Anteeksipyyntöjen Politiikka 2000-Luvun Kroatiassa Tutkimus Neljästä Vuosina 2001–2012 Esitetystä Historiallisesta Anteeksipyynnöstä

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Anteeksipyyntöjen Politiikka 2000-Luvun Kroatiassa Tutkimus Neljästä Vuosina 2001–2012 Esitetystä Historiallisesta Anteeksipyynnöstä Anteeksipyyntöjen politiikka 2000-luvun Kroatiassa Tutkimus neljästä vuosina 2001–2012 esitetystä historiallisesta anteeksipyynnöstä Lasse Aleksi Salonen Helsingin yliopisto Valtiotieteellinen tiedekunta Poliittinen historia Pro gradu -tutkielma Joulukuu 2013 Tiedekunta/Osasto Fakultet/Sektion – Faculty Laitos/Institution– Department Valtiotieteellinen tiedekunta Politiikan ja talouden tutkimuksen laitos Tekijä/Författare – Author Salonen, Lasse Aleksi Työn nimi / Arbetets titel – Title Anteeksipyyntöjen politiikka 2000-luvun Kroatiassa. Tutkimus neljästä vuosina 2001–2012 esitetystä historialli- sesta anteeksipyynnöstä Oppiaine /Läroämne – Subject Polittiinen historia Työn laji/Arbetets art – Level Aika/Datum – Month and year Sivumäärä/ Sidoantal – Number of pages Pro gradu -tutkielma Joulukuu 2013 141 Tiivistelmä/Referat – Abstract Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan menneisyyden vääryyksien johdosta esitettyjä valtiollisia anteeksipyyntöjä 2000- luvun Kroatiassa. Tutkimuskohteena on neljä Kroatian presidentin vuosina 2001– 2012 valtiovierailun yhteydes- sä lausumaa historiallista anteeksipyyntöä. Tutkittavat anteeksipyynnöt liittyvät kahteen eri historialliseen kon- tekstiin ja ne voidaan jakaa Israelissa holokaustin vuoksi esitettyihin retrospektiivisiin anteeksipyyntöihin sekä Serbia ja Montenegrossa ja Bosnia ja Hertsegovinassa esitettyihin Jugoslavian hajoamissotien tapahtumia koske- viin aikalaisanteeksipyyntöihin. Tutkimuksen primäärinen lähdeaineisto koostuu anteeksipyyntöjen lisäksi kroa- tialaisen sanomalehdistön anteeksipyyntöjä käsittelevästä kirjoittelusta. Pro gradu -työn tavoitteena on tutkia itse anteeksipyyntöjen ohella myös Kroatian kansallista menneisyyssuhdet- ta ja maan julkisen mielipiteen valmiutta tilintekoon Kroatian nimissä suoritetuista vääryyksistä. Tutkielmassa ammennetaan useamman anteeksipyyntöilmiötä käsitelleen tutkijan ajatuksista ja tarkastellaan tutkimuskohdetta osana yleistä anteeksipyyntöilmiötä neljän aikaisemmasta tutkimuksesta nousevan tutkimuskysymyksen valossa. Tärkeimmäksi tutkimuskysymysten muotoilun kannalta voi kuitenkin nostaa Nava Löwenheimin artikkelin A haunted past: requesting forgiveness for wrongdoing in International Relations. Kahdessa ensimmäisessä tutkimuskysymyksessä arvioidaan tutkittavien anteeksipyyntöjen merkittävyyttä viisi- kohtaisen anteeksipyynnön ideaalimallin avulla sekä analysoidaan anteeksipyyntöjen Kroatiassa herättämiä reak- tioita vääryyden sisäistämisen asteiden kautta. Vääryyden sisäistämisen asteet kertovat siitä, kuinka pitkällä Kroatia on menneisyydenhallintaprosessissaan. Muut tutkimuskysymykset koskevat anteeksipyyntöjen puolue- politiikkaa sekä sitä, onko holokaustin vuoksi esitettyjen anteeksipyyntöjen ja Jugoslavian hajoamissotia koske- vien aikalaisanteeksipyyntöjen välillä olennaisia eroja niiden merkittävyyden ja niihin suhtautumisen osalta. Lisäksi pyritään kartoittamaan mahdollisia anteeksipyyntöjen poliittisia motiiveja sekä pohditaan syitä sille, mistä erot anteeksipyyntöjen merkittävyydessä voivat johtua. Työn johtopäätöksissä todetaan retrospektiivisten anteeksipyyntöjen tavoittavan huomattavasti aikalaisanteeksi- pyyntöjä paremmin merkittävän historiallisen anteeksipyynnön kriteerit. Merkittävyydeltään voimakkaimmaksi anteeksipyynnöksi nousee Ivo Josipovićin vuonna 2012 Israelissa esittämä anteeksipyyntö, jota voi puheaktina pitää harvinaisen onnistuneena historiallisena anteeksipyyntönä. Vain tässä anteeksipyynnössä otti sen esittänyt valtionpäämies kiertelemättä vastuun edustamansa valtion ja kansakunnan suorittamista historiallisista vääryyk- sistä kolmen muun tutkimani anteeksipyynnön jäädessä yleisen pahoittelun ilmaisun asteelle. Lisäksi todetaan kansallisen yksimielisyyden ja vääryyden sisäistämisen olevan Jugoslavian hajoamissodista esitettyjen anteeksi- pyyntöjen suhteen vielä vähäistä verrattuna holokaustia koskeviin anteeksipyyntöihin. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords Historian hyvittäminen, historiapolitiikka, anteeksipyyntö, Kroatia, Stjepan Mesić, Ivo Josipović, holokausti, Jugoslavia, Israel, Serbia ja Montenegro, Bosnia ja Hertsegovina Sisällys 1 Johdanto ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Tutkimuksen lähtökohdat ........................................................................................ 2 1.1.1 Tutkimuksen aihe ............................................................................................. 2 1.1.2 Tutkimuksen rajaus .......................................................................................... 6 1.1.3 Tutkimusasetelman perustelu ........................................................................... 