!"#$" !"# Of bees, birds, trees, and women: iconography, superstition and victimization of female characters in Yugoslav New Film
()*+ (,-.(+/ Film Studies and Visual Culture University of Antwerp, Belgium
A!"#$%&#. Vuković Vesi, Of bees, birds, trees, and women: iconography, superstition and victimization of female characters in Yugoslav New Film. “Images” vol. XXVIII, no. . Poznań . Adam Mickiewicz University Press. Pp. –. ISSN -X. DOI ./i... ,is study investigates how the directors of two selected case study -lms criticise the real-life remnants of patri- archy in the family sphere, in nominally gender-equal Yugoslavia. I argue that they do this by transposing their stories from socialist Yugoslavia to the pre-socialist times: during Ottoman rule and monarchist Yugoslavia. ,e selected period -lms Breza/"e Birch Tree (Ante Babaja, , Yugoslavia) and Roj/"e Beehive aka "e Swarm (Miodrag ‘Mića’ Popović, , Yugoslavia), both belonging to the Yugoslav novi !lm (New Film) movement (-), refract the workings of the vestiges of patriarchy in a family domain of Yugoslav socialist society. In these two costume dramas, patriarchy is portrayed to its fullest extent, due to their stories being set in the past, ostensibly unrelated to contemporary Yugoslav society and thus uninhibited by the drive to cater to the o/cial discourse of female emancipation. Applying a critical -lm feminist perspective, by formal analysis via close readings of these two selected -lms, this article examines the iconography linked to -ctional depictions of heroines and delves into the representation of victimisation of women. I investigate whether the depiction of the female sorceress(es) embody the primitiveness, ignorance, and/or poverty of economically disadvantaged and historically oppressed pre-socialist village. In order to peruse not only the individual portrayal of female protagonists but the dynamics of their interaction, the Bechdel test is applied and complemented with concepts such as the ‘reversed masquerade’ and ‘cryptomatriarchy’, which sheds light on the relationship between women and the presence or absence of female solidarity. K'()*$+": iconography, Yugoslav New Film, female characters, Bechdel test, ‘reversed masquerade’, ‘crypto- matriarchy’
!e main aim of this study is to investigate costume dramas, patriarchy is portrayed in its why the directors of two selected Yugoslav New fullest extent, due to the stories being set in the Films depict the patriarchal reign of a pre-so- past during Ottoman rule and monarchist Yu- cialist past, instead of their socialist present. goslavia. !e &lms are ostensibly unrelated to Why did they choose to feature women as the their contemporary Yugoslav society and are main characters, which was less common in thus uninhibited by the inclination to cater to the Yugoslav novi !lm (New Film) Movement? the o'cial discourse of female emancipation. I propose the argument that this was a choice to !e Yugoslav socialist state took all the neces- criticise the real-life remnants of patriarchy in sary legislative measures for guaranteeing and the family sphere of a nominally gender-equal promoting gender equality. What it could not Yugoslavia, by cinematically regressing into fully eradicate were the patriarchal mindsets the past, into the pre-socialist times before the of people in the domain of the family, dating Second World War, instead of showing the so- back and persisting from pre-socialist times. cialist present of the "#$%s. In the two studied By having a critical attitude towards myths of !"$ !"#$" the past, &lms are critically relating to their of female characters in &lms, in recent years the contemporary myths.[%] !erefore, I contend test has o2en been applied to cinema for evalu- that the selected period &lms, Breza/"e Birch ating gender representation.['] !e shortcom- Tree (Ante Babaja, "#$0, Yugoslavia) and Roj/ ings of the somewhat over-simpli&ed Bechdel "e Beehive[&] aka "e Swarm (Miodrag ‘Mića’ test are complemented with concepts such as Popović, "#$$, Yugoslavia), both belonging to the ‘reversed masquerade’,[(] and ‘cryptoma- the Yugoslav New Film movement, refract the triarchy’,[)] which shed light on the relations workings of the vestiges of patriarchy in a family between women and the presence or absence domain of Yugoslav socialist society. I observe of female solidarity. !e former theoretical con- the &lms from a critical &lm feminist perspec- cept refers to the celluloid e3aced femininity tive, by formal analysis via close readings. of elderly women, o2en clad in black, who ap- In addition, my study scrutinises the repre- propriate patriarchal attitudes from their male sented victimisation of women, and the mean- family members and use manly behaviour as ings behind iconography (of the birch tree, the a mask.[*] !e latter concept implies the hid- white dove and the queen bee) linked to &ction- den, obscured power of elderly women with- al depictions of heroines. In order to observe in a real-life household of a patriarchal fam- and analyse, both the individual portrayal of ily, speci&cally regarding younger women.[+] female protagonists and the dynamics of their Lastly, I foreground how, in the selected &lms, interaction, the Bechdel test is performed. Al- a female sorceress embodies the primitiveness, though initially originating as a witty insight ignorance, and poverty associated with the from a comic writer and not meant to be em- economically disadvantaged and historically ployed as a method to investigate the silencing oppressed pre-socialist village. !e reason for selecting and analysing "e [1] S. Novaković, Vreme otvaranja, Novi Sad Birch Tree and "e Beehive is due to both being "#0%, p. "67. period &lms set during pre-socialist times. "e [2] Although the more accurate literal transla- Birch Tree takes place in the era between the two tion of the &lm title would be "e Swarm, which World Wars, during the Kingdom of Yugosla- appears in few rare mentions of the &lm by other authors, I decided to translate it as "e Beehive, via, thus regressing into the times of tradition because it better captures the essence of the &lm when patriarchy reigned. Similarly, "e Beehive in terms of the iconography of the bees. evokes bygone times in the more distant past [3] J. O’Meara, What “"e Bechdel Test” doesn’t of the First Serbian uprising against the Otto- tell us: examining women’s verbal and vocal (dis) mans in "4%5. Moreover, these two case study empowerment in cinema, “Feminist Media Stud- &lms were chosen due to both being shot in ies” 7%"$, "$ ($), p. ""7%. the times of socialism, when gender equality [4] M. Bogojević, "e beauty of gender sin: politics was proclaimed. !e thematic distancing from of representation in Yugoslav auteur !lm, “Pro- Femina” 7%"", pp. 766–7$7. current events in the socialist present by placing [5] A. Simić, Machismo and cryptomatriarchy: the story in the past, accentuated by the usage of power, a#ect, and authority in the traditional costumes and settings, renders any ideological Yugoslav family, [in:] Gender Politics in the obligation towards the socialist state unneces- Western Balkans, ed. S.P Ramet, University Park sary.[,] Consequently, it enables a subtlety in "###, pp. ""–8%. audio-visual or narrative character develop- [6] M. Bogojević, "e beauty of gender…, p. 76#. ment.[-] In contrast, gender representations as [7] A. Simić, op.cit., pp. $0–00. stereotypes are more frequent in Yugoslav &lms [8] S. Slapšak, Žensko telo u jugoslovenskom !lmu: %. status žene, paradigma feminizma, [in:] Žene, which deal with contemporary themes.