Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English-language Translation

Bc. Jakub Čumíček

Translation of Constructed Languages in Literature Master‟s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: Ing. Mgr. Jiří Rambousek, Ph.D.

2019

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

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Author‟s signature

Table of Contents 1. Introduction ...... 4 2. Language ...... 6 3. Constructed Languages ...... 11 3.1 Terminology regarding constructed languages...... 14 3.2 History of constructed languages ...... 18 4. Theoretical background for the analysis ...... 29 4.1 Roles and functions ...... 29 4.2 Translation strategies ...... 33 4.2.1 Retention ...... 37 4.2.2 Specification ...... 37 4.2.3 Direct translation ...... 38 4.2.4 Generalisation ...... 39 4.2.5 Substitution ...... 40 4.2.6 Omission ...... 41 5. Analysis of the chosen literary works ...... 43 5.1 A Clockwork Orange ...... 45 5.1.1 Political orientation ...... 45 5.1.2 Brainwashing effect ...... 50 5.1.3 Group identity and group separation ...... 59 5.1.4 Analysis of Nadsat elements ...... 66 5.2 The Lord of the Rings ...... 77 5.2.1 Worldbuilding and cultural identity ...... 77 5.2.2 Secrecy and obscurity ...... 79 5.2.3 Analysis of Sindarin and Quenya ...... 81 5.3 Watership Down ...... 85 5.3.1 Cultural identity ...... 85 5.3.2 Contact language ...... 86 5.3.3 Analysis of Lapine ...... 88 6. Conclusion ...... 93 Bibliography ...... 100 Abstract ...... 104 Résumé ...... 105

1. Introduction

Despite the fact, that first attempts to create a new, artificial language date back hundreds of years, constructed languages have not gained significant amount of attention and popularity until relatively recently, with the dawn of artistic languages featured in various works of art and popular culture. This thesis then deals with approaches to translation of such artistic constructed languages featured in works of literary fiction.

First, the thesis discusses general theories regarding the nature of language and observations made by various linguists regarding non-communicational functions of language in a society. Next chapter then focuses on constructed languages and gives an overview of their history and development while also discussing basic terminology. The fourth chapter then lays down the theoretical basis of analysis performed in the practical part of this thesis. The core of this chapter consists of Venuti‟s widely accepted concept of foreignization and domestication in translation, which was expanded upon by Pedersen‟s Venutian scale which arranges common translation strategies from the most foreignizing to the most domesticating.

The analysis then works with the notion that constructed languages used in literary works of fiction are given sets of specific roles and functions by their creators and these must be taken into consideration by translators when choosing suitable translation strategies. The first part of the analysis performed in this thesis thus aims to identify the various functions performed by the constructed languages

4 featured in chosen literary works (A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess, The

Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, and Watership Down by Richard Adams) and discuss their implications for developing overall approach to their translation and choosing suitable translation strategies. Subsequently, the second part of the analysis is performed. This part consists of lexical analysis of vocabulary items of the given constructed languages using the above-mentioned Venutian scale of translation strategies. Finally, the results of both parts of the analysis are compared and discussed in terms of the translation strategies chosen by the translator and their suitability regarding the identified functions and roles of the constructed languages at hand.

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2. Language

As an introduction to the topic at large, I think it would be prudent to start with an introduction of the basic concept the thesis will be dealing with; specifically, to address the great underlying question – what is a language? – and to showcase the difficulties in providing a suitable definition of language as was found out from the source materials.

As written by Crystal and Robins in the eponymous entry in the

Encyclopaedia Britannica (available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/language), language is a system of conventional spoken, manual or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves. The authors then expand on this by listing the various functions of languages, such as communication, the expression of identity, play, imaginative expression or emotional release. These concepts will be very important later as they are relevant regarding the and role and place of a constructed language within the fictional universe for which it was designed.

Over the years of linguistic studies, many different definitions of what a language is have been proposed. As Crystal and Robins put it, the most important feature which characterises every individual human language in comparison to every known mode of communication used by animals is the infinite productivity and creativity of human languages. Unlike animals, humans are virtually

6 unrestricted in what they can communicate in their languages – not a single area is accepted as incommunicable. Nevertheless, Crystal and Robins do mention that sometimes, it may be necessary to adapt the language being used in order to deal with newly discovered things and concepts or new modes of thought.

Finally, Crystal and Robins conclude that in most cases, the primary purpose human languages have is to facilitate communication, i.e., to transmit information between individual persons. Nevertheless, other linguistic fields proposed a wider range of functions that are performed by languages, among others, the expression of a national or local identity.

On the same topic, Noam Chomsky states that language has been intensively and productively studied for over two thousand years with no clear answer as to what language is ever being produced (Chomsky 2013: 645).

Chomsky states that there are fundamental reasons to try to determine clearly what language is, with said reasons having implications for answering the question of what kind of creatures we are. I believe that this ties to the function of language as a way to express identity as was previously mentioned by Crystal and

Robins.

Chomsky then offers a brief recapitulation of different approaches to language. De Saussure, for example, considered language to be a storehouse of word images in the minds of members of a community. Leonard Bloomfield on the other hand perceived language as an array of habits to respond to situations with conventional speech sounds and to respond to these sounds with actions.

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Chomsky also mentions that in some of his other works, Bloomfield attempted to define language as “the totality of utterances made in a speech community”

(Chomsky 2013: 648).

This definition then roughly corresponds to a definition proposed by William

Dwight Whitney, whose early conception perceived language as “the body of uttered and audible signs by which in human society thought is principally expressed”. Finally, it is mentioned that Edward Sapir defined language as a method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires through voluntarily produced symbols that is exclusive to the human race (Chomsky 2013: 648). It is interesting to note that most of these definitions focus solely on the role of language as a tool facilitating communication but completely disregard other possible cultural and social functions of language as mentioned by Crystal and

Robins. Chomsky also notes some inadequacies of said definitions. He states that while in the earlier years, it was understandable that the question as to what a language is will only yield such indefinite answers as the ones mentioned above, he finds it surprising that such answers still have place in contemporary science

(Chomsky 2013: 649).

Chomsky also notes that the above mentioned aphorism of human language as a tool which allows infinite use of finite tools, refers to the use of language and that more fully, its author, Wilhelm von Humboldt wrote that “language is quite peculiarly confronted by an unending and truly boundless domain, the essence of all that can be though. It must therefore make infinite employment of finite means

8 and is able to do so through the power which produces identity of language and though”, in effect closely associating this approach with those definitions and approaches that focus on the interconnection of language and thoughts.

If, as Chomsky observes, this line of though is generally correct, then it would be prudent to return to the earlier conceptions of language as an instrument of thought. According to this approach, language would be meaning with a sound or, more generally, meaning with some form of externalisation. This is because language does not need to be expressed solely by sound as was proven by research into sign languages. This research has shown a range of very interesting similarities between sign language and spoken language in terms of their structure, manner of acquisition and neural representation despite their extremely different modes of externalisation (Chomsky 2013: 653).

On this note, it is also interesting to note that normally, language is almost never actually externalised, most language is processed as an internal monologue within the language user‟s mind. Chomsky follows up on this by stating that the notion that the primary function of language is communication is, as he puts it, a

“virtual dogma”. According to Chomsky, the idea is typically formulated as follows:

It is important that in a community of language users that words be used with the same meaning. “If this condition is met, it facilitates the chief end of language which is communication, if one fails to use words with the meaning that most people attach to them, one will fail to communicate effectively with other. Thus, one would defeat the main purpose of language” (Chomsky 2013: 655).

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In response to this formulation, Chomsky states that he finds it strange to even think that language has any purpose in the first place. Chomsky presents a vies of languages as biological objects which can be said to have certain function and to serve some purpose, but as he adds, such notion is far from clear. Finally,

Chomsky also argues that the very term “communication” is largely devoid of any substantive meaning and in practice, it remains a minor part of actual language use, as is shown above.

It can therefore be concluded that although there have been many different attempts to come up with a sufficiently brief and accurate definition of language, these attempts were not entirely successful as most of the time, they covered only a fraction of the many roles and functions that a language performs within a society. These roles and functions are then not exclusive to the natural languages.

Even constructed languages can be given various functions and roles to fulfil, which can be far more important to the language than its potential as a tool of communication. Therefore, one of the goals of this thesis is to ascertain the importance of these miscellaneous functions and roles of constructed languages within their respective fictional societies and the link between understanding and maintaining these functions and creating a successful translation of the given constructed language.

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3. Constructed Languages

Now that some basic notion of what a language is and what different roles and functions can be performed by such a language has been established, I will take a closer look at the main concern of this thesis, constructed languages or conlangs.

In order to better illustrate what a constructed language can look like and how it may be used in practice, I would like to include an example of such constructed fictional language which appeared in Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the Jedi. This particular language was also addressed by David J. Peterson in his book The Art of Language Invention. The scene concerns the very beginning of the movie, where Princess Leia disguises herself as Ubese (name of an alien race) bounty hunter and infiltrates the palace of a local criminal mastermind, Jabba the

Hutt, in order to rescue Han Solo. In order to do so, she pretends to have captured

Solo‟s partner, Chewbacca, and negotiates the amount of bounty paid for her quarry with Jabba. The following exchange ensues:

LEIA: Yaté. Yaté. Yotó.

(SUBTITLE: “I have come for the bounty on this Wookiee.”)

C-3PO translates the message for Jabba and Jabba says he will offer 25,000.

LEIA: Yotó. Yotó.

(SUBTITLE: “50,000, no less.”)

C-3PO translates the message and Jabba asks why he is expected to pay

such a large amount.

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LEIA: Eí yóto.

(This sentence is not subtitled, but Leia pulls out an orb-shaped device and

activates it.)

C-3PO: Because he‟s holding a thermal detonator!

Jabba is impressed and offers 35,000.

LEIA: Yató cha.

(Again, no subtitles are provided, but Leia deactivates the grenade and puts

it away.)

C-3PO: He agrees. (Peterson 2015: 8-9)

In my opinion, it is sufficiently clear from the very beginning that this is a very unusual, seemingly very minimalistic and truly alien language. This language is not a natural product of years of gradual evolution of the culture and habits of its speakers such as is the case with ordinary natural languages like English,

Russian, or Czech but an artificial product that was consciously designed and developed to fulfil certain role. In this case, to add a sense of believability to a science-fiction movie scene featuring confrontation between two aliens, each of them speaking a different alien language, on an alien planet in a galaxy far, far away.

Peterson ultimately concludes that Ubese is a poorly constructed language not worthy of serious consideration (Peterson 2015: 9) but I believe this may not be the case and it is possible that there is more to this language.

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The disproportionate shortness of the Ubese sentences in comparison to the significantly more verbose translations provided by C3PO suggests the language likely lacks most auxiliary words present in most human languages. As such, its words only convey the very core of its intended meaning, and the translation thus has to rely on context of the situation and possibly also body language, or some other means to fill in the gaps and produce clear and informative translation.

For example, “yaté yaté yotó” may not actually carry all constituents of the meaning presented in the subtitles. In fact, it may not contain any words meaning

“Wookie” or “bounty” at all. When a bounty hunter comes before you with somebody you put a bounty on in chains, simple “I came, pay up” gives all the core information that may be required in that situation. The details can then be worked out from the fact that there is a bounty on the Wookie prisoner and that, as can be seen by everyone present, the bounty hunter captured and transported said prisoner here. This then makes the total interpretable information content of the situation equal: “I have come for the bounty on this Wookie.”

Another theory that would possibly make Ubese work as a more complex language is that it could rely on miniscule changes in pronunciation to differentiate between words and meanings or even be a tonal language akin to Chinese. This may be supported by the fact that not all of the seemingly identical Ubese words are pronounced the same. Nevertheless, given the very limited source materials on spoken Ubese, it may not be possible to come up with any definitive answer.

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The above dialogue is then but a single example of the many constructed languages ranging from fictional languages developed to be used in literary works, cinema or videogames, such as Dothraki, Lapine, Nadsat, Vulcan, Quenya, Klingon or Simlish, to international auxiliary languages that were designed to be used in the real world in hopes of promoting better understanding and co-operation throughout the international community, such as Esperanto,

Communicationssprache, Universalglot, Interslavic or Lingwa de planeta.

3.1 Terminology regarding constructed languages

In this chapter, I would like to provide a quick introduction to some of the basic terms and concepts used within the conlanging community, as outlined in The Art of Language Invention (Peterson 2015: 27-33), in Frathwiki and in In the Land of

Invented Languages (Okrent 2009)

Natlang: shortening of the term “natural language”. It denotes all languages that

exist in the world and that evolved naturally over time. As Okrent puts it,

popular tendencies in the use of language develop into habits and these

habits in turn eventually evolve into systems of language (Okrent 2009: 15)

This includes all spoken languages (English, Czech, Spanish, Japanese),

creoles (Singlish, Tok Pisin, Chavacano, Bislama), sign languages (ASL, FSL,

TSL, etc.) as well as revitalisation projects like Modern Hebrew or Modern

Hawaiian and dead languages such as Latin or Akkadian. The main

determining criterion here is the origin of the language in question.

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Conlang: The term conlang is the shortened form of the term “constructed

language”. The term denotes all languages consciously created by one or

several individuals, as long as the goal of the creation process is to create a

functional linguistic system. Therefore, it includes languages such as

Esperanto, Lingua Ignota or Quenya but it does not cover revitalisation

projects such as Modern Hebrew or creole languages. A related term

“conlanger” this denotes a person involved in constructing languages.

A Priori: This is a term used for constructed languages whose vocabulary and

grammar are not based on any already existing languages. Examples of a

priori conlangs include for example: Klingon, Na‟vi, Solresol or Ro.

A Posteriori: In contrast to a priori languages, a posteriori constructed languages

do base their grammar and vocabulary on some existing language.

Examples of this type of languages would include Esperanto, Volapük or

Latino sine flexione.

Mixed: Although not so widely recognised category, Okrent makes a valid

observation that as far as the origin of languages is concerned, the matter is

not so cut and dried as to allow just for a simple binary categorisation.

Okrent demonstrates this on the constructed language La Langue Bleue,

also known as Bolak. This language was invented by Léon Bollack in 1899

as an international auxiliary language and its structure is notable by

containing both a priori (invented specifically for this language) and a

posteriori (taken over from some already existing language) components.

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Based on Okrent‟s observation, languages such as Bolak cannot be reliably

categorised as a priori nor a posteriori, which, at the very least, warrants

the establishment of a third category for constructed languages of mixed

origin (Okrent 2009: 275).

Artlang: This is a short for “artistic language”. This term refers to constructed

languages created for various artistic purposes.

Auxlang: Short for “auxiliary language”. This term denotes constructed languages

created for the explicit purpose of aiding international communication

between speakers of different mother languages.

Engelang: Short for “engineered language”. This is a term used for highly specific

constructed languages created for the purpose of achieving some specific

effect or to test some hypothesis. For example: Kēlen – a language without

verbs, Loglan – language created in order to test the validity of Sapir-Whorf

hypothesis or Láadan – language focused on women, constructed to test

whether natural languages are biased towards men.

Fake language: Fake language is a language that is designed to give impression

of a real language while not being one. Languages such as these are very

common in fantasy or science fiction settings where the languages are

simply part of the background, helping to create an atmosphere and are not

intended to play any role in the story whatsoever, so they are mostly just

gibberish with no meaningful system or form.

