Dn /Ɛ/ 893,35 2.093,10 1.199,75 Nn /ɘ/ 759,90 1.753,25 993,35 Dn /a/ 911,05 1.719,09 808,04 Kn /a/ 937,88 1.803,29 865,41 Nn /a/ 843,09 1.732,00 888,91 Dn /ɔ/ 773,00 1.386,90 613,90 Dn /o/ 705,23 1.225,26 520,03 Kn /ɔ/ 760,69 1.324,83 564,14 Nn /ɔ/ 760,74 1.336,10 575,36 Dn/u/ 440,27 1.177,84 737,57 Nn /u/ 453,05 1.341,42 888,37

Preglednica 2: Povprečne vrednosti formantov F₁ in F₂ ter diferenca (Hz) pétih samoglasnikov (ženska).

Kakovost pétih samoglasnikov izosilabično žensko-moško pétega besedila popevke; formantna diferenciacija, izmerjena na medialnem melodičnem tonu (f0) pétega tonskega obsega121:

121 Moški pôje na tonu f (Graf 1) najglasneje samoglasnik /u/, najdlje traja kratko naglašeni /Ɛ/; F0 je najbolj nestabilen pri ,/nenaglašenem /ɔ/, npr. vzglasnega (za)alofonskega [wȍčeִχ]; Ženska pôje na tonu e1 (Graf 2) najglasneje samoglasnik /a kvantitetno najizraziteje kratko naglašeni /Ɛ/. Fonetično vprašljiv je kratko naglašeni /a/, z F1=792 Hz in F2 =2012 Hz, tj. 500 Hz višjim F2, kar nakazuje na govorjeni [kdƐj] namesto [kda`j] glede na meritve H. Tivadarja (Normativni vidik, 113), perceptivno je na tem mestu slišna glotalna (hripajoča) fonacija oz. interpretacija.

165

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 165 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Graf 1: ton f (moški).

Graf 2: ton e1 (ženska)

Bibliografija

Bedina, Katarina, idr. Leksikoni Cankarjeve založbe: Glasba. Ljubljana: Cankarjeva za- ložba, 1981. Bezlaj, France. Oris slovenskega knjižnega izgovora. Ljubljana: Znanstveno društvo, 1939. Brown, Oren. Discover Your Voice: How to Develop Healthy Voice Habits. London: Sin- gular publishing group, 1996. Crystal, David. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics (3rd edition). Oxford UK: Blackwell Publishing, 1991. Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (second edition). Cambrid- ge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

166

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 166 23.6.2016 9:58:40 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ... Vladimir Frantar. Enkrat še zapoj. Ljubljana: Mohorjeva družba, 2012. Fukač, Jiří. Pojmoslovje glasbene komunikacije. Ljubljana: Oddelek za muzikologijo FF, 1989. Gligo, Nikša. Pojmovnik glasbe 20. stoletja. Ljubljana: Filozofska fakulteta, 2012. Hočevar-Boltežar, Irena. Fiziologija in patologija glasu ter izbrana poglavja iz patologije govora. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani, 2008. Jakobson, Roman. Lingvistični in drugi spisi. Ljubljana: Založba ŠKUC, Znanstveni in- štitut Filozofske fakultete Ljubljana, 1989. Kovačić, Gordana. Akustička analiza glasa vokalnih profesionalaca. Zagreb: Raphis, 2006. Kmecl, Matjaž. Mala literarna teorija. Ljubljana: Založba M & N, 1996. Latham, Alison. Dictionary of Musical Terms. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004. Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivo. Umjetnost pjevanja. Priručnik za nastavnike, studente i učenike solo-pjevanja, zborovođe i sve one koje zanimaju problemi pjevanja. Zagreb: Škol- ska knjiga, 1975. Miller, Richard. On the Art of singing. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Podbevšek, Katarina. Govorna interpretacija literarnih besedil v pedagoški in umetni- ški praksi. Ljubljana: Slavistično društvo Slovenije, 2006. Ravnikar, Bruno. Osnove glasbene akustike in informatike. Ljubljana: DZS, 2001. Rupel, Mirko. Slovensko pravorečje (navodila za zborno ali knjižno izreko). Ljubljana: Državna založba Slovenje, 1946. Stevens, Kenneth N. Acoustic Phonetics London: Cambridge, The MIT Press, 1998. Sundberg, Johan. The Science of the Singing Voice. Dekalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University Press, 1987. Randel, Don Michael, The Harvard Dictionary of Music: fourth edition (London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003): 7–12. Šeruga Prek, Cvetka, Antončič, Emica. Slovenska zborna izréka. Maribor: Aristej, 2007. Škarić, Ivo. V iskanju izgubljenega govora. Ljubljana: Pravljično gledališče, 1996. — Temeljci suvremenoga govorništva. Zagreb: Školska knjiga, 2003. — V iskanju izgubljenega govora. Ljubljana: Šola retorike, 2005. Toporišič, Jože. Glasovna in naglasna podoba slovenskega knjižnega jezika. Maribor: Založba Obzorja, 1978. Toporišič, Jože. Enciklopedija slovenskega jezika. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, 1992. — Slovenska slovnica. Maribor: Založba Obzorja, 2000. Varošanec-Škarić, Gordana. Timbar. Zagreb: FF Press, 2005. Vujnović, Momir. Govorna akustika. Zagreb: Sveučilišna naklada, 1990.

Viri

Peter Jurgec, »Slovenščina ima 9 samoglasnikov«, Slavistična revija, številka 3, letnik 59 (2011): 263. Kovačević, Krešimir (gl. ur.). Muzička encikopedija I, III (drugo izdanje). Zagreb: Jugo- slavenski leksikografski zavod, 1971.

167

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 167 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Pausewang, Gelfer, Marylou, »Speaking Fundamental Frequency and Vowel Formant Frequencies: Effects on Perception of Gender.« Journal of Voice. Volume 27, Issue 5. September (2013): 556–566. Sepe, Mojmir. Melodije za vselej – 25 skladb za glas in spremljavo. Ljubljana: Društvo slovenskih skladateljev, 2005. Slovar slovenskega knjižnega jezika 2008. Ljubljana: SAZU.< http://bos.zrc-sazu.si/sskj. html> Slovenski pravopis, 2001. Ljubljana: SAZU. Tatjana Srebot – Rejec, »Kakovost slovenskih in angleških samoglasnikov: kontrastivna analiza,« Jezik in slovstvo, številka 3, letnik 34 (1988): 59. Sundberg, Johan, »Articulatory interpretation of the singing formant,« Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 55 (1974): 838–844. Sundberg, Johan, »What‘s so special about singers?« Journal of Voice. Stockholm: De- partment of Speech Communication and Music Acoustics, KTH (RIT), Volume 4, Issue 2, (1990): 107–119. Štibernik, Gregor (ur.). Zbornik prispevkov mednarodnega strokovnega simpozija ob 10-letnici zbiranja nadomestil za sorodne glasbene pravice v Sloveniji. Ljubljana: IPF, 2014. Tivadar Hotimir, »Kakovost in trajanje samoglasnikov v govorjenem knjižnem jeziku,« (doktorska disertacija, 2008). Tivadar, Hotimir, »Normativni vidik slovenščine v 3. tisočletju – knjižna slovenščina med realnostjo in idealnostjo,« Slavistična revija 58/1 (2010): 105−116. Toporišič Jože, »Besedni umetnik in družbena vloga književnosti.« Novo mesto: Do- lenjski zbornik (1961): 181–182. Trubar, Primož. Eni psalmi. (Ljubljana: Cankarjeva založba – faksimiliral Trubarjev anti- kvariat ob 400-letnici prve slovenske pesmarice, 1567). »The National Center for Voice and Speech« (obiskano septembra 2015) http://www. ncvs.org »Združenje SAZAS« (obiskano avgusta 2015) http://www.sazas.org »Zavod IPF« (obiskano avgusta 2015) http://zavod-ipf.si/zavod-ipf

168

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 168 23.6.2016 9:58:40 K. B. KODRIČ, H. TIVADAR • INSTRUMENTALNA FONETIČNA ANALIZA ...

SUMMARY suprasegments of spoken language: the duration, intensity and tone of the vowel; in speech the “pro- Instrumental phonetic analysis of the quality of sodic” characteristic of tone (pitch) that defines also sung vowels in the case of popular and non-classical an independent way of accentuation (i.e. tonemic/ Slovene singers, male and female, showed orthoe- musical) is in singing an independent diacritical pic and singing relevance regarding standardized element of the melody (harmony), which despite speech and the already performed quality mea- the frequent change of the fundamental frequency

surements of Slovene spoken vowels. On average, (f0) in non-classical singing of popular songs, didn’t male and female singers sing five formants (F1-F5), significantly alter the acoustic image of vowels in only the first four being phonologically distinctive. terms of formant and orthoepy; formant values Female formants are in the following frequency deviated from the orthoepic norm only here and ranges (in Hz): F1 (300-1090), F2 (930-2740), F3 there due to disturbed phonation or the dominati- (1880-3500) and F4 (3100-4700); whereas male for- on of interpretation over the pronunciation itself mants are in the following frequency ranges (in Hz): (voice distortion, glotal vocal fry; the changing of F1 (240-810), F2 (830-2500), F3 (2000-3390) and F4 respiratory support, appoggio, causes in singing (3000-5000). Spectrogram analysis showed darker the unwanted change of f0 and the gradual decline sung formant bandwidths (higher concentration (decrescendo) of strength; a strong and asymmetric of sound energy) compared to spoken formant vibrato). The sonograms of sung vowels show a bandwidths. Whereas formant distribution consi- consistent periodic picture or the “beauty” of the dering the difference between F2 and F1 as well as acoustic movement of the sound waveform of the the relationship of the first three formants showed parallel formant and harmonic frequencies. Such a more distinctive formant structure compared an achievement of interweaving sonority aesthetics to measured spoken formant structure. Colour is especially a characteristic of musical and less of (timbre) of sung vowels is added by the prolonged linguistic or phonetic expression.

169

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 169 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 170 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... UDK 78.01:61 DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.171-187

Sonja Weiss Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana

Medicine for Body or Soul? Philosophical Reconstruction of the Role of Music in Ancient Healing Practices Zdravilo za dušo ali telo? Filozofska rekonstrukcija vloge glasbe v antičnih zdravilskih praksah

Prejeto: 1. oktober 2015 Received: 1st October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: filozofija, glasba, medicina, duša, Keywords: philosophy, music, medicine, body, soul telo

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Članek raziskuje vez med dušo in telesom v luči The article examines the bond between the soul antičnih glasbenih praks in se ukvarja s filozofskim and the body in the light of ancient musical practi- razlikovanjem med telesom in dušo ter z razširje- ces and expounds on the divergence between the nim verovanjem v njuno sorodnost, ki ima tako philosophical distinction between body and soul, medicinska kot tudi religiozna ozadja. Razlikovanje and the widespread belief in their affinity, which je zlasti vidno iz pričevanj o uporabi glasbe v t. i. has a medical, as well as a religious, background. pitagorejskem načinu življenja. Ta pričevanja so This divergence is particularly evident in the testi- očitno povezana z antičnim holističnim pristopom, monies regarding the use of music in the so-called ki dojema telesno dobrobit kot neločljivo od fizič- Pythagorean way of life. These testimonies seem to nega ravnovesja. be related to an ancient holistic approach, which regards bodily well-being as inseparable from psychical balance.

171

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 171 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 1. Music in the So-called Pythagorean Medicine

Many ancient testimonies attribute the research and the use of the healing effect of music to the Pythagoreans. These testimonies never go back to Pythagoras himself. In fact, they do not even reach as far as the old Pythagorean school, since they consist mostly of indirect testimonies by Aristotle’s followers (among them Aristoxenus), transmitted to us through Neopythagorean and Neoplatonic writings. It is not the purpose of this article to link the doubtful origins of the musical practices discussed below to the Pythagoreans. My objective is to separate in these practices (vigorously ascribed to Pythagoreans by the ancient sources) the ethical doctrine of music from the healing practices, which undoubtedly reach back to the times of Pythagoras and possibly even further back. The testimonies about musical practices in Pythagorean schools dwell mostly on the edifying effects of music;1 but the Pythagoreans were supposed to have used its soothing effects in medicine as well. Aristoxenus (4th cent. BC) recounts that among sciences, music, medicine, and divination were honored by Pythagoreans (fr. 58 D 1 Diels-Kranz). Although health was preserved mostly by the appropriate regimen of life (díaita), this regimen included musical practices which were also used in medicine, and healing was performed through incantations (epaoidaí). This expression has a common connotation with the word “spell,” which is why this kind of healing practice tends to be confused with the use of magic.2 In later testimonies there is a clear distinction between music and incantations, although both were said to have been used by Pythagoras in his treatment of the sick.3 Aristoxenus, however, seems to associate the use of incantations with music:

“Some diseases they cured by incantations. Music, if used in a proper manner, was by Pythagoras supposed to contribute greatly to health.” (DK 58 D 1 = Iamblichus, On the Pythagorean Way of Life (= VP) 29 [164]; trans. by K. Guthrie)

This text, dating from the 3rd century, gives us the testimony of an author from the 4th century BC, who is in his turn separated from Pythagoras by two centuries. Ne- vertheless, the fragment mentions various methods of healing which could well have been practiced in the times of Pythagoras and even before him: curing by díaita, by poultices and ointments, by cuts and cauterizations and, finally, by music and incantations. The fragment actually begins:

“Of medicine, the most emphasized part was dietetics, and they were most scrupu- lous in its exercise. […] More frequently than their predecessors the Pythagoreans used poultices, disapproving more of medicated ointments, which they chiefly limited to the cure of ulcerations. Most of all they disapproved of cuts and cauterizations.” (DK 58 D 1 = Iamblichus VP 29 [163]; trans. by K. Guthrie)

1 See fr. 37 B 6 Diels-Kranz (= DK) on the effect of singing and dancing on the human soul. There is no lack of testimony (DK 37 A 8, B 4 and B 7 for example), but the tradition of great Pythagorean mousikoí (Pythocleides, Lamprocles and particularly Damon) never reaches Pythagoras himself. 2 Ludwig Edelstein, Ancient Medicine (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1987 (reprint)), 236–238, is careful to point out that there was no magic in healing with music, as the use of magical incantations was decidedly rejected by Greek physicians. 3 See Porphyry, The Life of Pythagoras (= VP) 33.

172

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 172 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... Among these we can distinguish three species of medicine, which appear to have been already known to the old Indo-European civilization, and to have belonged to three respective social classes: priests (incantations), warriors (surgery) and farmers/ craftsmen (medical potions).4 Benveniste points to a classification in Pindar’s Pythian (= P.) 3.52 where “gentle incantations,” “soothing potions or remedies” and “surgery” echo even more clearly the tripartite medicine of the Indo-Europeans. The problem with Aristoxenus as a source is that he appears to be inconsistent. Another fragment conveys a clear distinction between medicine and music:

“The Pythagoreans used medicine to purify the body and music to purify the soul.” (fr. 26 Wehrli)

Now, this testimony clearly shows that music was separate from medicine, and thus contradicts the testimony in the text quoted above. The distinction between music and medicine is grounded on a difference between the purification of the soul and that of the body. But does it mean that this distinction was observed in medical practices, Pythagorean or other? From Pindar, at least, this distinction is absent: the “gentle incantations” (malakaì epaoidaí) from P. 3.52 seem to have the same soothing effect as the songs (aoidaí) in the following verses:

“[...] Songs, the skillful daughters of the Muses, soothe with their touch. And warm water does not wet the limbs so gently as praise that accompanies the lyre.” (Neme- an 4.2-5; trans. by D. A. Svarlien)

The Ode proclaims mirth (euphrosýne) and singing to be the best physician, thus implying that the singing of laudatory songs produces a pleasing sense of relaxation after toils.5 The word phrén, hidden in euphrosýne, is integrated in many expressions, and the research of Homeric physiology has shown that they were used to designate not only various states of mind (self-control, for example), but also bodily states.6 According to Machemer, Pindar’s “iatrification” of the word euphrosýne lays emphasis on music’s healing effects, not only on the phrén but, through it, on the limbs as well.7 The same expression (in its verbal form, euphraínesthai) is used in another report on the Pythagorean use of music in medicine, and its recurrence suggests that it may well have been inspired by earlier sources.8

4 Luc Brisson, trans., Jamblique, Vie de Pythagore (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1996), 189 (n. 4 to par. 114), and Émile Benveniste, “La doctrine médicale des Indo-Européens,” Revue de l’histoire des religions 13 (1945): 11–12. 5 For a thorough interpretation of this passage, see Georgia Ann Machemer, “Medicine, Music and Magic: The Healing Grace of Pindar’s Fourth Nemean,” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 95 (1993): 113–141. 6 See Wesley D. Smith, “Physiology in the Homeric Poems,” in Transactions and Proceedings of The American Philological Association 97 (London: John Hopkins University Press, 1966), 554–555. The leading role of the phrén as the center of sensation was first rejected by Alcmaeon, who distinguished between intellective functions and sensation, associating the latter with the brain (DK 24 A 5). 7 Machemer, “Medicine, Music and Magic,” 120–125. 8 The text is from Iamblichus, but it is believed that the report had been taken from Aristoxenus (see Brisson, Vie de Pythagore, 188 (n. 1 to par. 110). The first line (“Pythagoras was likewise of the opinion that the music, if properly used, greatly contributed to health.”) is actually repeated in Chapter 29 [164], which is part of the fragment quoted above (DK 58 D 1).

173

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 173 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 “Pythagoras was likewise of the opinion that the music, if properly used, greatly contributed to health. For he was want to use it in no careless way but as a purification. Indeed, he restricted this word to signify music used in medicine.”

The text continues by describing certain musical practices which aimed to relax one’s mind: while one person was playing on the lyre, the others, seated in a circle around him, sang paeans,

“through which they were evidently so overjoyed (euphraínesthai), that their manners became elegant and orderly. The music instead of medicines was also used at certain other times.” (Iamblichus, VP 25 [110]; trans. by K. Guthrie.)

Guthrie’s translation implies that music was believed to affect one’s psyché, but the text continues by reiterating the use of music instead of iatreía. For this particular passage, Brisson‘s translation seems preferable because he is careful to preserve the ambiguous meaning of the words euphraínesthai, emmelés and énrythmos.

“[] les autres chantaient le ensemble des péans, qui, pensaient-ils, provoquaient un sentiment de bien-être et induisaient en eux l‘harmonie et le rythme.” (Trans. by L. Brisson)

The testimony clearly offers no distinction between the psychological and possibly somatic effects of the music; rather, they seem to be interlaced. It is true that the text elaborates the point by dwelling on the edifying effects of music on a person’s mind and character9 – the music was obviously used to soothe various psychic troubles, such as anger and fear – but these effects are nevertheless considered as part of the iatreía. Moreover, the expressions emmelés and énrythmos can be applied to a physical as well as to a psychic condition. They fit the doctrine which, despite the philosophical differentiation between man’s soul and body, was deeply rooted in the belief in their affinity and interdependence, and had found in music a middle

9 Another problem is that the role of the music alone is not clearly defined, since it is evident that it was never used without the accompaniment of words. The importance of the texts they used emerge from the fact that they used to sing/recite selected verses from Homer and Hesiod in order to “correct” their soul (Iamblichus, VP 25 [111]). The line between musical and spellbinding practices thus becomes thinner, for there is no distinction between music and words in Iamblichus’ etymology of the word epoidé (VP 25 [114]). It had been suggested that Pythagoras used to cure illnesses by music alone, playing the aulos, but the earliest testimonies for this kind of practice date from the 4th century BC. Caelius Aurelianus (De morb. chron. 5.1.23) attributes this kind of healing to the brother of the Locrian physician, Philistion. Aulus Gellius in the Attic Nights (= N. A.) 4.13 quotes Teophrastus’ work, On Inspiration (Perì enthousiasmoû), where the tibia is mentioned as a cure for sciatica (see the quotation on p. 23). The lyre seemed to be preferred to the aulos. Speaking of Corybantic rites, Plato mentions the almost hypnotic effect of the aulos (Criti. 54d and Sym. 215e); both passages, according to Eric R. Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational (Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press, 1951), 98 (n. 102), possibly allude to the Corybantic musical diagnosis. Other writers refer to the negative effects of the aulos (Galen VII.61s. Kühn) which, according to Aristotle (Pol. 1341a 21-24 and 1342a 30-b 1), has more impact on human emotions than on moral character and was, for that reason, discarded. Aristotle seems to be following Plato’s lead: in the Republic 399d, “poly-harmonic instruments,” such as aulos, are excluded from the ideal polis (for the background of Socrates’ reasoning, see Andrew D. Barker, Psicomusicologia nella Grecia antica, trans. Angelo Meriani (Napoli: Guida Editori, 2005), 29). Even Aristoxenus allegedly preferred the lyre to the aulos (fr. 95 Wehrli; for this debatable testimony, see Warren Anderson, “Musical Developments in the School of Aristotle,” Royal Music Association Research Chronicle 16 (1980): 89.

174

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 174 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... ground between them. I suggest that the apparent ambiguity and inconsistence in the testimonies attributed to Aristoxenus is a result of this doctrine, and I will try to demonstrate it in the next two sections.

2. The Concept of Soul as harmonía: the Affinity between Body and Soul

For a better understanding of the role of music in medical praxes of Classical An- tiquity, it is important to observe the fact that it was in the context of Pythagorean doctrines that philosophy first entered the domain of medicine which, in the time of the Ionian naturalists, was a separate art, or rather a craft. At the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 5th centuries BC, the physician Alcmaeon of Croton allegedly applied the Pythagorean doctrine of opposites to his healing technique and thus became the father of the concept of isonomía.10 The status of medicine as a craft unsupported by theoretical research dates back to Homeric times, and it was the influence of philosophy that, according Edelstein,11 caused the need for scientific knowledge to develop in the field of medicine. This, however, does not explain the interest that philosophy held for medicine which, by general opinion, had by that time lost its battle against philosophy, or rather had voluntarily submitted itself to it.12 Philosophy and medicine in the 5th century BC held one thing in common: their interest in man. The rivalry between ancient medicine and philosophy was injected with renewed vigor when philosophy had first tried to define what it is to be human.13 This was an important step from the cosmological doctrines of the Ionian naturalists, toward an interest in man’s nature, which lies at the core of any healing practice. The conviction that a human being cannot be identified with his body alone is already distinct in the Homeric conception of the psyché which, however, is greatly dependent on the characteristics of the human body.14 The influence of Orphic and Pythagorean doctrines had fostered the idea of the ailing soul, not in the sense of psychic illness but as an existential anguish of the soul that finds itself caught in the body. The idea of the soul imprisoned in the body had set into motion the process of the separation of the soul from the body, not only in the philosophical but in the moral sense, as well.15 The

10 DK 24 B 4. On how the Pythagoreans associated philosophy with medicine, see Harold W. Miller, “Philosophy and Medicine in Ancient Greece,” The Classical Journal 40/5 (1949): 309–318. Alcmaeon’s being Pythagorean is uncertain, which is why there are serious doubts about the Pythagorean origins of his concept of isonomía (see Gregory Vlastos, “Isonomia,” The American Journal of Philology 74/4 (1953): 344–347). However, according to Aristotle, both Pythagoreans and Alcmaeon believed the contraries to be first principles of things (DK 24 A 3). 11 Edelstein, Ancient Medicine, 351–352. 12 Edelstein, Ancient Medicine, 357. According to William Henry S. Jones, introduction to Ancient Medicine, Hippocrates I. (Cambridge; Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1948), 8, medicine “gradually degenerated from rational treatment to wild speculation and even quackery and superstition.” 13 The author of the treatise entitled On Ancient Medicine, mentions Empedocles and his “evolution theory” (Chap. 20). 14 Scholars agree that it is difficult to speak of the Homeric psyché as soul: see e.g. Il. 23.104, where Achilles, meeting Patrocles’ psyché, is grieved to discover that it is but a reflection of Patrocles, lacking the phrénes (which could be understood as “soul” in the modern sense of the word) of his beloved friend. On the concept of soul in the Homeric poems, see Giovanni Reale, Corpo, anima e salute: il concetto di uomo da Omero a Platone (Milano: R. Cortina, 1999), 61–89. 15 See Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 152, on the puritanism generated by the conception of soul as captive in the body.

175

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 175 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 doctrine of transmigration, closely associated with Pythagorean philosophy and first imputed to Pherecydes (DK 7 A 2), has brought on the belief that the human psyché is immortal or, at least, that it survives several bodily lives. Thus the gap between the soul and the body had become even wider, even though the doctrine of transmigration, contrary to what may be expected, does not necessarily imply belief in the incorporeal nature of the soul (which will be discussed further below). The conceptual separation from the body lies in the presumed immortality of the soul, and the fact that, once the body is dead, the soul is able to lead a separate and better life away from the body.16 Despite this differentiation, or perhaps because of it, the ancients began to wonder in what way the soul coexists with the body, whose survival evidently depends on this symbiosis. One theory is offered by the doctrine of the soul as the harmonía of the body. This doctrine has been attributed to Pythagoreans since antiquity. The first thorough discussion of this doctrine is found in Plato’s Phaedo (85e-86d), where Sim- mias compares the soul as harmonía to the tuning of a lyre. As Gottschalk observes, Simmias’ term harmonía has a double meaning, corresponding to the ambiguity of the concept of soul as harmonía, which incorporates the congruous mixture of bodily elements on one side and something incorporeal, divine and immortal (as the Platonic soul should be) on the other.17 Even if we cannot be positive that the doctrine of the soul as harmonía is indeed Pythagorean (and there seem to be many reasons to doubt that18), we can safely agree with the assumption that Simmias’ theory is founded on the widespread and generally-accepted belief in the mutual dependence between psychic disposition and physical constitution.19 There is also no doubt as to its medical background,20 which is evident from Alcmaeon’s concept of isonomía, identifying health as the harmonious blending (sýmmetros krâsis) of the qualities of the body (DK 24 B 4), and disease as a result of the supremacy (monarchía) of any one of these qualities. The concept of harmony can also be found in Hippocratic treatises21 which, among

16 See Walter Burkert, Greek religion: archaic and classical, trans. John Raffan (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1985), 300. 17 Hans B. Gottschalk, “Soul as Harmonia,” Phronesis 16/2 (1971): 181. 18 It was Macrobius (The Commentary on “the Dream of Scipio” 1.14.19 = DK 44 A 23) who credited Pythagoras and Philolaus with the invention of the concept, and this has also been the conviction of Erwin Rohde, Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality Among the Greeks, trans. William Hillis (London: Routledge, 2000 (reprint)), 400 (n. 52). Carl A. Huffman, Philolaus of Croton: Pythagorean and Presocratic (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 326–32, rejects Macrobius’ testimony, but calls upon other fragments to confirm the same belief. Since neither Plato nor Aristotle, being the main two sources for this doctrine, attribute it to the Pythagoreans, scholars tend to be cautious: see William K. C. Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagorea (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962), 307 (n. 3). For modern theories on the subject, see Francesco Pelosi, Plato on Music, Soul and Body, trans. Sophie Henderson (New York; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 181 (n. 51), and Gottschalk, “Soul as Harmonia,” 192–195, who concludes the survey by arguing that the doctrine, as presented in Phaedo, had been created by Plato himself – not as part of what he actually believed, but as an argument to be refuted. 19 Neoplatonists later defended the concept of the soul as harmonía, interpreting it is a mere analogy: see Iamblichus, On the Soul, in Stobaeus, Anthology, 1.49.32.52, who distinguishes the harmonía in bodies (en sómasi enidryménen) from mathematical harmony. Neoplatonic Christian writer Philoponus (6th century) explains it as a harmony between noetic and hylic world which, though uncongenial, merges into one, due to the interposition of the soul as a mediator between them (Commentary on Aristotle’s ‘De Anima’ 404a 16, p. 70.9-14). 20 See Fritz Wehrli, ed., Die Schule des Aristoteles, Heft I: Dikaiarchos (Basel: Beno Schwabe & Co, 1944), 45–46, specifically the commentary on Dicaearchus’ fr. 11. For the same opinion regarding the Philolaus’ conception of the soul as harmonía, see Huffman, Philolaus of Croton, 329. 21 As in Regimen 1.8 = Heraclitus, DK 22 C 1. On the influence of Alcmaeon’s medical theory on Hippocratic medicine, see James Longrigg, Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians (London: Routledge, 2013), 52–53.