8 1.2 Tutkimuskysymykset ............................................................................................ 10 1.3 Näkökulma ja tutkimuksen tavoitteet.................................................................... 17 1.4 Tutkimusaineisto ................................................................................................... 20 2 Menneisyyden vääryyksien hyvittäminen ja historiallinen anteeksipyyntö................. 24 2.1 Historian hyvittämisen monet muodot .................................................................. 25 2.1.1 Reparatiivinen ja retributiivinen oikeus ......................................................... 27 2.1.2 Anteeksipyynnön erikoispiirteitä menneisyydenhallinnan välineenä ............ 32 2.2 Historiallisen anteeksipyynnön ongelmia ja mahdollisuuksia .............................. 36 3 Pieni katsaus Kroatian lähihistoriaan ........................................................................... 41 3.1 Itsenäistymissota ja Tuđmanin valtakausi ............................................................. 44 3.2 Kohti moniarvoisempaa yhteiskuntaa ja eurooppalaista integraatiota .................. 46 3.3 Kroatialainen menneisyyspolitiikka ...................................................................... 49 4 Historialliset anteeksipyynnöt 2000-luvun Kroatiassa................................................. 54 4.1 Holokaustin pitkä varjo – Israelissa esitetyt anteeksipyynnöt .............................. 54 4.1.1 ”Olen tullut kuitatakseni menneisyyden velan” – Stjepan Mesićin anteeksipyyntö vuonna 2001 ................................................................................... 56 4.1.2 ”Myrkkykäärmeen annettiin luikerrella kansakuntamme sydämestä” – Ivo Josipovićin anteeksipyyntö vuonna 2012................................................................ 67 4.2 Panos alueelliseen sovintoon – Jugoslavian hajoamissotia koskevat anteeksipyynnöt........................................................................................................... 76 4.2.1 Svetozar Marovićin ja Stjepan Mesićin kaksoisanteeksipyyntö Belgradissa ............................................................................................................................... ..81 4.2.2 ”Yhdistäkäämme voimamme Bosnia ja Hertsegovinan puolesta!” – Ivo Josipovićin pahoittelu Sarajevossa .......................................................................... 92 5. Johtopäätökset ........................................................................................................... 111 Lähteet ........................................................................................................................... 121 Liitteet ........................................................................................................................... 133 1 Johdanto Erilaiset vaatimukset ja pyrkimykset historian saatossa suoritettujen vääryyksien hyvit- tämiseksi ovat nykyaikaa vahvasti leimaava ilmiö. Menneisyyden kriittistä uudelleen- tarkastelua on käyty ympäri maailman, mutta historian hyvittämisen muodot vaihtelevat paljon eri maanosien tai erilaisten historiallisten kontekstien välillä. Useimmissa histo- rian hyvittämistä koskevissa tutkimuksissa menneisyyttä koskevien keskustelujen katso- taan toden teolla voimistuneen 1990-luvun taitteessa kylmän sodan päättymisen aikoi- hin.1 Lisääntynyt kiinnostus menneisyyttä ja historian hyvittämistä kohtaan niin aka- teemiseen maailman, poliitikkojen kuin julkisen keskustelunkin piirissä on innoittanut tutkijoita käyttämään kylmän sodan jälkeisestä aikakaudesta sellaisia kuvaavia nimityk- siä kuin ”paluu historiaan”, ”muistibuumi” tai ”anteeksipyyntöjen aikakausi”.2 Menneisyyden vääryyksistä käydyt keskustelut ovat johtaneet monenlaiseen kirjoon hyvitysvaatimuksia uhrien tai heidän jälkeläistensä taholta ja nämä vaatimukset ovat puolestaan konkretisoituneet hyvin vaihtelevia muotoja saaneina ratkaisuina vääryyksi- en korjaamiseksi. Näin ollen historian hyvittämistä on hankala tarkastella yhtenä koko- naisuutena eikä sen tutkimiseksi ole olemassa mitään universaalia mallia. Toisaalta hyvitysvaatimuksiin suhtautumista leimaa epäluulo ja varautuneisuus. Tämä asenne tiivistyy usein epäilyksiin siitä, voivatko kansakuntien kaltaiset yhteisöt olla kollektiivisesti vastuussa niiden nimissä suoritetuista vääryyksistä ja miten kauas histo- riaan tämä vastuu voidaan perustellusti ulottaa. Toisaalta taas pyrkimyksissä korjata menneisyyden epäoikeudenmukaisuuksia nähdään paljon mahdollisuuksia parantaa en- tisten vihollisten suhteita ja lääkitä menneisyyden kiistojen tai hirmutekojen aiheuttamia haavoja sekä sovintoa rakentamalla pyrkiä vastakkaisten historiantulkintojen sijaan koh- ti jaettuja historiakäsityksiä ja yhteistä tulevaisuutta, olivat menneisyyttä koskevat kiis- tat sitten valtionsisäisiä tai kahden
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