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Fictional language: Fictional languages are languages that are supposed to exist

in a given fictional context. For example, the Ubese language used in the

example above, Quenya from the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, Klingon from

Star Trek or Nadsat from A Clockwork Orange. All of these languages are

meant to be real in their fictional universes and therefore are fictional

languages.

Real language: Real language is a language that actually exists. Both

constructed languages and natural languages are real languages because

the language exists in the world.

Code: This term includes ciphers and language games – systems designed to hide

meaning from those who do not know them. One of the common features

of codes is that they must depend on another language in order to work.

Pig Latin is a classic example of this as it relays on a base language plus a

system of changes done to said language to produce coded messages which

then can be decoded back by people who know the rules of the system

used to hide them.

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3.2 History of constructed languages

While it may seem like the creation of constructed languages are a relatively new and modern phenomenon due to their increasing presence in contemporary works of art or popular culture, especially in cinematography, the truth lies elsewhere. As

Peterson states, conscious construction of languages has very long history. The

Lingua Ignota (the Unknown Language) devised by abbess Hildegard von Bingen during the 12th century is widely considered to be one of the earliest recorded examples of a constructed language, if not the earliest (Peterson 2015: 12).

What is known about the language from Hildegard von Bingen‟s work

Lingua Ignota per simplicem hominem Hildegardem prolata is that it was likely not a full language as it consists of a vocabulary list of around 1000 words containing almost exclusively nouns along with some adjectives. The vocabulary is grouped in a certain hierarchy. First come terms like God and angels followed by groups of words for human beings, family relationships, body parts, illnesses, religious and secular hierarchy, craftsmen, days, months, clothing, household implements, plants and finally some animals, namely birds and insects. An example of vocabulary of this early constructed language taken from the corresponding

Wikipedia article is included below:

Aigonz: God Aieganz: angel Zuuenz: saint Liuionz: saviour Diueliz: devil Ispariz: spirit Inimois: human being

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Jur: man Vanix: woman Peuearrez: patriarch Korzinthio: prophet Falschin: seer Sonziz: apostle Linschiol: martyr Zanziuer: confessor Vrizoil: virgin Jugiza: widow Pangizo: penitent Kulzphazur: great-great-great-grandfather Phazur: grandfather Peueriz: father Maiz: mother Hilzpeueriz: stepfather Hilzmaiz: stepmother Scirizin: son Hilzscifriz: stepson Limzkil: infant Zains: boy Zunzial: youth Bischiniz: adolescent

As Peterson states, Hildegard von Bingen believed the inspiration for such a project came to her directly from God and has likely used her constructed language for aesthetic or possibly religious reasons. The same applies for another early constructed language, the Balaibalan, which was developed in Turkey sometime in the 15th century which was also used for religious or ritual purposes. (Peterson

2015: 12-13)

This early approach to constructed languages as ideas bestowed upon its creators by a deity or by other supernatural means changed significantly during the 16th and 17th century, when a new type of constructed language gradually

19 emerged. These new constructed languages are widely known as philosophical languages; many of these philosophical languages were created by philosophers, scholars and scientists who were aware of certain issues and limitations inherent to natural human languages and attempted to ameliorate these shortcomings by creating special constructed languages.

Peterson mentions John Wilkins‟ philosophical language as a prime example of this type of language. This language is also mentioned by Okrent, who notes that Wilkins‟ aim was to create a constructed language that would not suffer from the deficiencies of natural languages and that would allow for more precise communication (Okrent 2009: 26). Peterson then provides an example of this language and states that in Wilkins‟ philosophical language, if the word “de” means an element, then “deb” would be the first type of an element, i.e., fire and “deba” would then mean a part of the first of the elements, i.e., a flame (Peterson 2015:

13), thus the language would be based on a hierarchical classification of knowledge employing taxonomical principle in which specific terms are derived from more general terms by means of stacking short morphemes to form the desired definition. Of course, while this system is certainly logical and works well in certain fields where such taxonomy is already present and in active use, e.g., in biology, it is not so practical in other fields with more arbitrary taxonomies.

Furthermore, such constructed languages are also very prone to misunderstandings, as in this system, words with similar meanings have also very similar forms and thus can be more easily mistaken for one another.

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Peterson states that “the goal of philosophical experiments such as these was to perfect language for the purpose of science.” (Peterson 2015: 14) If natural languages can be obscure due to metaphors, idioms, exceptions to grammatical rules, irregular verbs as well as general vagueness of meaning, which make the languages both ambiguous and difficult to learn (Okrent 2009: 30); in that case then, a new precise and rational language which expresses concepts perfectly would be of great value and use to the scientific community.

Alas, in part due to the shortcomings illustrated above, none of these constructed languages ever saw widespread use. Despite this, the idea itself survived centuries, with one of the latest taxonomical philosophical languages being Ro, which was developed in 1904 by Rev. Edward Powell Foster and which also relies on a system of categories similar to early taxonomical philosophical languages of the 16th and 17th centuries. (In Ro, if “bofo” is the basic word signifying colours, then “bofoc” would mean red and “bofof” would mean yellow).

This view is also shared by Okrent, who notes that while the language creators were often optimistic regarding the potential of their creations, the languages were too complicated to be learned easily and turned out to be prohibitively impractical

(Okrent 2009: 15-21).

Another significant trend in constructed languages occurred during the 19th century when a new concept of constructed languages emerged. This was the concept of international auxiliary language or IAL. While the philosophical languages were mostly intended to be very precise languages, they were not

21 necessarily easy to learn or use due to the shortcomings discussed above. In contrast, the international auxiliary languages were developed with the express goal of being as simple to learn and use as possible, so they can be taught quickly and adopted by a large number of people who were speakers of a wide range of languages while not necessarily sharing any common language, in a relatively short amount of time. By these design choices, the languages aimed to become an important mean of international communication and trade.

Two notable international languages that were the first to see success were

Volapük, created by German priest Johann Martin Schleyer in 1879 and Esperanto, which was created by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof in 1887. Volapük was the first international auxiliary language to gain widespread attention. Its vocabulary was based on English, German and French and was designed for the words to be easily recognisable and easy to pronounce. Despite its promising beginnings, people interested in Volapük and its original creator had conflicting ideas about how the language should develop and soon enough, the language splintered into several off-branches of Volapük which undercut the following it once had, and the language fell into disuse shortly afterwards. Nevertheless, the empty space where

Volapük once stood was quickly filled by another contender, Esperanto.

Esperanto was created by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof who published its grammar under a pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto which was later adopted as a name for the entire language. However, unlike in the case of Schleyer‟s Volapük,

Zamenhof chose to directly involve the community that has established around

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Esperanto in the process of further refinement of the language. Future development of Esperanto was delegated to an independent group of scholars who later formed the Akademio de Esperanto. (Peterson 2015: 15)

Finally, the next big wave of language creation began in the 20th century.

This era of language creation is widely known as the artistic language or artlang movement. According to Peterson: “though early works of fantasy or satire would often feature bits of supposedly fictional languages (cf. Jonathan Swift, James

Cabell, Lord Dunsany, E. R. Eddison), none of these snippers were languages in the proper sense.” (Peterson 2015: 15-16). Peterson points out that construction of such fictional languages was often haphazard or circumstantial.

As Peterson claims, the first widely known author to make use of a fully constructed language was J. R. R. Tolkien. He notes that unlike the authors before

Tolkien or most authors who came after him, Tolkien was a language creator first.

He understood that languages are inseparable from the cultures that produced them, so, in a way, the languages served as the basis of the tales that later featured them and not the other way around, as was the case of many other popular works of fiction.

For example, the Vulcan language in Star Trek. According to Memory Alpha, a community wiki project dedicated to the Star Trek franchise, the lines were initially recorded in English and later re-dubbed with “alien” sounds that fit the lip synchronisation of English-speaking actors. According to Peterson, Tolkien believed that if his constructed languages were to have any kind of vitality, they would need

23 a place to breathe, so he created his own fictional world, Arda, where his languages could live and evolve just like natural languages (Peterson 2015: 16-17).

Apart from being the first to create a nearly full constructed language to be used in literary work of art, Tolkien also pioneered another aspect of language construction as he did not only create languages, but he created an entire language family. The two most widely known of his languages, Quenya and

Sindarin, evolved from a common ancestor language, which is called Quendian and themselves have languages that evolved from them. This is exceptionally notable as it is exactly how natural languages evolved in the real world. For example,

Czech, Russian or Lithuanian evolved from Proto-Balto-Slavic language while

English, German or Norwegian evolved from Proto-Germanic language and in turn,

Proto-Balto-Slavic and Proto-Germanic share common ancestral language known as Proto-Indo-European.

Another notable development in the artlang period occurred in 1974 when a movie called Land of the Lost was filmed. This movie represents a notable milestone in the history of constructed languages as it marked the first case where a linguist was hired specifically in order to create a constructed language to be used in a movie, or a television show. (Peterson 2015: 17) This practice was then repeated for several other television shows and movies, notably Star Trek III: The

Search for Spock. (Peterson 2015: 17) Paramount Pictures, the company behind the movie hired linguist Marc Okrand who was already involved with the Vulcan language in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan. As was already mentioned, the

24 scenes which involved Vulcan language were first shot with the actors speaking

English and was later re-dubbed using sounds of an alien language which fit the lip-sync of the actors. For The Search for Spock, Okrand was given a much greater task as he was to create the Klingon language and also to provide assistance regarding alien languages in this and also the later Star Trek Movies. (Nishi, D.,

Helping the Hearing Impaired and Voicing the Klingons, The Wall Street Journal).

Nevertheless, while this development, and the subsequent widespread popularity of Klingon even outside television and cinema, the conlang trend started to really grow only after introduction of the Internet and the unprecedented possibilities to share information and ideas it offered. Peterson writes that the first gathering of language creators, and that means both in person and virtual, took place on 29 July 1991. This is the date of the first message sent to the Conlang

Listserv (electronic mailing list dedicated to people involved in language construction) (Peterson 2015: 17-18).

The creation of this listserv is not only memorable because it allowed interested parties to share their vision on how to improve certain languages, but it also provided a space where people interested in creating languages could share their strategies for doing so and they could share and compare their work and approaches with one another, which is a tremendous boon to quality and diversity of such projects. As Peterson puts it:

What musician never listens to any music but the music they create? …

Some will have heard of Esperanto or Tolkien or Klingon, but a majority

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believed that they were the first person ever to create a language. For

example, I believed I was the first one ever to create a language for

purposes other than international communication – and that was in 2000

(Peterson 2015: 23, omission mine).

To conclude this chapter. The history of constructed languages and language creation at large goes significantly farther than it would seem from the fact that constructed languages have been enjoying mainstream popularity not for a very long period of time. It can be summed up that throughout their history, constructed languages and general approaches to constructed languages went through four main periods.

First, the period of religious or ritual languages. This period is represented for example by the Lingua Ignota created by Hildegard von Bingen or Balaibalan, which was possibly created by a group of Iranian mystics. Common characteristics of these languages are that their creation is attributed to some higher power acting through the creators and that the languages were possibly used for special aesthetic, ritualistic or religious purposes, not communication.

Next came the philosophical language period. During this period, created languages started to be viewed as projects deliberately designed by their creators for certain purposes. Many of these languages made it their goal to ameliorate certain deficiencies of natural languages. While natural languages are oftentimes unclear and vague due to idiomatic constructions or metaphors, these languages

26 sought to be very precise and to allow for clear and systematic classification of the entirety of human knowledge. While these intentions were surely noble and worthwhile and there are indeed many fields where such classifications can be easily adopted, there are also many areas of activity that cannot be easily classified into meaningful groups and subgroups. Also, given the nature of these languages, it is very easy to mistake similar words for one another. As such, the languages never saw widespread popularity.

This changed with the dawn of international auxiliary languages, several of which received wider international recognition. These languages were, and still are, designed with the express goal of being very easy to learn and use so that they can aid in developing international co-operation and be used in negotiations or trade. Of these languages, the most widely known one is Esperanto, which has estimated two million speakers worldwide, as stated at https://www.ethnologue.com/language/epo.

The last significant shift in focus of language creation communities came to be known as the artistic language or artlang movement. Languages belonging in this group are characteristic by being developed not to serve religious or scientific purposes, nor are they intended to be used as a lingua franca of international political or economic relations but to serve artistic purposes, oftentimes being used in literary or cinematographic works. These languages vary wildly in complexity and quality of their development. Good example are the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, who created languages with unprecedented levels of complexity and even their

27 own history and evolution, on one side. His constructed languages were so lifelike,

Tolkien created entire fictional world along with nations and cultures inhabiting it to make his constructed languages more alive. These were then used in his well- known literary works such as The Silmarillion, The Hobbit or The Lord of the Rings.

Another example of a very well-designed language is Klingon from the Star

Trek franchise. This fictional language left such a great cultural impact, even the works of Shakespeare have been translated to it. On the other side of the coin, there are many languages that were intended simply to add some more flavour to certain scenes without being overly complex or even actually functional as languages. This possibly applies for example to the Ubese used as an example at the beginning of this chapter or the Goa‟uld language from the Stargate television series which, devolved to a handful of words or phrases, such as “Jaffa kree!” whose meaning apparently shifted all the time to fit the needs of a particular scene.

Nevertheless, apart from widespread adoption of constructed languages into mainstream popular culture and art. this period is also characteristic by employing the the Internet. With the help of the Internet, individual conlangers and small interest groups transformed into a truly global community with specialised

Internet-based forums, mailing lists and knowledge bases that can be used to share ideas and test language creation strategies and approaches on an unprecedented scale.

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4. Theoretical background for the analysis

4.1 Roles and functions

As was already outlined above, there are many different types of constructed languages that are designed to fulfil different goals. These goals differ, be it some aesthetic purpose, testing out some hypothesis or easy acquisition of said language. This also remains true in literary works featuring a constructed language.

A great example of this is one of the books I would like to examine in this thesis, A

Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess. A Clockwork Orange is a special case in terms of similar books as its unique constructed language is very closely tied to one of its main themes, which is brainwashing. As the author himself has written, given the fact that brainwashing played such a central role in the novel, it was his intention that the readers of his book should also be subject to brainwashing.

(Burgess 1990: 37-38)

I will discuss the circumstances of the novel in more detail in the relevant chapter but suffice to say, the novel was published in 1962, few short years after the Suez Crisis, shortly after the Berlin Crisis of 1961 and the same year when the

Cuban Missile Crisis took place. At that time and political climate, the book presented its readers with a constructed language (Nadsat) that they had to learn in order to understand the story, and on top of that, the language was meant to trick the readers of the novel into learning some very basic Russian, i.e., the language of the enemy. This presents some extra requirements that a translator needs to take into consideration when translating this particular constructed

29 language. Even more so in case of translation into Czech or other Slavic languages as the relative cultural closeness and historic circumstances would completely defeat this purpose unless treated with extra care and effort on the part of the translator. Should the translator of A Clockwork Orange into Czech choose to respect the Russian origin of most of Nadsat‟s vocabulary, this would result in a significant accidental domestication of the language and thus in failure to correctly carry over certain important elements of the language and convey all levels of its function and role within the novel.