176

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 176 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... other things, dwell on the importance of an equilibrated life, and suggest regulations regarding diet and physical exercises (Regimen 1.2), which were also common in the Pythagorean daily regime (cf. DK 58 D 1). The main problem, perceived for the first time by Plato, was that, according to this theory, the soul’s existence is tied to that of the body, since the harmony of its parts (and thus the soul) is dissolved when a person dies. This, of course, goes against the Platonic belief in the immortality of the soul. On the other hand, it would appear that the theory of health as a “harmonious blending” of physical qualities did not prevent Alcmaeon’s belief that the soul was immortal (DK 24 A 12) and, even for Macrobius, the doctrine of soul as harmonía precludes neither immortality nor the incorporeal nature of the soul.22 Some scholars, however, began to doubt that Pythagoras’ successors had believed the soul to be immortal, and it has been suggested that the Pythagorean school of Philolaus’ generation had departed from the original Pythagoreanism, which was of a more religious nature.23 Philolaus may or may not have believed in the immortality of the soul; but it is even less certain that he thought it incorporeal. According to testimonies, he believed the soul to be some kind of life principle;24 in DK 44 B 13, for example, psyché is associated with the faculty of perception, and is separated from intellective functions.25 It would appear that the reason for the incompatibility of the concept of the soul as harmonía and its immortal nature lies with Plato himself; for the Pre-Socratic concept of the soul does not postulate that the soul must be incorporeal in order to be immortal.26 It is true that, with the doctrine of transmigration, the soul became considered as distinct from the body, but this distinction reflected in their separate functions, rather than in the soul’s supposedly incorporeal nature.27 The scarcity of testimonies from Pythagoras himself leaves us in doubt as to his concept of the soul. Xenophanes’ anecdote about one of Pythagoras’ friends who was reincarnated as a puppy (DK 21 B 7) shows that the psyché was used to designate the part of man that outlives the death of his body. According to Huffman, Pythagoras did not use the term psyché to designate the so-called comprehensive soul, which includes

22 S. Scip. 1.14.20. 23 John Burnet, Greek philosophy: Thales to Plato (London: MacMillan & Co Ltd., 1955), 92, who agrees with Plato that such a nature is incompatible with the soul’s immortality. For a different opinion, see Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, 310–312. For Pythagoreans, the belief in the immortality of the soul was closely related to their doctrine of transmigration (see Porphyry, VP 19). For a possible compromise between the concept of the soul as harmonía and the doctrine of transmigration (and consequently immortality) of the soul, see Carl A. Huffman, “The Pythagorean conception of the soul from Pythagoras to Philolaus,” in Body and Soul in Ancient Philosophy, ed. Dorothea Frede and Burkhard Reis (Berlin; New York: W. de Gruyter, 2009), 31. 24 Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, 314–315, observes that the concept of the soul as harmonía originates from the idea that the soul is a kind of life principle of the soul. He relates this conception to Greek physicians, whose concerns about the body and the daily regime were usually attended by the conviction that, once the bodily balance is destroyed, the soul perishes along with the body. For a similar observation, see Walter Burkert, Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism, trans. Edwin L. Minar, Jr. (Cambridge; Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972), 270 and 272, n. 168. 25 Huffman, “The Pythagorean conception of the soul,” 23–27, argues that, in Philolaus, the term psyché designates the seat of emotions which, together with the faculty of sensation, is located in the heart. At the same time, it is a center of individual personality, influenced by these emotions. 26 Burkert, Lore and Science, 272, is, therefore, in the right to warn against the “idealization” of the Pythagorean doctrine of the soul before Plato. 27 Hippasus (or Hippon?) supposedly set the active and living nature of the soul against the passivity of the body, maintaining, at the same time, that the origins of the soul cannot be known (see DK 18 A 10).

177

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 177 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 all psychic qualities; he argues that the exception of the noetic part of the soul is proof that, for Pythagoras, the psyché was not an incorporeal entity, although it was, as the seat of sensation and emotional character, able to move from one living being to another.28 This conclusion does not explain the kind of corporality in the soul, nor its extent and, consequently, this “corporeal” nature remains a mystery. The reason behind this puzzle probably lies in modern endeavors to solve it from the Platonic point of view; for no sooner do we try to explain the concept of the material soul among the Pre-Socratics, than we discover that there is no need to define this psychic “matter,” because it did not exist at the time. The soul had not yet been radically separated from the body, nor had the terms “corporeal” and “incorporeal” been clearly defined. It is no wonder that Hippasus (DK 18 A 10) cannot give us the answer as to the soul’s origins. Aristotle’s criticism of the soul as harmonía in his On the Soul (407b 27-408a 18) is interesting precisely in view of soul’s association with the body. Although he confutes the theory itself, he takes a moment to consider its implications, and the problems that remain unsolved in face of his arguments:

“But, on the other hand, if the soul is different from the mixture, why does it disappe- ar at one and the same moment with that relation between the elements which constitutes flesh or the other parts of the animal body? Further, if the soul is not identical with the ratio of mixture, and it is consequently not the case that each of the parts has a soul, what is that which perishes when the soul quits the body?” (On the Soul 408a 24-28; trans. by J. A. Smith)

We can therefore agree with the assertion that Aristotle was aware of the problems raised by the rejection of this doctrine,29 as well as of the fact that it was the only theory explaining soul’s intimate relation to the body.30 This consideration is important in light of the later remonstrance addressed to his followers, Dicaearchus and Aristoxe- nus: according to testimonies they would not admit the existence of the soul,31 except as a kind of force that regulates the functions of the body and is indivisible from it.32 It seems that Aristotle, by introducing the soul to living nature, had led his followers to develop a doctrine that identified the soul with its material substrate.33 However, the following section will discuss the possibility that their lack of belief in the separate existence of the soul in some measure depends on their musical theory, which

28 Huffman, “The Pythagorean conception of the soul,” 40. The most critical is the question of memory, which is indisputably an intellectual faculty for Plato, and seems to be some sort of compensation for immortality, even for the Pythagoreans (see DK 14 A 8 = Diogenes 8.4; on the key role of memory in the Pythagorean way of life, see James Luchte, Pythagoras and the Doctrine of Transmigration (London; New York: Continuum, 2009), 123). However, Huffman, “The Pythagorean conception of the soul,” 39, n. 51, observes that there is no reason to believe that memory, before and even after Plato, had been restricted to the intellectual part of the soul. 29 Jules Tricot, trans., Aristote. De l’âme (Paris: Vrin, 1977), 43, n. 6. 30 Gottschalk, “Soul as Harmonia,” 188. 31 Dicaearchus, fr. 8e Wehrli: D. quidem et A., [...] nullum omnino animum esse dixerunt. 32 So Dicaearchus, fr. 7 Wehrli. As to Aristoxenus’ concept of the soul as harmonía (see fr. 120 Wehrli), he sees the soul rather as a “tuning,” than a blending of compounds (see Anderson, “Musical Developments in the School of Aristotle,” 90); moreover, he compares the soul to harmonía, rather than identifying one with the other. 33 See Gottschalk, “Soul as Harmonia,” 182–189: according to Aristotle, the soul is “a substance (ousía) in the sense of a form of a natural body” (412a 19).

178

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 178 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... in its turn reaches back to the ancient healing practices ascribed to the Pythagoreans. It seems that the idea of the soul’s close relationship to the body remained rooted in post-Platonic Pythagorean thought, which continued to explore the possibilities of this relationship through music.

3. The Cathartic Powers of Music

The term harmonía had been associated with music no earlier than at the beginning of the 5th century,34 probably in accordance with the Pythagorean doctrine of the Har- mony of Spheres.35 This doctrine reveals the importance of the role of music in Pytha- gorean conceptions of the universe, and of man as part of the world order. In order to examine the cathartic effects of music allegedly propounded by the Pythagoreans, we must return to Aristoxenus’ Fragment 26, quoted above. It is the earliest fragment that associates musical therapy as purification, with the Pythagoreans. This association led to the belief that the Pythagorean theory of purification is the core of Aristotle’s theory of kátharsis, developed in Book 8 of his Politics. According to some scholars, the Pythagorean concept of kátharsis arose from their practice of ritual purification, which had been given a mystical and ethical connotation. With Aristotle, the concept had been taken to a scientific level.36 Later research, however, leads us to believe that the doctrine of purification is not originally Pythagorean,37 but rather originates from a more ancient practice,38 as a result of the strong link between religion and medicine.39 Central to our argument is Aristoxenus’ distinction between the purification of the soul by music, and that of the body by medicine. This differentiation suggests that medicine had distanced itself from certain unscientific praxes, which had by the end of the 5th century become associated with magic, a practice shunned by the medicine of the time. The author of the Sacred Disease (cca. 400 BC) speaks of the charlatans who pretended to cure epilepsy with incantations and purifications (katharmoí, epaoidaí; Chap. 2) because they were unable to discover its natural cause. Magical practices were incompatible with the attempt to give scientific support to 5th century medicine, and were in Late Antiquity disavowed by law.40 On the other hand, the effects of music on the soul were explored more deeply, as is evident from Aristotle’s musical theory.

34 Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy, 220. 35 See Aristotle, On the Heavens 290b 12-291a 26. 36 For the survey of various theories, see Antonietta Provenza, “Aristoxenus and Music Therapy: Fr. 26 Wehrli within the Tradition on Music and Catharsis,” in Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Discussion, ed. Carl A. Huffman, vol. 17 of Routledge University Studies in Classical Humanities (New Brunswick; New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2012), 94. 37 See Leonid Zhmud, Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism, trans. Kevin Windle and Rosh Ireland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012), 288, referring particularly to the purification of the soul through music. 38 It is still agreed, though, that it was Aristotle who gave it a scientific form (Provenza, “Aristoxenus and Music Therapy,” 94–95, n. 14); moreover he distinguished between the purifying and the edifying roles of music (Pol. 1341b 37). Burkert, Lore and Science, 212, observes that the purification through science was associated with Pythagoreans no sooner than it was with Neoplatonists, particularly Iamblichus. 39 Far from being excluded from medicine, religious sentiments were believed to be necessary in dealing with the natural causes of a disease. Magical practices were considered blasphemous by the author of the Sacred Disease, and they proved to have been as unwelcome in religion as they were in medicine (see Vivian Nutton, Ancient Medicine (London: Routledge, 2004): 111–114). 40 The Code of Justinian (Digesta 50.13.1.3) excluded such practices from medicinae genera.

179

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 179 23.6.2016 9:58:40 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Among the followers of Aristotle, Aristoxenus and Theophrastus were particularly ob- servant of the effects of music on psychic states. They both paid special attention to auditory sensations: Theophrastus considered it the most emotive (pathetikotáte) of all forms of sense perception (fr. 91.1.1 Wimmer = Plutarchus, On Listening to Lectures, p. 37), and is even convinced that the origins of music lie in the passions of the soul (páthe; Plutarchus, Table Talk 1.5.2 (= 623a 6-9)), like sorrow and joy, since they are accompanied by a change in the voice. Such is Theophrastus’ definition of music:

“The nature of music is single: a movement of the soul which takes place in order to effect its deliverance [apólysis] from the evils to which passions give rise.” (fr. 89.14.7-9 Wimmer = Porphyry, Commentary in Ptolemy’s Harmonics, pp. 241-244 (Walllis); trans. by W. Anderson)41

This definition clearly points out that music works on the soul through its movement which, according to Anderson, is the crucial factor to our understanding of the way Theophrastus looked upon the relationship between music and the soul. But Anderson equally argues that the Pythagorean mousikoí (Damon, for example) studied the immediate influence of this movement on the body (changes of voice and bodily movement).42 These arguments throw interesting light on a testimony from Apollonius, according to which Theophrastus deemed that by music, and by playing on the aulos in particular, even bodily illnesses, such as sciatica, can be cured (see Aristoxenus, fr. 6 Wehrli).43 Fortenbaugh warns against assigning such opinions too quickly to Theophrastus, arguing that such immediate effects of music on the body are more likely to fit into the mirabilia of Apollonius, rather than into the ideas of a peripatetic scientist. Below, however, we have a text from Aulus Gellius, who gives an explanation of the belief that playing the aulos (lat. tibia) can cure various diseases of the body; according to Gellius, this belief is founded on an affinity between body and soul, both of which share the same ailments, as well as the same cures for them:

“I ran across the statement very recently in the book of Theophrastus On Inspirati- on that many men have believed and put their belief on record, that when gouty pains in the hips are most severe, they are relieved if a flute-player (tibicen) plays soothing measures. That snake-bites are cured by the music of the flute, when played skillfully and melodiously, is also stated in a book of Democritus, entitled On Deadly Infections, in which he shows that the music of the flute (tibia) is medicine for many ills that flesh is heir to. So very close is the connection between the bodies and the minds of men, and therefore between physical and mental ailments and their remedies.” (N. A. 4.13; trans. by J. C. Rolfe)

41 For a detailed interpretation of this fragment, and its relation to the concept of kátharsis, see Franz Dirlmeier, “ΚΑΘΑΡΣΙΣ ΠΑΘΗΜΑΤΩΝ,” Hermes 75/1 (1940): 90–91. 42 Anderson, “Musical Developments in the School of Aristotle,” 92 and 94–95. 43 For a thorough discussion of this implication of fr. 6, see William W. Fortenbaugh, “Apollonius on Theophrastus on Aristoxenus,” in Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Discussion, ed. Carl A. Huffman, vol. 17 of Routledge University Studies in Classical Humanities (New Brunswick; New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2012), 163–165.

180

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 180 23.6.2016 9:58:40 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... Gellius’ observation of the affinitas between body and soul is not expressed as a personal opinion: more likely, he repeats a general belief which seems to have been spread among those who healed by music. Aristoxenus’ fr. 26, displays the same analogy between psychic and bodily nature,44 which reveals the connection between religious doctrines of the Pythagoreans and their scientific endeavors, which included the art of healing, as well as other cathartic practices cultivated by the medical school of Croton.45 Sources in Iamblichus and Porphyry, too, give an account of the Pythagorean use of music in healing the body. The paragraph from Iamblichus, comprising the passage quoted above (VP 25 [110]), begins with an explicit reference to kátharsis as he dia` tê s mousikê s iatreía, i. e. healing through music, and concludes with the report of still other occasions on which “music instead of medicine” (en iatreías táxei) was used. This passage conveys the idea of music as a substitute for medicine and not its integral part. If its source is indeed Aristoxenus, as the resemblance with DK 58 D 1 seems to show, it clearly demonstrates his reluctance to dwell on the somatic effect of music, or at least his inability to explain these effects. The words “music instead of medicine” point to a separation of music from medicine, which may be attributed to his own use of music to cure psychic disorders.46 The awkward transition from somatic to psychic effects of music is evident in a passage taken from Porphyry’s Lige of Pythagoras, referring to the testimony of Antonius Diogenes (2nd cent.): there the healing effects of music are mostly mentioned in reference to psychic disorders. Although certain dances were used to improve the agility and health of the body (VP 32), the effects of the dance seem to be logically related to the movements of the body rather than to the music itself. While this testimony does not reach beyond the 2nd century, it contains the same references to the use of ancient paeans and of Homer’s and Hesiod’s verses as the passage from Iamblichus, of which the source is said to be Aristoxenus.47 Apart from the possibility of sharing the same older source, Porphyry’s (or Diogenes’) report is not of much use. Indeed, it gets more and more confusing in the next paragraph, describing the ways in which Pythagoras supposedly used music:

“If they were sick, he nursed them; if they were afflicted in mind, he solaced them, some by incantations and charms, others by music. He had prepared songs for the diseases of the body, by singing which he cured the sick.” (VP 33)

The point is that none of the sources used by Iamblichus or Porphyry seems willing to dwell separately on the ailments of the body and disorders of the soul. No testimony explains the way in which music is supposed to influence the body, whereas there is no lack of descriptions of its impact on the soul. The language used to describe musical practices of purification is full of musical terms, as a consequence of the conviction that music restores the soul into its harmonious state. 48 Interestingly, sometimes we

44 Fritz Wehrli, ed., Die Schule des Aristoteles, Heft II: Aristoxenos, (Basel: Beno Schwabe & Co, 1945), 54–55. 45 For this connection, see Burnet, Greek philosophy, 41. 46 See fr. 6 Wehrli. 47 Brisson, Vie de Pythagore, 189 (n. 4 to par. 114), believes that Porphyry and Iamblichus use the same source here. In this case it is possible that Aristoxenus is the source of Diogenes’ report. 48 See, for example, VP 15 [64].

181

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 181 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 come across medical terms (apart from the obvious case of the word kátharsis 49): it is reported that Pythagoras, through music, used to purify the intellective powers of his disciples from “the influxive and effluxive waves of corporeal nature (diekáthairé te synkeklydasménon to` noetikón).”50 The verb klydázesthai is very rare and refers to the fluctuation of fluid in pleurisy. This could possibly account for the discrepancies in modern translations of it: in the present case, it is Guthrie’s translation that I find more inspiring, since it obviously alludes to a presence of a corporeal nature in the intellectual part of the psyché, while Brisson chooses a more neutral expression (“il purifiait leur esprit agité”). Taking into consideration the materialistic concept of psyché, attributed to ancient Pythagoreanism, the idea of healing bodily illnesses through music becomes more comprehensible. But there is another obvious reason for these authors’ reticence on the effects of music on the body. Since the latter is governed and influenced by the soul, it must benefit from the purifying effects of the music. This, of course, is not a medical belief but a purely philosophical one: it can be traced back to the Platonic conception of the immortal soul governing the mortal body.

4. Medicine for the Soul, Medicine for the Body

I have tried to demonstrate that the evasive reports on healing with music are a result of the philosophical veneer spread over medical practices which would otherwise sink to the level of charlatanism condemned by the Hippocratic medicine. But does that necessarily mean that Pythagoras really had cured the sick by playing the aulos, as had been suggested? Here again, Aristoxenus’ fragment on the various types of Pytha- gorean medicine gives us some idea. He mentions dietetics, poultices and ointments, cuts and cauterizations, and incantations/music. These practices are individualized by their subjects of interest, which clearly indicate that Pythagoreans showed least interest for the part of medicine that focused on the body alone: surgery. On the other hand, they paid ample attention to those practices which, while healing, also influenced the soul; or, if we may add, which healed the body through the soul. These practices included not only musical incantations, but also one’s daily regimen: again according to Aristoxenus (DK 58 D 8 = VP 31 [207-208]), the food we eat has greater impact on our souls than we realize: the variety of man’s aliments has its origin in various psychic impulses responding to different structures of food.51 The term diáthesis is used to designate physical, as well as psychic disposition, but the writer is obviously thinking of the latter (indecent behavior of intoxicated persons). We can safely assume that similar effects were attributed to ointments and medical substances, since it is clear that they preferred not to use medicaments, except when they applied them to wounds, which

49 For the medical background of the poetic kátharsis, see Hellmut Flashar, “Die Medizinischen Grundlagen der Lehre von der Wirkung der Dichtung in der Griechischen Poetik,” Hermes 84/1 (1956): 42–43. The word apólysis in the fragment quoted above from Theophrastus (fr. 89 W) also belongs to the medical vocabulary (cf. Hipp., Coa praes. 378). 50 VP 15 [65] in Kenneth S. Guthrie, trans., The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. An Anthology of Ancient Writings Which Relate to Pythagoras and Pythagorean Philosophy (Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 1987). 51 On the Pythagorean diet, see Georg Wöhrle, Studien zur Theorie der antiken Gesundheitslehre (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1990): 35–44.

182

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 182 23.6.2016 9:58:41 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... have physical causes. The medicine attributed to Pythagoreans by Aristoxenus was evidently focused on curing the body through the soul, and saw the illness as a primarily psychic disorder, which explains their use of music in medicine. Observing the role of the music in the Pythagorean tradition, we cannot fail to notice the importance given to its psychological effects. The Pythagoreans are generally credited with the discovery of music as a means of soothing a troubled soul, or educa- ting an undeveloped character.52 According to testimonies, music was used to cure the body as well, but the intimate connection of body and soul implies that this was being done through the soul. The question is how much the practice of curing the body by music through the soul depends on the Platonic notion of the soul ruling the body, and how much this doctrine has to do with ancient methods of curing, related to shamani- stic practices.53 The theory of music education is quite clearly exposed in Plato.54 In the Republic (376e and 410b-412b), gymnastics is appointed for the education of the body, and music for that of the soul; but later in this passage, it turns out that, fundamentally, they both serve the purposes of the soul, since in excessive devotion, a total neglect of one or the other eventually affects the soul. Only a balanced education brings the required harmony to the soul. The advantages of such education for the body are not mentioned here.55 However, there is a passage in Plato’s Charmides (155e-157b) where Socrates champions a completely different approach: young Charmides suffers from a headache, and Socrates offers to cure him by using a certain leaf, accompanied by a charm (epoidé). Such is the introduction in the dialogue, discussing temperance (so- phrosýne), the presence of which in the soul assures a healthy body, as well. Charmides must, therefore, submit his soul to a cure by “charms”56 and, consequently, his head will be cured, too. The origins of this doctrine, according to Socrates, lie with Thracian physicians, operating under orders of their god and king, Zalmoxis:57

52 See e. g. DK 37 A 8, B 9 and B 10. 53 On shamanism in ancient Greece, see Mircea Eliade, Le chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de l’extase (Paris: Payot, 1968 (reprint)), 305–310, and particularly Dodds, The Greeks and the Irrational, 135–150. 54 See e. g. the educational plan for the guardians in the Republic 376c-377a and, particularly, in 398b-403c. These passages raise the question of the Pythagorean influence on Plato’s musical education theory. The main difference between the Pythagoreans and Plato could have been, as Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook, 35, argues, in the practical approach of the Pythagoreans, which they had in common with the Orphics, while in Plato’s case it is mainly a theory based on a more intellectual approach. With Platonism, music has left the world of physical phenomena and become a part of the world of ideas. This is the reason why Burkert, Lore and Science, 212, dismisses the concept of purification through science from the early Pythagorean tradition: before Plato, every kind of knowledge included the world of senses, and therefore could not, in the eyes of the Pythagoreans, promote the soul’s purification. The same applied to the music. 55 As for healthcare, Plato seems to have tried to restrain the influence of medicine, when stating that doctors know best what is healthy and what is not, but that they cannot tell whether health itself is better than illness (Lach. 195c-d). However, there is strong evidence of the influence of Hippocratic treatises on Plato’s medical and musical theories which sometimes show striking similarities with the methodological approach of contemporary medical writers; for a thorough analysis, see Barker, Psicomusicologia nella Grecia antica, 75–95. 56 By epoidé he means the Socratic discourse on temperance rather than music. 57 Herodotus (Hist. 4.93) depicts Zalmoxis in a double role, both human and divine. As a god, he is related to the mystery of death and the afterlife. There was a custom among his worshipers who, during thunderstorms, would shoot arrows toward the sky, threatening its divinities--this points to a chthonic divinity, of non-Greek origin, as Zalmoxis’ criticism of Greek medicine men shows. But his other name was Gebeleisis, who was a Thracian divinity of sky and thunder, but this was later blended with the figure of Zalmoxis, thus becoming a universal deity who rules heaven and earth (Mircea Goga, La Roumanie: culture et civilization (Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris-Sorbonne, 2007), 182–184). As a man, Zalmoxis was associated with Pythagoras, either as his slave (see Herodotus ibid. and Diogenes, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 8.2) or his disciple (see Porphyry, VP 14). Porphyry mentions the divinization of Zalmoxis, who was supposed to be worshipped as Heracles (by Diogenes’ account, as Chronos).

183

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 183 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 “Zalmoxis, our king, who is a god, says that [...] you should not treat body without soul; and this was the reason why most maladies evaded the physicians of Greece— that they neglected the whole, on which they ought to spend their pains, for if this were out of order it was impossible for the part to be in order. ‘For all that was good and evil,’ he said, ‘in the body and in man altogether was sprung from the soul.’” (Charmides 156d-e; trans. by W. R. M. Lamb)

Here is a holistic (and non-Greek) approach which makes bodily health dependent on the psyché. There is a certain similarity to the medical method mentioned in Phaedrus:

Socrates: “Now do you think one can acquire any appreciable knowledge of the nature of the soul without knowing the nature of the whole man?” Phaedrus: “If Hippocrates the Asclepiad is to be trusted, one cannot know the nature of the body, either, except in that way.” (Phaedrus 270c-d)

But as it turns out, Plato is only giving a medical analogy to explain his cognitive approach to the human soul. The medical holism ascribed to Hippocrates is restricted to the body and does not make the latter dependent on the soul. On the other hand, Zalmoxis’ Pythagorean background in the Charmides passage attests to the Pythago- rean pre-Platonic conception of the soul which, in conformity with pre-Socratic hylo- zoism, was closely associated with the body. This attitude does not agree well with the idea of the soul buried within the body. However, studies have shown by now that, even though the conception of the body as the tomb of the soul had probably developed under the influence of their conceptual separation, the sôma = seˆma formula is not likely Pythagorean.58 While no direct testimonies regarding Pythagoras have survived, there is strong reason to believe that the Pythagorean way of life had retained more elements from the old Pythagorean school than the Pythagorean philosophy as a system of doctrines, which had gradually been adopted by other philosophical schools and had evolved accordingly.59 At least in Aristoxenus’ times the Pythagoreans seem to have taken every care of the body; not in the sense of athletic training, but of áskesis in the purest sense of the word. Thus, they developed a lifestyle (bíos) where the body has its proper role, not as a dead instrument operated by the soul, but as a living organism that actively contributes to the quality of life. These practices also included music (playing instruments, singing, dancing) and, by recovering the disrupted ratios within a living being, they reconnected it with the universe. The use of music thus represented an important aspect of holistic medicine, indicating that the healing of the body cannot possibly dispense with the “correction” of the soul. Only through this could balance in the body be restored.

58 Rein Ferwerda, “The Meaning of the Word ΣΩΜΑ in Plato’s Cratylus,” Hermes 113/3 (1985): 271–272. 59 See Zhmud, Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism, 353.