[ ] !is slike, izmišljaji, ed. B. Arsić, Beograd 7%%%, p. "74. is the case in many Yugoslav New Films, which [9] Ibidem. makes the two analysed &lms belonging to this [10] Ibidem. movement rather exceptional, since they feature !"#$" !"/ :eshed out female characters and stories set in in several countries, such as French Nouvelle the pre-socialist past. Vague, Japanese Nūberu bāgu and Czechoslo- Jovanović[%%] notes that some &lms classi- vakian Nová Vlna. &ed as the Classical Yugoslav Cinema (gen- Aside from the presence of generational erally speaking, &lms with classical narrative con:ict, the two selected &lms also qualify preceding the Yugoslav New Film movement) as Yugoslav New Films for being innovative were critical of the rural patriarchal tradition and prone to experimentation in terms of con- as a part of earlier times, while simultaneously tent, and style. !ey are both rather formally implying that it might still be present in Yu- stylised, with non-linear narrative structures. goslav socialist society. Focusing on gender Subsequently, their editing is complex and whilst peasant-themed, they initiated a debate interspersed with retrospective scenes, which on the patriarchal legacy of traditional rural could be another argument (but not exclusive) life, stretching from the pre-socialist era into for categorizing them as Yugoslav New Films, socialism, to some extent.[%&] My argument is as opposed to the mainstream &lms with mostly in line with Jovanović’s, since "e Birch Tree and invisible, linear editing and classical narrative "e Beehive elicit this kind of debate. !us, there dramatic structure. !e formal characteristics is a continuity of the Classical Yugoslav Cinema of Yugoslav New Film are su3used with abso- with Yugoslav New Film, which ‘constantly de- lute stylistic freedom, where every auteur freely stroys all existing societal myths and questions choses means of expression that suit him[%,] traditional values of one patriarchal moral’.[%'] best.[%-] !e somewhat theatrical "e Beehive !erefore, drawing on Slapšak’s, Jovanović’s and has powerful black and white photography by Novaković’s views, I contend that in the case Milorad Marković, whilst "e Birch Tree – per- study &lms, directors Babaja and Popović criti- haps visually one of the most highly regarded cised the real-life gender imbalance in the fam- Yugoslav &lms – is shot in colour by director ily domain of socialist Yugoslavia by portraying of photography Tomislav Pinter. Babaja seeks the workings of patriarchy, as set in the past. a classical beauty within his images, while si- multaneously being entirely modern themat- Yugoslav new !lm and gender ically, with the fact that he touches upon un- Both analysed &lms belong to Yugoslav explored spheres of social politics and bodily New Film, a loose auteurist movement without a manifesto, which Dušan Stojanović bookends [11] N. Jovanović, Gender and Sexuality in the between "#$" and "#07.[%(] Yugoslav New Film Classical Yugoslav Cinema, '()*–'(+,, PhD, Gen- tackles themes in an innovative manner, exhib- der Studies, Central European University 7%"5, its modern aesthetic tendencies in its form and p. "47. is o2en in opposition to Yugoslavian traditional [12] Ibidem, p. 776. [13] S. Novaković, op.cit., p. 0$. Own translation. %) narrative &lm,[ ] a formally and thematically [14] A. Petrović, Novi !lm II ('(+-–'(*.): “Crni mainstream cinema that coexisted alongside it. !lm”, Beograd "#44, p. 866. Divergent in their styles, Yugoslav New Film di- [15] D. Stojanović, Velika avantura !lma, Be- rectors sought an authentic connection not only ograd "#$#, p. "64. to the topic they explored, but to the viewers as [16] Makavejev in: S. Novaković, B. Tirnanić, well.[%*] !e unifying threads of the movement Dušan Makavejev: Negirati estetiku u korist živo- include social criticism, a more open attitude ta, “Polja” "#$0, "8 ("%#), p. $. towards sexuality, and a pessimistic outlook on [17] A. Petrović, op.cit., pp. 87#–85#. [18] Yugoslav New Film directors were mostly %+ life.[ ] In addition, the depiction of genera- men. tional con:ict is one of the traits of Yugoslav [19] Makavejev in: S. Novaković, B. Tirnanić, New Film, which, generally speaking, is shared Dušan Makavejev: Negirati estetiku u korist živo- with the other initial ‘new waves’ that developed ta, “Polja” "#$0, "8 ("%#), p. $. !"" !"#$" transience.[&.] His &rst feature length &ction- However, as Yugoslav &lm critic Boglić[&(] al &lm Carevo novo ruho/"e Emperor’s New notes, in modern Yugoslav New Film, a woman Clothes ("#$"), based on the tale by Hans Chris- takes secondary place since the &lms of the di- tian Andersen and set in an unde&ned past, is rectors who inaugurated this new wave, such as a critique of any rule, possibly even including those of Aleksandar Petrović, Vatroslav Mimica, that of Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito. Keep- Zvonimir Berković, Matjaž Klopčić, and Babaja, ing that in mind, it is not surprising that Babaja’s primarily gave agency to a male hero as the next &lm "e Birch Tree – which, as Gilić notes, subject of the action. In their &lms, the female was inspired by two novels written by Slavko character is o2en a passive object, stripped of Kolar in the interwar period[&%] – is set into the her independence and equality.[&)] Neverthe- past in order to comment on the contemporary less, there were also a few real heroines, for in- issues of that socialist present. !is aspect is stance: the mother queen bee Stojanka (Mira common in both of the aforementioned &lms. Stupica) in "e Beehive by Popović; the wife of Namely, Babaja addresses the precarious Hasan bey in Hasanaginica/Kameni despot ili position of a woman in a rural environment, jedna mogućnost narodne pesme Hasanaginica speci&cally as she di3ers from the collective as ("#$0) by the same director; or the mother in an individual, whether with her fragile body or "e Wild Growth/Samorastniki ("#$8) by Igor otherwise. Popović, a painter by vocation, also Pretnar.[&*] However, many more were wom- has a streak of social criticism in his artistic en-objects, who only watched as their destiny opus, both in his paintings and &lms. Pursuing unfolded, tragically constrained by the mores social equality, ‘his &lms would confront the of their society.[&+] A typical example of female past and the present of Yugoslavia’.[&&] Pop- characters from that era of Yugoslav &lm, due to ović’s and Babaja’s work are in line with the ‘her passivity, certain helplessness and utmost de&nition of Yugoslav New Film as a movement dependence on a man’[&,], is the much-mis- tackling ‘socio-national themes in a highly treated Janica (Manca Košir), from Babaja’s "e gendered mode, contrary to earlier propagan- Birch Tree. Yet, in contrast to Boglić’s aforemen- dist &lms which systematically e3aced gender tioned critique of Babaja’s woman-object, Krelja for the sake of class (communist, patriarchal) perceives it as a quality that regardless of wheth- struggle’.[&'] er Janica is dead or alive, the plot of the &lm revolves around her ‘as opposed to the extreme [20] Ibidem. marginalization of other heroines in so many [21] N. Gilić, Uvodna bilješka, “Hrvatski &lmski &ction &lms from this region’.