I argue that it is important for translators to not only transfer the languages themselves but also to recognise and transfer the above-mentioned functions and roles of said languages. In short, it is deemed important for a successful translation of a constructed language to not only transfer the meaning of the language but also to maintain equivalence of function and role.

In The Theory and Practice of Translation (first published in 1969) Nida states that “a conscientious translator will want the closest natural equivalent”

(Nida 1982: 13).

Nida then proposes two contrasting approaches towards equivalence of source and target texts – formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence. He proceeds to establish a fundamental set of priorities: contextual consistency has priority over verbal consistency, dynamic equivalence has priority over formal correspondence, aural form of language has priority over the written form of language and finally, that forms that are used by and acceptable to the audience

30 for which a translation is intended have priority over forms that may be traditionally more prestigious. (Nida 1982: 14) Nida argues that if the intelligibility of translation from the viewpoint of its receptors is taken in account, it should not be measured only in terms of whether the words are understandable and whether the sentences are grammatically constructed, but rather in terms of the total impact of the message on the one who receives it (Nida 1982: 22). In essence, all of this means that translators should take into account broader context and translate entire units of meaning instead of limiting themselves to trying to find suitable equivalents for individual words.

Other researches also address similar concepts. For instance, Mona Baker devotes an entire chapter of In Other Words (1992) to a similar concept called pragmatic equivalence. This type of equivalence concerns author‟s intentions and recreation of the intended message by the translator.

Similar approach is also presented for example by Peter Newmark in

Approaches to Translation where Newmark proposes that the ideal of producing an

“equivalence” should be abandoned as he views full equivalence as unobtainable.

Instead, Newmark proposes replacing Nida‟s concepts of dynamic equivalence and formal correspondence with analogous concepts of semantic and communicative translation, where “Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original”

(Newmark 1981: 39)

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As the focus of dynamic equivalence and similar approaches discussed above depends on broader context and emphasis on transferring the “total impact” and intention of the message plays an important role not only in conveying the meaning contained in words and phrases of the constructed language, but also the totality of its function and role within the translated work. This issue will be one of the topics analysed in the thesis.

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4.2 Translation strategies

Every time a translation is performed, the translator must make several decisions regarding how to approach the text being translated and how to process its features. For example, W. Lörscher notes that translators employ “a potentially conscious procedure for solving a problem faced in translating a text, or any segment of it” (Lörscher 1991: 8). These decisions made during different phases of the process of translation as well as the procedures employed are generally known as translation strategies. Throughout the history of translation studies, multitude of ways to classify and describe these strategies have been proposed by different scholars. As was said above, Lörscher especially emphasised the element of conscious choice in his approach to translation strategies.

Roger T. Bell then makes a distinction between local translation strategies and global translation strategies, stating that just as there are micro-level and macro-level problems in translation, translation strategies can similarly be divided between local strategies, i.e., strategies focused on individual portions of the text, and global strategies, i.e., strategies focusing on the entire text and subsequently quotes Séguinot that both local and global strategies interact with relevant elements of the translator‟s background knowledge: critical awareness of the style and content of similar texts, of conventions of spelling, punctuation and grammar, of compatibility of elements defining register and intuitions about what constitutes the target language (Bell 1998: 188). On the topic of global strategies, Bell notes that according to Séguinot, translators tend to make use of at least three global

33 strategies. 1) to translate without interruption for as long as possible; 2) to correct surface errors immediately but leave errors in meaning until a natural break in the clause or sentence occurs and finally; 3) to leave the monitoring for qualitative or stylistic errors in the text to the revision stage (Bell 1998: 188).

This approach seems to be also shared by Lawrence Venuti, who reiterates the points mentioned above by stating that translation strategies “involve the basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a method to translate it” (Venuti 1998: 240). Nevertheless, Venuti also brings something new to the table by introducing the concepts dubbed “foreignization” and “domestication” which were introduced in The Translator‟s Invisibility (Venuti 1995: 22-25) and were loosely based on similar concepts presented by Friedrich Schleiermacher during his lecture On the Different Methods of Translating delivered in Berlin in

1813. In the lecture, Schleiermacher proposed a view based on approximation of two persons and enabling of interpersonal comprehension. To this end,

Schleiermacher proposed two possible approaches. One that leaves the writer alone as much as possible while moving the readers towards the writer, and a second, opposite one, in which the translator leaves alone the readers and instead moves the writer towards them (cited in Lindemann 2016: 115-116).

As Venuti states in Strategies of Translation (1998), the foreignizing translation strategies are usually employed in translation of literary texts while technical translation is fundamentally domesticating and “is constrained by the exigencies of communication and therefore renders foreign texts in standard

34 dialects and terminologies to ensure immediate intelligibility”. Literary translation on the other hand “focuses on linguistic effects that exceed simple communication

… and are measured against domestic literary values, both canonical and marginal”

(Venuti 1998: 244, omission mine).

Yet another extension of the approaches discussed above was then proposed by Jan Pedersen, who proposed a model of classification of translation strategies in a “Venutian scale.” This approach seems to be a combination of

Venuti‟s concepts of foreignization and domestication with a taxonomy of translation strategies not dissimilar to taxonomy presented by Mona Baker in In

Other Words. Baker‟s original taxonomy consists of the following eight strategies:

- Translation by a more general word

- Translation by a more neutral word

- Translation by cultural substitution

- Translation by loanword or loanword with explanation

- Translation by paraphrase using related word

- Translation by paraphrase using unrelated word

- Translation by omission

- Translation by illustration (Baker 1992: 26-42)

Pedersen then introduces a model of classification of strategies used to translate Extralinguistic Culture-bound References (ECR) based on a similar set of strategies arranged from the most the Source Language oriented (foreignizing) to

35 the most Target Language oriented (domesticating) strategy on a “Venutian scale” as is depicted below:

Figure 1: Taxonomy of ECR transfer strategies (Pedersen 2005: 116)

Although Pedersen states that this taxonomy was developed on the basis of

“descriptive observations of norms underlying subtitling,” at the same time,

Pedersen notes that this model can be easily adapted for other forms of translations as well (Pedersen 2005: 115) which shall be done in order for the taxonomy to better fit the topic of this thesis – i.e., focusing on elements of constructed languages instead of ECRs.

Overall, Pedersen‟s taxonomy is very useful for the purposes of this thesis thanks to its “Venutian scale” of a range of translation strategies divided based on whether they are Source Language oriented or Target Language oriented. This

36 allows for quantitative analysis of material from the chosen literary works in terms of utilisation of Source Language oriented or Target Language oriented local translation strategies, which, in turn, allows identification of the predominant global translation strategy utilised in translation of the chosen work.

The taxonomy proposed by Pedersen distinguishes between six main translation strategies, two of which as marked as decidedly Source Language oriented, another two are marked as decidedly Target Language oriented and finally, the remaining two are marked as neither Target Language nor Source

Language oriented. The individual types of strategies recognised by Pedersen‟s taxonomy are as follows (Pedersen 2005: 116-121):

4.2.1 Retention

Retention is the most Source Language oriented of these strategies; it allows

Source Language elements to enter the Target Text in an unchanged form.

Pedersen notes that these Source Language elements can be either retained completely (Complete Retention). In this case, they are sometimes marked in the text by the use of italics or quotation marks, or they can be somewhat adjusted in order for them to meet Target Language conventions, e.g., by adjusting their spelling or omitting an article (TL Adjusted Retention).

4.2.2 Specification

Next Source Language oriented strategy is Specification, which is characterised by leaving the source text element untranslated but adding some extra information

37 which is not present in the source text which makes the translation more specific.

This is done either by the use of Explicitation or Addition.

At this point, it is important to note that Pedersen uses the term explicitation in a narrower sense than is the traditional use of the term in translation studies. He notes that explicitation could be seen as any strategy involving expansion of the text or addition of any information that is implicit in the source text. In his model, Explicitation is used in the sense that the added material is latent in the as part of the expression side (the name). Examples of this type of

Explicitation then include spelling out of an acronym or abbreviation, adding of somebody‟s first name, or the completion of an official name in order to make the element in question less ambiguous for the target audience.

Addition then means that the added material is latent as part of the sense or connotation of the element in question. Using this strategy allows the translator to intervene in order to give guidance to the audience. For example, if the source text contains a name of a person who may not be known to the target audience, translator utilising the Addition strategy will add extra information clarifying why is that person important (e.g.: Jack Roosevelt Robinson, the first African American to play in Major League Baseball).

4.2.3 Direct translation

Direct Translation is another strategy presented in the model. According to

Pedersen, the strategy cannot generally be used on proper names, but is common for names of companies, official institutions or technical gadgets. In direct

38 translation, the semantic load is unchanged – nothing is added, and nothing is subtracted and no effort to transfer connotations or guide the audience is made.

This strategy is further divided into two subcategories, Calque and Shifted.

Calque is the result of a stringent literal translation which may appear exotic and odd to the target audience, which makes it more Source Language oriented.

Shifted results from translators performing some optional shifts in order to make the element less obtrusive to the target audience, in effect, making it more Target

Language oriented. Therefore, in general, the Direct Translation strategy balances on the line between Source Language oriented and Target Language oriented strategies and thus is left unmarked in the graph above.

4.2.4 Generalisation

The first of the Target Language oriented strategies is Generalisation. This entails replacing an element referring to something specific with an element with broader, more general meaning. This commonly involves hyponymy, but this is not required.

Pedersen further notes that there is a number of similarities between

Generalisation and Addition. These similarities mostly concern the fact that the information added as part of utilisation of the Addition strategy is often a hypernym and, in number of cases, it can be said that Addition is the result of

Generalisation combined with Retention.

Pedersen explains that the difference between these strategies is primarily linguistic and lies within the fact that in Generalisation, there is an upward movement along the hyponymy scale. This results in a target text element that is

39 less specific than the source text element, whereas in Addition, the movement goes in the opposite direction, and the strategy involves meronymy instead of hyponymy.

4.2.5 Substitution

The second Target Language oriented strategy included in the taxonomy is

Substitution. Substitution involves removal of the original element and its replacement with a different element or a paraphrase. Its Subtypes are the

Cultural Substitution and Paraphrase. Cultural Substitution means that the element is removed and replaced by a different element.

Pedersen further elaborates on two forms. The least marked form of this

Substitution involves replacement of the element in question by a corresponding transcultural element that is known to the target audience. In the more marked form, it is replaced by a corresponding target language element (this is usually the case for names of institutions etc.). As noted, this is a well-established and effective strategy for translating the above-mentioned types of element.

Substitution by Paraphrase then means that the element in question is removed and paraphrased in some way. The paraphrase may then maintain the sense and connotations of the original element (paraphrase with sense transfer), or completely remove the meaning and connotations and replace them by a new element which fits the situation (situational paraphrase). The situational paraphrase is commonly employed when translating various jokes and puns which otherwise would not have worked in the Target Language system.

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4.2.6 Omission

The last strategy included in Pedersen‟s taxonomy is the Omission strategy. This strategy is based on work of Gideon Toury, who pointed out that omission is in fact a valid translation strategy. In Pedersen‟s taxonomy, omission simply means replacement of the given element with nothing. This makes Omission the second strategy that is not marked as either Target Language oriented or Source

Language oriented.

The analysis performed as part of this thesis will be based in part on the concepts of Eugene A. Nida (1982), Peter Newmark (1982) and Mona Baker (1992).

As Nida noted, different languages have their own distinct ways to capture, classify and convey the real world of their users. This in turn gives rise to some specific issues in translation as the entire scope of meaning of an element of vocabulary in the source language may not perfectly correspond to any single element of vocabulary in the target language.

To tackle this issue, Nida proposes an approach dubbed “dynamic equivalence” which focuses on the broader context of the entire message and the impact the message should have on its recipients. One of the hypotheses that is going to be tested in this thesis is that in the case of translation of constructed languages, the equivalence that must be achieved is the equivalence of function the constructed languages being translated perform in their respective works. As

41 these functions may be different in each individual instance, the functions will be identified for each of the chosen works.

The translation of constructed languages used in said works will then be analysed in terms of the classification model of translation strategies as proposed by Jan Pedersen. Pedersen‟s model presents six main local translation strategies and divides them in what was dubbed the “Venutian scale” (Pedersen 2005: 119) between those strategies that are Source Language oriented (Retention,

Specification and Direct Translation utilising Calque) and those that are Target

Language oriented (Generalisation, Substitution and Shifted Direct Translation) i.e., foreignizing and domesticating translation strategies in the original terms used by

Venuti.

In order to identify which of these two global strategies is prevalent in the chosen works, a quantitative analysis of the constructed language elements present in the translated works will be performed. Its aim will be to ascertain whether a choice of global translation strategy impacts how successfully can constructed language be translated and what is the relationship between the chosen translation strategies and the identified functions of constructed languages.

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5. Analysis of the chosen literary works

In this chapter, I will perform the analysis of chosen literary works; A

Clockwork Orange, translated by Ladislav Šenkyřík; The Lord of the Rings, translated by Stanislava Pošustová-Menšíková, and Watership Down, translated by

Jitka Minaříková. These literary works were chosen in part thanks to the popularity of the original books as well as their Czech translations with considerations for variety of translation challenges and scope of the thesis. Nevertheless, there are more literary works which feature their own constructed languages that have been translated to Czech, such as Cat‟s Cradle by Kurt Vonnegut, 1984 by George Orwell,

Cloud Atlas by David Mitchell or Dune by Frank Herbert. Other literary works also include text which could be considered a constructed language. One of the earliest examples of this would then be the poem Jabberwocky included in Through the

Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There by Lewis Carroll. All these works feature their own constructed languages based on their own specific systems of grammar, lexis or wordplay. Also, as was outlined above in chapter 3., constructed languages do not limit themselves to literary works, but are used in various other works and can also be stand-alone projects intended for practical use in the real world. Nevertheless, due to time constraints, a decision was made to focus only on the works specified above.

The analysis will comprise two main parts. The first part will be focusing on the analysis of the main roles and functions of the constructed language or languages employed in each of the chosen literary works. The second part will

43 then comprise an analysis of the conlang elements present in said works in terms of identification of the used translation strategies utilising the Venutian scale proposed by Jan Pedersen. This will in turn allow for identification of the prevalent overall global translation strategy – domestication or foreignization – and ascertaining of any prevalent trends in translation of constructed languages into

Czech and the impact of a choice of translation strategies on the success or failure to convey the identified functions and roles of the constructed language in question.

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5.1 A Clockwork Orange1

5.1.1 Political orientation

As was already stated above, the constructed language employed in A Clockwork

Orange was given a rather unique role to fulfil. The book was originally published in 1962, at the time of incredibly high tensions between the Eastern and the

Western world superpowers.