184

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 184 23.6.2016 9:58:41 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ... Bibliography

Anderson, Warren. “Musical Developments in the School of Aristotle.” Royal Music As- sociation Research Chronicle 16 (1980): 78–98. Barker, Andrew D. Psicomusicologia nella Grecia antica. Translated by Angelo Meriani. Napoli: Guida Editori, 2005. Benveniste, Émile. “La doctrine médicale des Indo-Européens.” Revue de l‘histoire des religions 13 (1945): 5–12. Brisson, Luc, trans. Jamblique, Vie de Pythagore. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1996. Burkert, Walter. Lore and Science in Ancient Pythagoreanism. Translated by Edwin L. Minar, Jr. Cambridge; Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1972. Burkert, Walter. Greek religion: archaic and classical. Translated by John Raffan. Ox- ford: Basil Blackwell, 1985. Burnet, John. Greek philosophy: Thales to Plato. London: MacMillan & Co Ltd., 1955. Dirlmeier, Franz. “ΚΑΘΑΡΣΙΣ ΠΑΘΗΜΑΤΩΝ.” Hermes 75/1 (1940): 81–92. Dodds, Eric R. The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley; Los Angeles; London: Universi- ty of California Press, 1951. Edelstein, Ludwig. Ancient Medicine. London: John Hopkins University Press, 1987 (reprint). Eliade, Mircea. Le chamanisme et les techniques archaïques de l’extase. Paris: Payot, 1968 (reprint). Ferwerda, Rein. “The Meaning of the Word ΣΩΜΑ in Plato‘s Cratylus.” Hermes 113/3 (1985): 266–79. Flashar, Hellmut. “Die Medizinischen Grundlagen der Lehre von der Wirkung der Di- chtung in der Griechischen Poetik.” Hermes 84/1 (1956): 12–48. Fortenbaugh William W. “Apollonius on Theophrastus on Aristoxenus.” In Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Discussion, edited by Carl A. Huffman, vol. 17 of Routledge University Studies in Classical Humanities. New Brunswick; New Jersey: Transaction Publi- shers, 2012: 155–76. Goga, Mircea. La Roumanie: culture et civilization. Paris: Presses de l’Université Paris- Sorbonne, 2007. Gottschalk, Hans B. “Soul as Harmonia.” Phronesis 16/2 (1971): 179–98. Guthrie, Kenneth S., trans. The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. An Anthology of Ancient Writings Which Relate to Pythagoras and Pythagorean Philosophy. Grand Rapids: Phanes Press, 1987. Guthrie, William K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagorea. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1962. Huffman, Carl A. Philolaus of Croton: Pythagorean and Presocratic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Huffman, Carl A. “The Pythagorean conception of the soul from Pythagoras to Philola- us.” In Body and Soul in Ancient Philosophy, edited by Dorothea Frede and Burk- hard Reis. Berlin; New York: W. de Gruyter, 2009: 21–43. Jones, William Henry S., trans. Ancient Medicine, Hippocrates I. Cambridge; Massachu- setts: Harvard University Press, 1948.

185

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 185 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Longrigg, James. Greek Rational Medicine: Philosophy and Medicine from Alcmaeon to the Alexandrians. London: Routledge, 2013. Luchte, James. Pythagoras and the Doctrine of Transmigration. London; New York: Continuum, 2009. Machemer, Georgia Ann. “Medicine, Music and Magic: The Healing Grace of Pindar’s Fourth Nemean.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 95 (1993): 113–41. Miller, Harold W. “Philosophy and Medicine in Ancient Greece.” The Classical Journal 40/5 (1949): 309– 18. Nutton, Vivian. Ancient Medicine. London: Routledge, 2004. Pelosi, Francesco. Plato on Music, Soul and Body. Translated by Sophie Henderson. New York; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Provenza, Antonietta. “Aristoxenus and Music Therapy: Fr. 26 Wehrli within the Traditi- on on Music and Catharsis.” In Aristoxenus of Tarentum: Discussion, edited by Carl A. Huffman, vol. 17 of Routledge University Studies in Classical Humanities. New Brunswick; New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 2012: 91-128. Reale, Giovanni. Corpo, anima e salute: il concetto di uomo da Omero a Platone. Mila- no: R. Cortina, 1999. Rohde, Erwin. Psyche: The Cult of Souls and the Belief in Immortality Among the Gre- eks. Translated by William Hillis. London: Routledge, 2000 (reprint). Smith, Wesley D. “Physiology in the Homeric Poems.” In Transactions and Proceedin- gs of The American Philological Association 97. London: John Hopkins University Press, 1966: 547–56. Tricot, Jules, trans. Aristote. De l’âme. Paris: Vrin, 1977. Vlastos, Gregory. “Isonomia.” The American Journal of Philology 74/4 (1953): 337–66. Wehrli, Fritz, ed. Die Schule des Aristoteles, Heft I: Dikaiarchos. Basel: Beno Schwabe & Co, 1944. Wehrli, Fritz, ed. Die Schule des Aristoteles, Heft II: Aristoxenos. Basel: Beno Schwabe & Co, 1945. Wöhrle, Georg. Studien zur Theorie der antiken Gesundheitslehre. Stuttgart: Steiner, 1990. Zhmud, Leonid. Pythagoras and Early Pythagoreanism. Translated by Kevin Windle and Rosh Ireland. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.

186

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 186 23.6.2016 9:58:41 S. WEISS • MEDICINE FOR BODY OR SOUL? ...

POVZETEK tega koncepta pred nastopom platonizma razkriva idejno ozadje, ki je bilo naklonjeno holističnemu Vez med dušo in telesom zastavlja v antični kulturi pojmovanju človeka in temu ustreznim zdravilskim eno temeljnih vprašanj, na katerega so skušale metodam, med katerimi je imela glasba v povezavi odgovoriti različne filozofske šole, zlasti tiste, ki so z magičnim učinkom besede vodilno vlogo. Skopa zasnovale ideal t. i. filozofskega življenja. Učinki pričevanja iz tega obdobja nam dovolijo le malo več glasbe na duševni ustroj in značaj človeka ter njen kot ugibati, zato smo sledove takšnih praks prisiljeni vzgojni pomen so bili predmet raziskav vse od izluščiti iz poznejših pričevanj, ki pa so že filozofsko predsokratikov dalje, vendar se poleg teh pričevanj »kontaminirana«. To je tudi drugi razlog za nedo- pojavljajo tudi namigi na uporabo glasbe v medi- slednost teh pričevanj, v katerih se doktrinalna cinske namene. Te prakse se omenjajo tudi v me- načela, ki se močno opirajo na Platonove nauke, ne dicinskih spisih hipokratskega korpusa, ki takšne ujemajo vedno z opisom nekaterih praks, ki kažejo metode povezuje s staro, religiozno obarvano na starejše korenine. Med temi praksami je tudi laj- medicino in jih zavrača kot šarlatanske. Najbolj ek- šanje bolezenskih stanj z glasbo in s »pripevanjem« splicitna pričevanja so iz spisov novopitagorejskih (epaoidé). Tovrstne metode so v poudarjenem filozofov 3. stol. po Kr. Ti pisci se sicer sklicujejo na nasprotju ne le s t. i. naravno medicino hipokratske vire, ki segajo vse do 4. stol. pr. Kr., vendar njihova šole, ampak tudi z drugimi oblikami zdravljenja, rekonstrukcija t. i. pitagorejskega življenja in vloge ki so jih poznale že najstarejše civilizacije in ki so glasbe v njem kaže jasne posledice večstoletnega ostale veljavne do danes (uporaba zdravilnih snovi razvoja, v katerem je prišlo do medsebojnega in kirurgije). Čeprav teh praks ni mogoče pripisati zlivanja pitagorejske, platonske in peripatetske neposredno Pitagori ali pitagorejcem, pa nekatera tradicije. Članek odkriva neskladja v teh pričeva- pričevanja kažejo, da so se širile v Grčiji prav v njih in skuša z analizo nekaterih besedil poiskati okviru pitagorejske šole. Raziskave o šamanizmu razloge zanje. Tu je na prvem mestu kompleksno v stari Grčiji in drugod po Evropi razkrivajo, da so pojmovanje človeka kot skupka duše in telesa, pri bile te prakse del skritega vedenja, v katerega je bila čemer je poudarek na psyché. Bogata zgodovina posvečena le izbrana peščica ljudi.

187

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 187 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 188 23.6.2016 9:58:41 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... UDK 78.011.26-053.6 DOI: 10.4312/mz.52.1.189-205

Barbara Sicherl Kafol, Olga Denac, Jerneja Žnidaršič Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani Pedagoška fakulteta, Univerza v Mariboru Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana Faculty of Education, University of Maribor

Interest of Slovene Students in Listening to Various Musical Genres Interes slovenskih študentov za poslušanje različnih glasbenih zvrsti

Prejeto: 13. oktober 2015 Received: 13th October 2015 Sprejeto: 7. december 2015 Accepted: 7th December 2015

Ključne besede: poslušanje glasbe, mladi, glas- Keywords: Listening to music, young person, bene zvrsti musical genres

IZVLEČEK ABSTRACT

Cilj raziskave je bil ugotoviti, katere glasbene zvrsti The aim of the study was to find out which musical so najljubše mladim, zakaj poslušajo določene genres are young people’s favourite, why they listen zvrsti in katere zvrsti so poslušali v otroštvu skupaj to those specific genres and which genres they s starši. Rezultati kažejo, da so njihove najljubše used to listen to in their childhood together with glasbene zvrsti pop, rock, RnB in narodnozabavna their parents. The results show that most students‘s glasba. Rezultati potrjujejo vpliv poslušanja glasbe- favourite genres are pop, rock, RnB and popular nih zvrsti v otroštvu skupaj s starši na priljubljenost folk music. The results confirm that the choice of poslušanja zvrsti pri študentih. genres listened to together with parents during childhood affects musical preferences of students.

1. Introduction

Music has a considerable role in holistic formation of personality and development of creative potentials. If we want to understand, comprehend and experience music, listening to it is an important activity. The process of listening is connected to physiological and psychological characteristics and their level of development. The interest of a young person in listening to various musical genres is greatly influenced by family, education, media, peers and developmental characteristics of the individual.

189

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 189 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 With musical preferences we refer to an individual prioritising certain activities and contents in music. “Musical taste is an elaborated system of musical convictions which allows us to comprehend, evaluate and treat the objects of our experience in a certain way. These three components, which we usually take into account when researching viewpoints, do not depend on each other and cannot be separated from emotional evaluation of individual musical elements.”1 Russel2 states that stable long-term preferences for a certain musical genre, composer or performer represent musical taste of an individual. Musical preferences and musical taste were the subject of research by numerous authors of whom each formulated their own set of definitions of the factors that influence the taste and preferences of an individual most decisively. The model directly linked to identifying musical preferences was developed by LeBlanc3 who found that the most influential factors are external, namely: musical and cultural environments which include family, the media, groups of peers.

2. Musical preference and factors of family influance

The level to which the interest in musical activities is expressed and the level of development of musical abilities are connected with the first musical experience a child acquires in the family environment. Therefore, it is important that a child is offered he- terogeneous musical experience as early as in the pre-school period and that we help him develop a positive attitude towards music. According to Schäfer and Sedlmeier, 4 parents play a key role in the musical development of their children. In a study which involved first-year students of primary education, Temmerman5 concludes that musical experience acquired during childhood largely influences a person’s attitude towards music later on in their lives. Furthermore, Cass-Beggs6 states that positive musical experience in the early age influences the development of musical interest later on, while Gordon7 claims that, from early childhood on, a stimulating family environment can influence the development of musical capabilities through individual contact with the child, and that musical education of the parents is one of the most important factors in the child’s musical development. Similarly, Mehr8 reports that the frequency of parental song in childhood significantly predicted parents’ later music behaviors with

1 Helga de la Motte- Haber, Psihologija glasbe (Ljubljana: DZS, 1990), 130. 2 Philip A. Russell, “Musical taste and society,” in The social psychology of music, eds. David J. Hargreaves & Adrian C. North (US, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 142–158. 3 Albert LeBlanc, “An interactive theory of music preference,” Journal of Music Therapy, no. 19 (1982): 28–45. Albert LeBlanc, Young C. Jin, Lelouda Stamou, Jan McCrary, “Effect of age, country, and gender on music listening preferences,” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 141 (1999): 72–79. Abert Le Blanc, Wendy Sims, Carolyn Siivola, Mary Obert, “Music style preferences of different age listeners,” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 44 (1996): 49–59. 4 Thomas Schäfer, Peter Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” Psychology of Music, no. 37 (2009): 279–300. 5 Nita Temmerman, “School music experiences: how do they rate?,” Research Studies in Music Education, no. 1 (1993): 59–65. 6 Barbara Cass-Beggs, “How music is first introduced”: Proceedings of the 19th World Conference of the International Society for Music Education in Helsinki (1990): 4–12. 7 Edvin E. Gordon, A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children (Chicago: GIA Publications, 1990). 8 Samuel A. Mehr, “Music in the Home: New Evidence for an Intergenerational Link,” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 4 (2014): 1–11.

190

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 190 23.6.2016 9:58:41 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... their own children, adjusting for other aspects of the early artistic environment. Parents reported high frequencies of music activities in the home, with most parents singing or playing recorded music to their children on a daily basis. According to de la Motte Haber, 9 primary musical socialisation takes place in connection with a number of factors, such as the presence or absence of music at home and its use. Such socialisation does not determine taste, however, it sets the basis for it. On the other hand, when studying secondary socialisation, questions about the role of a broader set of factors and actors, which LeBlanc10 attributes to the first level, are important. This is the social network of friends, peers, the media, etc. One of the crucial factors of secondary socialisation is also the school where music education has an important impact on a balanced development of students in the social and other learning areas11.

3. Musical preference and factors of media influance

With the occurrence of electronic media, music spread into every corner of our lives. Young people are particularly exposed, with music having a strong impact on them. The music market offers a great variety of music: quality, artistic music on one hand, as well as low quality, hence trivial on the other. It is a fact that popular music largely prevails in the media. Even public places, such as coffee shops, shops, buses, trains, waiting rooms, offices, usually use it as background music. The plethora of music offer would require from an individual a critical approach to music, offered by the media. The latter dictate musical trends which are difficult to avoid. Thus, today young people subject their taste to the one momentarily determined by the huge show industry, more so than they used to in the past. The music industry targets their attentive, yet passive, relaxed and uncritical acceptance. It sticks to the winning formula of releasing familiar hits, produced according to the same model. The influence of the media is particularly obvious when it comes to the selection of music, as, in adolescence, involvement in music (popular music in particular) is more intense than involvement in any other area, offered by the media.12

4. Musical preference and factors of the developmental characteristics

In young people, inclination for music is also determined by psychological development. Adolescence can be marked by turbulent and intense emotions with surprising affects or long-lasting emotional states which do not always correspond with the objective

9 Motte-Haber, Psihologija glasbe, 130. 10 LeBlanc as cited in Juul Mulder, Tom F. TerBogt, Quinten A. W. Rašaijmakers, Saoirse N. Gabhainn and Paul Sikkema, “From death metal to R’n’B? Consistency of music preferences among Dutch adolescents and young adults”, Psychology of Music, no. 38 (2010): 67–83. 11 Vlasta Hus, “The integration of the subject environmental studies with other subjects: The teachers’ views,” in Innovation and creativity in education, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2. ed. H. Uzunboylu (2010): 5078–5083. 12 Mark Tarrant, Adrian C. North, David J. Hargeaves, “English and American Adolescent’s Reasons for Listening to Music,” Psychology of Music, no. 28 (2000): 166–173.

191

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 191 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 reality. Saarikallio in Erkkila13, Finland, studied the impact of music on the mood of young people. The purpose of their research was to explore and theoretically explain the role of music in regulating a young person’s mood. The analysis of results was based on a model that describes regulation of mood with musical activities as the process of fulfilling a young person’s personal needs. They discovered that mood regulation is influenced not only by the situation that the young person is in, but also by their personality structure, experience, gender and age. Young people did not choose dance, singing or listening to music with a specific goal in mind, but rather on the basis of their momentary mood.14 Musical preferences are related to different aspects of personality.15 In a study of Japanese students, Brown16 found significant associations between personality dimen- sion of openness facets (aesthetic appreciation, inquisitiveness, creativity, unconventionality) and Reflective music (classical, gospel, jazz, opera and enka). All Reflective genres were associated with aesthetic appreciation. Classical genre was associated with aesthetic appreciation and inquisitiveness, jazz was associated with aesthetic appreciation, creativity and unconventionality, opera was associated with creativity, while extraversion was associated with the preference for Energetic genres (rap/hip-hop and reggae). According to Brown,17 mood regulation is “clearly related to music listening choices and may be the primary function of music.” The results of a study conducted by North and Hargreaves18 showed that the interest in listening to certain genres differs with age, i.e. different age groups have different preferences: while younger adolescents prefer pop, older adolescents also like jazz and classical music. However, preference for music in general does not appear to decrease during adolescence, adulthood or old age.19 As a general rule, children express interest in all types of music, while adolescents favour popular genres.20 Late adolescence is believed to be the period when an individual’s musical preferences, connected with the development of aesthetic, ideological and other values, stabilise.

5. The Study

Research Objectives and Research Questions

The objective of the research was to identify students’ interest in listening to various musical genres. We were interested in which genres the students like most. Looking

13 Suvi Saarikallio, Jakko Erkkila, “The role of music in adolesent’s mood reguletion,” Psychology of Music, no. 35 (2007): 88–109. 14 Ibid. 15 Robert A. Brown, “Music preferences and personality among Japanese university students,” International Journal of Psychology, no. 47, (4) (2012): 259–268. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. p. 266 18 Adrian C. North, David J. Hargreaves, The social and applied psychology of music (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008). 19 Ibid. 20 Ruth V. Brittin, “Children’s preference for sequenced accompaniments: The influence of style and perceived tempo,” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 48 (2000): 237–248. John M. Geringer, Solis A. Guerra, “Preferences of 5th-grade children in Mexico and the United States for school and non-school music excerpts,” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 153/154 (2002): 12–17.

192

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 192 23.6.2016 9:58:41 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... into different factors which influence the development of a young person’s attitude towards music, we focused on the following research questions: Which is the students’ favourite musical genre? Why is the chosen genre their favourite? Which genre the students used to listen to together with their parents when they were children? In relation with the research questions, we examined the existence of differences according to study programmes (preschool education, primary education, natural science study programmes, social science study programmes). We were also interested in how listening to certain genres together with parents during childhood influenced the popularity of individual genres in students.

Research Sample

The study involved full-time third year students (aged 20 to 21) from three Slove- ne universities (University of Maribor, University of Ljubljana, University of Primorska). Among those students who completed the questionnaire (n=552), there were students of pre-school education (n=128), primary education (n=189), natural sciences (n=98) and social sciences (n=137). The captured convenience sample of students is defined at the level of inferential statistics as simple accidental sample from a hypothetic population. Before engaging in the study we carried out a survey among students of various study courses. They were asked to write down the genres they know best, together with examples of musical pieces21. The analysis showed that students know well 13 mu-

21 Some of the examples, listed by students: Pop: Adele – When we were young, Hello; Alya – A veš; Jennifer Lopez - Carino; John Legend – All of me; Justin Bieber – What do you mean, Love Yourself; Lady Gaga - Poker face, Paparazzi, Alejandro; Leona Lewis – Bleeding Love; Madona – La Isla Bonita, Frozen, Like a Prayer; Maroon 5 – Sugar; Michael Jackson – Black or White, Man in the miror, Beat it; Shakira – Hips Don’t Lie etc. Rock: Aerosmith – Crazy, I Don’t Want to Miss a Thing; Arctic Monkeys – 505; Big foot mama – Črn tulipan, Nisem več s tabo; Blink-182 – All the small things; Bon Jovi – Livin’ on a Prayer, It’s my life; Bryan Adams – Summer of 69; Guns N’ Roses – Sweet Child O’Mine, November rain; Nazareth – Hair of the dog; Nirvana – Smells like teen spirit; Pink Floyd – Education, Another brick in the wall etc. RnB: Alicia Keys - No one; Beyonce – Love on top, If I were a boy, Hello, Best Thing I Never Had, 7/11, Irreplacable; Black eyed peas – Where is the love; Blackstreet – No diggity; Cris Brown – Little more, With you; Drake – Hotline bling; John Legend – All of Me; Justin Timberlake – What Goes Around … Comes Around; Kelly – I wish; Major Lazer – Light it up; Mariah Carey – Without you etc. Raggae: Bob Marley – Sun is shining, No woman no cry, One love, Buffalo soldier, Natural mystic, Three little birds; Denis Brown – A true; DJ Sonki – Trompetta; Inner Circle – Bad boys; Jimmy Cliff – You can get it if you really want, I can see clearly now; Mega Banton – Sound Boy Killing; Peter Tosh – Legalize it; Owen Gray – When I need you; Raggalution – Natural; Winston Rodney – Slavery days, Happy day etc. Rap: Eminem – Not Afraid, Lose Yourself, Stan, Beautiful, Till I collapse, The Real Slim Shady, When I’m gone, Rap God, Mockingbird; Dr. Dre – I need a doctor; Ice Cube – No vaseline; Jay-Z – 99 problems; Klemen Klemen – Ženske, komad za ljubice; Murat&Jose – Muzičarji, Od ljudi za ljudi; Nipke – Všeč tko k je; Trkaj – Pleš, Maš me, mam te, Svet je moj, Hej ti etc. Metal: AC/DC – Thunderstruck; Black Sabbath – Paranoid; Evanescence – Bring me to life; Cris Bay – Freedom call;Dead by April – As a Butterfly; Iron Maden – Dance of death, Fear of the Dark, The Trooper, Run to the hills; Jan Thore Grefstad – Saint Deamon; Machine Head – Halo; Metallica – Turn the paige, Wiskey in the jar, Master of puppets, Unforgiven, Enter; Michael Kiske – Ex helloween; Motorhead – Ace of spades etc. Punk: Blink 182 – All the small things; Caleb Healey – The paper Guns; Fall out boy – Centuries; Generation x – Dancing with myself; Green day – American Idiot, Know your Enemy, Boulevard of broken dreams, Wake me up when September ends; Grupa 92 – Od šestih do dveh; Good Riddance – Mother superior; Good Charlotte – I just wanna live; Joy division – She’s lost control; Niet – Vijolice, Lep dan za smrt; Pankrti – Ljubljana je bulana, Lepi in prazni; Sum 41 – Best of me; Stung out – Twisted by design etc. Techno/House: Avicii – Levels, Wake me up, Waiting for love; Armin Van Buuren – This is What it Feels Like; Benny Benassi – Satisfaction; Calabria – Drunken Monkey; Calvin Harris – Summer, I Need Your Love; Cascada – Miracle; Cassius – Feeling for

193

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 193 23.6.2016 9:58:41 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 sical genres: Pop, Rock, Reggae, Rap, Metal, Punk, Techno/Hous, RnB, Jazz, Classical, Turbo-folk, Popular Folk Music, Folk Music. These were included in the questionnaire used in the study.

Data Gathering Procedure

Data were collected on the basis of a questionnaire, in which students had to rank musical genres according to their preferences from 1 (their favourite genre) to 13 (their least favourite), explain the reasons for listening to their favourite genre and write down which genres they listened to as children together with their parents. It was designed in line with the following measuring characteristics: Validity is based on rational judgement of a sample questionnaire by experts for the content and form (advisers for arts at the Education Institute) as well as its pre-test use. Reliability was provided for with exact instructions, single meaning specific questions and comparison of answers with questions with related content. Objectivity in the data collection phase relies on the use of electronic intervi- ewing, while in the evaluation phase on reading the answers without any subjective interference.

Data Processing Procedures

The data were processed at a descriptive and inferential level. We used frequency distributions (f, f %), mean ratings () and mean ranks () as well as non-parametric tests (χ2 test, Kruskal-Wallis test).

You; David Guetta – Love is gone, Titanium, When love takes over, Seek bromance; Deadmau5 – Chill mix; DJ Umek – Posing as me, Carbon Occasions; DJ Tiesto – Red lights etc. Jazz: Aretha Franklin – Somewhere over the rainbow; Billie Holiday – Strange Fruit; Diana Krall – Cry me a river; Ella Fitzgerald – Dream a little dream of me; Frank Sinatra – I’ve got you under my skin, New York, Fly Me To The Moon, Strangers in the Night; John Coltrane – My favorite things; Louis Armstrong – Hello brother, What a Wonderful World, Swing That Music, Dream a little dream of me; Miles Davis – So what, Kind of blue, A day in paris, Blue in green; Natalie Cole – Inseparable; Nina Strnad – Ne prižigaj luči v temi; Ray Charles – Hit the Road Jack, Mess around etc. Classical: L. v. Beethoven – 5. simfonija, 9. simfonija, Fur Elise, Sonata v mesečini; J. S. Bach – Toccata in fuga v d-molu; F. Chopin – Nocturno op.9 št.2, Pomladni valček; P. I. Čajkovski – Labodje jezero; C. Debussy – Clair de la Lune; E. Grieg – Jutro; W. A. Mozart – Alla turca, Mala nočna glasba, Requiem; B. Smetana – Vltava; C. Orff – Carmina Burana; M. Ravel – Bolero; S. Rahmaninov – Koncert za klavir št. 3; C. Saint Seans – Živalski karneval; J. Strauss – Radetzky March, Na lepi modri Donavi; A. Vivaldi – Štirje letni časi etc. Turbo-folk: Anabela – Kafana na Balkanu; Atomik Harmonik – Turbo polka, Brizgalna brizga, Zavriskaj na ves glas, Lep sončen dan, Toni je pa ribo ujel; Ceca Veličković– Turbulentno, Beograd, Poziv; Dragana Mirkovič – Nisam ni metar od tebe; Lepa Brena – Luda za tobom, Hajde da se volimo; Mile Kitić – Kilo dole kilo gore, Svi su tu a tebe nema; Milica Todorović – Moje zlato; Neda Ukraden – Na balkanu; Sandra Afrika – Neko če mi nočas; Seka Aleksić – Aspirin; Turbo angels – S tabo grem v gmajno etc. Popular Folk Music: Alenka Kozolc – Nocoj, pa oh, nocoj; Avseniki – Na Golici; Beoga – Prelude Polkas; Eva Hren – Venci Vejli; Gadi – Malo, malo še; Katalena – Enci benci, Jabuko, Rad imel bi jabuko, Lisica; Modrijani – Moja, Ti moja rožica; Navihanke – Mora biti moj; Prifarski muzikanti – Fse kaj lazi mi; Tomaž Domicelj – Slovenskega naroda sin etc. Folk music: Ena ptička priletela; Čuk se je oženil; Fse kaj lazi; Jaz pa grem na zeleno travco; Kje so tiste stezice; Lepa Anka kolo vodi; Mrzel veter; Na planincah; Ob bistrem potoku; Pleši, pleši črni kos; Ptičja svadba; Rezjankica; Roža na vrtu; Sijaj, sijaj sončece; Trzin’ka; Zeleni Jurij; Vse tičice lepo pojo etc.

194

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 194 23.6.2016 9:58:41 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... Results and Interpretation

Which is the students’ favourite musical genre?

Musical Genres Pop 3.9928 Rock 4.5870 RnB 6.2971 Popular Folk Music 6.8732 Turbo-folk 6.9130 Classical 6.9873 Jazz 7.2192 Reggae 7.2428 Rap 7.3514 Folk Music 7.7862 Metal 8.1938 Punk 8.6141 Techno, House 8.8877

Table 1. Popularity of individual genres with students.

As it is seen from the table, students prefer pop and rock over RnB, popular folk music, turbo-folk and classical music. They are less interested in jazz reggae and folk music. The least popular with our students were metal, punk and techno/house. Fore- ign research22 also ranks pop and rock among the most popular musical genres. Mo- reover, comparable Slovene research23 confirm that pop and rock are the top favourite genres. The results of a study by Bunič,24 in which she included 255 students from the Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Architecture, Faculty of Economics and Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, are very similar. Students ranked rock, film music, pop, classical music and alternative rock as the top five most popular genres. However, there is a difference in the ranking of popular folk music. While students, participating in our study ranked popular folk music as the fourth most popular, in the study by Bunič25 this genre ranked last. We can presume that the choice of study programme was one of the factors contributing to this, since the participants in our study were all students of pedagogical programmes, while the majority of those in the study by Bunič attended courses at the Faculty of Medicine, Faculty of Architecture and Faculty of Economics,

22 North, Hargreaves, The social and applied psychology of music. Schäfer, Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” 279 – 300. Juul Mulder, Tom F. TerBogt, Quinten A. W. Rašaijmakers, Saoirse N. Gabhainnin, Paul Sikkema, “From death metal to R’n’B? Consistency of music preferences among Dutch adolescents and young adults,” Psychology of Music, no. 38 (2010): 67–83. 23 Analysis of the situation in the field of music education, 2001, [Analiza stanja na področju glasbene umetnosti], accessed, 15 November, 2015, http://www.mk.gov.si/fileadmin/mk.gov.si/pageuploads/Ministrstvo/Zakonodaja/Analiza_stanja/03.pdf. 24 Sara Bunič, Glasbeni okus in glasbene preference študentov ljubljanskih fakultet. Univerza v Ljubljani: Akademija za glasbo. [Musical taste and music preferences of students of the Ljubljana faculties. (University of Ljubljana: Academy of Music, 2013). 25 Ibid.