[&-] !erefore, the ljetopis” 7%"%, "$ ($7), pp. $–0. focus on women as main characters makes "e [22] N. Miller., "e Nonconformists: Culture, Birch Tree and "e Beehive worthy of attention. Politics, and Nationalism in a Serbian Intellectual A2er viewing 7$# &lms, out of 74$ both Circle, '())–'((', Budapest 7%%0, p. "67. [23] M. Bogojević, op.cit., p. 760. mainstream and Yugoslav New Films, direct- [24] M. Boglić, Mit i antimit, Zagreb "#4%, p. "75. ed by Yugoslav directors from "#$" until "#07, [25] Ibidem. I &nd that what many Yugoslav New Films share [26] Ibidem, p. "78. is a physical or symbolical harm, self-harm, ne- [27] Ibidem. glect or control directed at female characters. [28] P. Krelja, Breza – !lm za sva vremena, “Hr- Since Yugoslav New Film is frequently per- vatski &lmski ljetopis” 7%"%, "$ ($7), p. "#. Own ceived as liberated, as De Cuir observes, it is translation. ironic that female characters were usually por- [29] Ibidem, p. "#. Own translation. [30] G. De Cuir Jr., Partisan “realism”: representa- trayed as victims, who ‘were o2en mistreated, tions of wartime past and state-building future abused, and even murdered’.['.] Modern Yu- in the cinema of socialist Yugoslavia, “Frames goslav New Films, in Boglić’s view, are mostly Cinema Journal” 7%"8, p. 8. ‘male’ &lms, which show all that is conservative !"#$" !"0 in female nature, and all the negative excesses men as the lead characters, the mere shi2 of of somewhat more nominal than e3ectuated focus on women as the main protagonists in the Yugoslavian real-life gender equality.['%] Os- two selected &lms is attention worthy. Moreover, cillating somewhere between myth and the they are :eshed-out characters, as opposed to degradation of a fetishized female character, many Yugoslav New Film depictions of women with more frequent tendency towards the lat- as stereotypes. Aside from the fact that Babaja ter, these &lms are o2en one-sided.['&] !is is and Popović criticise the patriarchal behaviour because they show only extremes or societal towards the depiction of female characters, they blackness, without depicting nuances or the are also occasionally complicit in, or have am- other side of a past contemporary Yugoslav bivalent viewpoint on, the matter of gender society, with numerous possibilities o3ered to asymmetry. Yugoslav working woman. Consequently, her reality with its complexities of both advantag- Gender equality in Yugoslavian socialism es and shortcomings does not exist in those and representations of gender &lms.[''] In order to ascertain whether there is a cor- Krelja notes that a common denominator of relation between the analysed &lms set in the Yugoslav New Film auteurs is a similar outlook past and a seeming misalignment with gender on a woman and her body.['(] On the one hand, issues in the Yugoslav socialism of the "#$%s, a female character is o2en represented as bear- I look into Yugoslav legislation. In Yugoslav so- ing a signi&cant part of the guilt that the world ciety, gender equality was &rst legally enforced is not a better place to live in, due to carrying by the constitution of "#5$.[(.] All subsequent a seed of evil, being infected with weaknesses constitutions have continued to enforce it but, of society, or having a tendency towards in&- most importantly for this paper, the socialist delity.[')] !us, a woman is the cause of a man’s state actively propagated it.[(%] !e Socialist doom, and in turn a man consequently rapes State overtly and clearly let it be known that or murders her.['*] Yugoslav New Film auteurs gender equality was a reward for active partic- frequently (and wrongfully) attributed signi&- ipation in the Second World War (as Partisan cant vices of reality to a woman in their intent &ghters, nurses, and civilians who supported to approach &lm as a conscience of society, as the struggle by bringing supplies in the rear of if she herself was personi&cation of reality and life.['+] On the other hand, in cases when a fe- [31] M. Boglić, op.cit., p. "76. male character is portrayed as morally decent, [32] Ibidem. she is perceived by a male character, or even [33] Ibidem. the entire environment, as a passive object suit- [34] P. Krelja, Opake žene jugoslavenskog !lma, able for inhumane treatment, and is submitted [in:] Knjiga o !lmu: “Filmska kultura”, '(-*–'(**, ed. F. Hanžeković, S. Ostojić, Zagreb "#0#, p. 5"7. ', to individual degradation.[ ] !erefore, from [35] Ibidem, pp. 5%#–5"7. Krelja’s observations, it can be deduced that in [36] Ibidem. Yugoslav New Film, a woman and her body is, [37] Ibidem, p. 5"8. generally speaking, either a source of wicked- [38] Ibidem, p. 5"7. ness or a target for male vice, which results in [39] 7%"6. “Black Waves, Red Horizons – New her mistreatment. Yugoslav Film”. Arsenal: Institut für &lm and Depictions of sexuality and gender in the videokunst e.V., accessed March %5. context of Yugoslav New Film, and the attitudes [40] A. Zaharijević, "e Strange Case of Yugoslav Femiism: Feminism and Socialism in “the East”, of its directors towards gender norms, are yet to [in:] "e Cultural Life of Capitalism in Yugosla- be acknowledged as one of its main traits.['-] via: (post)socialism and its other, ed. D. Jelača, Considering that Yugoslav New Film is dom- M. Kolanović, D. Lugarić, Cham 7%"0, p. 7$$. inated by male directors and mostly features [41] Ibidem. !01 !"#$" battle&eld).[(&] Women were granted legal ben- legal and political reforms, gender inequalities e&ts, such as the political rights to vote and to were expected to consequently disappear.[(,] be elected to political bodies.[('] Furthermore, Socialism indeed triggered a substantial im- they gained rights to one year-long paid mater- provement in women’s rights, but on the other nity leave, health insurance, access to education, hand, it failed to fully keep the promise of their freedom of choice, equal pay, marriage and di- liberation.[(-] Despite being empowered by vorce rights.[((] employment, Yugoslavian women performed !e aforementioned aspects reveal, if the a second, unpaid shi2 in their own homes a2er causes of gender-based discrimination towards coming back from work, by doing child-rearing women in the family domain were to be investi- and household chores, in most cases unaided by gated, that the laws were not the source of it, on their husbands.[).] !us, ‘in the private sphere, the contrary, they prevented it,[()] thus being, legislation was unable to resist the old values at the time ‘some of the most progressive leg- and replace them with something new’.[)%] islation in the world on women’.[(*] !ey gave Reproducing the remnants of patriarchal Yugoslav women ‘by far more rights than Amer- mentality and their stereotypes in regards to ican and Western European women’.[(+]. !e the position and the role of women, mass media so-called ‘women’s question’ was considered as reinforced the ideal of a capable, hardworking, resolved because, according to the state rhetoric, family-oriented housewife who does not leave with the abolition of class that took place, and the domestic sphere.[)&] Both in everyday life and in the popular press, Yugoslav women [42] V. Gudac-Dodić, Položaj žene u Srbiji ('()-– gradually ceased to be represented as Partisan ,...), [in:] Žene i deca: ). Srbija u modernizaci- &ghters and were ‘le2 as happy housewives or jskim procesima XIX i XX veka, ed. L. Perović, worker women at the conveyor-belt’.[)'] Beograd 7%%$, p. 85. !e words of Tito were also in line with this [43] Ibidem. trend. At the !ird Congress of the Antifascist [44] M. Morokvašić, Being a woman in Yugosla- Front of Women (AFW), a communist women’s via: Past, present and institutional equality, [in:] organisation, he spoke about ‘the speci&c duties’ Women of the Mediterranean, ed. M. Gadant, of women, such as nurturing and caring, espe- London "#4$ , p. "76. )( [45] V. Gudac-Dodić, op.cit., p. 56. cially for children.