As supported by the work by Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali "One

Hell of a Gamble": Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964 (1998), it was a period of events such as the U2 incident of 1960, when an American surveillance aircraft was shot down over the Soviet Union. The handling of this incident ultimately ended up damaging American-Soviet relationship and jeopardising the finalisation of a limited nuclear test ban treaty that was under negotiations at a summit held between the United States, the Soviet Union, France and the Great

Britain., Then, there was the unsuccessful Bay of Pigs invasion of 1961, in which the United States supported the Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front forces in their attempt to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro. The invasion failed and

Cuba subsequently strengthened its ties to the Soviet Union, which ultimately resulted in the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962, when the Soviet Union positioned its nuclear weapons in Cuba in response to American ballistic missiles being deployed

1 The Czech translation of A Clockwork Orange by Ladislav Šenkyřík saw several revisions since the book was first published in 1992. The revisions feature various changes and corrections. For this reason, I wanted to work with the most recent revision published in 2016. Unfortunately, the only version readily available to me at this time was an e-book which contains no page numbers as its contents dynamically adjust to fit each individual device. As such, no page numbers are provided for examples taken from the Czech version. 45 in Europe. This point is widely believed to be the closest the Cold War between

Western and Eastern powers came to escalation into a full-scale nuclear conflict.

This also happened to be the year in which A Clockwork Orange was first published. It is interesting to note that a novel was published at the time of such arduous global political climate in the English-speaking world which heavily relies on a constructed language largely based on Russian, the language of the enemy.

With this in mind, I will address the choice of source languages for the

Czech iteration of Nadsat. Unlike the predominantly Russian-based original Nadsat

(the name of the language itself comes from a Russian suffix -надцать (nadcať) meaning -teen), the Czech Jazyk Týnů is largely based on English. This could be interpreted in view of the Cold War approach as the then Czechoslovakia was a member of the Eastern bloc and its government was pro-Soviet. This would then logically make the Western world, led by the United States of America, the ideological enemy and thus, English would be a viable choice for the language of teenagers which was described as follows:

„These grahzny sodding veshches that come out of my gulliver and my plott,‟

I said, „that‟s what it is.‟

„Quaint,‟ said Dr. Brodsky, like smiling, „the dialect of the tribe. Do you know

anything of its provenance, Brannom?‟

„Odd bits of old rhyming slang,‟ said Dr. Brannom, who did not look quite so

much like a friend any more. „A bit of gipsy talk, too. But most of the roots

are Slav. Propaganda. Subliminal penetration.‟ (Burgess 1986: 102)

46

“Ty gražny soďácký buči, který mi trčej z gullivera a z ploti,” řekl sem. “Ty

to dělaj.”

“Zvláštní,” usmál se doktor Brodsky, “opravdu zvláštní jazyk národa. Víš

něco o jeho původu, Branome?”

“Trocha zbytků původního městského slangu,” odpověděl doktor Branom,

kterej už nevypadal tak přátelsky jako dřív. “Taky trocha cikánštiny. Ale

většina slov má anglosaské (Anglosaxon) nebo ruské (Russian) kořeny.

Propaganda. Podprahová infiltrace.” (Burgess 2016, translations to English

mine)

This description of Nadsat supports the idea that the Russian influence in the youth speech is regarded as some kind of cultural intrusion, highly likely one with ideological subtext. This would then further justify the use of English as a basis for

Nadsat. Nevertheless, while majority of the vocabulary element present in Czech translation of Nadsat are based on English as would be expected in case the above approach was adopted, this is not the case. Tt was clarified by the translator himself (translator‟s clarification included in chapter 4.1.2) that the Czech translation of Nadsat also uses vocabulary based on Russian, German, Polish or

Romani. Most of these vocabulary elements are then modified to better fit Czech orthography just as Burgess modified Russian words to fit English orthography.

It can therefore be argued that what led the translator to make this decision regarding the pick of languages to be used as basis for Jazyk Týnů was to place greater emphasis on the historical and cultural realities of the Czech Republic. For

47 example, there is a sizeable Romani ethnic minority in the Czech Republic which, in popular opinion, is perceived rather negatively and is often associated with petty criminality. In this light, certain vocabulary element derived from the Romani language would likely be considered by the target audience to be a sensible fit in a language of young criminals and troublemakers on the periphery of society. The presence of Polish and German then can be simply interpreted as a cultural influence of languages of neighbouring countries as even the standard variant of

Czech includes a variety of elements that originate from languages of neighbouring countries.

Finally, the largest portions of the vocabulary of Jazyk Týnů are based on

Russian and English. Here, it can be argued that, given the fact that the first Czech translation of the novel was published in 1992, not long after the Czechoslovakian

Velvet Revolution and dissolution of the Soviet Union, the translation still carries in itself the idea of the great conflict between world powers and their pervasive influence prominently felt in certain social strata. Yet, from the perspective of

Czech Republic at the time of publishing of the translation, there was no longer any single great enemy. Rather, it was a transitional period where the influence of the Soviet Union and Russian slowly wanes only to be replaced with Western influence and English, which quickly consolidated its position and asserted its hegemony over mass culture and new technologies, especially in regard to information technology and the Internet, which were being introduced in the Czech

Republic during said period.

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While this is definitely a substantial modification of the function of Nadsat in the original novel, it is unclear whether this actually goes against the meaning intended by Anthony Burgess as the novel can also be interpreted in other ways.

For example, it can also be understood as a cautionary tale warning its readers against any political supremacy and against totalitarian regimes in general.

This can be demonstrated on some of the laws applicable in Alex‟s country which were mentioned in the novel, such as mandatory employment of all adult citizens (Burgess 1986: 31). Such policies are often associated with socialist regimes. Another example of this might be the country‟s gradual change into a police state with powerful law enforcement agencies which turned to recruiting former gang members and tasking them with keeping public order, apparently through any means they deem necessary (Burgess 1986: 130-134). This is shown in the transition the country undergoes during the imprisonment of Alex and his subsequent encounter with some of his former droogs, now police officers. In this interpretation of the novel, the mixing of English and Russian along with the general theme of an oppressive political regime taking away free will of its citizens and turning them into metaphorical clockwork automata represents a warning against all totalitarian regimes regardless of whether foreign or purely domestic.

Considering this possible interpretation of the novel, the mix of predominantly English and Russian words in Jazyk Týnů as presented in the Czech translation of A Clockwork Orange could then be seen as reflection of this. Utilising the Russian-based vocabulary in order to remind the readers of the just recently

49 ended Russian supremacy and the English-based vocabulary as a possible warning that there is another power spreading its sphere of influence in this region. In this case, the above approach to the choice of source languages for the translation of

Nadsat would then not be at variance with the meaning of the work.

5.1.2 Brainwashing effect

One of the core functions intended to be fulfilled by Nadsat, the language of a subculture of teenage hooligans is to subject its readers to brainwashing. As the author himself states in his autobiography:

“As the book was about brainwashing, it was appropriate that the text itself

should be a brainwashing device. The reader would be brainwashed into

learning minimal Russian. The novel was to be an exercise in linguistic

programming, with the exoticisms gradually clarified by context: I would

resist to the limit any publisher's demand that a glossary be provided. A

glossary would disrupt the programming and nullify the brainwashing”

(Burgess 1990: 37-38)

At this point, it should be noted that although Burgess stated that he intended to resist demands that a glossary should be provided and initially the book was indeed published without any glossary of Nadsat terms, the glossary is not necessarily needed.

Admittedly, there are some more esoteric Nadsat vocabulary elements, many of which are used only once throughout the entire novel, whose precise meaning might be difficult to grasp without any outside help. Yet, at the same time,

50 most of the time, the reader is able to comprehend Nadsat elements without needing any language skills other than English. This is achieved either by inferring their meaning from the context in which they are used or because the author decided to provide the readers with some degree of assistance during some of the steps in learning the language of the novel. This assistance is provided mainly through its protagonist/narrator Alex who repeatedly explains or directly translates some of the Nadsat vocabulary, especially at the beginning of the novel, as is shown below:

There was me, that is Alex, and my three droogs, that is Pete, Georgie

and Dim. (Burgess 1986: 1)

To sem byl já, teda Alex, a tři moji frendíci, to jako Pítrs, Jiřík a Tupoun

(Burgess 2016)

I had one in the shape of a spider, Pete had a rooker (a hand, that is) …

and poor old Dim had a very hound-and-horny one of a clown‟s litso (face,

that is). (Burgess 1986: 2, omission mine)

takže já to měl ve tvaru pavouka, Pítrs měl hendku (teda jako ruku) …

a starej ubohej Tupoun odpornej, jakoby nadrženej fejs (jako teda

obličej) klauna (Burgess 2016, omission mine)

Then we wore waisty jackets without lapels but with these very big built-up

shoulders (pletchoes we called them) (Burgess 1986: 2)

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Dál sme na sobě měli saka do pasu a bez klop, ale zato s obrovskejma

vycpávkama na ramenách (“plečo” sme tomu říkali) (Burgess 2016)

These examples showcase how a number of Nadsat elements was introduced at the very beginning of the novel along with translations readily provided by Alex, who, at that point, fulfilled the role of a narrator of the story. In this role, Alex was addressing the readers directly and, being aware that they may not possess sufficient knowledge of the setting of the novel and the language employed by its characters, reminding them what the world looked like at the time when the story takes place, hence the translations of Nadsat and accompanying explanatory commentary. In order to preserve the brainwashing effect, the translator must take this function of the language into account and maintain it, so that the readers may be gradually exposed to Nadsat and allowed to learn it. As evidenced by the above examples taken from the very first pages of the novel, the translator does include these language lessons in his translation into Czech, so in this regard, the brainwashing function of Nadsat remains largely functional, albeit definitely not perfectly.

The translation of Nadsat in the Czech version contains number of errors and mistakes. For example, right at the beginning of the novel, where Alex still regularly provides translations of Nadsat terms, Alex describes how, while sitting in the milk bar, he punched somebody “on the ooko or earhole”. (Burgess 1986: 4)

“Ooko” is the Nadsat term for ear and “earhole” is the translation provided by the narrator. This is not translated correctly as the Czech version speaks about punch

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“na ajko nebo možná na ucho” (on the eye or maybe the ear). This results in a shift of meaning that can have detrimental impact on the readers‟ ability to understand the text when both the Nadsat terms for eye (“glazz,” translated to

“ajko”) and ear (“ooko”, translated to “ír”) are used without any further assistance from Alex. The possibility of learning the meaning of Nadsat words through surrounding context is also diminished in the translation on multiple occasions as evidenced below:

We sat in the Korova Milkbar making up our rassoodocks what to do

with the evening … (Burgess 1986: 1, omission mine)

Seděli sme v mlíčňáku Korova a decidovali se, co budem ten večer dělat …

(Burgess 2016, omission mine)

… nor to do the ultra-violent on some shivering starry grey-haired ptitsa

in a shop … (Burgess 1986: 1, omission mine)

… předvádět žádný supernásilí na nějaký roztřepaný ancintní ptice někde

v krámě … (Burgess 2016, omission mine)

Where the use of “making up our” hints at the intended meaning of the Nadsat term “rassoodocks” more clearly than the Czech translation, which lacks similar element providing further clarification. Similarly, in the second example, the inclusion of further descriptive adjective “grey-haired” makes it easier to understand the meaning of the Nadsat term “starry” while the Czech Nadsat term

“ancintní” lacks any such supporting description. Furthermore, while in the original

53 version, the Nadsat word for “old” is always “starry”, the Czech translation is not consistent in this regard and uses two separate terms, “ancintní” and “ouldaný”.

Similar problem arises with the term “sammy act”. Admittedly, this term is not one of the Nadsat vocabulary elements devised by Burgess. In reality, it is based on the term “to sam” or “to stand sam”, a piece of 19th century slang which, according to Jonathon Green‟s Cassell‟s Dictionary of Slang (2000) means to pay for a drink. Nevertheless, it still represents a term which will likely not be widely recognised by readers of the novel. Unfortunately, this seems to also apply for the translator into Czech. The term “sammy act” appears in a total of two instances in the entire novel. The first instance is translated as “sameťáckej skutek” and the second instance is then translated as “sejmovej akt”. This once more creates unnecessary confusion as the readers are unlikely to connect both terms and, on top of that, the Czech glossary includes the term “sejmovej” with the translation to

“the same”. This is both incomplete, as it has no relation to the earlier translation

“sameťáckej” which is not represented in the glossary, and erroneous.

Furthermore, the Czech translation of Nadsat features several words such as bog, gulliver or rabbitit that may also prove to be confusing. Despite all of the above vocabulary element being derived from Russian (бог – bog (God); голова – golova (head); работа – rabota (work)), they may be easily mistaken for being derived from English. Consequently, readers with some proficiency in English may mistakenly attempt to decode their meaning as such. All of these examples of deficiencies found in the translation may then add further to the possible confusion

54 of the novel‟s readers and considerably hinder the language-learning process which is important for proper performance of this function of Nadsat.

Nevertheless, there remains one further aspect of the brainwashing effect that should be considered and that is the choice of the language or languages used as a basis for the translation of Nadsat, i.e., the language or languages that the readers will be unwittingly made to learn. As was already mentioned, the original Nadsat is largely based on Russian. This, coupled with the historical background of the novel as highlighted above, suggests that the choice of Russian might be a reference to the ongoing conflict between Western and Eastern powers.

As such, the language conveys certain ideological charge that is incredibly difficult to translate as the geographical, historical, cultural and language circumstances applicable for the Czech Republic are vastly different from those applicable in the

United Kingdom or the United States of America. Likely due these reasons, the translator made a choice to create new version of Nadsat, one that is not primarily based on Russian. As the translator himself states:

Anthony Burgess použil za základ jazyka týnů ruštinu. Vzhledem k tomu, že

z důvodů lingvistických i historických nepovažuji pro český překlad tento

způsob za nejšťastnější, je výsledný tvar směsí anglismů, rusismů,

germanismů, polonismů, výrazů vycházejících z romského lexika a nově

vytvořených slov (Burgess 2016)

Anthony Burgess used Russian as a basis for Nadsat. Since I do not

consider this to be suitable for translation to Czech due to linguistic and

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historical reasons, the final form (of Nadsat) is a mixture of Anglicisms,

Russicisms, Germanisms, Polonisms, words based on Romani lexis and

newly created words. (translation mine)

This approach is fairly understandable, as many of the original Russian-based

Nadsat terms are fairly close or even identical to their Czech equivalents. These are words such as: babooschka, bog, brat, britva, chelloveck, to crast, to govoreet, klootch, maslo, mesto, minoota, moloko, noga, nozh, okno, to peet, plesk, pooshka, sladky, slovo, spatchka, starry, zooby or zvonock. Even if these words were kept in their original forms which were modified from Russian in order to be better suited for the purposes of English orthography. This would still result in unintended domestication of the text and the Czech readers would very likely be able to understand these words without any effort on their part unlike the speakers of English reading the original Clockwork Orange. This would then make

Nadsat far easier to understand and process than was intended by Anthony

Burgess and would seriously jeopardise any attempts at brainwashing the readers and tricking them into learning the basics of another language.

Given the fact that one of the core functions of Nadsat is this manipulation of the novel‟s readers into unwittingly learning the basics of another language, it is very likely one of the reasons why Anthony Burgess chose Russian. It was not particularly likely that the reader base at large would be familiar with the language and thus, would be able to experience the language learning process just as intended. It can be therefore questioned how successful the Czech translation is

56 nowadays. In the early 1990s when the Czech translation of A Clockwork Orange was initially published, it could be expected that a sizeable number of its readers would be at least somewhat familiar with Russian. While this presents some issue, majority of the vocabulary of Jazyk Týnů is based on English, a language which, at that time, was not so widely understood in the Czech Republic. Therefore, the language-learning function of the language was possibly diminished, but not overly disrupted.