195

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 195 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 University of Ljubljana. In terms of study programmes, there are no statistically typical differences in the popularity of the following genres: RnB, reggae, rap, turbo folk, jazz, classical music, popular folk music, pop. On the other hand, there are statistically significant differences in other musical genres: • Rock is the most popular with students of natural sciences, followed by students of social sciences and primary education, and the least popular with students of pre-school education (χ2 = 13.237, g = 3, P = 0.004). • Metal is the most popular with students of pre-school education, followed by students of primary education and natural sciences, and the least popular with students of social sciences (χ2 =23.235, g = 3, P = 0.000). • The biggest interest in techno/house was expressed by students of social sciences and natural sciences, less by students of primary education and the least by pre- -school education students (χ2 =7.788, g = 3, P = 0.051). • The biggest interest in punk was expressed by students of social sciences, followed by students of natural sciences and primary education, the least interested in this genre being pre-school education students (χ2 =17.118, g = 3, P = 0.001). • Folk music is the most popular among students of pre-school education and primary education, less among students of natural sciences and the least among those of social sciences (χ2 =20.908, g = 3, P = 0.000).

Statistically significant differences show that students of different study courses express different levels of interest in individual musical genres. The findings indicate that educational process and the choice of study course are among the factors influencing music preferences of an individual. However, this needs to be confirmed by further research.

Why is the chosen genre their favourite?

Answers YES NO Reasons for listening f f % f f % Because I like it personally 515 93.3 37 6.7 Because it is popular 62 11.2 490 88.8 Because my friends listen to it 18 3.3 534 96.7 Because I am bored 16 2.9 536 97.1 Because I am lonely 5 0.9 547 99.1 For fun 361 65.4 191 34.6 Because it helps solve my problems 60 10.9 492 89.1 Because it encourages me to think about the 133 24.1 419 75.9 structure of a musical work, the performers, etc. Because it relaxes me 300 54.3 252 45.7

Table 2. The number (f) and structural percentage (f %) of students listening to their favourite genre according to the reasons for listening to it.

196

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 196 23.6.2016 9:58:42 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... As it is evident from the table, most students listen to a certain type of music, because they personally like it, because it is fun and relaxes them. This means that the emotional function of music prevails. Students listen to music, because it makes them feel well. Only a few students pointed out the usefulness of music for establishing connections with peers and the society, i.e. the social function of music. However, one quarter of participants did point out the cognitive function of music, involving rational or intellectual approach to listening, with the listener focusing either on the musical structure of the piece, or on the interpretation and performance itself. In their study, Tarrant, North in Hargeaves26 were asking themselves about the young peoples’reasons for listening to music. The study involved British and American youngsters. The results showed that there were no significant differences in their answers. The majority of youngsters listened to music with a certain reason, e.g.: they are bored, they are lonely, they want to create an impression, for fun, to create a pleasant atmosphere. In other words, the reasons cluster around identity and mood regulation factors.27 Schäfer in Sedlmeier28 confirmed that the functions of music and the ways it is used are important for establishing musical preferences, eventhough they do not always represent the reasons for listening to music. They established why followers of certain musical genres listen to that particular music: jazz, blues, swing and classical music, because it offers them artistic intellectual stimulation; electronic music, trance, techno, dance and house because they stimulate good mood; rock, punk, metal to express their identity and values and also because they find the artistic aspect of those genres important; hip-hop, rap and reggae, because this music fills them with energy and helps them understand their own sensations and thoughts; pop, soul, R’n’B and gospel offer opportunity to extend the social network and to identify oneself with the performers; country, folk, rock‘n‘roll stimulate good mood and help understand oneself, one‘s thoughts and sensations. In a different study, which involved 236 participants, they found that musical preferences are strongly influenced by the cognitive functions of music and by physiological reactions of an individual to the music listened to.29 In terms of the chosen study course, statistically typical differences occur only with two answers, namely, that students have fun listening to music (χ2 =13.547, g = 3, P = 0.004) and that music stimulates their thinking (χ2 = 8.536, g = 3, P = 0.036). • The option that they listen to music for fun was affirmatively answered by 72.7 % of students of pre-school education, 70.9 % of students of primary education and 60.2 % of students of natural sciences. This reason was indicated the least by students of social sciences (54.7 %). • A certain musical genre is chosen because it stimulates thinking about the musical work most often by students of social sciences (32.8 %), then students of natural sciences (23.5 %) and pre-school education (22.7 %) and the least by students of primary education (19.0 %).

26 Tarrant, North, Hargeaves, “English and American Adolescent’s Reasons for Listening to Music,” 166–173. 27 Ibid. 28 Schäfer, Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” 279–300. 29 Thomas Schäfer, Peter Sedlmeier, “What makes us like music? Determinants of music preference,” Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, no. 4 (4), (2010): 223–234.

197

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 197 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Statistically significant differences reveal that the selection of the study programme can represent an important factor influencing the intensity of an individual’s musical preferences where the emotional and cognitive functions of listening to music are emphasised.

Which genre did the students listen to together with their parents when they were children?

Favourite genre YES NO Musical Genre f f % f f % Rock 130 23.6 422 76.4 Metal 5 0.9 547 99.1 Techno, House 6 1.1 546 98.9 RnB 19 3.4 533 96.6 Reggae 15 2.7 537 97.3 Rap 7 1.3 545 98.7 Turbo-folk 50 9.1 502 90.9 Jazz 31 5.6 521 94.4 Punk 6 1.1 546 98.9 Classical Music 132 23.9 420 76.1 Popular Folk Music 345 64.1 198 35.9 Pop 329 59.6 223 40.4 Folk Music 219 39.7 333 60.3

Table 3. The number (f) and structural percentage (f %) of students sharing their musical preferences with their parents.

The table shows that in their childhood, most students listened to popular folk music (64.1 %) and pop (59.6 %) together with their parents. Fewer listened to folk music (39.7 %), classical music (23.9 %) and rock (23.6 %). Other genres - metal, house/techno, RnB, reggae, rap, turbo folk, jazz and punk were rarely listened to by students and parents together.

198

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 198 23.6.2016 9:58:42 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... How does the choice of musical genres listened to together with parents in childhood affect one’s preferences for individual genres as student?

Musical Genres Answers  U P Rock No 302.28 16552.0 0.000 Yes 192.82 Metal No 274.81 440.5 0.009 Yes 461.90 Techno, House No 276.58 1594.0 0.909 Yes 269.17 RnB No 277.50 4528.5 0.432 Yes 248.34 Reggae No 280.49 1886.5 0.000 Yes 133.77 Rap No 277.16 1548.5 0.389 Yes 225.21 Turbo-folk No 278.91 11338.0 0.258 Yes 252.26 Jazz No 281.30 5576.5 0.004 Yes 195.89 Punk No 278.50 584.5 0.005 Yes 94.92 Classical Music No 299.77 17945.0 0.000 Yes 202.45 Popular Folk No 336.20 23225.0 0.000 Music Yes 243.11 Pop No 295.38 32472.5 0.019 Yes 263.70 Folk Music No 303.46 27484.5 0.000 Yes 235.50

Table 4: The results of the Kruskal-Walles test of the influence of the choice of genre listened to by students together with their parents in their childhood to their present affinity for individual genres.

A statistically typical influence of the choice of genres listened to with parents during childhood to the preference for individual genres in students can be detected in the majority of genres: rock (P=0,000), metal (P=0,000), Punk (P=0,005), pop (P=0,019), folk music (P=0,000). The average values of the ranks (lower value means higher level of popularity) show that rock, reggae, jazz, punk, classical music, popular folk music,

199

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 199 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 pop and folk music are more popular in students if they used to listen to these genres together with their parents during their childhood. The exception is metal which is more popular with students who did not listen to it as children together with their parents. However, it needs to be pointed out that only 5 students listened to this genre in their childhood. Statistically typical correlation was not proven only in four genres: Techno, House, RnB, rap and turbo-folk. Nevertheless, the average ranks in these cases are also lower with students who used to listen to these genres as children together with their parents, meaning that they like these genres more than other students. Based on the results of the above analysis it is possible to assume that the popularity of individual musical genre in students is importantly conditional on the genres students listened to together with their parents in their childhood.

6. Conclusions

The results show that even in their late adolescence, young people prefer listening to popular music which is most strongly present in the media. On the contrary, music which does not occur in the media so often, e.g. classical music, jazz, folk music, is not so popular with the students. However, these musical genres should not slip into oblivion with the appearance of commercial genres. Therefore, it is important that the educational process offers young people the opportunity to discover the characteristics of different musical genres, thus developing critical thinking in relation to musical contents which represent an important part of their life. In particular, it is important that they are given the possibility genuinely experience and discover musical genres such as classical music, jazz or folk music to which most young people do not de- dicate much attention in their spare time. It is true that there is popular music with musical qualities and expressiveness which raise it beyond its popular context, giving it artistic value.30 Nonetheless, a lot of popular music in the market is based only on a non-musical value and is not based on internal qualities. Such music represents only a means to transfer non-musical message and serves different functions. Therefore, it is not possible to consider it quality music. In connection with trivial music, Zimmer- schied31 talks about absorption in oneself up to the point of disregarding music, and in connection with serious music, about absorption into music up to the point of disregarding oneself. This explains all the external characteristics of both musical worlds. It explains why trivial music is almost exclusively vocal music, why the interpretations and gestures are extremely extroverted, why the structure of the composition is not very elaborate and it also explains the previously mentioned role of the singer with

30 Bennett Reimer, A philosophy of music education, 2nd edition (New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2002). Paul Crowther, Defining art, creating the canon. Artistic value in an era of doubt (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2007). Theodore Gracyk, Listening to popular music: Or how i learned to stop worrying and love Ledd Zeppelin (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007). 31 Dieter Zimmerschied, “V iskanju umetnosti za glasbeni pouk,” Glasba v šoli in vrtcu, no.12, 3/4 (2007): 16–20.

200

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 200 23.6.2016 9:58:42 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... whom listeners glorify themselves. However, as Reimer 32 points out, there is no reason why functional aspects of music could not have their own place in school. Popular music can in its nature demonstrate variety, humour, pathos, imagination, sentimentality, liveliness, vigorousness, yearning, joy, sincerity; it can help tackle everyday problems, while at the same time confronting us with social, moral, commercial and political issues.33 In spite of that, music pedagogy must deal with the problem of the choice of music works in line with the developmental abilities of children and the characteristics of a certain age, as well as with children’s interests. An important role in this is played by teachers and their socio-emotional competences which are reflected in a positive attitude towards musical culture and art in general, in them expressing joy, interest in listening to, performing and creating musical contents, and in the development of musical abilities, skills and knowledge. Research results reveal that listening to music is one of the activities most frequently undertaken by young people. In their everyday lives, music is present in various forms and styles,34 but most often in the form of popular music.35 The reasons for that could be found in the functions which music can fulfil and which in adolescence are most commonly reflected at developmental, social and affective levels. Adolescents usually use music in the framework of developmental and psychosocial adaptive functions, such as: personal identity development,36 social identity,37 bonding with peers,38 problem tackling and solving,39 escape from everyday problems,40 cognitive reasons41 and reasons concerning regulation of emotions and

32 Reimer, A philosophy of music education, 2nd edition (New Yersey: Prentice Hall, 2002). 33 Ibid. 34 Alenka Gril, Melita Puklek Levpušček, Barbara Brečko, Mojca Štraus, Prosti čas mladih v Ljubljani: psihosocialna analiza potreb in možnosti za njihovo uresničenje. Končno poročilo raziskovalnega projekta [Spare Time of Young People in Ljubljana: Psycho- social Analysis of the Needs and the Possibilities for their Fulfilment], Final Report of a Research Project (Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut, 2004). Roberto Cremades, Oswaldo Lorenzo, Lucia Herrera, “Musical tastes of secondary school student’s with different cultural backgrounds: A study in the Spanish north African city of Melilla,” Musicae Scientae, no. 14 (2010): 121–141. 35 David J. Hargreaves, Adrian C. North, Mark Tarrant, “Musical preference and taste in childhood and adolescence,” in The child as musician: Musical development from conception to adolescence, ed. G.E. McPherson (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 135–154. Thomas A. Regelski, “Music appreciation as praxis,” Music Education Research, no. 8 (2006): 281–310. 36 Tarrant, North, Hargeaves, “English and American Adolescent’s Reasons for Listening to Music,” Psychology of Music, no. 28 (2000): 166–173. Kelly D. Schwartz, Gregory T. Fouts, “Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents,” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, no. 32 (2003): 205–213. 37 Adrian C. North, David J. Hargreaves, Susan A. O'Neill, “The importance of music to adolescents,” British Journal of Educational Psihology, no. 70 (2000): 255–272. Hasan G. Tekman, Nuran Hortaçsu, “Music and social identity: Stylistic identification as a response to musical style,” International Journal of Psychology, no. 37 (2002): 227–285. Schäfer, Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” 279–300. 38 Sotirios Bakagiannis, Mark Tarrant, “Can music bring people together? Effects of shared musical preference on intergroup bias in adolescence,” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, no. 47 (2006): 129–136. Peter J. Rentfrow, Samuel D. Gosling, “Message in a ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perceptions,” Psychological Science, no. 17 (2006): 236–242. 39 Saarikallio, Erkkila, “The role of music in adolesent’s mood reguletion,” Psychology of Music, no. 35 (2007): 88–109. Dave Miranda, Michel Claes, “Music listening, coping, peer affiliation and depresson in adolescence,” Psychology of Music, no. 37 (2009): 215–233. 40 Saarikallio, Erkkila, “The role of music in adolesent’s mood reguletion,” Psychology of Music, no. 35 (2007): 88–109. 41 Glenn Schellenberg, “Does exposure to music have beneficial side effects?” in The cognitive neuroscience of music, ed. I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003), 430–448. Schäfer, Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” 279–300.

201

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 201 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 mood, and the enjoyment of music itself.42 The results of our study confirm the above. While young people use music in various ways, contemporary studies have been con- firming that the functions of music make a considerable contribution to the formation and development of music preferences.43 As mentioned in the introduction, several authors44 also established family as an important factor influencing the development of a young person’s attitude towards music. The results of the present study confirmed that the interest of students in various musical genres is directly connected with genres the students listened to as children together with their parents. We need to bear in mind, that during the pre-school and primary school period, parents are one of the authorities that help shaping their children’s musical taste, as children mainly learn by observation and imitation of their role-models. Early childhood is very important for encouraging and preserving the interest not only in popular music, but also in musical works with aesthetic value, since positive musical experience in this period influence the development of the attitude towards musical culture at a later stage. It is true that musical socialisation or growing into musical culture is based on very complex relationships between the environment and personal possibilities. We will only be able to hope that music as art will be more appreciated by young people, when all the factors with decisive influence on youngsters’ musical preferences will encourage listening to music with the aim to enrich a young person’s emotional world, develop creativity, encourage differentness in thinking, understanding and problem solving, promote activities in other artistic areas and develop the sense of aesthetics and the right attitude towards music with artistic value. A long-term strategy for a more efficient culture and art education in Slovenia perhaps lies also in a more intense integration of cultural and artistic values in the family environment and in the entire educational system.

42 Tarrant, North, Hargeaves, “English and American Adolescent’s Reasons for Listening to Music,” 166–173. Peter J. Rentfrow, Samuel D. Gosling, “The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, no. 84 (2003): 1236–1256. Suvi Saarikallio, Jaakko Erkkila, “The role of music in adolesent’s mood reguletion,” Psychology of Music, no. 35 (2007): 88–109. Patrik N. Juslin and John A. Sloboda, eds., Handbook of music and emotion: Theory, research, application (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010). 43 Schäfer, Sedlmeier, “From the functions of music to music preference,” 279 – 300. Peter J. Rentfrow, Lewis R. Goldberg, Daniel J. Levitin, “The structure of musical preferences: A five-factor model,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, no. 100 (2011): 1139–1157. 44 Rosamund Shuter, The psychology of Musical Ability (London: Methuen, 1968). Elżbieta Szubertowska, “Education and Music culture of Polish adolescents,” Psychology of Music, no. 33/3 (2005): 317–330. Jessica Paterson, “Why choose music?” A study in parental motivation toward formal music learning and the cultural beliefs regarding its benefits (Sydney: Conservatorium of Music, University of Sydney, 2008). Ruth V. Brittin, “Young Listeners’ Music Style Preferences: Patterns Related to Cultural Identification and Language Use,” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 4 (2014): 415–430.

202

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 202 23.6.2016 9:58:42 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... Bibliography

Analysis of the situation in the field of music education. [Analiza stanja na področju glasbene umetnosti]. Accessed 15 November 2015, http://www.mk.gov.si/fileadmin/mk.gov.si/pageuploads/Ministrstvo/Zakonodaja/Analiza_stanja/03.pdf. Bakagiannis, Sotirios and Mark Tarrant. “Can music bring people together? Effects of shared musical preference on intergroup bias in adolescence.” Scandinavian Jour- nal of Psychology, no. 47 (2006):129–136. Brown, Robert A. “Music preferences and personality among Japanese university students.” International Journal of Psychology, no. 47/4 (2012): 259–268. Brittin, Ruth V. “Children’s preference for sequenced accompaniments: The influence of style and perceived tempo.” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 48 (2000): 237–248. Brittin, Ruth V. “Young Listeners’ Music Style Preferences: Patterns Related to Cultural Identification and Language Use.” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 4 (2014): 415–430. Bunič, Sara. Glasbeni okus in glasbene preference študentov ljubljanskih fakultet. Uni- verza v Ljubljani: Akademija za glasbo, 2013. Cass-Beggs, Barbara. “How music is first introduced.” Proceedings of the 19th World Conference of the International Society for Music Education in Helsinki. Helsinki: ISME, 1990, 4 –12. Cremades, Roberto, Oswaldo Lorenzo and Lucia Herrera. “Musical tastes of secondary school student’s with different cultural backgrounds: A study in the Spanish north African city of Melilla.” Musicae Scientae, no. 14 (2010): 121–141. Crowther, Paul. Defining art, creating the canon. Artistic value in an era of doubt. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2007. de la Motte- Haber, Helga. Psihologija glasbe. Ljubljana: DZS, 1990. Gordon, Edvin E. A Music Learning Theory for Newborn and Young Children. Chicago: GIA Publications, 1990. Geringer, John M. and Solis A. Guerra. “Preferences of 5th-grade children in Mexico and the United States for school and non-school music excerpts.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 153/154 (2002): 12–17. Gracyk, Theodore. Listening to popular music: Or how i learned to stop worrying and love Ledd Zeppelin. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Gril, Alenka, Melita Puklek Levpušček, Barbara Brečko and Mojca Štraus. Prosti čas mladih v Ljubljani: psihosocialna analiza potreb in možnosti za njihovo uresniče- nje. Končno poročilo raziskovalnega projekta. Ljubljana: Pedagoški inštitut, 2004. Hargreaves, David J., Adrian C. North and Mark Tarrant. “Musical preference and taste in childhood and adolescence.” The child as musician: Musical development from conception to adolescence. Edited by G.E. McPherson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, 135–154. Hus, Vlasta. “The integration of the subject environmental studies with other subjects: The teachers’ views.” Innovation and creativity in education, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, no. 2 (2010): 5078–5083.

203

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 203 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Juslin, Patrik N. and John A. Sloboda, editors. Handbook of music and emotion: Theory, research, application. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2010. LeBlanc, Albert. “An interactive theory of music preference.” Journal of Music Therapy, no. 19 (1982): 28–45. LeBlanc, Albert, Wendy L. Sims, Carolyn Siivola and Mary Obert. “Music style preferences of different age listeners.” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 44 (1996): 49–59. LeBlanc, Albert, Young C. Jin, Lelouda Stamou and Jan McCrary. “Effect of age, country, and gender on music listening preferences.” Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, no. 141 (1999): 72–79. Mehr, Samuel A. “Music in the Home: New Evidence for an Intergenerational Link.” Journal of Research in Music Education, no. 4 (2014): 1–11. Miranda, Dave and Michel Claes. “Music listening, coping, peer affiliation and depresson in adolescence.” Psychology of Music, no. 37 (2009): 215–233. Mulder, Juul, Tom F. TerBogt, Quinten A. W. Rašaijmakers, Saoirse N. Gabhainn and Paul Sikkema. “From death metal to R’n’B? Consistency of music preferences among Du- tch adolescents and young adults.” Psychology of Music no. 38 (2010): 67–83. North, Adrian C., David J. Hargreaves and Susan A. O'Neill. “The importance of music to adolescents.” British Journal of Educational Psihology, no. 70 (2000): 255–272. North, Adrian C. and David J. Hargreaves. The social and applied psychology of music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Paterson, Jessica. Why choose music? A study in parental motivation toward formal music learning and the cultural beliefs regarding its benefits. Sydney: Conservato- rium of Music, University of Sydney, 2008. Regelski, Thomas A. “Music appreciation as praxis.” Music Education Research, no. 8 (2006): 281–310. Reimer, Bennett. A philosophy of music education (Second Edition). New Yersey: Pren- tice Hall, 2002. Rentfrow, Peter J. and Samuel D. Gosling. “The do re mi’s of everyday life: The structure and personality correlates of music preferences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, no. 84 (2003): 1236–1256. Rentfrow, Peter J. and Samuel D. Gosling. “Message in a ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perceptions.” Psychological Science, no. 17 (2006): 236–242. Rentfrow, Peter. J., Lewis R. Goldberg and Daniel J. Levitin. “The structure oh musical preferences: A five-factor model.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, no. 100 (2011): 1139–1157. Russell, Philip A. “Musical taste and society.” In The social psychology of music. Edited by David J. Hargreaves and Adrian C. North. US, New York: Oxford University Press, 1997, 142–158. Saarikallio, Suvi and Jaakko Erkkilä. “The role of music in adolesent’s mood reguletion.” Psychology of Music, no. 35 (2007): 88–109. Schäfer, Thomas and Peter Sedlmeier. “From the functions of music to music preference.” Psychology of Music, no. 37 (2009): 279–300.

204

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 204 23.6.2016 9:58:42 B. SICHERL KAFOL, O. DENAC, J. ŽNIDARŠIČ • INTEREST OF ... Schäfer, Thomas and Peter Sedlmeier. “What makes us like music? Determinants of music preference.” Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, no. 4/4 (2010): 223–234. Schellenberg, Glenn. “Does exposure to music have beneficial side effects?” The cognitive neuroscience of music. Edited by I. Peretz and R. J. Zatorre. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2003, 430–448.. Schwartz, Kelly D. and Gregory T. Fouts. “Music preferences, personality style, and developmental issues of adolescents.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, no. 32 (2003): 205–213. Shuter, Rosamund. The psychology of Musical Ability. London: Methuen, 1968. Szubertowska, Elżbieta. “Education and Music culture of Polish adolescents.” Psycho- logy of Music, no. 33/3 (2005): 317–330. Tarrant, Mark, Adrian C. North and David J. Hargeaves. “English and American Ado- lescent’s Reasons for Listening to Music.” Psychology of Music, no. 28 (2000): 166–173. Tekman, Hasan G. and Nuran Hortaçsu. “Music and social identity: Stylistic identification as a response to musical style.” International Journal of Psychology, no. 37 (2002): 227–285. Temmerman, Nita. “School music experiences: how do they rate?” Research Studies in Music Education, no. 1 (1993): 59–65. Zimmerschied, Dieter. “V iskanju umetnosti za glasbeni pouk.” Glasba v šoli in vrtcu, 2007, no. 12 (3/4): 16–20.

POVZETEK nja zvrsti pri študentih. Izsledki tudi kažejo, da je med različnimi dejavniki, ki vplivajo na glasbene Interes mladostnikov za poslušanje različnih glas- preference mladostnikov, potrebno upoštevati benih zvrsti je odvisen od vrste dejavnikov: dru- tudi proces izobraževanja in izbiro študija, kar je žinskega okolja, vzgoje, vpliva medijev, vrstnikov potrebno še nadalje proučiti. in tudi osebnostnih značilnosti. Ugotavljamo, da je glasbena socializacija ali vpe- Cilj raziskave je bil proučiti, katere glasbene zvrsti tost v glasbeno kulturo pogojena s kompleksnimi so med slovenskimi mladostniki priljubljene, kateri odnosi med okoljem in osebnostnimi zmožnostmi. so razlogi za poslušanje priljubljenih zvrsti in katere Da bo kakovostna glasba pri mladostnikih pridobila zvrsti glasbe so v otroštvu poslušali skupaj s starši. na veljavi, lahko upamo le, če bodo vsi dejavniki, Raziskava je vključevala 552 študentov predšol- ki odločilno vplivajo na glasbene preference, ske vzgoje in razrednega pouka, družboslovja in mlade spodbujali k poslušanju z namenom, da se naravoslovja s treh univerz v Sloveniji. Rezultati so obogati njihov čustveni svet, razvija ustvarjalnost, pokazali, da so med mladostniki najbolj priljubljene spodbuja različnost v mišljenju, razumevanju in zvrsti pop, rock, RnB in narodno-zabavna glasba. reševanju problemov, podpira dejavnosti na drugih Statistično pomembne razlike so se pokazale v umetnostnih področjih in razvija čut za estetiko ter povezavi z izbranim študijskim programom. Razli- pravilen odnos do glasbe z umetniško vrednostjo. ke so bile značilne za glasbene zvrsti kot so rock, Dolgoročna strategija za bolj učinkovito kulturno metal, techno/house, punk in ljudska glasba. Večina in umetnostno vzgojo v Sloveniji bi morda morala študentov, vključenih v raziskavo, je v otroštvu s stremeti tudi k intenzivnejšemu vključevanju kul- starši poslušala narodno-zabavno glasbo in pop. turnih in umetnostnih vrednot v družinsko okolje Rezultati potrjujejo vpliv poslušanja glasbenih zvrsti in v celoten vzgojno-izobraževalni sistem. v otroštvu skupaj s starši na priljubljenost posluša-

205

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 205 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 206 23.6.2016 9:58:42 N. CIGOJ KRSTULOVIĆ • ZGODOVINA, SPOMIN, DEDIŠČINA ... Recenzije • Reviews

Nataša Cigoj Krstulović

Zgodovina, spomin, dediščina: Ljubljanska Glasbena matica do konca druge svetovne vojne

Nataša Cigoj Krstulović. Zgodovina, spomin, dediščina: Ljubljanska Glasbena matica do konca druge svetovne vojne. Ljubljana: Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2015. 342 str. 25 €. ISBN: 9789612548056.