[ ] Moreover, he mentioned [46] M. Morokvašić, op.cit., p. "76. how mothers dedicated to child-rearing should [47] A. Zaharijević, ‘Women’s Liberation’, Četrde- be perceived accordingly as the ones build- set godina kasnije, “ProFemina” 7%"", p. "#6. Own ing socialism and performing socially-useful translation. work, ‘because proper raising of children is [48] L. Sklevicky, Konji, žene, ratovi, Zagreb "##$, their &rst obligation’.[))] Furthermore, books p. 4#. also peddled disparate values for women and [49] M. Morokvašić, op.cit., p. "7%. men. A study published by Rajka and Milan [50] Ibidem, p. "70. [51] Ibidem, p. "7". Polić in "#0# on the representation of female [52] Ž. Papić, Žarana Papić. Tekstovi '(**–,..,. characters in schoolbooks for children, like Belgrade 7%"7, p. "%6. corresponding studies made in France or Great [53] Z. Lóránd, "e Feminist Challenge to the Britain, concludes that ‘there are fewer female Socialist State in Yugoslavia, Cham 7%"4, p. "75. characters in the books, women have the ste- [54] I. Pantelić, Partizanke i antifašistički front reotyped roles of mother, housewife, nurse or žena Jugoslavije ('(),–'(-2), “ProFemina” 7%"", teacher, and they are given more negative traits p. #". than boys’.[)*] [55] M. Đorgović, A. Panić, U. Popović, Ženska Strana/Women’s Corner, [in:] Exhibition Cata- Women were not only underrepresented nu- logue, Belgrade 7%"%, p. "0. merically as the main characters in the school- [56] M. Morokvašić, op.cit., p. "88. books (87 percent women, $4 percent men), !"#$" !02 but the roles they performed and the meanings during the process. She allegedly betrayed her ascribed to their portrayals also di3ered, thus husband Nikola (Danilo ‘Bata’ Stojković) – an socialising them to become maternal and in- outlaw opposed to Ottoman rule and want- decisive, and to pay excessive attention to their ed for the murder of Halil bey (Bekim Feh- own looks.[)+] Consequently, the socialist state’s miu) – by revealing his whereabouts to the implementations of gender equality and female Ottoman occupiers. !at resulted in Nikola’s empowerment were ‘constantly being hindered death by stoning inside a well where he was by the values transmitted by the mass media hiding. Supposedly, Stojanka arrives at such and upheld by the old patriarchal system’.[),] a di'cult decision in order to prevent vengeful In his study of Yugoslav cinema in the Halil bey’s brother (also Bekim Fehmiu) from "#$%s, Davor Beganović[)-] notes the role of burning down her house and the people in it, images to represent, while simultaneously af- including her newlywedded son Stojan (Dušan fecting the ideological and political situation Golumbovski) and his bride Ljubica (Olivera in a particular society. !e idea that &lms not Vučo). "e Birch Tree is about fragile Janica, only re:ect, but actually create meanings at the who perishes due to post-birth complications, societal level, can also be borrowed from Paolo the harshness of peasant life, lack of access to Favero’s observation on Italian cinema, which any proper medical care, and neglect by her is that certain ‘&lms share a capacity to pro- mother-in-law and husband Marko Labudan mote an image’.[*.] Considering that not only (Velimir ‘Bata’ Živojinović). in Yugoslav New Films, but even in mainstream In both &lms, motherhood is suppressed. &lms, depictions of gender equality were rare, Janica loses a new-born baby girl, who dies especially in contemporary themed &lms, they sometime a2er birth. Stojanka’s son Stojan is concurrently refracted and promulgated an im- killed by the Ottomans, while her relationship age of a subjugated woman. However, this is in with her young daughter deteriorates because contradiction to the o'cial stance of the Yugo- Stojanka o3ers herself to be raped by Halil bey slav socialist state to endorse gender equality. in her place. She protects her from sexual as- Signi&cant e3orts were made to legally enforce sault with her own body but does not manage emancipation of women, which resulted in the to spare the daughter from witnessing her own increase of worker-mothers. Unexpectedly, they rape, which traumatises the girl. In "e Birch are mostly absent from cinematic depictions Tree, the grim end of the main heroine is made of both work and the family sphere. An excep- known to the spectators early in the plot. Con- tional example of a &lm that promotes gender trary to that, "e Beehive is more open-ended, equality within a Yugoslav household, set in which leaves the spectators perplexed as to a past contemporary socialist Yugoslavia, is the whether the heroine will be granted a pardon formally and thematically mainstream Muškar- ci/Men (Milo Đukanović, "#$8, Yugoslavia). [57] S.P. Ramet, In Tito’s Time, [in:] Gender Poli- tics in the Western Balkans: Women and society in Celluloid gender asymmetry in the family Yugoslavia and the Yugoslav successor states, ed. sphere and generational con"ict S.P. Ramet, University Park "###, p. "%5. !e contrast between gender equality [58] M. Morokvašić, op.cit., p. "8$. promulgated in socialism and the gender [59] D. Beganović, Changing fates: the role of the asymmetry in the family sphere is present in hero in Yugoslav Cinema in the early and late sixties, both everyday life of Yugoslavia (as the dou- [in:] Retracing Images: Visual Culture A3er Yugosla- via, ed. D. Šuber, S. Karamanić, Leiden 7%"7, p. "86. ble-burden), as well as in the two &lms I dis- [60] P. Favero, Blessed be the good soldier: cinema, cuss. "e Beehive tackles the relativity of guilt media and the manufacturing of nationhood in via the public trial of a wife named Stojanka, post (/'' Italy, “Archivio Antropologico Mediter- exposed to shaming by a mob of villagers raneo” 7%"", "8 ("), p. $". !0! !"#$" or severely punished for her purported trans- However, the patriarchal way of thinking gression of social codes. typical for agrarian environments, which lin- In order to establish a link between these gered on from the pre-socialist era, was resistant cinematic depictions of the pre-socialist past to change.[*)] !e high in:ux of rural popula- in male-dominated societies and the seemingly tions into the cities had the consequence that unrelated real-life in the socialist present of the the traditional outlook on gender roles in the "#$%s, I highlight that in both &lms, there is family also persisted in the urban environments a generational con:ict, manifest in the de&ance to some extent.[**] While simultaneously be- of young girls towards their mothers regard- ing employed, women were also doing most ing the choice of a romantic partner. In "e of the household work, and o2en were solely Beehive, Ljubica’s mother tries to convince her, responsible for the upbringing of their chil- immediately before and a2er her wedding, to dren.[*+] Consequently, they were overburdened leave the house she is marrying into, but in vain. by their multiple roles. According to data from Similarly, in "e Birch Tree, both Janica’s mother "#$6, a woman worked, on average, somewhere and brother chastise Janica for dancing three between $% and 0% hours per week (at work times with woodward Marko at a village festivity, and at home), out of which between 7% and 8% despite the fact that he is a notorious woman- hours were unpaid work (in her own home).[*,] izer, and that he had sued her father for cutting !e socialist state tried to alleviate any contra- down an oak tree. It is important to note that in dictions that the societal role of the employed the reality of socialist Yugoslavia, the inviolable woman-mother brought, with increasing soci- authority of parents over children started losing etal care for children, speci&cally by building its grip due to the process of urbanisation.