As of today, however, based on information taken from the monthly newsletter of the Czech Statistical Office of October 2017, 43 % of respondents over the age of 40 claimed to possess at least basic knowledge of Russian. This number then dropped to just 9 % of respondents under the age of 40. For English,

18 % of respondents over the age of 50 declared at least basic knowledge of

English. For respondents between 30 and 50 this number rose up to 50 % and finally, 82 % of respondents between the age of 18 and 30 claimed to possess at least minimal knowledge of English. 50 % of this group described their level of

English as intermediate or upper intermediate based on the CEFR framework. As for the knowledge of Russian, the newsletter attributes the fairly high percentage of respondents over the age of 40 who know at least some Russian and the subsequent sharp decline in the knowledge of Russian in younger respondents to the focus of the Czech education system prior to 1989. Similarly, changes in the education system and the dominant position of English on the Internet were

57 credited for the very high percentage of younger respondents who possess at least some knowledge of English.

In light of this data I would like to point out that as various modern smart technologies and Internet services play ever-increasing role in the lives of people, so does increase the importance of English both as the go-to language of various international communities on the Internet and also language commonly used in popular culture.

This coupled with the data from the Czech Statistical Office which clearly shows the prevalence of English as a second language among the younger populace suggests that a Czech translation of Nadsat which bases its vocabulary on English is approaching the end of its useful lifespan. Given the fact that one of the basic purposes of Nadsat is brainwashing the readers into learning another language, the novel is very unlikely to be successful in achieving this goal in a society where said language is the most popular choice of second language learners. Furthermore, English is being taught to children since elementary school.

Therefore, in order to preserve this goal of the novel and its peculiar language, I argue that it would not be completely without merit to consider creating a brand new translation of Nadsat based on a language that would be better suited to fulfil this purpose in the current sociocultural realities of the Czech

Republic. For example, given the notable decline of popularity of Russian as a second language in the Czech Republic and the political tensions caused by 2014 annexation of the Crimean Peninsula by the Russian Federation, it could be viable

58 to create a new translation of Nadsat primarily based on Russian. Preferably utilising some lesser known synonyms in place of the original Nadsat vocabulary elements whose forms are too close to their Czech equivalents in order to avoid unintended domestication o the text which would compromise the brainwashing function.

5.1.3 Group identity and group separation

One of recurring elements in the novel is the contrast between different social groups, which is also significantly represented by the language of the novel. It is made very clear right from the beginning of the novel, that its setting is fairly sharply divided between the orderly world of the adult populace and the rowdy and extremes-seeking teenagers such as Alex and his friends, resulting in an extreme and violent inter-generational conflict.

As mentioned by Hansen and Liu in Social Identity and Language:

Theoretical and Methodological Issues (1997), social identity is believed to be closely tied to within a social group. Furthermore, they note that a research has been conducted, which focused on the relationship between speakers‟ choices of linguistic categories and the social situation. The research also focused on instances of code-switching in said social situations as “linguistic alternatives within the repertoire serve to symbolise the differing social identities which members may assume … code-switching may signal various memberships and identities” (Hansen

& Liu 1997: 568, omission mine). Another researcher, Carol M. Eastman then found out in her work Establishing Social Identity Through Language Use (1985)

59 that members of social groups tend to establish their identities through “group talk” which in turn involves three main features – vocabulary, topics and attitudes

(Eastman 1985: 2-5).

I believe that the above described features of group talk fits well on Nadsat and its role as a group talk. First of all, the language features very specific vocabulary heavily based on Russian and other languages which is in direct contrast with the language used by the adult populace. Next feature are common topics. Common topics of interest shared by the Nadsat social group are hinted at through Nadsat vocabulary which contains an abundance of words related to drugs, violence and crime in general.

The last feature is then sharing of common attitudes. This is similar to the shared topics, as attitudes shown by the speakers of Nadsat often revolve around crime, contempt towards adults – as evidenced for example by “… at their tired meal after the day‟s rabbiting in factory the one, store the other. The poor old. The pitiable starry” (Burgess 1986: 42) – and “ultra violence.”

There is a shift of these common attitudes in the final chapter of the novel.

The chapter is placed sometime after Alex is cured from the effects of Ludovico treatment and restarts his criminal life. The beginning of this chapter is notably similar to the very first chapter as it also starts in the Korova milk bar, continues by description of the latest youth fashion and proceeds with the start of that night‟s crime spree.

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Despite all these similarities, there is something different about Alex this time as he leaves his gang to themselves after they scoff at him for talking about

“earning” money instead of just “taking” it (Burgess 1986: 160-163). This change of attitude and subsequent damage to Alex‟s identity as a member of the Nadsat group is the first sign of Alex himself transforming into an adult and finding less and less common ground with his old social group. This is then further reinforced by Alex‟s encounter with Pete, one of the members of his former criminal group.

Pete is shown to have become an adult. He has a job, is married and speaks the standard variety of English while Alex is still holding on to Nadsat, as shown below:

„This‟, said Pete to the devotchka, „is an old friend. His name is Alex. May I‟,

he said to me‟, introduce my wife?‟

My rot fell wide open then. „Wife? I like gasped. „Wife wife wife? Ah no, that

cannot be. Too young art thou to be married, old droog. Impossible

impossible.‟

This devotchka who was like Pete‟s wife (impossible impossible) giggled

again and said to Pete: „Did you used to talk like that too?‟ (Burgess 1986:

165-166)

This further showcases the role of language in the novel for separating the two contrasting social groups and forces Alex to re-evaluate his own social identity as his attitude and aspirations no longer align with those of the teenagers.

Throughout the novel, Alex frequently employs code-switching. He speaks in an informal manner and utilises Nadsat vocabulary in most situations, such as

61 when he is speaking to his peers or addressing readers from the narrator‟s perspective and switches over to a much more formal and polite language, referred to as his “gentleman‟s goloss.” Alex uses this polite language mainly when speaking to adults, mostly figures of authority, in order to better transmit the idea of his compliance, be it genuine or feigned, and to attempt to hide his involvement in the violence taking place at night. Another use of his gentleman‟s goloss is when he is speaking to his potential victims in order to conceal his membership in the social group of rowdy teenagers and lull them into a false sense of security, he would later be able to exploit. Both the original novel and its translation contain many examples of this code-switching. One notable example of this occurs in a scene where Alex receives a visit from P. R. Deltoid, his Post-Corrective Adviser who was informed that Alex will not be attending school that day and came to see him for himself:

„A rather intolerable pain in the head, brother, sir,‟ I said in my gentleman‟s

goloss. „I think it should clear by this afternoon.‟ „Or certainly by this

evening, yes,‟ said P. R. Deltoid. „The evening is the great time, isn‟t it, Alex

boy? Sit,‟ he said, „sit, sit,‟ as though this was his domy and me his guest …

I said: „A cup of the old chai, sir? Tea, I mean.‟ … „I‟ve been doing nothing

I shouldn‟t, sir,‟ I said. „The millicents have nothing on me, brother, sir I

mean.‟ … „Cut out this clever talk about millicents,‟ said P. R. Deltoid very

weary, but still rocking. „Just because the police have not picked you up

lately doesn‟t, as you very well know, mean you‟ve not been up to some

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nastiness. There was a bit of a fight last night, wasn‟t there? There was a

bit of shuffling with nozhes and bike-chains and the like.‟ (Burgess 1986:

33-34, omissions mine)

“Bolest hlavy, která se skoro nedá vydržet, bratře pane,” řekl sem uctivým

vojsem. „Myslím, že by to do odpoledne mohlo přejít.”

„No, do večera určitě, to ano,” řekl P. R. Deltoid. „Večer, to je velkej čas, že

jo, Saško? Sedni si,” řekl, „jen si sedni,” jako by to byl jeho houm a já byl

jeho hostem. … Zeptal sem se: „Šálek starýho dobrýho tý, pane? Chtěl sem

říct čaje.” … „Já nedělám nic nedovolenýho, pane, “řekl sem. „Milicjanti na

mě nic nemaj, bratře, chci říct pane.”

“Nech si ty žvásty o milicjantech”, řekl P. R. Deltoid velmi unaveně, ale

pořád se přitom houpal. “Jenom to, že tě poslední dobou policie nesbalila,

neznamená, jak moc dobře víš, že nejsi zapletenej do nějaký levárny. Včera

v noci se to trošku rvalo, že ano? Trošku se tančilo s najfama

a motorkovejma řetězama a tak podobně.” (Burgess 2016, omissions mine)

Here Alex switched to his significantly more respectful gentleman‟s goloss.

However, this transition was not completely successful as shown when he addressed P. R. Deltoid “brother” (bratře) and quickly corrected himself to “sir” or by accidentally code-switching back into Nadsat as evidenced by his use of the terms “chai” (tý) and “millicents” (milicjanti) the latter of which was not corrected to the proper term. What is especially of interest here is the way P. R. Deltoid

63 speaks. Since modern English lacks the T-V distinction for the most part, it is not very evident, but I believe that the way P. R. Deltoid speaks to Alex marks him as an intermediary between the world of adults, marked by the use of standard

English and the world of youth, marked by the use of Nadsat and non-standard language in general. This is supported by P. R. Deltoid‟s use of contractions when speaking to Alex, which marks his standing in the conversation to be more informal and closer to Alex and also by his apparent ability and willingness to not only understand but also use Nadsat, (millicents – milicjantech and nozhes – najfama).

This further shows P. R. Deltoid as sort of a middle man standing between adults and the youth, which is fairly well captured in the translation.

As was already mentioned above, another important function of code- switching employed by Alex is to conceal his membership within the social group of criminal youth in order to deceive his potential victims and allow him to gain and later exploit their trust. This is especially well evidenced by the following scenes:

„Pardon, madam, most sorry to disturb you, but my friend and me were out

for a walk, and my friend has taken bad all of a sudden with a very

troublesome turn, and he is out there on the road dead out and groaning.

Would you have the goodness to let me use your telephone to telephone for

an ambulance?‟ … „Well,‟ I said, „could you of your goodness please let him

have a cup of water? It‟s like a faint, you see. It seems as though he‟s

passed out in a sort of a fainting fit.‟ (Burgess 1986: 18, omissions mine)

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“Pardon, madam, je mi strašně líto, že vás vyrušuju, ale šli sme s přítelem na procházku a jemu se udělalo najednou strašně špatně a leží támhle na cestě úplně bez sebe. Byla byste tak laskavá a dovolila mi zavolat od vás pohotovost” … „Dobře,” řekl sem, „mohl bych aspoň využít vaší dobroty a poprosit vás pro něho o sklenici vody? Víte, vypadá to, že brzo omdlí. Asi ztrácí vědomí.” (Burgess 2016, omission mine)

I then bent down to the letter-slit and called through in a refined like goloss,

„Help, madam, please. My friend has just had a funny turn on the street. Let me phone a doctor, please.‟ … „Oh, please help, madam. My friend‟s very ill.‟

… „Very well, madam. If you won‟t help I must take my suffering friend elsewhere.‟ … „All right, old friend, you will surely meet some good samaritan some place other. This old lady perhaps cannot be blamed for being suspicious with so many scoundrels and rogues of the night about. No, indeed not.‟ (Burgess 1986: 51-52, omissions mine)

Pak sem se sehnul ke škvíře na poštu a zavolal prosebným vojsem:

„Pomozte mi, madam, prosím. Mému příteli se udělalo na ulici zle. Dovolte mi zavolat lékaře, prosím vás.” … „Ach, madam, prosím vás. Můj přítel je vážně nemocný.” … „Dobře dobře, madam. Když mi nepomůžete vy, musím svýho trpícího přítele vzít jinam.” … „Dobře dobře, starý příteli, určitě někde potkáme nějakého dobrého samaritána. Tu starou dámu snad ani

65

nemůžeme za tu její nedůvěřivost obviňovat, když se dneska nocí potuluje

tolik darebáků a chuligánů.” (Burgess 2016, omissions mine)

As can be seen in these scenes where Alex uses code-switching strategy to conceal his group identity, the strategy works similarly as in the previously discussed case where he is speaking to an adult he does not wish to antagonise. Alex achieves this by switching over to his “gentleman‟s goloss” and employing a much more formal register devoid of any Nadsat vocabulary elements. These examples where

Alex uses code-switching offensively, to deceive his victims, utilise the same principle. In translation, these passages seem to utilise a slightly less formal language at times, as the use of terms such as “strašně, vyrušuju, sme” or “svýho” feels somewhat more informal than what Alex says in the English version.

Nevertheless, the most important factor in the above discussed scenes is the distinct absence of any Nadsat vocabulary. In this regard, the translation manages to convey the use of code-switching as a way of either displaying or concealing one‟s identity as a member of a certain social group successfully.

5.1.4 Analysis of Nadsat elements

This chapter will now present lexical analysis of all Nadsat vocabulary elements present in the novel and the strategies used in their translation to Jazyk Týnů.

While some conlangs also feature their own specific grammar or syntax, Nadsat is a lexical extension of the base language and will therefore be analysed in terms of its lexis.