Ob izidu nove znanstvene monografije o delovanju Glasbene matice v Ljubljani do leta 1945 bi se lahko površni opazovalec slovenske glasbenozgodovinske literature vprašal: čemu še eno znanstveno delo na to temo? Osrednje nacionalno slovensko opredel- jeno glasbeno društvo je bilo do danes deležno vrste opazovanj. Mnoga so se dotak- nila le določenih segmentov njenega razvejanega delovanja, druga so se posvetila le zamejenim, največkrat za njeno zgodovinsko vlogo najbolj značilnim obdobjem. Že pri Dragotinu Cvetku predstavlja opazovanje delovanja Glasbene matice precejšen del 19. stoletju posvečenega tretjega zvezka Zgodovine glasbene umetnosti na Slovenskem (Ljubljana, 1960). Kasneje se je ključnih let njenega delovanja dotaknil Primož Kuret v Glasbeni Ljubljani (Ljubljana, 1985) in 100 let Slovenske filharmonije (Ljubljana, 2008). Vsaj dve ključni področji društvenega delovanja sta zaposlovali Cveta Budkoviča. De- lovanje šole Glasbene matice je osrednja tema njegove monografije v dveh zvezkih Razvoj glasbenega šolstva na Slovenskem (Ljubljana, 1992 in 1995), v Sto let pevskega zbora Glasbene matice (Ljubljana, 1992) pa se je posvetil predstavitvi delovanja pevskega zbora, ki je bilo za starejše zgodovinopisje še vedno osrednji prispevek društva k slovenski glasbeni kulturi. Med publikacijami, ki so pomembno osvetlile delovanje drugih, morda nekoliko zanemarjenih področij delovanja Glasbene matice, velja omeniti vsaj Bibliografijo založbe Glasbene matice v Ljubljani Zorana Krstulovića (Ljubljana, 1996). Ob navedenih delih je izšla še kopica znanstvenih člankov, prispevkov na konferencah in univerzitetnih nalog, ki je zaradi prostora ne moremo podrobneje prikazati, a je pomembno zaznamovala naše vedenje in razumevanje društvenega delovanja. Kaj nam torej nova monografija prinaša novega? Najprej izstopa iz dosedanje produkcije po svoji celovitosti in uravnoteženosti. V večini dosedanjih znanstvenih opazovanj je bila pozornost usmerjena le na eno od društvenih dejavnosti (zbor, šola, založba itn.). Nataša Cigoj Krstulović pa je uspela v svoji monografiji prikazati delovanje vseh,

207

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 207 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 tudi do sedaj nekoliko zanemarjenih področij društvenega delovanja (npr. Koncertna poslovalnica ali Folklorni inštitut). Vzporedni razvoj vseh dejavnosti je znala preplesti v izredno posrečeno, zaradi neizvedljivosti in ne nespretnosti le mestoma nacefrano nit. Pripoved je členjena v smiselno razmejena obdobja, znotraj katerih pred nami v doslej nepoznani celovitosti zaživi delovanje društva, soodvisnost in včasih tudi protislovnost njegovih raznolikih dejavnosti, pa tudi njihova vpetost v sodobno slovensko kulturno in politično življenje. Druga novost je bistveno širši nabor arhivskih virov, na katerih temelji avtoričina predstavitev zgodovinskega dogajanja. Večina dosedanjih opazovalcev se je srečevala s pomembnimi omejitvami pri dostopu do različnega gradiva, povezanega z delovanjem Glasbene matice. Šele po dokončanih procesih denacionalizacije in ponovni vzposta- vitvi polnega delovanja društva v zadnjih letih je bilo mogoče zopet zbrati in ustrezno urediti gradivo, ki je bilo več desetletij razpršeno po javnih in zasebnih zbirkah ter skladiščih. Monografija zato odpravlja marsikatero zmoto, ki je zaradi desetletja trajajo- čega prepisovanja iz enega v drugo avtoritativno znanstveno besedilo zaživela lastno življenje in obveljala kot dejstvo. Zadnja in ne najmanj pomembna novost pa je senzibilnost, s katero se avtorica loteva opazovanja obdobja, v katerem se je razplamtel vihar nacionalnih in ideoloških nasprotij. Pri tem se večinoma spretno izogiba čerem zgodovinskega moraliziranja in postavljanja eksplicitnih ali – morda še bolj nevarnih – implicitnih sodb o tem, kdo ima prav, ali kdo so »naši« in kdo so »drugi«. Razmah slovenskega glasbenega nacionalizma opazuje kot del širšega zgodovinskega dogajanja, brez do sedaj običajnega navijaštva. Zanima jo predvsem njegov prispevek k oblikovanju slovenske kulturne krajine 20. stoletja, ki pa jo razume kot sintezo prizadevanj in dosežkov vseh deležnikov, ki so jo sooblikovali. S tem se umešča med prva slovenska glasbenozgodovinska dela, ki so se vsaj poskušala oddaljiti od predmodernističnega razumevanja pojma nacije in dogme o vrojenosti nacionalne pripadnosti. Podobno – a morda v nekoliko manjši meri – velja za ideološko pogojene konflikte Glasbene matice s komunistično oblastjo. Tu morda skozi njeno pisanje v nekoliko večji meri presevajo uporabljeni viri – predvsem spo- minski zapisi V. Ravnikarja – v katerih se zrcali groza ob razpadanju še zadnjih ostan- kov evropske kulturne stvarnosti. Vsekakor je Nataša Cigoj Krstulović predstavila monografijo, ki bo ključen in neizbežen pripomoček vsakomur, ki se bo ukvarjal z zgodovino glasbenega življenja na Slovenskem ob koncu 19. in v prvi polovici 20. stoletja. V njej bo našel celovit, zane- sljiv in predvsem v idejnih izhodiščih sodoben pregled vedenja o delovanju osrednje glasbene ustanove na Slovenskem v tem obdobju.

Aleš Nagode, Filozofska fakulteta, Univerza v Ljubljani

208

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 208 23.6.2016 9:58:42 N. CIGOJ KRSTULOVIĆ • ZGODOVINA, SPOMIN, DEDIŠČINA ... Nataša Cigoj Krstulović

History, Remembrance, Heritage: The Glasbena matica Ljubljana Music Society up to the End of the Second World War

Nataša Cigoj Krstulović. Zgodovina, spomin, dediščina: Ljubljanska Glasbena matica do konca druge svetovne vojne. 342 pp. (Ljubljana, Založba ZRC, ZRC SAZU, 2015. € 25. ISBN 978-961-254-805-6.)

At the publication of a new scientific monograph on the activities of the Glasbena matica music society in Ljubljana up to 1945, an inattentive observer of Slovenian musical-historical literature might wonder: why another scientific work on this topic? The central national, Slovenian-declared music society has to this day been the subject of numerous observations. Many of them have touched on specific segments of its diverse activities, while others have focused solely on narrower periods that are most characteristic of its historical role. Dragotin Cvetko’s observations of the Glasbena matica’s activities already comprise a considerable part of the third volume of his History of Music in Slovenia (Ljubljana, 1960), dedicated to the 19th century. Later on, Primož Kuret focused on the key years of its activities in Musical Ljubljana (Ljubljana, 1985) and in 100 Years of the Slovenian Philharmonic (Ljubljana, 2008). Cveto Budkovič occupied himself with at least two key areas of the society’s activities. The work of the Glasbena matica’s music school is the central theme of his monograph in two vol- umes, entitled the Development of Musical Education in Slovenia (Ljubljana, 1992 and 1995), whereas in One Hundred Years of the Glasbena matica Choir (Ljubljana, 1992) he chronicles the activities of its choir, which, for older historiography, still represents the society’s principal contribution to Slovenian music culture. Among the publications that highlighted the activities of other, perhaps slightly neglected areas of the society’s activities, mention should at least be made of the Bibliography of the Glasbena matica publishing house in Ljubljana by Zoran Krstulović (Ljubljana, 1996). Also published alongside the mentioned works were a multitude of scientific papers, contributions at conferences and university theses which, owing to lack of space, cannot be presented in more detail despite having significantly contributed to our knowledge and understanding of the society’s activities. So does the new monograph bring anything new? First of all, it stands out from the previous products by its wholeness and balance. In the majority of previous scientific

209

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 209 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 observations, attention was focused on a single segment of the society’s activities (choir, school, publishing house, etc.). This time, Nataša Cigoj Krstulović has portrayed in her monograph the functioning of all the society’s areas of activity, including those that had been somewhat neglected in the past (e.g., the Concert Management or the Folklore In- stitute). She has managed to interweave the parallel development of all activities into an extremely auspicious thread that is frayed in very few places, primarily due to impracti- cability and not awkwardness. The text is divided into meaningfully separated periods, within the scope of which the society’s activities, co-dependence and sometimes even the contradictoriness of its various activities, as well as their inclusion in modern Slovenian cultural and political life, all come alive before us in a previously unknown wholeness. The second novelty is a considerably broader selection of archival sources on which the author’s presentation of historical events is based. In the past, most observers met with major restrictions when accessing various materials related to the activities of the Glasbena matica music society. Only after the completion of property restitution procedures and the re-establishment of the society’s full operation in past years has it been possible to repeatedly collect and arrange its materials, which had been dispersed for several decades among public and private collections and storages. The monograph has thus eliminated many an error which, owing to decades-long rewriting from one authori- tative scientific text to another, had lived a life of its own and was accepted as a fact. The last and not least important novelty is the sensitivity with which the author takes when observing the periods that saw a surging storm of national and ideological conflicts. For the most part she adeptly avoids the hazards of historical moralizing and making explicit or – perhaps even more dangerous – implicit judgments about who is right or who is “for us” and who is “against us”. She looks on the flourishing of Slovenian musical nationalism as part of broader historical happenings, without the previously customary rooting. She is primarily interested in its contribution to the shaping of the Slovenian cultural landscape of the 20th century, which she perceives as a synthesis of endeavours and achievements of all stakeholders who co-shaped it. This ranks the monograph among the first Slovenian musical-historical works that have at least attempted to distance themselves from the pre-modernist understanding of the concept of nation and the dogma of the innateness of national allegiance. The same applies – but perhaps to a slightly smaller extent – for the ideologically conditioned conflicts of the Glasbena matica music society with the communist authorities. Here, the sources used might shine more brightly through her writing – particularly the reminiscences of V. Ravnikar –, re- flecting horror at the disintegration of the last remains of European cultural reality. Nataša Cigoj Krstulović has by all means presented us with a monograph that will serve as a crucial and indispensable tool to all those engaged in the history of musical life in Slovenia at the end of the 19th and first half of the 20 centuries. It will provide comprehensive, reliable and contemporary insight – particularly in its conceptual baselines – into the activities of the central music institution in Slovenia in this period.

Aleš Nagode, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Translated by Suzana Stančič

210

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 210 23.6.2016 9:58:42 M. BARBO • POMEN V GLASBI IN GLASBA V POMENU Matjaž Barbo

Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu

Matjaž Barbo. Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu. Razprave FF. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2015. 138 str. 14,90 €. ISBN: 9789612377748.

Bralec, ki bo zaprl zadnjo stran nove knjige Matjaža Barba, bo nedvomno poln raz- novrstnih vtisov, predstav, misli, domnev. Prebrana vsebina ga bo silila, da svoje vtise in misli uredi in da se dokoplje do nekih zaključkov, čeprav ti ne bi imeli oblike strogo izpeljanih spoznanj. Če retrospektivno premislimo, o čem govore poglavja knjige, opazimo razločen vsebinski lok: Prvo poglavje razpravlja o fenomenu glasbenega dogodka kot družbenega dogodka v sodobnem svetu; drugo o središčni točki glasbenega dogodka, ki je določeni zvočni dogodek, in sicer tiste vrste, ki se vsesplošno razume kot glasba. Glasba (kot zvočni dogodek) nedvomno obstoji, vendar je kot vse drugo na voljo različnemu razlaganju. Temu, kako se zvočni dogodki interpretirajo, je posvečeno tretje poglavje. Četrto poglavje lahko razumemo kot poskus, videti spreminjajočo se in različno razumljeno glasbo na ozadju nečesa dokončnega. In zadnje poglavje nas privede do sinteze, ki je z zaključnim odstavkom protiutež tistemu, kar smo prebrali na začetku. Vse obravnavano so standardna glasbenoestetska vprašanja, kar pomeni, da se knjiga umešča v estetiko glasbe. Oglejmo si podrobneje posamezna poglavja. Prvo je uperjeno proti iluziji, da poteka glasbeni dogodek zgolj premočrtno in enosmerno na relaciji med izvajano glasbo (oz. izvajalcem) in poslušalcem. Nasprotno temu avtor nazorno kaže, kako glasbeni dogodek oblikuje vrsta drugih dejavnikov. Poslušalec je med drugim dovzeten za re- nome umetnika, za njegov zunanji izgled, za ceno koncerta, za vzdušje v dvorani; nanj vpliva tudi to, s katerega sedeža prisostvuje glasbenemu dogodku itd. Dejavniki, ki vplivajo na poslušalca, se množe v neskončnost; in v neskončnost se množe tudi v drugem kolenu, saj se enako lahko razmišlja tudi o tem, kateri so bili dejavniki, ki so izvajalcu narekovali tak in ne drugačen zunanji videz ipd. Dejavnikov je toliko, da se sam zvočni dogodek v njih skoraj povsem utopi. Dvoje implicitno prisotnih misli lahko izvedemo iz vsebine prvega poglavja: (1) Vidik, s katerega se opazuje glasbeno dogajanje, ne omogoča razlikovanja med različnimi glasbenimi zvrstmi; vse povedano je enako veljavno za koncert z Beethovnovo simfonijo ali pa za nastop glasbene skupine, ki izvaja popularno glasbo. (2) Bralec se sprašuje, kdo je logični subjekt vsega opisa- nega dogajanja; kdo je tisti, na katerega vse našteto deluje. Implicitni odgovor je, da so to prav vsi brez izjeme. A če se nadalje vprašamo po vlogi, ki jo imajo udeleženci glasbenih dogodkov, lahko razberemo, da so povsem pasivni: so zgolj objekt, na katerega deluje vse navedeno, tako cena koncerta kot izgled umetnika itd. Sami očitno nimajo nobene volje in nobenega hotenja (in so nemočni pred spletom vseh mogočih

211

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 211 23.6.2016 9:58:42 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 sestavin glasbenega dogodka). Glasbeni svet, kot ga slika prvo poglavje, ne predvideva nikogar, ki bi aktivno kaj izrecno hotel, pa čeprav le kot negibno sedeči poslušalec. Drugo poglavje se posveča fenomenu tiste zvočnosti, okoli katere se spleta mreža dejavnikov, opisana v prvem poglavju. Ta zvočnost, ki jo udeleženci glasbenega dogodka razumejo kot glasbo, očitno obstoji. Poglavje je interpretacija zgodovine glasbe s stališča vprašanja glasbenega dela; prikazati poskuša, kako se je glasba postopoma vzpostavljala kot množica določnih in dokončno oblikovanih glasbenih del, kompozicij. Zamisel glasbe kot dokončno oblikovanih skladateljskih del se je v 20. stol. gotovo relativizirala; vendar to ne pomeni, da zvočni dogodki (četudi ne kot reprodukcije do- končnih glasbenih del) ne bi bili predmet trgovine. Od tod avtor izpeljuje spoznanje, da je glasba v rokah kapitala; pasivni poslušalci iz prvega poglavja so tako le objekt dogajanja v svetu kapitala in njegovih ideologij, v svetu, ki očitno odloča tudi o estetskem doživljanju novodobnega posameznika. Ali nam avtor nakazuje kakšen izhod iz te pesimistične slike glasbenega sveta? Mor- da. Naslednje poglavje govori o interpretaciji glasbe oz. glasbenih del, o katerih je raz- pravljalo prejšnje poglavje. Posreduje pregled različnih teorij in pogledov na vprašanje razumevanja glasbe, pri čemer je poudarjena danes vse bolj prevladujoča misel, da glasbena zgodovina ne more biti le zgodovina v obliki glasbenega zapisa fiksiranih glasbenih del, pač pa tudi zgodovina njihovega razumevanja (bodisi glasbenega inter- pretiranja, se pravi izvajanja, bodisi miselne refleksije o njih). Zdi se, da avtor verjame, da so posamezne interpretacije postopno razkrivanje vsebine glasbenega dela in da so tako skrito prisotne že v skladateljevem delu samem. To pomeni, da šele številne raz- lične izvedbe kažejo, kaj pravzaprav je dana kompozicija, zaradi česar se je še zlasti potrebno usmeriti na glasbo (in njeno zgodovino) kot dejansko glasbeno zvočnost. Avtor lepo in prepričljivo opiše, kako inspirirani dirigent skupaj s poslušalci sproti spontano in ustvarjalno oblikuje interpretacijo, s tem pa tudi celotni glasbeni dogodek. (Poslušal- ci kot udeleženci tega dogodka se nedvomno močno razlikujejo od pasivnega objekta iz prvega poglavja.) Kot je razvidno že iz naslova naslednjega poglavja, ki omenja neskončno, skuša poglavje premeriti ali postaviti glasbo na ozadju nečesa dokončnega. V tem smislu prikazuje, kako je zahodnoevropsko koncertno življenje v določenem obdobju prevzelo vlogo religije kot tiste danosti, ki omogoča človeku zavest o obstoju nečesa, kar ta svet presega in česar na svetu ni. Avtor je pri iskanju povezav med glasbo in transcendent- nim previden. »Morda« je razpravljanje o glasbi, tako raznoliko in pogosto tudi naspro- tujoče si, znak, da je glasba še nekaj več, kot si znamo in zmoremo predstavljati. Če lahko zaključni odstavek zadnjega poglavja knjige razumemo kot njen sklep, končno točko, do katere je privedlo razpravljanje, je v njem vendarle slutiti dopolnitev pesimistične slike prvega poglavja. Avtor zavzame še vedno najvarnejši sredinski položaj: glasbeni dogodek resda oblikuje vrsta dejavnikov, ki se jim ne da uiti, vendar pa ni mogoče zanikati, da je tu prisoten tudi umetnik (bodisi eden bodisi skupina) in da njegovi poslušalci s tem, ko mu sledijo, aktivno vstopajo v njegov ustvarjalni svet. Knjiga gotovo ni lahko branje. Splošni problem glasbenoestetskega razpravljanja je, da pojmovno večinoma ni eksaktno. Koncepti glasbene estetike so izpeljani iz izkušnje posameznika ali posameznikov kot predstavnikov določenih razpravljavskih skupin

212

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 212 23.6.2016 9:58:42 M. BARBO • POMEN V GLASBI IN GLASBA V POMENU in usmeritev; taki niso niti splošno razumljivi niti splošno preverljivi, in tako tudi ne morejo biti medsebojno razvidno razmejeni in usklajeni. Kar vidi ta razpravljavec tako, vidi drugi podobno ali pa tudi že čisto drugače; kar ta poimenuje tako, poimenuje drugi malo ali povsem drugače; termin, ki nekomu pomeni eno, se uporablja drugje v drugem pomenu itd. Knjiga M. Barba je polna aluzij na številna mesta iz stare in nove glasbenoestetske literature, navedkov ali povzetkov. Od bralca se pričakuje, da so mu domači konteksti, v katerih so posamezne misli, koncepti, termini nastali, in da to pri branju ustrezno upošteva. Samo v tem primeru lahko suvereno in kritično sledi razpravnemu toku knjige. V nasprotnem primeru se lahko kaj hitro znajde v pojmovni gošči, iz katere ni izhoda. Morda smisel knjige ni v tem, da bi iskala in zagovarjala svoje videnje obravnavane tematike, pač pa v tem, da se v njej duhovito in igrivo kombinirajo, spletajo, interpretirajo in protipostavljajo različne glasbenoestetske misli in da se prav s tem kaže resnič- no naravo temeljnih vprašanj o glasbi. Nedvomno je to ena od njenih odlik, ki pa jo bo lahko videl le v glasbeni estetiki razgledani bralec. Kljub temu knjiga gotovo vzpodbuja bralca k iskanju lastnih odgovorov na estetska vprašanja o glasbi in tudi pričujoči zapis ni nastal zato, da bi na hitro informiral o vsebini nove knjige, pač pa zato, da bi bralca (tega zapisa) vzpodbudil, da knjigo po svoje prebere sam in da sam stopi v njen refe- renčni kontekst. Zgodovina glasbene estetike je predvsem zgodovina stalno razvijajoče se filozofske misli o glasbi. V tem smislu nobena glasbena estetika ne daje dokončnih odgovorov, čeravno jih razločno formulira. (Kot zgodovina misli o glasbi se glasbena estetika vključuje v glasbeno zgodovino, kot jo pojmuje tretje poglavje knjige.) Posamezne glasbenoestetske razprave ali monografije so tako predvsem točke ali postaje v sklopu širšega razvoja, značilne za svoj čas in prostor. To velja tudi za estetiko glasbe M. Barba. Pohvalno je, da je nastala; s svojo bogato vsebino in načinom razpravljanja se uvršča med pomembna humanistična besedila v slovenskem jeziku in predstavlja razločno točko v razvoju avtorjeve misli o glasbi.

Jurij Snoj, Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti, Muzikološki inštitut

213

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 213 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Matjaž Barbo

Meaning in Music and Music in Meaning

Matjaž Barbo. Pomen v glasbi in glasba v pomenu. [Meaning in Music and Music in Meaning.] Razprave FF. Ljubljana: Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete, 2015. 138 pgs. € 14.90. ISBN: 9789612377748.

Although it is not expressed in the title, this new book by professor Matjaž Barbo deals with the aesthetics of music; its chapters discuss classical topics of musical aesthetics, emphasizing to some extent issues that have dominated recent philosophical discourse on music. There is a certain logic in the succession of the subjects discussed: The first chapter focuses on the phenomenon of the musical event (concert performance, radio broadcast, internet publication etc.) in the modern globally oriented world. The second concentrates on the acoustic component of the musical event, i.e. on music itself. The music (as acoustic event) no doubt exists, yet can be interpreted and experienced in an array of different ways, which are discussed in the third chapter of the book. The fourth chapter could be understood as an attempt to assess the elusive contents of music against the background of something more solid and definite, and the last leads up to a synthesis that might be seen as a counterbalance to what we read at the beginning of the book. Upon closing the last page, the reader might be somehow bewildered by the multitude of concepts, thoughts, conjectures, allusions, and not quite sure as to the objective of the book. Let us take a closer look at its chapters. The first disputes the illusion that in a musical event the communication proceeds just in a one-way direction from the performer to the listener, and independently of other circumstances. The author shows that there is a host of factors that influence a participant’s experience: the reputation of the artist, their appearance, the price of the ticket, the atmosphere in the concert hall, the location of the listener’s seat, etc. Factors of this kind proceed into the infinite (especially taking into account that any one of them is in turn dependent on a similarly large array of factors), and among them music nearly loses its relevance. Two ideas, expressed implicitly, may be discerned in the discussion of the musical event: (i) The aspect from which the musical event is analysed does not allow differentiation among various genres of music; the observations expressed are obviously equally valid for a performance of a Beethoven symphony and for a concert of a popular group. (ii) The reader might ask, who is the logical subject of all the happenings described, who are the people that are subject to all the mentioned (and unmentioned) influences? The obvious answer is that they affect everybody without exception. If one further asks what is the role or function of the participants (listeners) of a musical event, it becomes

214

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 214 23.6.2016 9:58:43 M. BARBO • POMEN V GLASBI IN GLASBA V POMENU clear that they do not have any will or intention; they are just passive and powerless objects that the numerous influences work upon. In the first chapter there is no room for an active listener, for somebody with a specific will or aspiration (albeit following the performance as a motionless listener). The second chapter is dedicated to music as a central point around which the web of factors, described in the first chapter, is being woven. The chapter is a kind of interpretation of the history of music from the viewpoint of the concept of musical work. It shows how in history, music gradually began to be understood and practiced in terms of clearly defined and fixed (notated) musical works, i.e. compositions. In the 20th century the notion of music as musical works began to lose its absolute credibility. But quite irrespective of its ontological status, music gradually assumed the role of merchandise that can be traded and brings profit. From this observation the author develops the idea that in the contemporary world music follows the laws of capital and conforms to the corresponding ideologies. The passive listeners from the first chapter are thus subject to the laws of capital, which consequently control and direct their aesthetic experience. Does the author show any exit from this pessimistic picture of the modern world? Maybe. Let us continue investigating the contents of the book. The third chapter discusses musical interpretation, i.e. the interpretation of musical works (the subject of the second chapter). It gives an overview of various theories concerning the understanding of music, and stresses that nowadays the more and more clearly pronounced opinion exists that the history of music cannot be limited to the examination of fixed (notated) musical works but must encompass also the history of musical criticism and the history of musical performance. The author appears to believe that through various musical interpretations (performances) the meaning of a musical work is gradually being revealed. This would imply that interpretations of a musical work, different as they might be, must have been somehow present already in the composer’s conception of the work, and that it is through various interpretations that the true contents of a musical work may be discovered. (This is one of the reasons why the history of music must encompass interpretation as well.) The author neatly and persuasively describes an inspired conductor who, supported tacitly by his audience, spontaneously creates an original new interpretation, producing thus an artistically persuasive musical event. (The listeners of this musical event are miles away from the passive objects described in the first chapter.) As can be seen from the title mentioning the infinite, the fourth chapter attempts to assess music against the background of something final and ultimate. In this sense it firstly describes how in a certain historic period music assumed the role of religion as something that evokes the presence of transcendence. In searching for connections between music and transcendence the author shows due caution: The reflection on music, variegated and controversial as it is, “may be” a sign that in music there is something that transcends the limits of human apprehension. If one is allowed to regard the last paragraph of the last chapter as a conclusion to the book – the final point that the whole discourse led to – it may be understood as an adjustment of the pessimistic picture described in the first chapter. The author

215

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 215 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 assumes a moderate and secure median position: It is true that any musical event is made up of a multitude of various factors (described in the first chapter) which it is impossible to escape; yet it would be unreasonable to deny that there is also a musical work; by following it listeners enter the area of art and take part in the event that should be regarded as musical in the first place. The book is not easy reading. Many concepts of the aesthetics of music derive from aesthetic experience. As such they cannot be proved; they are not always exact and neither can they be strictly delimited. Something that is perceived by one author in this way may be seen by another slightly differently; an expression that this author uses in this way and in this context may have in another context a different meaning. Professor Barbo’s book abounds in allusions, implications, quotations and references to many places from aesthetic literature, old and new. The author takes for granted that readers know the contexts in which particular expressions and concepts were being used, and that they pay due regard to their original meaning. It is only in this case that they can competently and critically follow the narrative of the text. Otherwise they may be lost in a jungle of misconceptions and misunderstandings. Yet the objective of the book is not just exposition of the author’s thought; it is also a witty and playful compilation of various topics from the aesthetic literature, which combine in various juxtapositions, reinterpretations and amalgamations. This is no doubt one of the book’s merits, yet will be appreciated only by those acquainted with the aesthetic literature. Rather than provide succinct information – which is sometimes scarcely possible due to the mentioned nature of the text – this review therefore rec- ommends study of the book. It is a stimulating reading that may encourage readers to formulate their own opinions and stances. The history of the aesthetics of music is the history of a constantly developing philosophical reflexion on music. In this sense no musical aesthetics gives final answers, although it may formulate them as such. Articles and monographs discussing aesthetic issues are thus just particular points in a broader development, characteristic for their time and place. This applies also for the new book of professor Barbo. The fact that it came into being must be appreciated highly. The book’s rich contents and the way these are discussed make this one of the most important Slovenian texts from the field of the humanities; at the same time it represents a certain point in the development of the aesthetic thought of its author.

Jurij Snoj, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Institute of Musicology

216

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 216 23.6.2016 9:58:43 S. PETTAN, J. T. TITON • THE OXFORD HANDBOOK ... Svanibor Pettan in Jeff Todd Titon, urednika

The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology

The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology. Uredila Svanibor Pettan in Jeff Todd Titon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 864 str. 97 £. ISBN: 9780199351701.