[*%] public kindergartens, nurseries and day-care !is was because the patriarchal subjugation of centres.[*-] It is important to keep in mind that women via men started signi&cantly weaken- in Yugoslav socialism, many laws were rati&ed ing, especially in regard to the economic sphere, which were integral to gender equality, such as: since more women were becoming employed women’s right to vote and to be voted for; the and educated.[*&] !is was also true in the legal right for equal pay for equal work; the right to sphere, where egalitarian inheritance, marriage keep one’s maiden last name when marrying; and divorce rights were guaranteed to a married the right to have full custody over children a2er woman.[*'] Urban living, and the migration of divorce; the right to paid maternity leave before the work force from villages to cities, created and a2er childbirth; the freedom of reproduc- conditions for greater independence and more tive choice; the right to schooling and education; freedom for children in a family, including the the free choice of profession and employment; right to freely choose ones’ future marriage the right to social services and health insur- partner.[*(] !is switch is indirectly re:ected ance.[+.] Still, the enormous improvements that in the two analysed &lm representations. Yugoslav socialism brought, including econom- ic independence and legal equality, were not [61] V. Gudac-Dodić, op.cit., p. 04. enough to completely change the patriarchal [62] Ibidem. mindsets of people and the image of women in [63] Ibidem. the domain of family relations.[+%] [64] Ibidem. [65] Ibidem, p. #". Bechdel test, ‘reversed masquerade’ [66] Ibidem. and ‘cryptomatriarchy’ [67] Ibidem. In order to fully comprehend how women [68] Ibidem, p. #7. [69] Ibidem, p. #$. are represented in the two studied &lms, it is [70] Ibidem, pp. 85–58. important to explore the interpersonal relation- [71] Ibidem, p. #". ships amongst themselves. "e Beehive is one !"#$" !03 of the rare movies from Yugoslavian New Wave I become by right and on time the queen bee which, in my opinion, passes the Bechdel test in this beehive. May I live in prosperity. And (which investigates the presence of female char- may my strength calm down with one husband. acters in media). !e Bechdel test originates Amen.’ !e covenant is sealed when Stojanka from Alison Bechdel’s comic Dykes to Watch touches Ljubica’s chin (il. "), a2er which Ljubica Out For, where one of the characters declares exclaims to Stojanka the word ‘mother’ with that she only watches &lms if they meet three a lachrymose, trembling voice and hugs her. prerequisites.[+&] !us, it is undertaken by an !is signals not only Ljubica’s acceptance of examination as to whether: (") there are at least succeeding Stojanka as the queen bee of the two important female characters in a &ction family she is about to marry into, but an act of &lm, (7) who talk to each other, (8) about some- female bonding as well. However, there is an thing besides men.[+'] In academic literature, enmity between Stojanka and Ljubica’s mother, it is also sometimes referred to as the Bech- though it does not a3ect Stojanka’s relationship del-Wallace test,[+(] but nonetheless, its de&ni- with Ljubica. On the contrary, Ljubica twice tion is the same. In addition, in some sources, ignores her mother’s urging to leave Stojanka’s a requirement for the test is that both women house and return home with her: the &rst time should be named.[+)] just before the modest wedding ceremony held In "e Beehive both names of the two most in secrecy in the house, the second time when prominent female protagonists are known: Sto- the Ottomans arrive in front of the house at janka and Ljubica. !e two women make a cov- the end of the wedding, in pursuit of Stojanka’s enant between them, in the scene preceding the outlaw husband. Ljubica’s mother’s opposition modest wedding ceremony of Ljubica and Sto- towards her daughter’s marriage and her hostili- janka’s son Stojan, held in secrecy in Stojanka’s ty to Stojanka only seem to fortify the embattled house. Even though men are mentioned during solidarity between Ljubica and Stojanka. this scene, it is done sporadically. !erefore, the In "e Birch Tree, female solidarity towards main focus of their conversation is not on men, Janica is only expressed by Jaga (Hermina Pip- but on the mutual agreement between the two inić), her in-law, who shows empathy for her women on how to run and preserve the family, when Janica is on her deathbed. !e &lm passes so the &lm passes the Bechdel test. Ljubica, be- ing the reproductive female member in the fam- [72] T. Krijnen, S. Van Bauwel, Gender and ily unit, takes Stojanka’s place of the dominant Media: Representing, producing, consuming, com- matriarch. !e shi2 in hierarchy is consensual. munication and society, London 7%"6, pp. "#–7%. Stojanka utters and Ljubica repeats a2er her: [73] K.L. Hole, D. Jelača, E.A. Kaplan, P. Petro, ‘God, give me happiness and longevity. And may Introduction: Decentering feminist !lm studies, [in:] "e Routledge Companion to Cinema and Gender, ed. K.L. Hole, D. Jelača, E.A. Kaplan, P. Petro, New York 7%"0, p. 6. [74] S. Chivers, “No place for sissies”: gender, age, and disability in Hollywood, [in:] "e Routledge Companion to Cinema and Gender, ed. K.L. Hole, D. Jelača, E.A. Kaplan, P. Petro, London, New York 7%"0, p. 05. [75] M. Racic, Do this year’s best picture Oscar Nominees Pass the Bechdel Test? Revisiting an imperfect but useful litmus test in light of 4MeToo, “!e New Yorker” 7%"4, last modi&ed 8/8/7%"4,
Il. 7. Caption from: Ante Babaja, "e Birch Tree, "#$0
!e &lm makes a full circle. It begins with a scene where the ailing Janica appears in light Il. 8. Caption from: Ante Babaja, "e Birch Tree, "#$0 coloured, whitish clothing, with a single white- barked birch tree; thus, the director draws !e &lm ends with a scene in which the new- a parallel between the two by underlining their ly-widowed Marko, a2er a night of brawling, symbolic relation in as many as eight shots in that scene. When a feverish Janica collapses, [121] As kindly pointed to me by Dr Alex Forbes. while cows are grazing in the pouring rain, [122] J. Gage, Color and Meaning: Art, Science, and Symbolism, Berkeley "###, p. 0%. pious Joža, who was nearby, carries her in his [123] B.K. Grant, Film Genre: From Iconography arms to her husband’s house. !roughout the to Ideology, London 7%%0, p. "7. &lm, characterised by complex plotting, the [124] P. Krelja, Breza – !lm za sva vremena…, scenes of Janica’s illness, looming death and p. "6. 311 !"