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Nadsat Jazyk Týnů Meaning Strategy used appy polly loggy nehod ani lám ani apology Substitution by omlou ani vat Paraphrase baboochka babooshka old woman TL Adjusted Retention* baddiwad špatenka bad person New Element Creation banda ganga band, gang Shifted Translation-S barry place místečko s mřížema prison Substitution by Paraphrase bezoomny lunatic crazy Shifted Translation-C biblio knihovna library Cultural Substitution bitva batl battle Shifted Translation-C Bog Bog God Complete Retention* bogman bogman godman Complete Retention bolnoy balnoj sick TL Adjusted Retention bolshy bolšácký big TL Adjusted Retention boorjoyce burandžojní bourgeois TL Adjusted Retention bratchny bračny bastard TL Adjusted Retention bratty/brat bratek, brotek brother TL Adjusted Retention* britva rejzr razor Shifted Translation-C brooko teřich stomach Cultural Substitution to brosat brosit to throw TL Adjusted Retention bruiseboy vazbič, bijec police officers, Cultural Substitution security guards bugatty ričatý rich Shifted Translation-S cal físíz shit Shifted Translation-C cancer rakovka, šňápka cigarette New Element Creation, verb form Cultural Substitution “rakovčení” not present in SL Nadsat cantora kantora office TL Adjusted Retention carman karman pocket TL Adjusted Retention chai tý tea Shifted Translation-C Charlie čárlí, kapan chaplain TL Adjusted Retention, New Element Creation chasha kápek cup Shifted Translation-S chasso časo, gard guard TL Adjusted Retention, Shifted Translation-C cheena čína woman TL Adjusted Retention to cheest klínsovat, ovošnout to wash Shifted Translation-S, Shifted Translation-S chelloveck hjumaník man, person, fellow Shifted Translation-S chepooka čipuka nonsense TL Adjusted Retention choodessny čuděsný wonderful TL Adjusted Retention to chumble drmolit to mumble Cultural Substitution cluve bejk beak Shifted Translation-C collocoll kolokolčik bell TL Adjusted Retention to crast robnout, stoulnout to steal Shifted Translation-S, Shifted Translation-S to crark krerkat to yowl TL Adjusted Retention to creech skrímat to scream Shifted Translation-C cutter katr money TL Adjusted Retention damas lejdýz lad Shifted Translation-C 67 darkmans temnota night Cultural Substitution decrep vetšoun elder New Element Creation ded, dedoochka ouldan old man Shifted Translation-S deng many money Shifted Translation-C devotchka čajina girl Substitution by Paraphrase dobby gud good Shifted Translation-C dook šungl trace, ghost New Element Creation domy houm house Shifted Translation-C dorogoy ikspensivní valuable, dear, Shifted Translation-S expensive to drats šlágovat to fight Shifted Translation-C dratsing šlág fighting Shifted Translation-C drencrom hňápec drug New Element Creation droog frendík friend Shifted Translation-S droogie frenďácky friendly Shifted Translation-S dung vysrat to defecate Cultural Substitution dva tu two Shifted Translation-C eegra gejmka game Shifted Translation-S eemya ímja name TL Adjusted Retention eggiweg jajkovák egg New Element Creation em emko mother TL Adjusted Retention espresso rapido expreso rapído train TL Adjusted Retention to filly blbat, zagejmovat si to play New Element Creation, Shifted Translation-S flip flip very, great Complete Retention forella forela trout. woman TL Adjusted Retention gazetta pejpry newspaper Shifted Translation-S glaz/glazzy ajko eye, nipple Shifted Translation-S gloopy sily, stupído stupid Shifted Translation-C, Shifted Translation-S golly golík coin TL Adjusted Retention goloss vojs voice Shifted Translation-C goober lips lip Shifted Translation-C to gooly guljat to go TL Adjusted Retention gorlo gorlo throat Complete Retention to govoreet tolkovat to talk, speak Shifted Translation-C grahzny gražny dirty TL Adjusted Retention grazzy sojlovatý dirty Shifted Translation-S gromky gromkový loud TL Adjusted Retention groody, groodies bresty breast Shifted Translation-C gruppa grupa group TL Adjusted Retention* guff, guffaw chechták laugh New Element Creation gulliver gulliver, hedka head Complete Retention, Shifted Translation-S guttiwuts kiška guts Cultural Substitution hen-korm vrabčí kormja pocket change Substitution by Paraphrase/TL Adjusted Retention horrorshow chorošný good. well TL Adjusted Retention hound-and-horny uštvanej a nadrženej corny Cultural Substitution

68 in-out in-out kartáčování, venčení sexual intercourse New Element Creation, šaška New Element Creation interessovatted interestovat interested Shifted Translation-S to itty volkovat to go Shifted Translation-C jammiwam džemimák jam, jelly New Element Creation jeezny lajf life Shifted Translation-C kartoffel potejto potato Shifted Translation-C kashl kašl cough TL Adjusted Retention* keeshkas kiška guts TL Adjusted Retention* kleb bred bread Shifted Translation-C klootch špér key Shifted Translation-C knopka knopka button Complete Retention kopat dygovat understand Shifted Translation-C korova korova cow Complete Retention koshka, kot ketka, ketek cat Shifted Translation-S krovvy blažka blood Shifted Translation-S to kupet purčejznout to buy Shifted Translation-C lapa lapka paw TL Adjusted Retention* lewdies píply people Shifted Translation-C lighter tabatěrka old woman New Element Creation litso fejs face Shifted Translation-C lomtick lomtyk piece TL Adjusted Retention to lovet kečnout to catch Shifted Translation-C to lubbilub lubilubikovat to make love TL Adjusted Retention* malchick bajat boy Shifted Translation-S malenky bitkový, litlko little Shifted Translation-S, Shifted Translation-S maskie(s) maskýs mask TL Adjusted Retention* maslo batr butter Shifted Translation-C merzky filcák filthy Shifted Translation-S messel fancy idea Shifted Translation-C mesto plac place Cultural Substitution millicent milicjant police officer TL Adjusted Retention minoota moumentík, minuta minute Shifted Translation-S, TL Adjusted Retention* molodoy maladoj young TL Adjusted Translation moloko mlíko milk Cultural Substitution moodge házbend man, husband Shifted Translation-C morder šňout snout Shifted Translation-S mounch žvejk food New Element Creation mozg hedka (same as brain Shifted Translation-S gulliver) nachinat bygin to begin Shifted Translation-C nadmenny nadměnný arrogant TL Adjusted Retention Nadsat týn teen, teenage Shifted Translation-C nagoy bérový naked Shifted Translation-S nazz lunko fool Shifted Translation-S neezhnies nížnýs underpants TL Adjusted Retention nochy najt night Shifted Translation-C noga fútka foot, leg Shifted Translation-S nozh najf knife Shifted Translation-C

69 nuking z X šel smel… smelling Substitution by Paraphrase oddy knocky odinočky alone TL Adjusted Retention odin van one Shifted Translation-C okno windou window Shifted Translation-C oobivat zakilovat to kill Shifted Translation-S to ookadeet odvolkovat to leave Shifted Translation-S ooko ír ear Shifted Translation-C oomny brejny intelligent Shifted Translation-C oozhasny horibl dreadful Shifted Translation-C oozy čejn chain Shifted Translation-C to osoosh drajovat to wipe Shifted Translation-C otchkies očky eyeglasses TL Adjusted Retention pan-handle napérovaný erection New Element Creation pee téčko father New Element Creation to peet drinkat to drink Shifted Translation-C pishcha pišča food TL Adjusted Retention to platch vípat to cry Shifted Translation-C platties dresy clothes Shifted Translation-S plennies pleník prisoners TL Adjusted Retention plesk plesk splash Complete Retention* pletcho plečo shoulder TL Adjusted Retention plot ploť body TL Adjusted Retention podooshka pylou pillow Shifted Translation-C pol sex sex Shifted Translation-C polezny jůsfl useful Shifted Translation-C polyclef polyšpér skeleton key New Element Creation to pony ponímat to understand TL Adjusted Retention poogly popugat frightened TL Adjusted Retention pooshka ganka gun Shifted Translation-S prestoopnick prestůpnik criminal TL Adjusted Retention pretty polly rozkoše money New Element Creation to privodeet odlídovat to lead somewhere Shifted Translation-S to prod not translated to produce Omission ptitsa kartáč, ptica woman New Element Creation, TL Adjusted Retention punchipunching zbít pěstičkama punching Substitution by Paraphrase pyahnitsa drunkard drunk Shifted Translation-C to rabbit rabbitit to work TL Adjusted Retention radosty pležr joy Shifted Translation-C rassoodock decidovat se mind Shifted Translation- C/Paraphrase raz tajm time Shifted Translation-C razdraz zapsetovat se angry Shifted Translation-S raskazz raskaz story TL Adjusted Retention to razrez ripovat to tear Shifted Translation-C rooker hendka hand, arm Shifted Translation-S rot lipsy mouth Shifted Translation-S rozz rož police officer TL Adjusted Retention sabog saboga shoe TL Adjusted Retention

70 sakar šugr sugar Shifted Translation-C Sammy act sejmový akt, to buy sb a drink or Shifted Translation-S, sameťácký skutek food New Element Creation sarky sarky sarcastic TL Adjusted Retention scoteena skotyna beast TL Adjusted Retention shaika šajka gang TL Adjusted Retention sharp kartáč woman New Element Creation sharries houla, šáry buttocks, arse Shifted Translation-S, TL Adjusted Retention shest gejt barrier Shifted Translation-C shilarny šilnakost interest TL Adjusted Retention shiyah gorlo neck Two similar terms merged into one - gorlo shlaga šlaga club, cudgel TL Adjusted Retention shlapa šlapa hat TL Adjusted Retention shlem šlema helmet TL Adjusted Retention shoom nojz noise Shifted Translation-C shoomny nojzovatý noisy Shifted Translation-S shoot blb fool Cultural Substitution shvat tukovat take Shifted Translation-S sinny siňák cinema TL Adjusted Retention to skazat skazať to say TL Adjusted Retention skolliwol školivol school TL Adjusted Retention* skorry kviklý fast Shifted Translation-C skriking rozzuřený scratching Cultural Substitution to skvat zgrabovat to snatch Shifted Translation-S sladky sladkojéžka as sweet New Element Creation, “sladky tooth” Shifted Translation-S otherwise šugrový to sloochat hepenout se to happen Shifted Translation-C to sloshy hírovat to hear Shifted Translation-C slovo verd word Shifted Translation-C to smeck láfat se, smajlnout laugh Shifted Translation-C, Shifted Translation-S to smot smotrovat to look TL Adjusted Retention sneety drím dream Shifted Translation-C snoutie šňápka tobacco New Element Creation to sobirat sebrat to pick up Cultural Substitution soomka sumka bag, unattractive Cultural Substitution woman soviet sovjet advice, order TL Adjusted Retention to spat with slípnout si to have sex with Shifted Translation-S spatchka spačka sleep TL Adjusted Retention* spoogy popugat terrified TL Adjusted Retention Staja stanaz State jail New Element Creation starry ancintní, ouldaný old Shifted Translation-C, Shifted Translation-S strack fír horror Shifted Translation-C synthemesc syňága drug New Element Creation tally teřich waist Cultural Substitution tashtook taštúk handkerchief TL Adjusted Retention tass kápek cup Shifted Translation-S 71 tick-tocker klátidlo heart New Element Creation, solárek New Element Creation to tolchock tolčokovat to hit TL Adjusted Retention toofles tufle slippers TL Adjusted Retention tree trí three Shifted Translation-C twenty-to-one přesilovka fun (gang violence) Cultural Substitution undervesch andrbuči undergarments New Element Creation unplatte rozdresovat to undress Shifted Translation-S vareet kúkovat to cook up Shifted Translation-C vaysay parola WC, bathroom New Element Creation veck hjumaník man Shifted Translation-S vellocet tolda drug New Element Creation veshch buč thing Cultural Substitution to viddy lukovat to see Shifted Translation-C voloss volosy hair TL Adjusted Retention* von smel smell Shifted Translation-C to vred zharmovat to injure, damage Shifted Translation-S yahma houla mouth, hole Shifted Translation-S yahzick ještěk tongue New Element Creation yarbles járble testicles, bollocks TL Adjusted Retention to yeckate drajvovat to drive Shifted Translation-C zammechat remkovej remarkable Shifted Translation-S zasnoot dát spačku sleep Two similar terms merged into one - spatchka zheena vajfka wife Shifted Translation-S zoobies cány teeth Shifted Translation-S zvook džvenk sound, ring Shifted Translation-C zvonock bel bell Shifted Translation-C No Nadsat counterpart pinkulich precisely New Element Creation

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The data thus obtained are the following:

Strategy Count Percentage Complete Retention 8 (2 unintended domestications) 3 % 72 (12 unintended TL Adjusted Retention domestications) 28 % 129 (57 TL oriented, 72 SL Shifted Translation oriented) 48 % Cultural Substitution 18 7 % Substitution by Paraphrase 5 2 % New Element Creation 32 12 % Omission 1 0 % Total 265 SL Oriented 138 (72+60+6) 52 % TL Oriented 126 (2+12+57+18+5+32) 48 % Unmarked 1 0 %

DISTRIBUTION OF STRATEGIES

Complete Retention Domesticated Complete Retention TL Adjusted Retention Domesticated TL Adjusted Retention Shifted Translation-C Shifted Translation-S Cultural Substitution Substitution by Paraphrase New Element Creation Omission

2% 12% 1% 2% 0% 23% 7%

5% 21%

27%

From amongst the SL-oriented strategies, the most common was the use of

TL Adjusted Retention, which was used in a total of 72 instances (28 %) and one borderline instance, where the term “hen korm” was translated using a

73 combination of TL Adjusted Retention (korm - kormja) and Substitution by

Paraphrase (hen - vrabčí). Complete Retention was also present, accounting for 8 instances (3 % share). At this point, it is important to note, that out of these 80 instances of Retention, a markedly Source Language oriented strategy according to

Pedersen‟s Venutian scale, 14 instances (marked with an asterisk*) resulted in words whose forms are notably close to their counterparts commonly used in

Czech. This resulted in an unintended domestication of what was the result of an otherwise foreignizing strategy.

As for the markedly Target Language oriented strategies, Substitution accounted for a total of 23 instances, with 5 instances (2 % share) translated using Substitution by Paraphrase (with the exception of the above-mentioned borderline instance which was not counted towards the total of any of these strategies) and 18 instances of Cultural Substitution (7 %).

Finally, for the unmarked or other translation strategies, the analysis found a single instance of Omission where the SL Nadsat element (verb “to prod” meaning to produce) was altogether ignored in the translation. 32 instances (12 % share) were found, in which the corresponding Nadsat vocabulary element was translated using a completely new word apparently coined for that particular occasion or by using an already existing word which nevertheless does not normally carry the relevant meaning. Furthermore, in some instances, the translator made the decision to create more synonyms for a single original Nadsat term and in one instance, also to create the term “pinkulich” where the original

74 text does not contain any sort of Nadsat or slang element. This group was named

New Element Creation and I argue that the words created by utilising this approach are markedly Target Language oriented.

Nevertheless, there is still one strategy that remains to be discussed. The strategy named “Shifted Translation”. This is a type of a hybrid translation strategy devised by the translator which was used on the largest subset of words – in a total of 129 instances. When this strategy is used, instead of translating the SL element into TL, the SL element is first translated to an auxiliary language (most commonly English or German) using the Cultural Substitution strategy. The resulting translation is then modified to better fit TL norms and conventions. While both Substitution and modification of the translated element to conform to TL conventions are Target Language oriented approaches, the actual product of this strategy is not always Target Language oriented. To the contrary, due to similarities between Czech and Russian, the products of this strategy are in many cases more foreign to Czech readers than translations that would be produced by employing the Complete Retention strategy would be. All this despite the fact, that

Complete Retention strategy is considered by Pedersen‟s model to be the most

Source Language oriented strategy. Employing Retention in these cases would often result in another instance of an element marked by asterisk, i.e., unintended domestication and thus in damaging of the functions of Nadsat which rely on the text being largely foreign to its readers.

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Thus, I have decided to adapt the Pedersen‟s model for this specific situation by changing the Direct Translation strategy into Shifted Translation as a replacement “borderline” category. I then marked the elements closer to the original Calque (SL oriented) subtype, i.e., words that are modified just as is necessary for them to remain useable within the TL and whose main focus remains to be the foreignization of the text as Shifted Translation-C (72 instances).

Elements which contain more optional TL oriented modifications which are not strictly necessary for their basic function within the Target Language are marked

Shifted Translation-S (57 instances).

Overall then, 138 instances fall under Source Language oriented strategies,

126 instances fall under Target Language oriented strategies and a single instance remains unmarked due to the use of Omission translation strategy. This makes the global strategy used in the text to be foreignization, which is in accordance with the observation made by Venuti that foreignizing strategies are more prevalent in translation of literary works. Nevertheless, the foreignization strategies used in this particular translation are not prevalent by a notably large margin. In part, this was caused by the improper approach chosen to translate some of the elements which were translated using the generally SL-oriented Retention strategy. For these elements, the relative closeness of the Nadsat SL and the TL caused the resulting translations to exude a sense of familiarity which in turn disrupted some of the specific functions of Nadsat which rely on markedly foreignizing approach.