V juliju 2015 je založba Oxford University Press izdala obsežno knjigo z naslovom The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology (Oxfordov priročnik aplikativne muzikologije), ki sta jo uredila dva ugledna etnomuzikologa, Svanibor Pet- tan in Jeff Todd Titon. Knjiga je impresivna zbirka različnih pristopov v aplikativni etnomuzikologiji, ki so jih razvili s kombinacijo etnografskega raziskovanja (osebnih izkušenj in terenskega dela v različnih delih sveta) in sodobne znanosti. Knjiga obsega uvod in dvaindvajset poglavij, razdeljenih v šest tematskih delov. Začetni del, Uvod v aplikativno etnomuzikologijo, vsebuje uvod in tri podrobnejša poglavja izpod peres urednikov: Aplikativna etnomuzikologija: opisna in historična pripoved avtorja Jeffa Todda Titona podaja pomemben pregled zgodovinskega razvoja etnomuzikologije, predvsem aplikativne etnomuzikologije v Ameriki, medtem ko Aplikativna etnomuzikologija v globalni areni avtorja Svaniborja Pettana oriše zgodovinski razvoj etnomuzikologije v Evropi s poudarkom na vlogi Mednarodnega sveta za tradicionalno glasbo (ICTM) kot najpomembnejšega mednarodnega etnomuzikološkega združenja pri oblikovanju različnih pristopov v aplikativni etnomuzikologiji. Na podlagi lastnih izkušenj Pettan poda dragoceno opredelitev aplikativne etnomuzikologije, ki je pod- krepljena s posebno zanimivimi pogledi petih etnomuzikologov iz Afrike, Avstralije, Azije, Evrope in Južne Amerike o morebitni vlogi etnomuzikologije v izobraževanju. Protiutež izčrpnemu uvodnemu delu so bolj specifične tematske struje v delih, ki obravnavajo teoretske in metodološke premisleke, zagovorništvo, domorodna ljudstva, konflikte, izobraževanje in agencije. Več avtorjev preučuje pristope k aplikativni etnomuzikologiji v kontekstu pomembnih vprašanj o kolonialni zgodovini in pogledih. Dan Bendrups, Klisala Harrison, Tan Sooi Beng, Zoe C. Sherinian, Elizabeth Mackinlay, Joshua D. Pilzer in John Morgan O’Connell opozarjajo bralca na različne kontekste in pristope, ki so pomembni za postkolonialne analize – naloge, ki zahtevajo posebno občutljivost s strani raziskovalcev (str. 56–57). Tako na primer O’Connell razvije zanimiv hermenevtični pristop do glasbene vzgoje s preučevanjem povezav med glasbo in ljudmi, ki izvira iz humanističnega izobraževalnega programa fundacije Aga Khan. V poglavju Kulturno udejstvovanje in lastništvo s pomočjo participativnih pristopov v aplikativni etnomuzikologiji avtorica Tan Sooi Beng temeljito preučuje načela opazovanja, ki so se pojavila s takoimenovanim »gledališčem za razvoj« v Aziji (str. 111), in razmišlja, kako bi lahko tovrstne pristope prepoznali na določenih področjih

217

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 217 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 aplikativne etnomuzikologije, na primer pri organizaciji vsakoletnega praznovanja ljudskega izročila v mestu George Town (v malezijski zvezni državi Penang) od leta 2010 naprej, katerega osrednji cilj je bila obuditev multietične zgodovine in pobud za vzpostavitev miru. Politični podtoni se nadaljujejo v poglavjih avtorjev Zhanga Boyuja in Britte Sweers. Boyu ponuja dobrodošle poglede na aplikativno etnomuzikologijo na Kitajskem in s pomočjo analize kulturne politike na vseh ravneh vladnih struktur pokaže, kako ta vpliva na značilnosti aplikativne etnomuzikologije v državi. Nasprotno pa se Sweers v svojem poglavju Glasba in reševanje sporov osredotoči na tri različne študije primerov v Nemčiji in Švici (takoimenovana »akcijska etnomuzikologija«), ki dajejo pomemben vpogled v migracijo in aktualna vprašanja o funkciji in javnem predstavljanju manjšin v sodobnem svetu. Omenjene pristope izravna poglavje avtorja Dana Lundberga, ki poudarja pomen arhivskega gradiva, zbranega izven akadem- skih krogov, in neposredni stik s skupnostjo kot tudi vlogo Komisije za ljudsko glasbo (FMC) pri zbiranju in ocenjevanju različnih glasbenih oblik. Po Lundbergovem mnenju je FMC »ustvarila jasen in razločen repertoar za bodoče generacije – kanon za švedsko ljudsko glasbo« (str. 700), ki ga opisuje kot proces v štirih korakih: identifikacija, klasifi- kacija, standardizacija in simbolizacija kulturne dediščine. Ta knjiga prav tako združuje vodilne ameriške učenjake, ki nudijo nove poglede na vrsto pomembnih tem. Jeff Todd Titon na primer v svojem poglavju Vzdržnost, odpornost in prilagodljivo upravljanje za aplikativno etnomuzikologijo obravnava vlogo etnomuzikologov pri ohranjanju narave, kulture in glasbe v Severni Ameriki. Jef- frey A. Summit črpa iz osebnih izkušenj v Ugandi, da bi pokazal, kako lahko dejavnosti etnomuzikologov sprožijo pobude za izgradnjo miru in medverski dialog (s ponazoritvijo gospodarskega sodelovanja med pridelovalci kave). Alan Williams proučuje, kako lahko aplikativna etnomuzikologija pomaga pri ustvarjanju družbenega in gospodarskega kapitala v nerazvitih skupnostih: njegovo poglavje preučuje, kako se tehnologi- ja, mediji in trženje križajo, da bi ustvarili kulturni prostor, ki bi lahko spreminjal glasbene prakse v glasbene produkte (str. 772). Holly Wissler poizveduje o sodobnih izzivih turizma in preučuje projekte ohranjanja narave, ki so jih v odgovor na tovrstne izzive pripravile skupnosti andskih Q’erosov in amazonskih Wachiperijev, medtem ko Michael B. Bakan predlaga etnografske in relativistične pristope aplikativne etnomuzikologije kot alternativo obstoječim družbenim in zdravstvenim modelom pri obravnavi avtističnih oseb. Susan E. Oehler Herrick raziskuje strategije za uspešno inte- gracijo aplikativne etnomuzikologije v osnovne in srednje šole (preko partnerstev z izobraževalnimi ustanovami, kulturnimi organizacijami in profesionalnimi glasbeniki). Podoben poudarek na angažiranju skupnosti zagovarjajo tudi drugi avtorji, vključno s Patricio Shehan Campbell in Leejem Higginsom, ki se osredotočata na povezovanje aplikativne etnomuzikologije in glasbene vzgoje (oboje v institucionalni obliki in znotraj skupnosti). Kot dodatek temu pa Clifford Murphy vidi etnomuzikologa kot javnega folklorista in preučuje disciplinarne vezi med aplikativno etnomuzikologijo in javno folkloro, kot so razvidne iz etnomuzikoloških praks ameriških državnih agencij. Ob poglavjih, ki odpirajo bolj globalne poglede, bi predvsem rada opozorila še na dve poglavji, ki se nanašata na Bosno in Hercegovino. Ursula Hemetek v poglavju z naslovom Aplikativna etnomuzikologija kot medkulturni pripomoček: nekaj izkušenj

218

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 218 23.6.2016 9:58:43 S. PETTAN, J. T. TITON • THE OXFORD HANDBOOK ... iz raziskovanja manjšin v Avstriji v zadnjih 25 letih črpa iz svojega raziskovanja glasbe in manjšin (s poudarkom tako na zgodovinskem kot političnem kontekstu manjšinskih skupnosti v Avstriji), da bi preučevala vlogo aplikativne etnomuzikologije v posebnih manjšinskih skupnostih, kot so Romi, begunci iz Bosne in Hercegovine in priseljenci iz Turčije. Zlasti pa projekt Hemetkove prinaša dobrodošle nove poglede na javno podobo bosanskih beguncev – ponovno presojo, za katero si že dolgo prizadevajo sami begunci (str. 239) in ki kritično odpira diskurzivno področje za same bosanske etnomuzikologe. Podobno tudi Erica Haskell v svojem poglavju Vloga aplikativne etnomuzikologije v skupnostih po konfliktih in katastrofah črpa iz svojih izkušenj pri te- renskem delu v Bosni in Hercegovini (vključno z njenim delom pri nevladni fundaciji Mozaik, ki je financirala razvoj skupnosti v vasi Guča Gora blizu Travnika). Njene štu- dije primerov vključujejo skupino za ljudsko glasbo in ples Sloga, glasbene dogodke med obleganjem Sarajeva (1992–1995), Pavarotti center v Mostarju in delo založniške hiše Gramofon; vse to na novo osvetljuje povojni kulturni razvoj v Bosni in Hercego- vini. Obe študiji razkrivata, kako je mogoče aplikativno etnomuzikologijo učinkovito uporabiti v določenih postkonfliktnih in manjšinskih kontekstih z namenom izboljša- nja medsebojnega razumevanja. Naj zaključim, da je knjiga The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology prevzela pomembno kulturno in izobraževalno nalogo s pomočjo poglavij, ki poizvedu- jejo o vlogi aplikativne etnomuzikologije v različnih življenjskih okoljih. Na ta način deluje kot razširitev knjige z naslovom Applied Ethnomusicology: Historical and Con- temporary Approaches (Aplikativna etnomuzikologija: historični in sodobni pristopi),1 izdane v souredništvu leta 2010. Sodeluje večje število avtorjev, ki obravnavajo aplikativno etnomuzikologijo z različnimi pristopi. Na splošno se v knjigi zrcali prepričljiv obseg in kakovost znanstvenih pogledov: resnost pristopa in analize, dobro zasnovana struktura knjige ter dostopna besedila, namenjena širši mednarodni javnosti, skupaj tvorijo zelo dragoceno izdajo tako za strokovnjake kot študente, pa tudi za bralce s področja drugih disciplin izven glasbe, kot sta npr. etnologija in kulturna antropologija.

Jasmina Talam, Akademija za glasbo, Univerza v Sarajevu Translated by Suzana Stančič

1 K. Harrison, E. Mackinlay in S. Pettan (ur.), Applied Ethnomusicology: Historical and Contemporary Approaches (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010).

219

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 219 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Svanibor Pettan and Jeff Todd Titon, editors

The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology

The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology. Uredila Svanibor Pettan in Jeff Todd Titon. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015. 864 strani. 97 £. ISBN: 9780199351701.

In July 2015, Oxford University Press published a substantial volume titled The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology, co-edited by two eminent ethnomusicologists, Svanibor Pettan and Jeff Todd Titon. The book is an impressive collection of different approaches in applied ethnomusicology, developed through a combination of ethnographic research (personal experiences and fieldwork in different parts of the world) and contemporary scholarship. The volume comprises an introduction and twenty- two chapters, which are divided into six thematic sections. The opening section, An Introduction to Applied Ethnomusicology, consists of an introduction and three detailed chapters written by the editors: Jeff Todd Titon’s “Applied Ethnomusicology: A Descriptive and Historical Account” presents an important overview of the historical development of ethnomusicology, especially applied ethnomusicology in America, whilst Svanibor Pettan’s “Applied Ethnomusicology in the Global Arena” charts the historical development of ethnomusicology in Europe, with an emphasis on the role of the International Council for Traditional Music (ICTM), the most important international ethnomusicological society in the creation of different approaches in applied ethnomusicology. Pettan advances a valuable definition of applied ethnomusicology based on his own experiences in the field (an approach guided by principles of social responsibility that is intended to solve concrete problems, working both inside and beyond typical academic contexts), which is corroborated by especially interesting insights drawn from five ethnomusicologists from Africa, Australia, Asia, Europe and South America, regarding the potential role of ethnomusicology in education. The detailed introductory section is counterbalanced by more specific thematic streams, including sections on Theoretical and Methodological Considerations, Advo- cacy, Indigenous People, Conflicts, Education and Agencies. Several authors examine approaches to applied ethnomusicology in the context of important issues regarding colonial histories and attitudes. Dan Bendrups, Klisala Harrison, Tan Sooi Beng, Zoe C. Sherinian, Elizabeth Mackinlay, Joshua D. Pilzer and John Morgan O’Connell remind the reader of the variety of contexts and approaches pertinent to post-colonial analyses – tasks that require particular sensitivity by the researchers (pp. 56–7). For example, O’Connell develops an interesting hermeneutic approach to musical education by exploring the links between music and people, an approach rooted in the hu- manistic educational programme of the Aga Khan foundation. Tan Sooi Beng’s chapter

220

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 220 23.6.2016 9:58:43 S. PETTAN, J. T. TITON • THE OXFORD HANDBOOK ... “Cultural Engagement and Ownership Through Participatory Approaches in Applied Ethnomusicology” insightfully explores the observational principles that emerged with the so-called “theatre for development” in Asia (p. 111), and considers how these approaches can be identified in certain areas of applied ethnomusicology, for instance in the organisation of the annual celebration of heritage in George Town since 2010 (in the Malaysian federal state of Penang), whose central aim was the revival of multi- ethnic history and peace-building initiatives. The political undertones continue in chapters by Zhang Boyu and Britta Sweers: Boyu offers welcome perspectives on applied ethnomusicology in China, and through analysing cultural politics within each level of government structures, shows how they influence characteristics of applied ethnomusicology in the country. By contrast, Sweers focuses on three different case studies in Germany and Switzerland (termed “action ethnomusicology”) in her chapter “Music and conflict resolution”, which bring important insights on migration and topi- cal issues regarding the function and public representation of minorities in the contemporary world. These approaches are offset by Dan Lundberg’s chapter, in which he emphasises the importance of archival materials gathered outside the academic world and through direct interaction with the community, as well as the role of the Folk Music Commission (FMC) in gathering and evaluating different musical forms. According to Lundberg, FMC has “created a clear and distinct repertoire for future generations – a canon for Swedish folk music” (p.700), which he describes as a four-step process: identification, classification, standardisation, and symbolisation of cultural heritage. This volume also brings together leading American scholars who offer new perspectives on a range of important topics. For instance, Jeff Todd Titon’s “Sustainability, Resilience and Adaptive Management for Applied Ethnomusicology” addresses the role of ethnomusicologists in the preservation of nature, culture and music in North America. Jeffrey A. Summit draws on personal experience from Uganda to illustrate how the activities of ethnomusicologists can instigate peace-building initiatives and inter-religious dialogue (exemplified by economic cooperation among coffee grow- ers). Alan Williams examines how applied ethnomusicology can aid the creation of social and economic capital in underdeveloped communities: his chapter considers how technology, media and marketing intersect to create a cultural space that can transform musical practices into musical products (p. 772). Holly Wissler interrogates the contemporary challenges of tourism, and examines preservation projects developed by the Andean Q’eros and the Amazonian Wachiperi communities in response to those challenges, whilst Michael B. Bakan proposes ethnographic and relativistic approaches of applied ethnomusicology as alternatives to the existing social and health models in dealing with autistic persons. Susan E. Oehler Herrick explores strategies for the successful integration of applied ethnomusicology in elementary and high schools (through partnerships with educational institutions, cultural organizations and professional musicians), and similar emphasis on community engagement is advocated by other authors, including Patricia Shehan Campbell and Lee Higgins, who focus on the interaction of applied ethnomusicology and music education (both institutionalised and within communities). In addition, Clifford Murphy considers the ethnomusicologist as a public folklorist and explores disciplinary connections between applied

221

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 221 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 ethnomusicology and public folklore, as seen with the ethnomusicological practices of American state agencies. Against the more global perspectives, I would particularly like to draw attention to two chapters relating to Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ursula Hemetek’s chapter “Applied Ethnomusicology as an Intercultural Tool: Some Experiences from the Last 25 Years of Minority Research in Austria” draws on her research on music and minorities (focusing both on historical and political context for minority communities in Austria), in order to examine the role of applied ethnomusicology in special minority communities, including Roma, refugees from Bosnia and Herzegovina, and immigrants from Turkey. In particular, Hemetek’s project brings welcome new perspectives on the public image of Bosnian refugees – a reassessment that has been long sought by the refugees themselves (p. 239), and which critically opens the discursive field for Bosnian ethnomusicologists themselves. Erica Haskell similarly draws on her own experiences from fieldwork in Bosnia and Herzegovina (including her work with NGO Founda- tion Mozaik, which financed community development in the village of Guča Gora, near Travnik), in her chapter “The Role of Applied Ethnomusicology in Post-conflict and Post-catastrophe Communities”. Haskell’s case studies include the folk music and dance group Sloga, musical events during the Sarajevo siege (1992−95), the Pavarotti centre in Mostar, and the work of the publishing house Gramofon, all of which shed new light on post-war cultural developments in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Both studies reveal how applied ethnomusicology can be effectively used in specific post-conflict and minority contexts to improve mutual understanding. To conclude, The Oxford Handbook of Applied Ethnomusicology has undertaken an important cultural and educational mission, through chapters that interrogate the role of applied ethnomusicology in different spheres of life. In a way, this volume acts as an extension of the 2010 co-edited Applied Ethnomusicology: Historical and Contemporary Approaches,2 with the current volume offering a greater number of authors who engage with applied ethnomusicology from a variety of approaches. On the whole, the book reflects an impressive range and quality of scholarly perspectives: the seriousness of approach and analysis, the well-designed structure of the book, as well as the accessible texts intended for wide international audiences, all make this a highly valuable edition for specialists and students alike, but also for readers in other disciplines outside music, such as ethnology and cultural anthropology.

Jasmina Talam, Academy of Music, University of Sarajevo

2 K. Harrison, E. Mackinlay, and S. Pettan (Eds), Applied Ethnomusicology: Historical and Contemporary Approaches (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2010).

222

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 222 23.6.2016 9:58:43 K. GRABNAR • PARODIČNE MAŠE V HRENOVIH KORNIH KNJIGAH Disertaciji • Dissertations

Klemen Grabnar

Parodične maše v Hrenovih kornih knjigah

Hrenove korne knjige so zbirka šestih dobro ohranjenih velikih kodeksov iz začet- ka 17. stoletja, ki jih danes hrani Rokopisna zbirka Narodne in univerzitetne knjižnice v Ljubljani (SI-Lnr, Mss 339–344). Kdaj so rokopisi postali del knjižnega fonda v Ljubljani, ni znano, a najverjetneje po reformah Jožefa II. konec 18. stoletja, ko je bil pridobljen škofijski arhiv iz Gornjega Grada (knjižnica se je tedaj imenovala Lyceal Bibliothek). Obravnavani kodeksi so v folijskem formatu in obsegajo do 591 folijev. Napisani so na kakovostnem papirju, večinoma nepoškodovanem zaradi korozije, ki ga povzroča tinta, in drugih dejavnikov, zato so foliji domala v celoti čitljivi. Vse knjige, razen ene (342), imajo ohranjeno izvirno vezavo v belo usnje prek lesene opore, le ena (Ms 339) je vezana v rjavo usnje. Platnice so dekorirane s slepimi odtisi na zelo podoben način. Hrenovi kodeksi so sicer že bili predmet preučevanja, zlasti v Sloveniji, a z omeje- nimi izsledki. V dosedajšnjih razpravah tako niso opisani tipi uporabljenega papirja, manjka pa jim tudi predstavitev različnih prepisovalskih rok ter v celoti pravilno navedena vsebina in konkordance. S pomočjo natančne analize pisav se je izkazalo, da so kodeksi delo petih različnih rok. Kot je bilo že dognano, sta Ms 343 in Ms 344 nedvomno delo Georga Kuglmanna. Pripisan mu je bil tudi kodeks Ms 339, a so v njem razvidne še tri druge pisave. Paleografske značilnosti nam razkrivajo, da je v Gradcu morala delovati prepisovalska delavnica, v kateri je bil prepisan tudi repertoar Hrenovih kornih knjig. Kodikološki in repertoarni dokazi pa nadalje kažejo, da je del rokopisa Ms 339 (prepis skladbe Missa L’homme armé a 5 G. P. da Palestrine) drugega izvora in je bil najverjetneje proti koncu 16. stol. prepisan v Innsbrucku. Zdi se, da so bili kratki odpevi v slogu falsobordone dodani naknadno, morda celo v Gornjem Gradu. Skladatelji, ki so se s svojimi kompozicijami uvrstili v Hrenove kodekse, so večinoma bodisi Italijani (iz Benetk in drugih severnoitalijanskih središč) bodisi Frankoflamci, ki so vsaj nekaj časa delovali v južnem, katoliškem delu nemško govorečega področja. Med njimi so tako imena slavnih mojstrov 16. stoletja, kot sta Orlando di Lasso in Phi- lippe de Monte, kot tudi popolnoma neznanih skladateljev, kot na primer Hieronymus de Sayve. Za nekaj skladateljev je v muzikološki literaturi do sedaj veljalo, da so neznani (Bartlme Temnitz, Giulio Gigli, Antonius Gosswin, Ippolito Chamateroˋ, Jean Guyot de Châtelet in Theodorus Leonardus), kar je bila v nekaterih primerih posledica napačne

223

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 223 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 transkripcije njihovih priimkov (npr. Lammaterus namesto Cammaterus in Goluvinus namesto Goswinus). Ime enega skladatelja pa je bilo na novo identificirano (in sicer je skladatelj enega izmed magnifikatov Vincenzo Ruffo). Rokopisi vsebujejo obsežen repertoar liturgične glasbe: maše, magnifikate, litanije, psalme, himnuse, marijanske antifone in odpeve. Skoraj vse maše in veliko magnifikatov je komponiranih v parodični tehniki. Njihove predloge segajo v čas od Josquina des Preza do Giovannija Gabrielija. Večji del skladb (večinoma gre za kompozicije naj- vidnejših skladateljev svojega časa) je bil verjetno prepisan iz tiskov, nekaj skladb je krožilo le v rokopisih, del repertoarja pa je ohranjen samo v Hrenovih kornih knjigah (v večini gre za skladbe skladateljev, ki so bili na tak ali drugačen način povezani z graškim dvorom). Eno izmed najpomembnejših plasti repertoarja Hrenovih kornih knjig predstavlja- jo parodične maše (izmed 49 maš jih le sedem ni parodičnih). Skladatelji so v 16. stoletju pogosto maše osnovali na že obstoječih polifonih kompozicijah. Splošne značilnos- ti komponiranja parodičnih maš lahko opazujemo na primeru maš v Hrenovih kornih knjigah. Prevzetje glasbenega gradiva predloge je najočitnejše v stavku Kyrie. Skladate- lji ne sledijo vedno običajni praksi in pri tem izkazujejo določeno spretnost. Za prikaz parodične tehnike v mašah, ki so ohranjene v Hrenovih kornih knjigah, je bilo izbranih in analiziranih sedem maš: Missa Pastores quid nam vidistis Jeana Guyota de Châtelet, Missa Vivre ne puis Johannesa de Cleveja, Missa Quanto in milli anni in ciel Barto- lomea Spontoneja, Missa Invidiosa amor Antoniusa Gosswina, Missa Nisi Dominus aedificaverit domum Johannesa Florija, Missa Stabunt justi Simoneja Gatta in Missa Percussit Saul mille Pietra Antonia Bianca. Analize so razkrile različne načine uporabe in predelave glasbenega materiala predloge v mašah, različne sloge in kompozicijske strategije, kar je odraz spreminjajoče se parodične tehnike skozi čas. Ena najvidnejših sprememb se kaže v čedalje bolj pomembni vlogi najnižjega glasu, ki je v primerjavi z ostalimi glasovi prevzet v vedno večji meri brez sprememb. Najzgodnejša plast paro- dičnih maš v Hrenovih kornih knjigah izkazuje še močan franko-flamski vpliv. Kasnej- še plasti pa vedno bolj kažejo vpliv Orlanda di Lassa in njegovih münchenskih kolegov, ki se mu v najmlajši plasti repertoarja v pomembni meri pridružuje še beneški. Izbira modelov, na temelju katerih so skladatelji maš v Hrenovih kornih knjigah osnovali svoje kompozicije, je bila do določene mere gotovo glasbene narave, vendarle se zdi, da so se pri tem ozirali tudi na svoje delodajalce in mecene. Vse to pa je odraz predvsem glasbenih preferenc vladarske družine, še posebej nadvojvode Ferdinanda in njegove matere Ane Marije.

Obranjeno 30. decembra 2015 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani.

224

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 224 23.6.2016 9:58:43 K. GRABNAR • PARODIČNE MAŠE V HRENOVIH KORNIH KNJIGAH Parody Masses in Hren Choirbooks

The Hren choirbooks are a collection of six well-preserved large codices from the early seventeenth century that today constitute part of the Manuscript Collection at the National and University Library in Ljubljana (SI-Lnr; they are shelfmarked Mss 339– 344). When the manuscripts came to the library in Ljubljana is not clear. However, it is most likely they arrived after the reforms of Joseph II in the late eighteenth century, when the episcopal archives from Gornji Grad were acquired (the library was then called the Lyceal Bibliothek). The Hren choirbooks are of large format and containing up to 591 folios. They are all written on good-quality paper, which has mostly not suffe- red damage from ink corrosion, making all the folios more or less perfectly legible and usable. All the books save one (Ms 342) retain their original leather-over-wood binding in white leather; only one (Ms 339) is bound in dark brown leather. The bindings are blind-tooled in very similar fashion. The Hren choirbooks have been the object of some scholarly attention, especially in Slovenia, though not yet in a fully detailed manner. Thus none of the existing studies reports on the manuscripts’ paper types, records all the differences of handwriting or lists the contents and concordances entirely accurately. Through analysis of the scribal hands in detail it becomes sufficiently evident that the Hren choirbooks are the work of five different scribes. As has already been ascertained, Mss 343 and 344 are unquestionably the work of Kuglmann. Ms 339 has similarly been attributed to him alone, although in fact three further scribal hands are discernible. From the paleographical characteristics of the codices we may deduce that there probably existed a scribal work- shop in Graz responsible for copying and compiling the Hren choirbooks. But codico- logical and repertorial evidence shows that one small section of Ms 339 (where Missa L’homme armé a 5 of G. P. da Palestrina was copied) was of different provenance, its most probable place of origin being Innsbruck. Moreover, while the main part of Ms 339 appears to date from the early seventeenth century, the watermark of the Palestri- na layer shows this part of the codex to be a little older. The composers represented are for the most part either Italian (Venetians and other Northern Italians) or Flemish, active – at least for a while in their career – in the areas of Catholic Southern Germany. Their names range from highly regarded sixteenth- -century masters like Orlando di Lasso and Philippe de Monte to completely unknown Kleinmeister such as, for example, Hieronymus de Sayve. A few composers have in some of the musicological literature hitherto been regarded as completely unknown (Bartlme Temnitz, Giulio Gigli, Antonius Gosswin, Ippolito Chamateroˋ, Jean Guyot de Châtelet and Theodorus Leonardus) – in some cases a consequence of the erroneous transcription of their surname (e.g. Lammaterus instead of Cammaterus and Goluvi- nus instead of Goswinus). Moreover, one of the composer has been newly identified (namely Vincenzo Ruffo). The manuscripts contain a large repertory of exclusively liturgical music: Masses, Magnificat settings, litanies, psalms, hymns, Marian antiphons and responses. Nearly all the Masses and many of the Magnificats are of parody or imitation type, based on

225

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 225 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 models dating from the period of Josquin to that of Giovanni Gabrieli. A high proporti- on of the pieces (mostly by famous composers of the period) were probably copied from existing prints, but some circulated only in manuscript. However, there are also a fair number of unica preserved only in the Hren choirbooks (the majority of these are by composers linked in one way or another to the Graz court). Among the most prominent repertorial layers of Hren choirbooks are the parody Masses (of the fourty-nine Masses altogether, only seven are not of parody type). Sixte- enth-century composers frequently based their settings of the Mass Ordinary on pre- -existent multi-voiced compositions. General principles of parody Mass composition are discussed in Pietro Cerone’s El melopeo y maestro and can be observed in the Masses of Hren choirbooks. The distribution of musical material from the model is most evident in the Kyrie. Composers do not always follow established practices; nevertheless, they demonstrate skilfulness in using borrowed material to generate Mass forms. In order to understand the ways in which the composers of parody Masses preserved in Hren choirbooks manipulated the model, seven Masses were selected for a detailed analysis: Missa Pastores quid nam vidistis by Jean Guyot de Châtelet, Missa Vivre ne puis by Johannes de Cleve, Missa Quanto in milli anni in ciel by Bartolomeo Spontone, Missa Invidiosa amor by Antonius Gosswin, Missa Nisi Dominus aedificaverit domum by Johannes Flori, Missa Stabunt justi by Simone Gatto and Missa Percussit Saul mille by Pietro Antonio Bianco. The selected Masses were chosen to represent a broad range of styles and to reveal compositional strategies associated with this genre. The results of this analysis showed that there is a variety of methods of employment and deployment of pre-existent compositions which demonstrates the changing of the parody technique over time. The most prominent modification is the importance of the lowest sounding voice, which is often preserved to a greater extent than the other voices. The early layer of parody Masses in Hren choirbooks shows a strong Franco-Flemish influence, which was soon supplemented by the influence of Orlando di Lasso and his Munich colleagues. In the most late Masses the latter is joined by a strong Venetian influence. The choice of model for the Masses could be seen as of purely musical nature, although it seems that many were chosen to please the members of the Graz ruling family, especially Ar- chduke Ferdinand II and his mother Ana Maria.