#$" excessive drinking and womanising, at &rst in the inclination to perceive the human behaviour a &t of rage, wants to tear down the very same through the lens of the behaviour of animals),[%&)] above-mentioned birch tree with an axe. He originates from Kahriman, who is the voice of then does completely the opposite. Ashamed the reason in the &lm. In my opinion, he is the and humbled, he kneels down next to the birch voice of director Popović. Given that Kahriman tree, and while hugging it, shrieks ‘Janica’ in has beehives, much of his wisdom springs from remembrance of his departed wife, whom he observations of the life of bees. could have treated better while she was alive. In addition, the title of the &lm "e Birch Tree emphasises this relation between Janica and the birch tree, illustrating to the spectators that the birch tree stands for Janica. She, therefore, is seen to have ful&lled the path of victimization, from neglected and self-e3acing wife during life, to posthumously appreciated and sancti&ed, as if the moral of the story was that women should endure the hardships of life because there is a reward in the a2erlife. As in "e Birch Tree, in "e Beehive there is Il. 5. Caption from: Miodrag ‘Mića’ Popović, also an iconographic motif that recurs through- "e Beehive, "#$$ out, but in this case, it is the bee. Its iconography is revealed in the opening shot of the &lm, which shows a swarm of bees on a honeycomb (il. 5). !e shot is underscored with humming music composed by Zoran Hristić, which sometimes evokes the buzzing sounds produced by a swarm of bees. !e opening credits roll over the image of bees. Eventually, once the credits are &nished, the shot dissolves into a medium close-up of Stojanka, which then dollies in to her close-up (il. 6). She appears as if she is looking at the camera, thereby breaking the fourth wall. !e brazen gaze that Il. 6. Caption from: Miodrag ‘Mića’ Popović, Stojanka returns to the camera-cum-spectators, "e Beehive, "#$$ her proud posture underlined by the slight low angle framing and the above-mentioned editing A judge orders Kahriman to testify at Sto- technique of the dissolve, which juxtaposed Sto- janka’s trial, held in the caravansary’s court- janka with the shot of bees, all imply she is the yard a2er the defeat of the Ottomans, and queen of the beehive, the matriarch. resembling Rashomon, due to the multiple !e iconographic leitmotif, bees, appear again perspectives shown in retrospective sequenc- in a line from the &lm, spoken by Kahriman, nick- es (for example, of Ljubica’s mother, a priest named Turk: ‘A woman is, in any case, a man’s and Kahriman). Kahriman’s testimony is not doom, like a bee for a drone: &rst she overwhelms only aimed at his diegetic audience of villagers, him, then crushes him and at length stays to live present at the public hearing and resembling with the posterity’. !is zoomorphism (that is, the chorus in a Greek drama, but also at the &lm viewer, because he occasionally looks di- [125] A.G. Woodside, Case Study Research: Core rectly at the camera. At &rst, it appears as if Skills in Using '- Genres, Bingley 7%"0, p. "55. Kahriman-cum-director is judgmental of Sto- !"#$" 312 janka’s potential responsibility in the death of mans from setting her house on &re with house- her husband. However, Kahriman eventually hold members inside, in order buy time for the takes Stojanka’s side, as if assuming the role of newlyweds to extend the lineage of the family her spokesperson in light of her almost impen- by procreation, in an ultimately futile attempt etrable silence. To borrow Blackwell’s words to save her son. !e mission to perpetuate the on a silent woman from "e Seventh Seal/Det symbolical beehive is what she taught Ljubica, Sjunde inseglet (Ingmar Bergman, "#6$) ‘[t]he upon passing on to her the legacy of the role silence that de&nes her character lends her au- of the queen-bee. !eory on "e Seventh Seal thority, for silence articulates disillusionment is applicable in this instance, stating that ‘the with the patriarchy and insight into the corrup- &lm a'rms Western culture’s very problemat- tion of language inherent in it’.[%&*] Owing to ic equation between the female and emotion, Kahriman, in the course of the trial, although nature, and family’.[%&,] mostly stubbornly silent but powerful regard- In another scene earlier in the &lm, less, Stojanka is gradually given an opportunity Kahriman says ‘fertile as Ljubica’ and points to be understood, instead of condemned for a &nger at her, whereupon she faints, as if taking her decisions. a cue from him. !is implies that she is preg- In one of Kahriman’s testimonial declama- nant. While one man pours water over her and tions, occasionally directed at the camera, di- helps her, together with her mother, to stand up, rector Popović modernistically intertwines past Kahriman states: and present. Kahriman is visually placed in the When a young queen bee grows strong and :ies past, witnessing an incident at the very same upwards, befuddled drones follow her. !e queen location – the caravansary’s courtyard – where bee :ies higher and higher. !e weaker drones fall the present-day hearing takes place. Once he behind, one by one. At length, the strongest drone remains alone, his oration starts, as if on cue. catches up with the queen bee. She gives herself to However, he is sonically situated in the present him. !ey both have a nice time. A2erwards he falls time of the &lm, addressing his – in this in- dead, and she returns to command in the beehive. stance – invisible but implied audience, from By right and on time. Stojanka’s trial in the present. Kahriman icono- During this speech, Ljubica is present in the graphically links men and drones, by verbally most of the shots: either in the foreground or collocating them: ‘Warriors, heroes, outlaws, background of the compositions that include men, drones, the top brass, you know noth- Kahriman, or in a shot excluding him, but un- ing except to &ght and protect your honour, derscored with Kahriman’s voice-over. !us, the and that is worth nothing’. !us, he implicitly directorial intent was to iconographically link criticises patriarchy. Further on in his lengthy Ljubica with the young queen-bee. Although speech, while directly looking at the camera director Popović reinforces the essentialist he addresses Stojanka and her daughter-in-law, stereotype of women as related to nature and Ljubica, whom he iconographically relates to reproduction, he posits the family hierarchy a queen-bee: as matriarchal, empowering female characters When the time comes that the young queen bee through the iconography of bees. replaces the old one, the two of them agree on some- thing important. What is the message that the old queen bee passes on the young one and pledges her [126] M.J. Blackwell, "e Seventh Seal ('(-+): to do? What is it that the young queen bee learns Cinematic form and cultural criticism, [in:] Film and that is the most important until eternity? Sto- Analysis: A Norton Reader, ed. J. Geiger, R.L. Rut- janka? Ljubica? [%&+] sky, New York 7%%6, p. 658. [127] All the translations from Serbo-Croatian In the following retrospective sequence, it is are mine. implied that Stojanka tried to avert the Otto- [128] M.J. Blackwell, op.cit., p. 65%. 31! !"#$" Superstition emphasizing the gravity of her position. How- In contrast to the empowerment of two ever, Ljubica’s testimony in the denouement female characters by associating them with of the &lm, shown in retrospective from the queen bees, a male character in "e Beehive is neutral, third-person perspective, eventually disempowered by being linked with a lifeless sheds new light on the event and to some ex- drone, through the interplay between iconog- tent contradicts Kahriman’s recollection. It is, raphy and supernatural beliefs. Actually, in both therefore, reminiscent of Rashomon’s multiple &lms, there are supporting female characters perspectives during a trial. Ljubica – who was who resort to magic in order to heal or to har- inside of the house with some wedding guests ness power; thus, to borrow Jovanović’s words and her newlywed husband, Stojanka’s son – on sorceresses in the Yugoslav Classical cinema, gives an account of the incident, stating that ‘[e]mbodying the pre-modern ignorance’.