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5.2 The Lord of the Rings

5.2.1 Worldbuilding and cultural identity

One of the primary functions of constructed languages found in The Lord of the

Rings is worldbuilding and conveyance of cultural identity of their speakers. As was already mentioned by Peterson, J. R. R. Tolkien strived for his constructed languages to be as realistic and close to life as possible. Similarly, Laura Coker notes in her work Tolkien‟s Linguistics: The Artificial Languages of Quenya and

Sindarin (2016) that most constructed languages were never meant to be spoken or written except for the author‟s artistic purposes. However, J. R. R. Tolkien broke away from this usual approach by creating multiple languages along with their own groups of native speakers and an entire world in which the languages could be used and developed in a very realistic way throughout its fictional history. Two most well-known of these languages are Quenya and Sindarin, languages of the

Elves. Coker notes that Quenya and Sindarin would be unrealistic and would serve little purpose without a world where they could exist. Simultaneously, Middle-earth would not function as a natural world without the presence of languages as languages help to add a sense of meaning and identity. (Coker 2016: 2-3). The languages thus help to establish and shape the cultural identity of the races and nations speaking them and in turn are themselves shaped by the races of their speakers and their history and relationships with each other, which adds immensely to their complexity and realism.

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This view is also supported by E. C. S. Weiner and Jeremy Marshall in

Tolkien‟s Invented Languages which was published in the collection of essays From

Elvish to Klingon: Exploring Invented Languages. They noted that Tolkien‟s languages are part of a larger, complex, system. These languages are organised much like real-world languages and have their own imaginary linguistic histories and relationships. They further add that: “The hypothetical historical background of an invented language is necessary thing as a constructor finds in the end, both for the satisfactory construction of the word-form and for the giving of an illusion of coherence and unity to the whole.” (Weiner & Marshall 2011: 76, 79).

The following story may serve as an example of this impact of fictional history on the languages. When Thingol, the High King of the Sindar Elves learned that the Noldorin Elves attacked and massacred the Teleri Elves in order to gain control of their ships, he has decided to ban the use of Quenya – the language of the kinslayers – in his entire realm. In effect, this decision was one of the factors contributing to the Sindarin language becoming the most common vernacular among the Elves of Middle-earth and Quenya becoming much more obscure language (Coker 2016: 3, 5). The knowledge of Quenya was then mostly limited to the Elven elite and the efforts to master the language were seen mostly as scholarly pursuits without much application in daily life. Nevertheless, due to its musical qualities, Quenya still retained some use as a ritualistic language and language of ancient lore.

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Despite the fact that the world-building aspects of the constructed languages used in The Lord of the Rings play a crucial role. The languages themselves do not seem to require any special treatment by the translator. The languages are highly relevant in the context of their own fictional world, yet do not depend on any real-world language and seem to carry no connotations that would have to be adjusted in order to preserve their effect for readers coming from different backgrounds as was the case with Nadsat from A Clockwork Orange.

5.2.2 Secrecy and obscurity

Weiner and Marshall made some notes on another significant role of

Tolkien‟s constructed in The Lord of the Rings and that is secrecy. The readers experience the story mostly through the viewpoint of the Hobbit members of the

Fellowship. At the beginning of the book, Hobbits are described as simple farmers who value peace and quiet above all else and are more than a little fond of good food and drinks (Tolkien 2005: 2-3). As such, most Hobbits possess only very limited knowledge of the surrounding world and usually do not travel far from their homeland of Shire. This means, that just as the Hobbits, the readers are not given much detailed explanation of the world, its people and their languages. Weiner and

Marshall note that only some words and utterances encountered by the Hobbits and readers are explained or glossed but the inner workings of the languages remain obscured. The readers must make do with picking up fragments of the languages here and there and sharing the bewilderment and curiosity of the

79 novel‟s heroes. This piecemeal style of revealing the language then serves to preserve the sense of distance, ancientness and mystery (Weiner and Marshall

2011: 80). This was exemplified for example when, while in Rivendell, Bilbo expressed his disappointment at Frodo‟s inability to understand the Sindarin language:

„And why do you call him Dúnadan?‟ asked Frodo.

„The Dúnadan,‟ said Bilbo. „He is often called that here. But I thought you

knew enough Elvish at least to know dún-adan: Man of the West,

Númenórean. (Tolkien 2005: 233)

Following this exchange, the following texts make it clear that indeed, Frodo‟s grasp of the Elven languages was indeed rudimentary at best:

Frodo began to listen.

At first the beauty of the melodies and of the interwoven words in elven-

tongues, even though he understood them little, held him in a spell, as

soon as he began to attend to them. (Tolkien 2005: 233)

But now she sang in the ancient tongue of the Elves beyond the Sea, and

he did not understand the words: fair was the music, but it did not

comfort him. Yet as is the way of Elvish words, they remained graven in his

memory, and long afterwards he interpreted them, as well as he could.

(Tolkien 2005: 377)

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This once more suggests, that as far as the translation is concerned, the Elven languages may remain in their original form. Firstly, Tolkien‟s constructed languages are very complex, consisting of not only their own vocabulary but also grammar and even scripts which, unlike Nadsat, are independent of any real-world languages. And secondly, as was exemplified above, it is stated several times throughout the novel that the main characters do not have sufficient grasp of said languages and can understand only very little. This then largely precludes the use of domesticating strategies, as making the languages more familiar would be counterproductive when it is made clear that the main characters, and, by extension, the readers, are actually not supposed to understand them. The use of foreignizing strategies bar retention then seems unnecessary as the languages lack any features connecting them to the real world that would warrant adoption of appropriate measures.

5.2.3 Analysis of Sindarin and Quenya

The following chapter deals with analysis of the constructed languages used in The

Lord of the Rings trilogy. Given the above-mentioned obscurity of the languages – some of Tolkien‟s constructed languages are represented just by a single word – the analysis will be performed using a sample of the largest coherent pieces of text written in two of the most prominent constructed languages featured in the story, the Elven languages of Sindarin and Quenya.

Sindarin Original version Czech translation Noro lim, noro lim, Asfaloth! Noro lim, noro lim, Asfaloth! (Tolkien 2005: 213) (Tolkien 1990: 241)

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A Elbereth Gilthoniel, A Elbereth Gillhoniel, silivren penna míriel silivren penna míriel o menel aglar elenath! o menel aglar elenath! Na-chaered palan-díriel Na-chaered palan-díriel o galadhremmin ennorath, o galandhremmin enorath, Fanuilos, le linnathon Fanuilos, le linnathon nef aear, sí nef aearon! nef aear, si nef aearon! (Tolkien 2005: 238) (Tolkien 1990: 266) Annon edhellen, edro hi ammen! Annon edhellen, edro hi ammen! Fennas nogothrim, lasto beth lammen! Fennas nogothrim, lasto beth lammen! (Tolkien 2005: 307) (Tolkien 1990: 343) Cuio i Pheriain anann! Aglar’ni Cuio i Pheriain anann ni Pheriannath! Pheriannath! Daur a Berhael, Conin en Annûn! Daur a Berhael, Conin en Annûn! Eglerio! Eglerio! Eglerio! (Tolkien 2005: 953) Eglerio! (Tolkien 1992: 239)

Quenya Original version Czech translation Ai! laurië lantar lassi súrinen, Ai! Laurië lantar lassi súrinen, yéni únótimë ve rámar aldaron! Yéni únótimë ve rámar aldaron! Yéni ve lintë yuldar avánier Yéni ve linië yuldar avánier mi oromardi lisse-miruvóreva mi oromardi lisse-miruvóreva Andúnë pella, Vardo tellumar Andúnë pella, Vardo tellumar nu luini yassen tintilar i eleni nu Mni yassen tintilar I eleni ómaryo airetári-lírinen. ómaryo airetári-lírinen. Sí man i yulma nin enquantuva? Si man i yulma nin enquantuva? An sí Tintallë Varda Oiolossëo An si Tintallë Varda Oiolossëo ve fanyar máryat Elentári ortanë, ve fanyar máryat Elentári ortanë ar ilyë tier undulávë lumbulë; ar ilyë tier undulávë lumbulë ar sindanóriello caita mornië ar sindanóriello caita mornië i falmalinnar imbë met, ar hísië i falmalinnar imbë met, ar hísië untúpa Calaciryo míri oialë. untúpa Calaciryo míri oialë. Sí vanwa ná, Rómello vanwa, Valimar! Sí vanwa ná, Rótnello vanwa, Valimar! Namárië! Nai hiruvalyë Valimar. Namárië! Nai hiruvalyë Valimar. Nai elyë hiruva. Namárië! Naí elyë hiruva. Namárië! (Tolkien 2005: 377) (Tolkien 1990: 422) Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien. Sinome Et Eärello Endorenna utúlien. Sinome

82 maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn‟ Ambar- maruvan ar Hildinyar tenn‟ Ambar- metta! (Tolkien 2005: 967) metta! (Tolkien 1992: 256)

As can be seen from the excerpts in tables, both Sindarin and Quenya were left in their original forms. Admittedly, there are some minor changes in the translation, yet given the fact that the changes found in the translation concern changes such as the absence of acute accent, capitalisation, absence of double letters in certain words, the position of apostrophe and exclamation mark and confusion of visually similar letters and their combinations (t <-> i; me <-> tne), combined with the poor consistency of said changes throughout the text, I argue that these deviations from the original form of Sindarin and Quenya are not the result of a conscious effort by the translator to modify the constructed languages for the target audience. Rather, these changes are simply typographical errors or errors caused by misreading the original text which were overlooked. After all, such errors can also be found in the main body of the text. For example, on page 343 of the Czech translation of The Fellowship of the Ring (1990) where the ancient

Dwarf king Durin briefly becomes known as Dutin which can be attributed to the same typographical error or possibly confusion of visually similar letters which caused the discrepancies in Elvish. This has been verified using a newer edition from 1993, in this more recent edition, above errors were already corrected and the texts in Sindarin and Quenya matched the original perfectly.

Overall, the treatment of constructed languages used in The Lord of the

Rings in translation is clearly foreignizing with the languages themselves being

83 rendered into the translated version through Retention. As the main function of the

Elven languages is to aid in conveying the cultural identity of a fictional race living in a fictional world, where neither the languages nor the world itself bear any direct connection to the real world, this notably foreignizing and non-intrusive approach serves well to maintain the role of said languages within their fictional setting.

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5.3 Watership Down

5.3.1 Cultural identity

As Richard Adams said during his online “Reddit Ask Me Anything” interview,

Lapine was always intended to be one of the specific features of the novel: “The lapine glossary was all of my own invention. In fact, it was one of the things I first decided would be introduced in the book” (Adams 2014). He further stated that despite the language being planned from the very beginning, the vocabulary was made up on an ad-hoc basis. This is also further elaborated on in the introduction to the novel, as follows:

The rabbit language, Lapine, was invented word by word in the course of

writing. This took place wherever a rabbit word was needed rather than

words used by human being. For example, “going above ground to feed” is

a phrase hardly needed by human beings … some of the words were given

a kind of wuffy, fluffy sound (for example, Efrafa) – the sort of noises that

rabbits might make if they did talk. (Adams 2009: XIV, omission mine)

This gives Lapine an interesting function: to represent specific elements pertaining to the daily lives of rabbits as well as to make the words sound like something a rabbit might theoretically say.

This dictates the areas of interest for Lapine vocabulary, which revolves mostly around the daily life and habits of rabbits as well as the organisation and hierarchy within their society. An interesting part of this function is the prerequisite for the words to be “wuffy, fluffy” which seems not only rather subjective, but also,

85 to an extent, dependent on the cultural and linguistic specifics of the target audience. Unlike the previously discussed functions and roles of Nadsat, Sindarin and Quenya, which were predominantly relying on adoption of a foreignizing approach in their translation, I argue that successful maintaining of this function calls for a potentially domesticating strategy to be employed in order to adjust the form of the words to better fit the general idea of wuffy fluffiness prevalent within the target culture.

5.3.2 Contact language

Apart from Lapine, the language of rabbits, which usually takes the form of standard English extended by some constructed vocabulary and phrases, there is also the “Hedgerow patois” which is used as a common speech in communication between animals of different species. This contact language is introduced as follows:

Mice do not speak Lapine, but there is a very simple, limited lingua franca of

the hedgerow and woodland. Hazel used it now.

“Run,” he said, “Here; quick.” (Adams 1978: 153)

Hraboši nemluví králičí řečí, ale existuje velmi omezený, jednoduchý smíšený

jazyk živých plotů a remízků. Tím teď Lískáč promluvil:

“Utíkat,” oslovil hraboše. “Tudy, rychle.” (Adams 1986: 131)

This language shows several features typical of improvised contact languages such as pidgins, such as the use of reduplication to compensate for simplification of the

86 language, omission of tense and aspect and reduced vocabulary. Some examples of this language and its treatment in translation are included below:

"Ya, ya, 'elp you for get mudders. But now ees dis, Meester 'Azel. Always I

vant Peeg Vater now – alvays, alvays. Ees hearing Peeg Vater, vant to fly to

Peeg Vater. Now soon you go for get mudders, I 'elp you, 'ow you like. Den,

ven you getting mudders, I leave you dere, fly avay, no come back. But I

come back anudder time, ya? Come in autumn, in vinter I come live 'ere vid

you, ya?” (Adams 1978: 265)

“Jo, jo, ja pómoct vam dóstat mámy. Ale tak to být, pán Lískač: Já póržad

chtít Vélka Vóda teď – pórždar, póržad. Vy jít pro mámy, já vám pómoct, jak

vy chtít. Pak až vy mít mámy, já vás néchat tády, létět pryč, už ne se vrátit.

Ale přžijit jíndy, jo? Pódzim, zíma, já pržíjit býdlet s váma, jo?” (Adams

1986: 233)

“Na, na. Ees all fine for sleep like bloody owls. Maybe I go for Peeg Vater.

Meester „Azel you getting mudders now soon? Vat for wait now?” (Adams

1978: 303-304)

“Ne, ne. Jen vy všíchni spat jako zatracéne sóvy. Co když ja létět Vélka

Vóda? Pán Lískač, už brzo najít vy mámy? Na co vy čékat?” (Adams 1986:

268)

As can be seen from the examples above, the Czech translation of this contact language is generally successful in maintaining the pidgin-like qualities of the

87 original text, such as reduplication, omission of verb tenses or limited vocabulary, as well as retaining the sense of twisted and imperfect pronunciation of the speaker.

5.3.3 Analysis of Lapine

As with Nadsat, the analysis is performed on all lexical items found in the novel.