Defended on 30 December 2015, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana.

226

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 226 23.6.2016 9:58:43 K. TRČEK • ORGLE IN ORGELSKA GLASBA ... Katarina Trček

Orgle in orgelska glasba v slovenski kulturni zgodovini do nastopa cecilijanstva

Doktorska disertacija z naslovom Orgle in orgelska glasba v slovenski kulturni zgodovini do nastopa cecilijanstva raziskuje zgodovino postavljanja orgelskih glasbil na Slovenskem od začetkov v prvi polovici 15. stoletja do druge polovice 19. stoletja, ko so postale orgle obvezno glasbilo domala vsake župnijske cerkve. Kot zgornja časovna meja razprave je vzeto leto 1877, ko je bilo ustanovljeno Slovensko cecilijansko društvo, ki je prevzelo načrtnejšo skrb za glasbo v cerkvah. Namen disertacije je prikazati, kako so se širila orgelska glasbila v slovenski zgodovini, in ta razvoj ovrednotiti s stališča slovenske glasbene in kulturne zgodovine. Disertacija ima tri osnovne vsebinske sklope: v prvem so zbrani podatki o vseh orgelskih glasbilih na Slovenskem do leta 1877; v drugem so raziskane in opisane glavne tendence v razvoju postavljanja orgel na Slovenskem; v tretjem je na osnovi ohranjenih muzikalij nakazano, kaj se je na orgelska glasbila v posameznih obdobjih igralo. Ne glede na nekdanje državne, pokrajinske in cerkvene meje se razprava omejuje na ozemlje današnje države Slovenije, ki ga pojmuje kot enovit kulturni prostor z lastno zgodovino. Za uresničitev ciljev, je bilo potrebno zbrati podatke o vseh orglah, ki so bile kdajko- li postavljene na slovenskem do leta 1877. Tako je bilo na osnovi obsežne že obstoječe literature, terenskih ogledov in deloma tudi na osnovi študija primarnih virov mogo- če identificirati natančno 772 orgel, od katerih jih je danes ohranjeno še 305. Podatki o vseh 772 glasbilih so zbrani v prvem poglavju, kjer so za vsako glasbilo navedeni osnovni podatki: čas izdelave, orglarski mojster, velikost, dispozicija in pri ohranjenih glasbilih, tudi njihovo današnje stanje. V izogib morebitnim dvoumnim zamenjavam je bilo potrebno vsako glasbilo identificirati; glasbila so identificirana z lokacijo in zaporedno številko. Lokacija je določena s prvim krajem postavitve glasbila in patrocinijem, številka ob lokaciji pa označuje zaporedje glasbila: »Ljubljana/sv. Nikolaj 2« pomeni časovno druge orgle ljubljanske cerkve sv. Nikolaja. 772 orgel, kolikor jih je bilo mogoče identificirati, gotovo ni vse, kar je do druge polovice 19. stoletja obstajalo na Slovenskem. Vendar je to število dovolj veliko, da dopuš- ča zanesljive sklepe o slovenski orgelski zgodovini, do katerih privedejo odgovori na vprašanja o dinamiki postavljanja orgel, o rasti lokacij z orglami, o izdelovalcih glasbil, o skupnih organoloških značilnostih in o vlogi orgel v bogoslužju. Odgovore obravnava drugi del disertacije in z njimi podaja celovit pogled na zgodovino postavljanja orgel na Slovenskem. Sprva je prikazana rast postavljanja orgelskih

227

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 227 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 glasbil; medtem ko se je število novih orgel v 16. in 17. stoletju le postopoma večalo, je sredi 18. stoletja močno naraslo. Na prehodu iz 18. v 19. stoletje je upadlo, zato pa se je v tretjem desetletju 19. stoletja močno dvignilo in doseglo vrhunec sredi 19. stoletja. Nadalje je prikazana rast lokacij z orglami, ki jih je bilo iz desetletja v desetletje več. Krivulja rasti se zlasti strmo vzpenja začenši s tretjim desetletjem 19. stoletja in leta 1877 doseže 488 cerkva. Sledi vprašanje o izdelovalcih slovenskih orgel. Z ozirom na politično pripadnost slovenskega prostora je razumljivo, da so bili na Obali in v nje- nem zaledju sprva dejavni predvsem beneški orglarji, na Kranjskem in Štajerskem pa mojstri iz raznih avstrijskih dežel. Prvi na Slovenskem delujoči orglar je deloval v drugi polovici 17. stoletja na Kranjskem. Od tega časa dalje je število domačih orglarjev raslo in v prvi polovici 19. stoletja so potrebe po novih glasbilih skoraj v celoti pokrivali do- mači mojstri. Zadnji del drugega poglavja se posveča vprašanju zvočne arhitekture obravnavanih glasbil, kot je razvidna iz ohranjenih dispozicij. Izkazalo se je, da je meja med starejši- mi in mlajšimi glasbili prehod 18. v 19. stoletje. Znotraj vsakega od teh dveh obdobij so ohranjene dispozicije razvrščene v vrsto tipov, z ozirom na to, kakšno je razmerje med osnovnimi skupinami njihovih registrov (principalni, pokriti, flavtni, godalni, je- zičniški registri). Iz razprave je razvidno, kateri tipi orgel so obstajali na Slovenskem in kateri med njimi so bili najbolj značilni. Splošna težnja razvoja je bila ta, da so bila glasbila vse večja in da se je v 19. stoletju močno povečal delež barvitih flavtnih in go- dalnih registrov. Zadnji del disertacije skuša odgovoriti na vprašanje, kaj se je na slovenska orgelska glasbila v posameznih obdobjih igralo. Čeprav je bilo orgel zelo veliko, je glasbe, ki se je nanje igrala, razmeroma malo, kar velja zlasti za starejša obdobja. Nedvomno so orgle v vseh obdobjih zgodovine spremljale takšno ali drugačno petje pri bogoslužju, organisti so poleg spremljanja petja izvajali tudi orgelske kompozicije in improvizirali ustrezne preludije, interludije in postludije. Ta praksa je za 19. stoletje potrjena v soča- snih virih. Ducat pomembnejših slovenskih cerkva ima ohranjene muzikalije (različne bogoslužne vokalne skladbe), ki v zasedbi predpostavljajo tudi orgle, bodisi v vlogi bassa continua, ali obligatnega glasbila. Izrecno orgelskih skladb pa se je do leta 1877 ohranilo zelo malo. S tem, ko disertacija nazorno kaže, kako so se do leta 1877 orgle povsem zasidrale v slovenski kulturni prostor in kako so bile kar najširše plasti prebivalstva v stiku z orglami, potrjuje hipotezo, da so orgle in orgelska glasba bistveni in nepogrešljivi del slovenske glasbene in kulturne zgodovine.

Obranjeno 7. oktobra 2015 na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani.

228

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 228 23.6.2016 9:58:43 K. TRČEK • ORGLE IN ORGELSKA GLASBA ... Organs and Organ Music in Slovene Cultural History until the Cecilian Movement

The doctoral thesis entitled Organs and Organ Music in Slovene Cultural History until the Cecilian Movement explores the history of organ building in Slovenia from the beginning of the first half of the 15th century to the second half of the 19th century, when organs became a mandatory instrument in every parish church. The upper time line of the discussion is set in the year 1877, when the Slovene Cecilian Movement was founded, taking up the leading role in overseeing the planning of church music. The aim of this dissertation is to present the spreading of organ instruments in Slovene history and to evaluate this process from the standpoint of Slovene musical and cultural history. The doctoral thesis consists of three basic sections: the first is a collection of data on all organ instruments in Slovenia until 1877; the second treats and describes the main tendencies of the process of organ building in Slovenia; the third comprises of preserved musical data revealing which pieces were performed on church organs during individual historical periods. Regardless of former country, regional and parish borders, the focus of the discussion is limited to the territory of present-day Slovenia, which is described as a unified cultural area with its own history. In order to attain the set goals of the research, data had to be collected on all the organs ever built on the territory of today’s Slovenia leading up to 1877. With help from data from already existent literature on organography, onsite surveys, as well as on the basis of the study of primary sources, it was possible to identify precisely 772 organs by the year 1877, of which 305 still remain to this day. The list of comprised data on all of these organs can be found in the first chapter, where for each the basic information is listed: manufacturing date, organ builder, size, disposition and for the preserved instrument also their actual state. In order to avoid any ambiguous replacements each instrument was identified; the instruments are identified with location and serial number. Location is determinated with the primary place of each single organ and the church patron, the number by the location marks the sequence of the instrument: »Lju- bljana/sv. Nikolaj 2« is the second organ of St. Nicholas’s church in Ljubljana. Although it was possible to identify as many as 772 organs, the number of existing organs was most certainly higher leading up to the second half of the 19th century in Slovenia. However, this number is sufficient enough to allow for a reliable conclusion to be made regarding Slovene organ history. This conclusion could be made only with the answers to the questions about the growth in organ building, the growth of the number of location with organ, about the organ builders, about the common musical characteristics of organ and about the role of organ in liturgy. The answers are treated in the second part of the thesis, where the exhaustive overview about the history of organ building in Slovenia is made. Firstly the growth in the building of organ instruments is presented; while the 16th and 17th century had seen a rather gradual growth in the number of new organs, the mid-18th century witnessed a significant rise; it declined at the turn from the 18th to the 19th century, yet saw a

229

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 229 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 powerful increase in numbers in the third decade of the 19th century, reaching its peak in mid-19th century. The second part of the thesis continues to present the growth of the number of organ locations, which was growing from decade to decade. An especially impressive ascension of the growth curve occurred at the beginning of the third decade of the 19th century, and by 1877 reaches already 488 churches. The next question tac- kled in the second chapter is who the Slovene organ builders were. It is understandable from the viewpoint of the political division of the Slovene territory at that time that the coastal region and its surroundings were at first home to predominantly Venetian organ builders, while residing in the Carniola and the Styria region were mostly organ builders from various Austrian lands. The first Slovene organ builder was practicing his craft in the second half of the 17th century in Carniola. From then on, the number of home-grown organ builders had begun to rise and in the first half of the 19th century the growing demand for new instruments was being met almost entirely by local masters. The last part of the second chapter is dedicated to the sonorous architecture of the treated instruments, as evident from the preserved dispositions. Where the question of the sonorous architecture of Slovene organs is concerned, it has been proven that the boundary between older and newer instruments was set in the transitional period from the 18th to the 19th century. Dispositions arranged in a series of types have been preserved within each of these two periods, namely in regard to what are the relationship between the basic groups of their stops (principal, covered, flute, string stops, reeds). It is evident from the discussion which types of organs existed in Slovenia and which of these were the most characteristic. The general tendency of the development was for the instruments to increasingly grow in size and that the 19th century saw a powerful increase in the number of colourful flute and string stops. The final part of the doctoral dissertations strives to answer the question concerning what was being played on Slovene organ instruments during particular periods. Although there was a large number of organs in Slovenia, the number of musical works played on these instruments was relatively limited, which was especially true for older periods. Undoubtedly, the organs accompanied the various types of singing performed in churches throughout history, beside accompaniment organists played also organ compositions and improvised suitable preludes, interludes and postludes. The latter practice was confirmed in the contemporary sources from the 19th century. A dozen prominent Slovene churches still have in their possession various preserved vocal compositions for worship, the ensemble for which also includes organs; be it in the role of basso continuo or in that of organo obligato. However, the number of organ works preserved from 1877 is very small. By demonstrating how the organ had anchored itself firmly into Slovene culture by the second half of the 19th century and how the widest layers of the Slovene population were in contact with this instrument, the dissertation confirms the hypothesis that the organ and organ music are an essential and indispensable part of Slovene music and Slovene cultural history.

Defended on October 7, 2015, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana.

230

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 230 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Imensko kazalo • Index

Acun˜a, Guido 71 Adamović, Dragoslav 36, 38 Ahil (Achilles) 175 Alkmajon (Alcmaeon) 173, 175–177, 186 Anderson, Benedict 53 Anderson, Warren 174, 178, 180, 185 Andreis, Josip 28, 38 Antončič, Emica 167 Antonius Diogenes 181 Aponte, Pedro Rafael 53–55, 60, 67, 71 Apthorp, Shirley 51 Arabov, Plamen 75, 95, 96 Aristoksen (Aristoxenus) 172–175, 178–186 Aristotel (Aristotle) 172, 174–176, 178–181, 185, 186 Armitano, Ernesto 56 Avel Gelij (Aulus Gellius) 174, 180 Avsenik, Slavko 161 Avsenik, Vilko 161

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel 76 Bach, Johann Sebastian 31, 33, 35, 194 Bakagiannis, Sotirios 201, 203 Bakan, Michael B. 218, 221 Balzi, Beatriz 60 Banovec, Rudolf 122, 128, 136, 144 Barbo, Matjaž 143, 144, 211, 213, 214, 216 Barker, Andrew D. 174, 183, 185 Bartók, Béla 27–40 Battistini, Mattia 122, 128, 137, 144 Beach, David 74, 95, 96 Beck, John H. 98, 119 Bedina, Katarina 7, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157, 166 Beethoven, Ludwig van 31, 33, 35, 44, 45, 47, 63, 71, 86, 88–90, 114, 194, 211, 214 Bendrups, Dan 217, 220 Beng, Tan Sooi (Ali je vrstni red pra- 217, 220 vilen?) Benišek, Hilarij 21 Benveniste, Émile 173, 185 Berlin, Irving 149 Berlioz, Hector 114 Bersa, Blagoje 16 Bertsch, Matthias A. 101 Betetto, Julij (Julius) 21 Bezlaj, France 157, 159, 166 Bianco, Pietro Antonio 224, 226 Bizet, Georges 21 Blažeković, Zdravko 29, 38 Boldorini, Raquel 60

231

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 231 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Bourdieu, Pierre 52–55, 72 Boyu, Zhang 218, 221 Brahms, Johannes 19, 114 Brečko, Barbara 201, 203 Brisson, Luc 173, 174, 181, 182, 185 Brittin, Ruth V. 192, 202, 203 Brown, Clive 46, 49 Brown, Oren 152, 166 Brown, Robert A. 192, 203 Bruch, Max 19 Budau, Elza 151, 161 Budkovič, Cveto 207, 209 Bujić, Bojan 34, 38 Bukšek, Rudolf 21 Bunič, Sara 195, 203 Burkert, Walter 176, 177, 179, 183, 185 Burkhard, Reis 177, 185 Burnet, John 177, 181, 185

Cadwallader, Allen 74, 95 Calcan˜o, José Antonio 52, 53, 55, 60–62, 67, 69–72 Calderón Sáenz, Claudia 56–58 Calzavara, Alberto 56, 65, 71 Camerotta, Ernesto von 21 Campbell, Murray 99, 100, 119 Canclini, Néstor García 52, 54, 72 Cankar, Ivan 148 Caplin, William E. 63 Carter, Roy 75, 96 Caruso, Enrico 122, 128, 133, 144 Cass-Beggs, Barbara 190, 203 Celij Avrelijan (Caelius Aurelianus) 174 Chamaterò, Ippolito 223, 225 (v tisku je Chamater) de Châtelet, Jean Guyot 223–226 Chiappari, Christopher L. 54 Chopin, Frederic 87, 89, 194 Cigoj Krstulović, Nataša 207–210 Claes, Michel 201, 204 de Cleve, Johannes 224, 226 Cook, Nicolas 29 Coronil, Fernando 54 Cremades, Roberto 201, 203 Crosby, Bing 149 Crowther, Paul 200, 203 Crystal, David 154, 157, 166 Cvetko, Dragotin 7, 8, 19, 20, 25, 28, 38, 207, 209

Čajkovski, Peter Iljič (Tchaikovsky, Pyotr 91, 194 Ilyich)

Damon 172, 180 Debevec, Andrej 122, 128, 138, 144 Debevec, Charles F. 122, 144 Debreceni, Ježef 32, 39 Debussy, Claude 33, 35, 61, 62, 194

232

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 232 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Demokrit (Democritus) 180 Derenda, Nuša 161 Deržaj, Marjana 160 Despić, Dejan 28, 29, 37–39 Dev, Anton Feliks 148 Didier, Miguel Castillo 53, 55, 60, 61, 70 Dicearh (Dicaearchus) 176, 178 Diogen (Diogenes) 178, 181, 183 Dirlmeier, Franz 180, 185 Djurić-Klajn, Stana 28, 38 Djurin, Obrad 122, 128, 130, 144 Dodds, Eric R. 174, 175, 183, 185 Domicelj, Tomaž 149, 194 Donia, Robert 12, 25 Donizetti, Gaetano 21 Dudamel, Gustavo 51, 52, 72 Dylan, Bob 149

Edelstein, Ludwig 172, 175, 185 Einstein, Alfred 30, 38 Eliade, Mircea 183, 185 Eliezer, Benzion 96 Empedoklej (Empedocles) 175 Erkkila, Jaakko 192, 201, 202, 204

Ferekid (Pherecydes) 176 Ferguson, Howard 49 Ferwerda, Rein 184, 185 Filipović, Josip 14 Filistion (Philistion) 174 Fillmore, John C. 96 Filolaj (Philolaus) 176, 177, 185 Filopon, Janez (Philoponus, John) 176 Fink, Robert 59, 60, 65 Fischer, Jens M. 128, 144 Flajšman, Jurij 122, 155 Flashar, Hellmut 182, 185 Flori, Johannes 224, 226 Foerster, Anton 155 Forsyth, Cecil 97, 119 Fortenbaugh, William W. 180, 185 Fouts, Gregory T. 201, 205 Frantar, Vladimir 149, 151, 167 Frede, Dorothea 177, 185 Friedman, Ignaz 37 Fritz, Ervin 148, 151 Fučík (Fuček), Julius 15, 16 Fukač, Jiři 167 Funtek, Anton 130, 132

Gabhainn, Saorise Nic 191, 195, 204 Gabrieli, Giovanni 224, 226 Gatto, Simone 224, 226 Gellner, Ernest 53 Georgii, Walter 37, 38

233

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 233 23.6.2016 9:58:43 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Gerbič, Fran 148, 155 Geringer, John M. 192, 203 Gershwin, George 149 Gervais 15, 16 Ghiaurov, Nicolai glej Gjaurov, Nikolaj Giacosa, Giuseppe 133 Gigli, Giulio 223, 225 Gill, Brian P. 159 Gjaurov, Nikolaj 127, 144 Gligo, Nikša 148, 149, 167 Globokar, Vinko 9 Godec, Alenka 153, 161 Goga, Mircea 183, 185 Golaboski, Sotir 49 Goldberg, Lewis R. 202, 204 Gordon, Edwin E. 190, 203 Gosling, Samuel D. 201, 202, 204 Gossett, Philip 76, 96 Gosswin, Antonius 223–226 Gottschalk, Hans B. 176, 178, 185 Gounod, Charles 21, 22 Gracyk, Theodore 200, 203 Greated, Clive 99, 100, 119 Gregorc, Janez 122 Grieg, Edward 19, 194 Grigoriev, Stepan 95 Gril, Alenka 201, 203 Grujić, Sanja 34, 38 Guido, Walter 52, 53, 56 Guthrie, Kenneth S. 172, 174, 182, 183, 185 Guthrie, William K. C. 176, 177, 179, 185 Guzmán, Mario Milanca 71

Hadžiev (Hadjiev), Paraškev (Parashkev) 96 Hadžibegović, Iljas 12, 25 Hadžić, Fatima 19, 25 Halévy, Formental 21 Hall, Donald E. 100, 119 Hargreaves, David J. 190–192, 195, 197, 201–205 Harley, Maria Anna 35, 38 Harrison, Klisala 217, 219, 220, 222 Haskell, Erica 219, 222 Heifetz, Jascha 37 Heinichen, Johann 76 Hemetek, Ursula 218, 222 Henderson, Sophie 176, 186 Henrich, Nathalie 125, 145 Heraklit (Heraclitus) 176 Herbst, Christian 121, 145 Herodot (Herodotus) 183 Herrera, Lucia 201, 203 Herzfeld, Victor 31 Heziod (Hesiod) 174, 181 Hieng, Andrej 148

234

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 234 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Higgins, Lee 218, 221 Hillis, William 176, 186 Himonides, Evangelos 143, 145 Hindemith, Paul 30 Hinson, Maurice 52 Hipij (Hippasus, Hippon?) 177, 178 Hladek Bohinjski, Josip 18, 19, 25, 26 Hobsbawm, Eric 53 Hočevar-Boltežar, Irena 152, 156-158, 167 Homer 174, 181 Hortac˛su, Nuran 201, 205 Horvat, Anika 161 Hren, Tomaž 223–226 Hristić, Stevan 29 Huberman, Bronislaw 15 Huffman, Carl A. 176–180, 185, 186 Hus, Vlasta 191, 203

Illica, Luigi 133 Ipavec, Benjamin 155 Ireland, Rosh 179, 186

Jakobson, Roman 154, 167 Jamblih (Iamblichus) 172–174, 176, 179, 181 Janáček, Leoš 34 Janković, August 19 Jenko, Davorin 155 Jesih, Milan 151 Jež, Jakob 10 Jin, Young C. 190 Johnson, Randal 53 Jones, William Henry S. 175, 185 Josquin des Prez 224, 226 Jovanović, Jelena 32, 38 Jović (Jovich), Tihomir 49 Jožef II. (Joseph II), cesar 223, 225 Jurgec, Peter 163, 167 Juslin, Patrik N. 202, 204

Kačerovský, Bogomir 18, 19 Kaempfert, Bert 149 Kara-Pešić, Ana 34, 38 Karakaš (Karakas), Branko 43, 49 Kern, Jerome 149 Kersnik, Janko 15 Kessissoglu, Angelo 19 Keym, Stefan 30, 39 Kiss, Lajos 31 Kleiber, Erich 34 Kmecl, Matjaž 151, 167 Kočevarjeva, Vida 21 Kodály, Zoltán 30–32, 34, 40 Konjović, Petar 29

235

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 235 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Košuta, Miroslav 151 Kotzebna 19 Kovač, Mirko 7 Kovačević, Krešimir 18, 19, 25, 158, 167 Kovačić, Gordana 167 Kozina, Marjan 148 Krautz, Michel 49 Kreisler, Fritz 15 Krstulović, Zoran 207, 209 Kruševac, Todor 13, 14, 25 Ksenofan (Xenophanes) 177 Kuglmann, Georg 223, 225 Kundera, Milan 9 Kunej, Drago 122, 123, 144, 145 Kuret, Primož 207, 209 Kurtović, Husnija 123, 145 Kühn, Karl Gottlob 174

Labonville, Marie Elizabeth 53 Lamb, W. R. M. 184 Lamprokles (Lamprocles) 172 di Lasso, Orlando 223–226 Latham, Alison 148, 157, 161, 167 Laya, José Clemente 51–53, 62–69, 72 Lã, Filipa M. B. 159 LeBlanc, Albert 190, 191, 204 Legendre, Fidel Rodríguez 53 Lehar, Franz 18 León, Carlos Augusto 55 Leoncavallo, Ruggeiro 22 Lester, Joel 74, 96 Levitin, Daniel J. 202, 204 Levstik, Fran 15 Lhotka-Kalinski, Ivan 143, 145, 152, 154, 157, 167 Linhart, Anton Tomaž 155 Longrigg, James 176, 186 Loos, Helmut 30, 39 Loparnik, Borut 7 López, José Gregorio 57 López, Silvia L. 54 Lord, Albert 32, 38 Lorenzo, Oswaldo 201, 203 Luchte, James 178, 186 Lundberg, Dan 218, 221 Luther (Luter), Martin 151 Lutosławski, Witold 42

Machemer, Georgia Ann 173, 186 Mackinlay, Elizabeth 217, 219, 220, 222 Makrobij, Ambrozij Teodozij (Macro- 176, 177 bius) Makarovič, Svetlana 151 Malogorski, Josip 16 Mančev (Mancev), Tome 49

236

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 236 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Marković, Tatjana 34, 38 Martinů, Bohuslav 37 Masleša, Veselin 13, 25 McCrary, Jan 190, 204 McKenzie, Barbara Dobbs 29, 38 McPherson, G. E. 201, 203 Mehr, Samuel A. 190, 204 Mendelssohn Bartholdy, Felix 19 Meriani, Angelo 174, 185 Meyer, Jurgen 128, 145 Meyer, Leonard 80, 96 Mijić, Nina 16 Milčinski – Ježek, Fran 151 Mildenberg, Patrick 58 Milin, Melita 29, 34, 38, 39 Miller, Donald G. 125, 145 Miller, Harold W. 175, 186 Miller, Richard 125, 145, 154, 167 Milojević, Miloje 29 Milošević, Zdravko 18 Minar, Edwin L. 177, 185 Miranda, Dave 201, 204 Mokranjac, Stevan Stojanović 36 Molnár, Géza 31 de Monte, Philippe 223, 225 Móricz, Klára 36, 38 de la Motte-Haber, Helga 190, 191, 203 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus 44, 49, 62, 63, 71, 74, 80, 84, 85, 90, 92, 114, 194 Möderndorfer, Vinko 148 Mulder, Juul 191, 195, 204 Murphy, Clifford 218, 221

Nagode, Aleš 210 Nedvӗd, Anton 128, 129, 138, 155 Nieto-Dorantes, Arturo 60 Nietzsche, Friedrich 9 North, Adrian C. 190–192, 195, 197, 201–205 Novák, Vitězslav 33 Nutton, Vivian 179, 186

O’Connell, John Morgan 217, 220 O’Neill, Susan A. 201, 204 Obert, Mary 190, 204 Oehler Herrick, Susan E. 218, 221 Ondřiček, František 15 Orlov, Nikolai 37 Ortakov, Dragoslav 42, 49 Osterc, Slavko 9 Ouržednik, Jan 21

Paćuka, Lana 12, 14, 15, 17, 25 Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da 33, 223, 225 Parma, Viktor 22, 122, 129, 130, 132 Paterson, Jessica 202, 204