[%&-] she asked Stojanka to stall the Ottomans. As the In a scene taking place on the wedding night, story unfolds, it becomes clear that Stojanka did Ljubica’s mother gives bride-to-be Ljubica not tell the Ottomans where Nikola was hiding, a small, lucky charm bundle, made of cloth but on the contrary, Nikola &red a gunshot at with a honeycomb and a dead drone inside. her when she leaned above the well, thinking !e magic superstition is supposed to ensure wrongly that she had betrayed him. !us, he Ljubica a special place in her new home. If she reveals his hiding place himself. Nevertheless, it throws the witchcra2 bundle in the well, all of remains ambiguous as to why Stojanka went to the household members will obey her when the well in the &rst place. Was it just to buy time they drink the enchanted water. from the Ottomans or contemplate whether !e bundle is found by Stojanka’s husband she must commit treachery for the purpose of Nikola inside the well, his hiding place, a few trying to futilely save her foolhardy son, by en- moments before he will be stoned to death by abling him and her daughter-in-law Ljubica to his enemies, the Ottomans. !e charm brings consummate their marriage in order to protect him bad luck and becomes a sinister omen of the family line from perishing? Furthermore, it his demise. !is retrospective sequence toward is unclear whether Stojanka knew where Nikola the beginning of the &lm stages Kahriman’s re- was hiding at all, because she was inside the counting of the events from a third-person om- house when he hid. Once he gives away his niscient perspective, since it would have been hiding place to the Ottomans by shooting at impossible for Kahriman to see what is hap- Stojanka, they start throwing rocks at him. Di- pening with Nikola and the dead drone deep rector Popović underscores Nikola’s demise by inside the well. In the preceding scene, before creating an audio-visual connection between Nikola discovers the charm, his wife Stojanka him and Stojanka. Back in the house, every makes a step forward towards the well. Her mo- time Stojanka hears the sound of a rock land- tives for doing so remain ambiguous, but in the ing inside of the well, and potentially killing context of the sequence, her actions appear to Nikola, she hits her head on a wall, corporeally indicate that she is presented with the dilemma expressing her grief. of whether or not to divulge Nikola’s hiding !e deeper meaning of Nicola’s death is place to the Ottomans. grasped through iconography. Stoned to death In the scene that follows Nikola’s bundle by Ottomans in the well, iconographically discovery, when according to Kahriman’s ver- speaking, Nikola becomes the dead drone. !e sion of the event, Stojanka reveals that Nikola link between the two is visually ampli&ed in is in the well, the camera zooms into her face Kahriman’s aforementioned recollection, with from medium close-up towards full close-up, a tilt up from a detail of a dead drone on top of a honeycomb, held by Nikola’s hand, onto a big [129] N. Jovanović, op.cit., p. "5#. close-up of Nikola’s face. Sorcery with the dead !"#$" 313 drone, therefore, does not cause his demise, but violet are perceived as cold colours and will foreshadows it. invoke an opposite, pessimistic emotion.[%'(] Similarly, in "e Birch Tree, female characters Predominantly cold colours are in accordance resort to the supernatural. When Janica’s father- with the sad plot points – Janica’s illness and in-law Tomo (Stjepan Lektorić) suggests his wife forthcoming death – eliciting a sombre mood in call a doctor in order to examine the gravely-ill the viewer. !e colour concept employed in sad Janica, she rejects the idea. Instead, she decides scenes is that cold colours are in the majority, to invite an old woman, called Ježovićka, who whilst warm terracotta appears in traces, o2en performs magic healing rituals by removing as their striking visual counterpoint. curses, hexes and spells. Janica’s mother-in-law Commencing the supernatural ritual, Ježović- further states that if Ježovićka cannot help Janica, ka deposits hot coals into a clay bowl with water not even God can. !is re:ects a rural way of and hovers with a knife above it, making the sign thinking imbued with superstition, prejudices, of a cross. !is is underscored with Ježovićka’s and, as Rožić would have it, ‘a blend of Chris- ominous chanting and music by Klobučar. In tianity with almost magical concept of life’.[%'.] the following magic ritual, she places on Jani- !e conversation takes place while tending two ca’s belly what appear to be two trimmed horns cows. It ends with a conciliatory statement by with clipped tips and blows into them. !en, she Tomo: ‘Do as you wish, those are your female puts squirming leeches on Janica. !e menac- matters’. In line with Simić’s view on phenom- ing atmosphere is also ampli&ed throughout the enon of ‘cryptomatriarchy’ in Yugoslav society, scene with the usage of expressive close-ups. For ‘the authoritative and in:uential positions oc- instance, the cold-hearted mother-in-law is op- cupied by older women appear anomalous in posed to a dead chicken hanging upside down light of a social character stressing patrilineality, on a rope, foreshadowing the outcome of her patrilocality, and male dominance’.[%'%] cruel treatment of Janica. In addition, an old !e arrival of the village sorceress Ježovićka woman who recurs through the &lm spinning across a meadow is observed and announced wool, reminiscent of one of the Greek Moirai by a little boy. Also, it is underscored with the (the Fates), is shown engulfed in gloomy fumes music of composer Anđelko Klobučar, which of burning coal. Beside the old face of Ježovićka, introduces the notion that something peculiar portrayed in close-up in the foreground, is juxta- is about to take place. ‘[T]he scene of “curing” posed a cruci&x, the symbol of Christian iconog- ill Janica with paganist ritual may be under- raphy that hangs on the wall in the background, stood as direct announcement of death’.[%'&] thus signifying a mixture of Christianity with Once inside the house, Ježovićka concludes that superstition. !e supernatural curing session someone cast a spell on Janica. Ježovićka’s and ends on a sour note with Janica fainting. faces of other women present in this scene, with In a further sequence of a supernatural the exception of Janica, are enveloped in dark ritual, also set during Janica’s life, the ordinary scarves, which gives the impression of a funeral peasant women try to heal her by making her wake.[%''] Also, the female characters are clad in look at her re:ection in a mirror (il. $). black, murky blue and dark green, cold-colour- ed clothing, except for the positive female [130] R. Rožić, Život je žilav – Janica je živa?!, character Jaga, who wears a warm-coloured “Hrvatski &lmski ljetopis” 7%"%, "$ ($7), p. 77. terracotta orange waistcoat pullover, and Jani- Own translation. ca, who is covered with an orange blanket and [131] A. Simić, op.cit., pp. "8–"5. wearing a white shirt. Orange, red and yellow [132] P. Krelja Breza – !lm za sva vremena…, op.cit., p. "8. Own translation. are regarded as warm colours, because an image [133] Ibidem, p. "6. abundant with them will provoke an optimistic [134] J. Cox, Digital Nature Photography, New feeling in the viewer, whilst green, blue, and York 7%%8, p. 58. 314 !"