237

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 237 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Patroklej (Patrocles) 175 Pausewang, Marylou Gelfer 168 Pavčič, Josip 122, 135 Pedroza, Ludim Rebeca 59 Pejanović, Đorđe 14, 25 Pejović, Roksanda 34, 38 Pelosi, Francesco 176, 186 Penderecki, Krzysztof 42 Pengov, Tomaž 149 Peñín, José 52, 53, 56, 71 Peretz, Isabelle 201, 205 Peričić, Vlastimir 31, 37, 38 Peršlova, Mariči 21 Pesjak, Luiza 148 Pettan, Svanibor 217, 219, 220, 222 Piave, Franceso Maria 137 Pilzer, Joshua D. 217, 220 Pindar 173, 186 Piston, Walter 73, 80, 96 Pitagora (Pythagoras) 172–174, 176–179, 181–187 Pitoklej (Pythocleides) 172 Platon (Plato) 174, 176–178, 183–185, 187 Plaza, Juan Bautista 52, 53, 55, 60-62, 67, 70–72 Plut, Frank 122, 128, 129, 132, 138, 144 Plutarh (Plutarchus) 180 Podbevšek, Katarina 154, 167 Porfirij (Porphyry) 172, 177, 180, 181, 183 Porter, Cole 149 Pople, Anthony 29 Potočan, Zoran 126, 144 Prenner, Ljuba 148 Presley, Elvis 149 Prešeren, France 16, 131 Prokofjev, Sergej (Prokofiev, Sergei) 30, 34, 42 Prošev (Proshev), Toma 43, 49 Provenza, Antonietta 179, 186 Ptolemaj (Ptolemy) 180 Puccini, Giacomo 133 Puklek Levpušček, Melita 201, 203

Radinović, Sanja 32, 39 Raffan, John 176, 185 Rajčev (Raichev), Aleksandar 75, 78, 96 Rameau, Jean-Philippe 75–77, 96 Ramón y Rivera, Luis Felipe 56, 65 Randel, Don Michael 167 Ranek, Adolf 21 Rašaijmakers, Quinten A. W. 191, 195, 204 Ratner, Leonard G. 75, 78, 96 Ravnikar, Bruno 99, 101, 119, 128, 145, 167 Ravnikar, V. 208, 210 Rayleigh Strutt, John W. 98, 119 Reale, Giovanni 175, 186 Regelski, Thomas A. 201, 204 Reimer, Bennett 200, 201, 204

238

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 238 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Rentfrow, Peter J. 201, 202, 204 Riboli, Marija 18 Rico, Regulo 71 Ričl, Alojz 16, 17, 18, 26 Riemann, Hugo 96 Rijavec, Andrej 7 Rimski-Korsakov, Nikolaj 96 Ritschel, Johannes 16 Rohde, Erwin 176, 186 Rolfe, John Carew 180 Romero, Aldemaro 51, 52, 71, 72 Rossing, Thomas D. 98 Rubinstein, Arthur 37 Rupel, Mirko 151, 167 Russell, Philip A. 190, 204

Saarikallio, Suvi 192, 201, 202, 204 Sabina, Karel 136 Sabo, Anica 37, 39 Samson, Jim 28–30, 34, 39, 40 de Sayve, Hieronymus 223, 225 Schachter, Carl 76 Schellenberg, Glenn 201, 205 Schenker, Henrich 49, 76 Schirmer, G. 60 Schoenberg, Arnold 30, 68, 75, 77, 79, 96 Schubert, Franz 19 Schulhoff, Erwin 30 Schwartz, Kelly D. 201, 205 Schweizer, Steven L. 98, 100, 102, 111, 119 Schäfer, Thomas 190, 195, 197, 201, 202, 204, 205 Sedak, Eva 30, 39 Sedlmeier, Peter 190, 195, 197, 201, 202, 204, 205 Sepe, Mojmir 161, 168 Shehan Campbell, Patricia 218, 221 Sherinian, Zoe C. 217, 220 Shuter, Rosamund 202, 205 Siivola, Carolyn 190, 204 Sikkema, Paul 191, 195, 204 Simias (Simmias) 176 Sims, Wendy L. 190, 204 Sinatra, Frank 149, 194 Sivec, Jože 7 Skalova, Maruša 21, 22 Skoda, Paul Badura 49 Slavenski, Josip Štolcer 27–40 Slavenski, Milana 33, 39 Sloboda, John A. 202, 204 Smetana, Bedřich 22, 122, 136, 194 Smith, John 125, 145 Smith, J. A. 178 Smith, Wesley D. 173, 186 Snoj, Jurij 213 Soboj 15, 16 Sojo, Vicente Emilio 52, 53, 55, 62, 63, 70-72

239

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 239 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Sokrat (Socrates) 174, 183, 184 Solis, Ana Maria Guerra 192, 203 Souvan, Ferry 151 Spontone, Bartolomeo 224, 226 Srebot-Rejec, Tatjana 163, 168 Stamou, Lelouda 190, 204 Stefanija, Leon 8 Stevens, Kenneth N. 167 Stobaeus, Joannes 176 Stravinski Igor (Stravinsky, Igor) 30, 34, 37, 42, 43, 50 Strniša, Gregor 151 Subotić, Irina 34, 39 Suk, Josef 33 Sundberg, Johan 122, 125, 127, 145, 158, 159, 163, 164, 167, 168 Suppé, Franz von 22 Svarlien, D. A. 173 Sweers, Britta 218, 221 Sziklosz 31 Szubertowska, Elżbieta 202, 205

Šeruga Prek, Cvetka 167 Šivic, Urša 122, 145 Škarić, Ivo 148, 154, 167 Šonc, Viktor 15, 16, 19, 20, 25, 26 Šömen, Branko 151 Špendal, Marica 18, 25 Špirić-Beard, Danijela 30, 39 Štibernik, Gregor 152, 168 Štraus, Mojca 201, 203 Šturm, Franc 8 Šubelj, Anton 122, 128, 134, 135, 140, 144

Tajčević, Marko 27–29, 36–40 Talam, Jasmina 219, 222 Tarrant, Mark 191, 197, 201, 202, 203, 205 Taruskin, Richard 29, 39 Taylor, Kendall 37 Tekman, Hasan Gürkan 201, 205 Temmerman, Nita 190, 205 Temnitz, Bartlme 223, 225 Teofrast (Theophrastus) 180, 182, 185 Ter Bogt, Tom F. M. 191, 195, 204 Thompson, John B. 54 Tičić, Vedrana 12–14, 17, 25 Titon, Jeff Todd 217, 218, 220, 221 Tivadar, Hotimir 159, 162, 163, 165, 168 Tomašević, Katarina 28–30, 34–36, 39 Toporišič, Jože 148, 151, 153, 159, 161, 167, 168 Toševski, Stojče 43 Tovar, Roberto Ojeda 72 Tricot, Jules 178, 186 Trubar, Primož 151, 168

Ukmar, Vilko 7

240

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 240 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Uzunboylu, Hüseyin 191

Van der Lee, Pedro 57 Varošanec-Škarić, Gordana 155, 167 Vasiljević, Miodrag 32, 38 Velkaverh, Dušan 151, 161 Verdi, Giuseppe 16, 21, 137 Vikárius, László 35, 36, 39, 40 Vilhar, Fran Serafin 15, 16 Vilhar, Miroslav 122, 130, 131 Vinaver, Stanislav 32, 39 Vlastos, Gregory 175, 186 Vujković, Sarita 14 Vujnović, Momir 159, 167 Vukdragović, Mihajlo (Mihailo) 28, 37, 39 Vrčon, Robert 122, 128, 140, 144

Wagner, Andreas 100, 108, 119 Wagner, Richard 19 Weber, Gottfried 76 Webern, Anton 30 Wehrli, Fritz 173, 174, 176, 178–181, 186 Wick, Norman L. 76–78, 96 Williams, Alan 218, 221 Wissler, Holly 218, 221 Windle, Kevin 179, 186 Wlassak, Viljem F. 17 Wolfe, Joe 125, 145 Wöhrle, Georg 182, 186

Zach, Jan (von Zahov) 21 Zajc, Ivan 21–24 Zanina, Raleva 42, 49 Zarlino, Gioseffo 76 Zatorre, Robert J. 201, 205 Zhmud, Leonid glej Žmud, Leonid Zimmerschied, Dieter 200, 205 Zlobec, Ciril 151, 161 Zografski, Tomislav 41–46, 49, 50 Zulić, Miradet 17, 25 Zupan, Jakob Frančišek 148

Živković, Mirjana 30, 32, 38, 39 Žmud, Leonid 179, 184, 186 Žnidaršič, Jakob 13 Župančič, Oton 135, 148 Žurin, Obrad glej Djurin, Obrad

241

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 241 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 242 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Avtorji • Contributors

Olga DENAC ([email protected]) je redna profesorica didaktike glasbe na Pedago- ški fakulteti Univerze v Mariboru, Slovenija. Znanstveno in raziskovalno se ukvarja z didaktiko estetske vzgoje, splošno in specialno didaktiko glasbe ter kulturno-umetnostno vzgojo. Rezultate raziskav objavlja v znanstvenih in strokovnih revijah ter na znanstvenih konferencah in simpozijih doma in v tujini. Olga DENAC ([email protected]) is Full Professor for Music Didactics at Universi- ty of Maribor, Faculty of Education of Maribor, Slovenia. Her scientific research work concern: didactics of aesthetic education, general and special musical didactics, arts and cultural education. Results of her studies have been presented in scientific and professional journals and at scientific conferences and symposia at home and abroad.

Aida ISLAM ([email protected]) je diplomirala na Fakulteti za glasbeno umetnost v Skopju, Oddelek za klavir. V letu 2002 je končala študij na MA-stopnji na področju teorije interpretacij. Leta 2005 je doktorirala na Fakulteti za glasbo (Skopje) z naslovom disertacije: Refleksije o vplivu otomanske glasbene kulture na sodobno glasbeno kulturo turške skupnosti v Republiki Makedoniji. V obdobju med 1987 in 2004 je delala kot učiteljica klavirja na Srednji glasbeni šoli Ilija Nikolovski Luj v Skopju. Od leta 2001 dela kot profesorica na Pedagoški fakulteti Sv. Kliment Ohridski v Skopju, kjer poučuje predmete Metodologija glasbene vzgoje, Osnove glasbene vzgoje in Glasbeni inštrumenti. Sodelovala je na številnih domačih in mednarodnih konferencah. Njeno raziskovanje se dotika mnogih področij: glasbena vzgoja, glasbena tradicija in sociologija glasbe. Nekatere od mednarodnih revij, kjer je objavljala, so: International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR); Review of European Studies; Journal of Teaching and Education; Journal of Social Sciences; Journal of Academic Studies; Asian Social Science itd. Izdala je tudi 4 monografije: Makedonska klavirska umetnost in pedagogika (2010), Tonalni sistem turške glasbe (2007), Kulturna vloga turškega glasbenega oddelka na Radio Skopje (2009), Glasbena tradicija v Kodzadziku – rojstnem kraju družine Ataturka (2013). Aida ISLAM ([email protected]) has graduated at the Faculty of Music Art in Skopje - Piano Department. 2002 finishes the M. A. degree in the area of Theory of Interpretation. She received her PhD in 2005, titled “Reflections of the Ottoman Music Culture on Contemporary Music Culture of the Turkish Community in the Republic of Macedonia” in the Faculty of Music, Skopje. In the period 1987-2001 she worked as a piano teacher in High Music School “Ilija Nikolovski Luj” Skopje. Since 2001 Aida Islam has worked as a professor at the Faculty of Padagogy “St. Climent Ohridski” in Skopje where she gives lectures in Methodology of Music Education, Basics of Music Education and Musical Instruments. She has participated in numerous domestic and international conferences. Her researches are engaged in many areas like: music education, music tradition and sociology of music. Some of the international journals, where she published, are: International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR); Review of

243

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 243 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 European Studies; Journal of Teaching and Education; Journal of Social Sciences; Journal of Academic Studies; Sociology Study; Asian Social Science, etc. She has published four books: “Macedoian Pianistic Art and Pedagogy” (2010), “The Tonal System of Turkish Mu- sic” (2007), “The Cultural Roll of the Turkish Music Department at Radio Skopje” (2009), “The Music Tradition in Kodzadzik – the Birthplace of the Family of Ataturk” (2013).

Karmen Brina KODRIČ ([email protected]) slovenistka in profesorica slo- venščine, pevka in avtorica slovenske popularne glasbe, roj. na Ptuju, doktorska štu- dentka fonetike na FF Ljubljana pri mentorju dr. Hotimirju Tivadarju. Karmen Brina KODRIČ ([email protected]) is a Slovene teacher, singer and author of popular music. Currently she is PhD student of phonetics at the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, mentored by Dr. Hotimir Tivadar.

Stefanija LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA ([email protected]) je diplomirala na Fakulteti za glasbeno umetnost v Skopju, Oddelek za muzikologijo. V letu 2002 je končala enak študij še na MA-stopnji. Leta 2006 je doktorirala na Fakulteti za glasbo (Skopje) z naslovom disertacije: Vpliv kulturnih, socioloških in ekonomskih determinant v glasbenih nastopih v Skopju leta 2004. V obdobju med 1987 in 2004 je delala kot novinar za glasbo in recenzent za nacionalno RTV v Skopju. Od 2007 dela kot profesorica na Fakulteti za glasbeno umetnost v Štipu, kjer poučuje Muzikologijo, Glasbeno zgodovino in Glasbene inštrumente. Sodelovala je na številnih domačih in mednarodnih konferencah. Njeno raziskovanje se dotika mnogih področij: glasbena vzgoja, glasbena tradicija in sociologija glasbe. Nekatere od mednarodnih revij, kjer je objavljala, so: International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR); Review of European Studies; Journal of Teaching and Education; Journal of Social Sciences; Journal of Academic Studies; Asian Social Science. Izdala je tudi nekaj mo- nografij: Glasbena tradicija v Kodzadziku – rojstnem kraju družine Ataturka (2013), Katalog na delata na makedonskite kompozitori (2014), Poznavanje na muzichki instrumenti, nivnite osnovni funkcii vo orkestarot i osnovi na muzichkite formi (2015). Stefanija LESHKOVA ZELENKOVSKA ([email protected]) graduated at the Faculty of Music Art in Skopje – Musicology Department. In 2002 she fini- shed her M. A. degree in the area of Musicology. She received her PhD in 2006, titled “The Influence of Cultural, Social and Economic Determinants at the Music Performan- ces in Skopje 2004” in the Faculty of Music, Skopje. In the period 1987–2004 worked as a music journalist and reviewer in the National Radio TV in Skopje. Since 2007 she has worked as a professor at the Faculty of Music Art in Shtip, where she gives lectures in Musicology, History of Music and Musical Instruments. She has participated in numerous domestic and international conferences. Her researches are engaged in many areas like: music education, music tradition and sociology of music. Some of the international journals, where she published, are: International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR); Review of European Studies; Journal of Teaching and Edu- cation; Journal of Social Sciences; Journal of Academic Studies; Asian Social Science. She has published few books: “The Music Tradition in Kodzadzik – the Birthplace of the Family of Ataturk” (2013), Katalog na delata na makedonskite kompozitori (2014),

244

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 244 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 Poznavanje na muzichki instrumenti, nivnite osnovni funkcii vo orkestarot i osnovi na muzichkite formi (2015).

Dimitar NINOV ([email protected]) is a published composer and theorist as well as an invited lecturer at various music conferences. He teaches music theory at Texas State University, San Marcos (USA). Ninov is a graduate of The University of Texas-A- ustin (USA) and the National Academy of Music in Sofia, Bulgaria. More information available at: dimitarninov.com Dimitar NINOV ([email protected]) je publiciran skladatelj in teoretik kot tudi go- stujoči predavatelj na različnih konferencah. Uči glasbeno teorijo na univerzi Texas State University, San Marcos (ZDA). Ninov je diplomant dotične univerze in Državne akademije za glasbo v Sofiji, Bolgarija. Več informacij na: dimitarninov.com.

Lana PAĆUKA ([email protected]) je diplomirala iz muzikologije leta 2006 na Akademiji za glasbo v Sarajevu, MA-stopnjo končala leta 2010 in doktorirala leta 2014 (Glasbeno življenje Sarajeva v času vladavine Avstro-Ogrske med letoma 1878 in 1918). Leta 2007 je bila izvoljena za asistentko s področja muzikologije na Akademiji za glasbo v Sarajevu, 2014 pa za docentko. Od leta 2007 sodeluje tudi z Inštitutom za muzikologijo v Sarajevu. Sodelovala je pri projektu z naslovom Temeljne glasbene raziskave v Bosni in Hercegovini, katerega plod je bil prvi Abecedni leksikon glasbenikov v Bosni in Hercegovini – umetnostna glasba. Napisala je večje število člankov o glasbeni teoriji in zgodovini Bosne in Hercegovine in o glasbenem novinarstvu za vse pomembnejše revije doma in v regiji. Bila je tudi sodelavka portala Grove Music Online (Oxford Uni- versity Press), za katerega je napisala 10 člankov o pomembnih osebnostih glasbenega življenja Bosne in Hercegovine. Svoje prispevek je predstavljala na srečanjih in simpozijih, ki so jih organizirala glasbena združenja FB&H, IMS, ICTM … Od 2014 je glavna urednica najpomembnejše recenzirane bosansko-hercegovske muzikološke revije, Jo- urnal for musical culture Music. Lana PAĆUKA ([email protected]) graduated in musicology at the Aca- demy of music in Sarajevo (2006). She earned a master‘s degree in 2010 and a doctoral degree in 2014 (Musical Life in Sarajevo in the Period of Austro-Hungarian Rule 1878–1918). She became an assistant in the field of musicology at the Academy of Mu- sic in Sarajevo in 2007, and in 2014 was elected as an assistant professor in the field of musicology. From 2007 she is a collaborator at the Institute of Musicology at the Music Academy in Sarajevo. She was involved in the project Fundamental researches of Music in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which resulted in the first Alphabetic lexicon of musicians in Bosnia and Herzegovina – artistic music. She has published many papers about music history in Bosnia and Herzegovina and musical journalism in all significant ma- gazines in the country and region. She was also a collaborator for Grove Music Online (Oxford University Press) for which she wrote ten articles about eminent protagonists of musical life in Bosnia and Herzegovina. She has presented her papers at meetings and symposiums organized by the Musicological society FB&H, IMS, ICTM, etc. Since 2014 she has been editor-in-chief of the main, peer-reviewed Bosnian and Herzegovini- an musicological periodical, Journal for musical culture Music.

245

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 245 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Ludim Rebeca PEDROZA ([email protected]) je docentka glasbe na univerzi Texas State University, kjer uči glasbeno zgodovino, klavirske tehnike in sodeluje pri več raziskavah na BA-ravni, ki se ukvarjajo z glasbo Južne Amerike. Njena raziskovanja so usmerjena v preučevanje historično-estetskega oblikovanja ideologij v glasbi in stičišča med akademsko in popularno glasbeno kulturo. Ludim Rebeca PEDROZA ([email protected]) is Assistant Professor of Mu- sic at Texas State University, where she teaches music history, piano techniques, and several graduate surveys of the music of Latin America. Her research focuses on the historical-aesthetic formation of ideologies of music, and the junction(s) between academic and popular musical cultures.

Andraž POLJANEC ([email protected]) je doštudiral flavto (prof. Karolina Šantl - Zupan) in tolkala (prof. Boris Šurbek) na ljubljanski Akademiji za glasbo. Na področju tolkal se je izpopolnjeval na konservatoriju Rueil-Malmaison v Parizu (prof. Gaston Sylvestre) in v Amsterdamu (prof. Nick Woud). Komorno in solistično je bil sprva dejaven predvsem z zasedbo Studio za tolkala, s katero je nastopal tudi v tujini. Za umetniške dosežke na področju poustvarjalne glasbene umetnosti je kot član Studia za tolkala leta 1999 prejel Betettovo nagrado. Kot član tega ansambla in samostojno je krstil in posnel več del slovenskih skladateljev. Od leta 2004 je zaposlen kot solist timpanist v Simfoničnem orkestru RTV Slovenija. Leta 2009 je imel solistični recital v Koncertnem ateljeju Društva slovenskih skladateljev. V koncertni sezoni 2011/12 je kot solist v ciklu Kromatika krstno izvedel koncert za tolkalca in simfonični orkester Petra Šavlija z naslovom Čakra. Leta 2015 je na muzikološkem oddelku ljubljanske Filozofske fakultete pod mentorstvom izr. prof. dr. Bruna Ravnikarja zaključil magistrski študij z zagovorom magistrskega dela Akustične lastnosti pavk in njihova povezava z instrumentalno prakso. Andraž POLJANEC ([email protected]) graduated in flute (Prof. Karolina Šan- tl - Zupan) and percussion (Prof. Boris Šurbek) at the Academy for Music in Ljubljana. He further improved his knowledge at the Conservatorium Rueil-Malmaison in Paris (Prof. Gaston Sylvestre) and in Amsterdam (Prof. Nick Woud). In the field of chamber music, but also as a solo artist, he first preformed within the group Studio za tolkala (Studio for percussion) – in Slovenia and abroad. For his performative musical accomplishments within the same group he received the Betetto Prize in 1999. As a member of the Studio or alone he performed – in debut performances – and recorded various musical pieces of different Slovene authors. Since 2004 he has been employed as a timpani soloist in the RTV Slovenia Symphonic Orchestra. In 2009 he had a solo recital in the Concert Atelier of the Society of Slovene Composers. In the concert season 2011/2012 (within the series “Chromatics”), he debut-performed the Concert for percussion player and symphonic orchestra by Peter Šavli entitled Čakra. In 2015, he defended his master theses Acoustic nature of timpani and their relationship with instrumental practice.

Zoran POTOČAN ([email protected]) je diplomiral na Fakulteti za arhitekturo v Ljubljani (1994), diploma in specializacija na Akademiji za glasbo v Ljubljani (1997, 2001), zaposlen je v SNG Opera in balet Ljubljana (operni pevec solist) in v Glasbeni

246

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 246 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1 šoli Domžale (učitelj petja), je študent doktorskega študija Oddelka za muzikologijo Filozofske fakultete v Ljubljani. Zoran POTOČAN ([email protected]) graduated at the Faculty for Architec- ture in Ljubljana (1994) and at the Academy for Music Ljubljana (1997, 2001). He is employed at the Slovenian National Theatre Opera and Ballet Ljubljana (opera solo singer) and at the Music School in Domžale (teacher for singing); he is also a PhD student at the Department for Musicology at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana.

Barbara SICHERL KAFOL ([email protected]) je izredna profesorica za glasbeno didaktiko na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, Slovenija. Raziskovalno se ukvarja s tematiko sodobnega načrtovanja glasbene vzgoje v okviru celostnih vzgojno-izobraževalnih pristopov, preverjanja in ocenjevanja glasbenih dosežkov, strategij vseživljenjskega učenja in sodobnega poučevanja v okviru medpredmetnih pristopov. Barbara SICHERL KAFOL ([email protected]) is Associated Professor of Music Didactics at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Her research areas concern the field of music education within holistic approach, the assessment of musical achievements, strategies and skills of lifelong learning and contemporary teaching in the context of interdisciplinary approaches.

Hotimir TIVADAR ([email protected]) je študiral na Filozofski fakulteti Uni- verze v Ljubljani in na Katedri za češki jezik in književnost ter Fonetičnem inštitutu Fi- lozofske fakultete Karlove univerze v Pragi. Diplomiral 1998, magistriral 2003, doktori- ral 2008. Profesor slovenščine, specialist za govorjeni jezik in fonetiko in fonologijo ter kodifikacijo in izobraževanje slovenskega knjižnega jezika, objavlja članke s teh pod- ročij v Sloveniji in po svetu, udeležuje pa se tudi znanstvenih kongresov na Hrvaškem (Zagreb, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2013, Opatija, 1999), na Poljskem (Torun, 2004, 2008), v Sloveniji (Simpozij Obdobja, 2003, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015 and SSJLK, 2004, 2008, 2015, SLAVIFON, 2012), na Češkem (Praga 2005, 2014) in v Makedoniji (2010). Zaposlen na Filozofski fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani na mestu izrednega profesorja. Član Komisije za fonetiko in fonologijo slovanskih jezikov pri Mednarodnem slavističnem komiteju. Hotimir TIVADAR ([email protected]) studied at Faculty of Arts, De- partment for Slovene language, University of Ljubljana, Institute of Czech Language and Theory of Communication and Institute of Phonetics on Faculty of Arts at Charles University. He graduated in 1998, received his MA in 2003, and received his doctorate 2008 on Faculty of Arts, Ljubljana and Faculty of Arts, Prague (co-mentor Z. Palková). Main occupation is phonetics and phonology, problems of codification and education of Slovene standard language. He has published articles in scientific papers and reported about the aforementioned topics on scientific meetings in Croatia (Zagreb, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2010, 2013, Opatija, 1999), in Poland (Torun, 2004, 2008), in Slovenia (congress Obdobja, 2003, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015 and SSJLK, 2004, 2008, 2015, SLAVI- FON, 2012), in Czech Republic (Praha 2005, 2014), in Macedonia (2010). Employed at the Faculty of Arts in Ljubljana as an associate professor. Member of Commission for Phonetics by International Slavic Committee.

247

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 247 23.6.2016 9:58:44 MUZIKOLOŠKI ZBORNIK • MUSICOLOGICAL ANNUAL LII/1

Katarina TOMAŠEVIĆ ([email protected]) je znanstvena sodelavka na Inštitutu za muzikologijo na Srbski akademiji za znanost in umetnost v Beogradu. Avtorica knjige Srbska glasba na križišču med Vzhodom in Zahodom? O dialogu med tradicionalnim in modernim v srbski glasbi med obema vojnama (Beograd 2009); ob- javila je veliko člankov doma in v tujini ter bila glavna urednica mednarodne revije Musicology (izdaje Inštituta za muzikologijo SASA, 2006–2010), pa tudi revije Matica Srpska Journal of Stage Arts and Music (od 2011). Katarina TOMAŠEVIČ ([email protected]) is Senior Research Asso- ciate at the Institute of Musicology of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Bel- grade. Author of the book Serbian Music on the Cross-Roads between East and West? On Dialogue between the Traditional and the Modern in Serbian Music between Two World Wars (Belgrade 2009), she published numerous articles in the country and abroad and served as editor–in–chief of the international journal Musicology (edition of the Institute of Musicology SASA, 2006–2010), as well as of the journal Matica Srpska Journal of Stage Arts and Music (from 2011).

Sonja WEISS ([email protected]) je zaposlena na Oddelku za klasično filologijo Fi- lozofske fakultete. Ukvarja se predvsem z antično filozofijo; njene objave zajemajo po- dročje platonizma, novoplatonizma in humanistične recepcije antičnega filozofskega izročila. Je prevajalka antičnih, poznoantičnih in humanističnih besedil (predsokratiki, Plotin, Porfirij, Anzelm Canterburyjski, Nikolaj Kuzanski, Marsilio Ficino) in avtorica monografije o Plotinu. Sonja WEISS ([email protected]) is employed at the Faculty of Arts, Department for Classical Philology. She is mainly involved in researching ancient Greek philosophy; her publishing includes articles from the fields of Platonism, Neo-Platonism and the reception of the ancient philosophy tradition. She translated texts from Classical Ancient Greece, its early stages and from the period of humanism (Pre-Socratic philosophers, Plotinus, Porfirius, Anselm of Canterbury, Nikolas of Cusa, Marsilio Ficino and wrote a book on Plotinus.

Jerneja ŽNIDARŠIČ ([email protected]) je asistentka za glasbene vsebine in praktikum na Pedagoški fakulteti Univerze v Ljubljani, Slovenija. Njeno znanstveno in raziskovalno delo obsega področje glasbene didaktike, s poudarkom na medpredmetnem povezovanju glasbene vzgoje in zgodovine, poslušanju glasbe in kulturno-umetnostni vzgoji. Jerneja ŽNIDARŠIČ ([email protected]) is Teaching Assistant for Music Didactics at the Faculty of Education, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Her research interests include the field of musical didactics, where the special attention is being paid to interdisciplinary connections between music and history education, as well as the field of listening to music among adolescents and arts and cultural education.

248

MZ_2016_1_FINAL.indd 248 23.6.2016 9:58:44