#$" !e &lms criticise patriarchy, while at the same time, by inclusion of the witchcra2 per- formed by female characters, implicitly blame women for predicaments that occur and their place in patriarchy, especially in "e Birch Tree. !e portrayal of Janica’s mother-in-law suggests that she bears the responsibility for bringing the village sorceress instead of taking Janica to a doctor, which ends fatally, whereas Marko as a husband should have been culpable. In "e Beehive, the indictment of female guilt is pro- claimed by a woman. Stojanka’s young, trau- Il. $. Caption from: Ante Babaja, "e Birch Tree, "#$0 matised daughter accuses Ljubica and Ljubica’s mother of being indirectly accountable for her Superstition looms a2er Janica’s death as father’s death, due to their charm with a dead well, when one of the peasant women covers the drone, although the Ottomans are the ones who mirror with a black headscarf. As Perić notes, actually killed him by stoning him. Simulta- it was believed that the deceased would come neous oppression of female characters by the back home if they saw their own re:ection in patriarchy, while some of them inadvertently the mirror.[%')] Also, one female hand shown act as its proponents, demonstrates the ambiv- in a detail shot stops the pendulum of the clock. alent stance of the directors on women. !ey Subsequently, the peasant women throw water are concurrently critical of women’s treatment out of the old wooden trough bowls behind by patriarchy, while chiding them for how they the departing funeral procession. !e custom mistreat each other, mainly as seen in "e Birch is also intended to prevent the deceased person Tree. On the other hand, the directors tackle fe- from returning.[%'*] male solidarity, of which "e Beehive is a strong In both of the &lms studied, female charac- example. ters who perform sorcery personify the poverty, ignorance, lack of education and backwardness Conclusion of the pre-socialist countryside. !ese are por- Yugoslav socialist society fostered female trayed in "e Birch Tree in monarchist Yugosla- emancipation due to its progressive legislation via and in "e Beehive under oppression by the from "#5$ onwards. !is gave women equal Ottoman occupiers. Witchcra2 is exclusively rights with regards to the workplace, educa- associated with the feminine. In "e Beehive, tion, marriage, divorce, inheritance, one-year it serves as a bad, foreboding omen, foreshad- fully paid maternity leave, and freedom of owing Marko’s death, whereas in "e Birch Tree, choice, while simultaneously the remnants of it contributes to the demise of the heroine, be- patriarchal mentality lingered within the family cause she is placed in the hands of an incom- sphere. Although set in pre-socialist times, the petent, superannuated local female folk healer, analysed &lms implicitly criticise the vestiges of instead of a competent doctor. gender inequality in the family domain of their socialist present. Keeping in mind that Yugo- slav New Film was auteur cinema, I argued that [135] T. Perić, Tradicijska glazba i običaji Sjevero- Babaja and Popović, by deliberately regressing zapadne Hrvatske, Bachelor’s Degree Bachelor’s into the past instead of choosing contemporary thesis, Odsjek za učiteljske studije, Sveučilište themes, fully scrutinise patriarchy in the family u Zagrebu – Učiteljski fakultet 7%"$, p. 64. [136] Z. Rajković, Narodni običaji okolice Donje domain, without catering to the o'cial gender Stubice, “Narodna umjetnost” "#05, "% ("), p. "#8. equality discourse. Although the two analysed !"#$" 31# &lms are far from feminist &lms, due to using others, such as Ljubica’s), instead of by Stojanka regressive stances towards the women depicted, who is relegated to silence. In addition, Stojan- still, they not only address gender troubles in ka is exposed to domestic violence from her bygone pre-war times, but also point to their husband, whereas Janica is not, but is instead present-day, post-war social problems. Howev- neglected. !e characters of Janica and Stojan- er, besides criticising the patriarchy, Babaja, and ka, taken together, indicate the entire tone of to a smaller extent, Popović, also put the blame how women stood vis-à-vis the patriarchy in on women as executors of the patriarchy, due to contemporary Yugoslavia – to borrow Haskell’s expressing enmity towards other women. While words, ‘from reverence to rape’ ("#40), since Popović stresses camaraderie amongst women Janica is revered by ‘holy’ Joža and Stojanka is more than friction, Babaja emphasises rivalry raped by Halil bey. In both &lms, only female between women more than solidarity and also characters are engaged in magic and stand for vindicates Marko by showing him repent for ne- the impoverishment, scarcity, ignorance and glecting Janica, instead of condemning him for backwardness of pre-socialist society. her death. Although hostility between women Regardless of the gender ideologies behind is unfortunately part of real-life societies, with- the representations, both &lms are extremely out setting it in the proper context that wom- valuable, because in the Yugoslav New Film en are socialised to be enemies by their male movement, female characters were seldom family members, female family members who given main roles. Most importantly, as I have perpetuate patriarchy, and society in general, argued, Babaja’s and Popović’s analysed &lms the directors take an ambiguous stance towards regress into the past and refract real-life gender male-oriented ideology. inequalities of a family domain from a bygone Furthermore, this research assessed the socialist present, therefore criticizing them. meanings behind the iconography of the hero- ines in "e Birch Tree and "e Beehive. !e birch tree symbolises the ethereal, slender, elegant and fragile nature of Janica, while the white E+EF+.GHIJKL Beganović D., Changing Fates: "e Role of the Hero dove stands for Janica’s pure soul aspiring to- in Yugoslav Cinema in the Early and Late Sixties wards heaven. !e queen bee symbolises Sto- [in:] Retracing Images: Visual Culture A3er Yu- janka’s and later Ljubica’s power and dominant goslavia, ed. D. Šuber, S. Karamanić, Leiden 2012, position within the family. Nonetheless, Janica pp. 135–148 is a passive character and an object, whereas “Black Waves, Red Horizons – New Yugoslav Film”. Ar- Stojanka is an active character who takes mat- senal: Institut für &lm and videokunst e.V., 2015, ters into her own hands and is thus a subject accessed March 04 in her own right. !erefore, in the light of Blackwell M.J., "e Seventh Seal (1956): Cinematic Form and Cultural Criticism, [in:] Film Analysis: A Norton their characters’ trajectories and the &lms’ de- Reader, ed. J. Geiger, R.L. Rutsky, New York 2005, nouements, the iconography of "e Birch Tree pp. 528–549 disempowers Janica due to her untimely death, Boglić M., Mit i antimit, Zagreb 1980 while the iconography of "e Beehive poten- Bogojević M., "e beauty of gender sin: politics of re- tially empowers Stojanka due to an open end- presentation in Yugoslav auteur !lm, “ProFemina” ing that gives some hope that Stojanka may be 2011, pp. 255–262 pardoned. 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Acknowledgements: I would like to thank my academic advisor Prof. Dr. Philippe Meers for his perpetual help with my research and this article. My gratitude goes beyond words to my dear colleagues Natalie Kowalik, Chernelle Lambert-Sebrechts and Ryan Pescatore Frisk for their generous and indispensable support with the proofreading. In addition, my heartfelt thanks goes to Paraskevi Olbricht, Robert Olbricht, Iva Jurišković and Đorđe Čekrlija. Also, I truly appreciate e3orts of Images sta3: Maciej Pietrzak, Patrycja Rojek, Joanna Pigulak, and Sabrina Haenze. Lastly, I am greatly indebted to Dr. Paolo Favero, Dr. Frederik Dhaenens, and Dr. Alex Forbes, whose constructive feedback enriched this article.
Funding: !is work was supported by the University of Antwerp Research Fund [DOCPRO" BOF] from Sep- tember 7%"0 until August 7%"4.