Original Czech translation Meaning Strategy used Bob-stones Kamínky Rabbit game Substitution by Paraphrase Crixa Krixa Centre of Efrafa TL Adjusted Retention Efrafa Efrafa Name of a warren Complete Retention El-ahrairah El-hréran Rabbit folk hero Approximation Elil Elil Enemies of rabbits Complete Retention Embleer Emblív Stinking Approximation Flayrah Fleran Unusually good food Approximation Frith Frix Sun (God of the Approximation rabbits) Fu Inlé Fú Inlé After moonrise TL Adjusted Retention Hlao Hleo Depression in the TL Adjusted grass; name of one Retention of the rabbits Hlao-roo Hleorů Diminutive form of TL Adjusted the name Hlao Retention Hlessi Hlesi Rabbit living in the TL Adjusted open Retention Homba Homba Fox Complete Retention Hrair Hrér Many, uncountable TL Adjusted (anything more than Retention four) Hrairoo Hrérú “Little Thousand” TL Adjusted Fiver‟s name in Retention Lapine Hraka Hraka Droppings Complete Retention Hrududu Hrududu Motor vehicle Complete Retention Hyzenthlay Hazentla “Fur shining like dew” Approximation – name of one of the rabbits Inlé Inlé Moon, moonrise Complete Retention

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Lendri Lendri Badger Complete Retention Marli Márli Doe, mother TL Adjusted Retention M‟saion M‟sejon We meet them TL Adjusted Retention Narn Nárn Nice TL Adjusted Retention Ni-Frith Ni-Frix Noon Approximation Nildro-hain Nildrilie “Blackbird‟s song” Approximation name of one of the rabbits Owsla Ousla Group of the TL Adjusted strongest rabbits in a Retention warren Owslafa Ouslafa Council police TL Adjusted Retention Pfeffarah* Pfefaran King of cats Approximation Roo rú Suffix denoting TL Adjusted diminutive form (see Retention Hrairoo or Hrao-roo) Sayn Sejn Groundsel TL Adjusted Retention Silflay Silflej To go above ground TL Adjusted to feed Retention Tharn Tárn Stupefied TL Adjusted Retention Thethuthinnang Sisusinna “Movement of leaves” Approximation name of one of the rabbits Thlayli Tlauli “Furhead” nickname Approximation of one of the rabbits Threar Trér A rowan tree, name TL Adjusted of one of the rabbits Retention Vair Vrér To excrete Approximation Yona Ňona Hedgehod Approximation Zorn Zórn Destroyed, murdered TL Adjusted Retention

The data obtained is the following:

Strategy Count Percentage Complete Retention 7 18 %

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TL Adjusted Retention 18 46 % Substitution by 3 % 1 Paraphrase Approximation 12 33 % Total 38 SL Oriented 25 64 % TL Oriented 13 36 %

DISTRIBUTION OF STRATEGIES

Complete Retention TL Adjusted Retention Cultural Substitution Approximation

18%

33%

3%

46%

Of the grand total of 38 Lapine elements used in the novel, the largest portion (18 instances – 46 % share) was translated utilising the TL Adjusted Retention, i.e., keeping the original form while introducing minor changes in spelling. The more markedly SL oriented form of Retention, Complete Retention, was then used in a total of 7 instances (18 % share), in total, 25 Lapine elements were found to be translated using SL oriented strategies (64 % share).

TL oriented translation strategies were then represented by a single instance of Substitution by Paraphrase (3 % share) where the name of a

90 traditional rabbit game (bob-stones) was completely replaced by a regular Czech element. Classification of the 12 remaining elements (33 % share) then proved problematic. Even though these elements retain a semblance of the form of the original Lapine elements, I believe that the changes made to these vocabulary elements are either too significant or too arbitrary for the resulting elements to be still classified under Retention. Therefore, I have decided to create a special category for these elements, dubbed Approximation.

I argue that while the forms of these elements are still relatively close to those of the original Lapine terms, the reasoning behind the changes made to said elements was likely driven by the requirement to make the words sound softer. I believe that this effort to make the resulting words sound softer can be fairly well observed for example on the transformation from “Yona” to “Ňona”, “Embleer” to

“Emblív” or “Thlayli” into “Tlauli”. The transformation from “Thethuthinnang” into

Sisusinna can then be possibly attributed to onomatopoeic qualities of the word which are closer to Czech vocabulary related to the concept of “movement of leaves” (šustot, ševelení, šelestění). As another example, the transformation from

“Nildro-hain” to “Nildrilie” makes the resulting word conform with the general form of a group of Czech female given names ending with -lie, thus essentially making the sex of said character immediately known. It can then be argued that this particular change was made for the sake of clarity.

Given the above, I argue that even though most of these words retain a high degree of similarity to the original Lapine elements, the aim of their

91 transformation was decidedly domesticating. Therefore, I have decided to include these elements in the TL oriented category along with Substitution.

Overall, the dominant approach to this translation is foreignizing, which once more supports Venuti‟s observation that translation of literary texts inclines towards foreignization. Nevertheless, the second largest group of translated vocabulary elements was translated using a distinctive domesticating strategy. I argue that this strategy was chosen based on the specific role of Lapine in relation to its speakers – the requirement to exhibit a significant degree of softness in its sound. This in turn required an adjustment in order to conform to the general idea of softness as present in the culture of the novel‟s target audience as well as corresponding features of target language.

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6. Conclusion

The focus of this thesis is to study translation of constructed languages used in literary works. The works chosen for further analysis were A Clockwork

Orange, written by Anthony Burgess and translated into Czech by Ladislav

Šenkyřík; The Lord of the Rings trilogy, written by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien and translated by Stanislava Pošustová-Menšíková and Watership Down, written by

Richard Adams and translated by Jitka Minaříková.

As was concluded in the chapter dealing with the issue of languages at large, languages are not solely tools for communication. In fact, as stated by

Chomsky (2013), the often-cited role of language as a communication medium addresses only a minority of actual language use. Nevertheless, as pointed out by

Crystal and Robins, languages may serve a wide area of purposes, such as conveying a sense of identity. The importance of these functions and roles of constructed languages given to them by the authors of the respective literary works then served as the starting point for further study.

It was found out that one of the main reoccurring ideas in translation studies is the idea of equivalence. This notion has been discussed by Nida (1982) who argues that translations should prioritize a concept he calls “dynamic equivalence”. If dynamic equivalence is to be achieved, the translator must not focus solely on producing an understandable and grammatically correct translation, but also take into consideration the broader context of the text, and the intended impact it should have on its audience (Nida 1982: 22). Nida‟s concepts of dynamic

93 equivalence and formal correspondence were re-introduced in a somewhat reworked form by Newmark (1981) and finally, even Mona Baker (1992) introduces a similar concept focusing on intention of the translated message which was called pragmatic equivalence.

The analysis performed on the chosen literary works was thus twofold. First,

I analysed the specific roles and functions each of the studied constructed languages was given by their creators and how, in my opinion, should these functions be treated in translation in view of the domesticating vs. foreignizing global approaches to translation proposed by Venuti (1995) and what general approach was adopted by the translator. This constituted the second part of the analysis, in which the individual constructed language lexical elements were analysed in terms of their position on the Venutian scale of translation strategies proposed by Jan Pedersen (2005).

The first literary work analysed in the thesis was A Clockwork Orange by

Anthony Burgess. In this work, I identified three specific functions or roles of its unique constructed Language called Nadsat. First was political orientation. Second was the brainwashing effect, as it was directly stated by Burgess that the goal of the book was to expose its readers to brainwashing by making them learn basic

Russian through its Russian-based constructed language. Finally, the third function was identified as group identity and group separation. The constructed language used in the novel is not universal, but instead is used by a single social group

(teenagers). This then marks the use of language as an important identity marker

94 and the frequent use of code-switching within the novel as a manner of managing these social identities.

Findings of the lexical analysis then confirmed my initial argument that a foreignizing approach is required in order to preserve functions of the language.

This is also in line with Venuti‟s observation that translations of literary texts tend to employ more foreignizing strategies (Venuti 1998: 244). The overall results showed slight prevalence of foreignizing strategies (138 – 52 %) over domesticating strategies (126 – 48 %).

However, this result was somewhat distorted by the fact that Nadsat is largely based on Russian, so several elements have similar roots to their Czech counterparts. This creates need for further measures to be taken in order to preserve the foreignizing element required for the brainwashing effect.

The translator attempted to circumvent this obstacle by using a unique strategy which I dubbed Shifted Translation. Elements translated using this strategy were first translated to English or other language and the translator then used these translations as a basis for his own specific version of Nadsat.

Nevertheless, this strategy was not utilised on all the problematic elements. These elements were translated using Retention, but due to the similarities between the source and target languages, ended up effectively domesticated. This then proved disruptive to the process of language acquisition which forms central part of the brainwashing function.

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Finally, it was also found out using data from the Czech Statistical Office, that up to 82 % of Czech citizens under the age of 30 do possess at least some proficiency in English. This hints at the possibility that even the complicated foreignizing approach adopted by the translator might not be effective anymore as large portion of the novel‟s prospective readers will likely be able to understand the translation of Nadsat without any effort or learning on their part. This would then warrant creation of a completely new translation of Nadsat to Czech if its functions and role within the story are to be preserved.

Second work analysed as part of this thesis was then The Lord of the Rings trilogy by John Ronald Reuel Tolkien. The analysis of the role and functions of two of its most prominent constructed languages, the Elven languages of Sindarin and

Quenya found out that their most important function is that of world building and conveying the cultural identity of its speakers.

Unlike the case with Nadsat from A Clockwork Orange, the readers were never expected to actually learn and understand the languages. Even though the languages feature complex grammar, extensive lexis and even their own scripts, the readers experience the story through the eyes of characters who have little knowledge of the world at large. It is even stated directly in the books that the characters have little understanding of Elvish. The translation strategies employed by the translator acknowledge this by preserving the constructed languages in an unaltered form. Thus, the treatment of constructed languages in Czech translation

96 of The Lord of the Rings shows distinctly foreignizing approach which fits well with the functions and roles of said languages identified in first part of the analysis.

Final work chosen for analysis is Watership Down by Richard Adams. The analysis of its constructed languages, Lapine and Hedgerow, identified two main functions. Lapine is used primarily to convey cultural identity of the rabbits. The language features specialised terms for concepts which are central for the life of rabbits (silflay – to go above ground) but meaningless for humans, as well as bits of rabbit mythology (Frith – Sun deity or El-ahrairah – rabbit folk hero) and other specific elements such as Bob-stones (traditional rabbit game). Apart from these features, which would not warrant any special treatment by the translator, there is another requirement for Lapine. It was stated by the author, that Lapine vocabulary elements should be “wuffy, fluffy”. This then presents specific requirements for the translator to consider, as the concepts of softness and fluffiness are largely subjective and are likely also dependent on cultural norms of the target audience.

The Hedgerow then serves as a contact language between rabbits and other animal species. It does not feature any specific made-up vocabulary, but it is designed so as to resemble patois and is stylised as broken foreigner talk. Its pidgin-like features such as limited vocabulary, lack of verb tenses and overall simplified grammar are then also adopted by the translation.

The Czech translation of Watership Down was shown to express notable tendencies towards foreignization, with 64 % of Lapine elements translated

97 employing the Retention strategies. This again supports Venuti‟s observation that literary translations tend to be more foreignizing (Venuti 1998: 244).

A group of 12 elements (33 %) was found to be anomalous and required further adaptation of Pedersen‟s model. The elements in question were still retaining a degree of similarity to their original forms, but I argue that they have been subject to modifications too great or too optional so they can no longer be classified under the TL Adjusted Retention strategy. I believe the changes to these items were at least in part motivated by the requirement for the words to carry a degree of softness and fluffiness and were thus adapted to be more in line with target language conventions. Thus, I classified them as a strategy of

“Approximation” which was then placed in the domesticating segment of the

Venutian scale.

Overall, all the analysed translations were found out to employ largely foreignizing strategies. While this was in line with the aforementioned observation by Venuti, the margin of prevalence of foreignization varied significantly. Sindarin and Quenya in The Lord of the Rings were translated exclusively by means of

Retention, while in Lapine, over a third of the constructed language elements was translated using domesticating strategies. In A Clockwork Orange, the ratio was found to be only slightly tipped in favour of foreignization (52 % vs 48 %).

I argue that the cause of this variance can be ascribed to the specific roles and functions given to the constructed languages by the authors. I believe that in all the examined works, the maintenance of functions and, by extension, intended

98 effects of the constructed languages on readers took priority when devising suitable translation strategies. I believe that all translators demonstrated an insight into the specific functions of constructed languages featured in the works and adopted their choice of translation strategies accordingly. Based on this sample, evaluation of the various roles and functions of constructed languages within their settings, which then serves as basis for devising an overall approach and selecting the most suitable translation strategies, seems to be the best general strategy for translating constructed languages in literary works.

This can be demonstrated on the portion of Lapine discussed above, or on

Elvish, whose role warrants very foreignizing approach and thus was rendered using Complete Retention. A Clockwork Orange is a mixed success in this regard.

The translator correctly assumed the language should be largely foreign so as to allow the brainwashing effect to take place, but some of Nadsat‟s vocabulary was unintentionally domesticated by the use of Retention due to similarities between the source and target languages and the choice of “auxiliary” language used to achieve this foreignization (English) can no longer be considered to be suitable due to the immense popularity of English as a second language in the Czech Republic.

Avenues for possible further research are then clear. As was already noted, this thesis is fairly limited in scope, and there is a number of other literary works featuring constructed languages, which were translated into Czech. As such, this thesis could serve as a starting point for a larger-scale follow up research verifying and further refining its findings based on analysis of a broader selection of works.

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Abstract

The thesis is concerned with translation of constructed languages in literary works of fiction. It includes theoretical background on general theory of languages with focus on functions of language; furthermore, it deals with history, development and classification of constructed languages and finally, on theory of translation with focus on the concepts of foreignization and domestication by

Venuti and the derived Venutian scale introduced by Jan Pedersen.

The practical part consists of two-part analysis of chosen literary works: A

Clockwork Orange (Mechanický pomeranč), The Lord of the Rings (Pán prstenů) and Watership Down (Daleká cesta za domovem). The first part of the analysis focuses on identification of the functions and roles given to constructed languages featured in chosen literary works and their expected implications regarding the choice of translation strategies employed in their translation. The second part of the analysis consists of lexical analysis performed on constructed language elements found in the novels in terms of the translation strategies employed.

It is concluded that when translating literary works featuring constructed languages, it is essential for the choice of translation strategies to be tailored to the specific roles and functions of said constructed languages. Failure to do so or misinterpretation of these functions then result in serious disruption of the intended overall effect of the work on its readers. Nevertheless, due to the limited scope of the thesis, further, larger-scale research would be required to verify and refine its findings.

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Resumé

Tato diplomová práce se zabývá překladem konstruovaných jazyků v beletristických literárních dílech. Práce zahrnuje teoretická východiska na téma obecné teorie jazyka se zaměřením na funkce jazyka. Dále se zabývá historií, vývojem a klasifikací konstruovaných jazyků a také teorií překladu se zaměřením na Venutiho koncepty exotizace a domestikace a odvozené škále strategií překladu navržené Pedersenem.

Praktická část sestává z dvoudílné analýzy vybraných literárních děl: A

Clockwork Orange (Mechanický pomeranč), The Lord of the Rings (Pán prstenů) a

Watership Down (Daleká cesta za domovem). První část analýzy se zaměřuje na identifikaci funkcí a rolí konstruovaných jazyků ve vybraných literárních dílech a očekávané dopady na volbu překladatelských strategií použitých při jejich překladu.

Druhá část analýzy sestává z lexikální analýzy prvků konstruovaných jazyků v daných literárních dílech s ohledem na použité překladatelské strategie.

Práce dospěla k závěru, že prioritou při překladu literárních děl obsahujících konstruovaný jazyk je přizpůsobení zvolených překladatelských strategií specifickým rolím a funkcím těmto konstruovaným jazykům. Nejsou-li zvolené překladatelské strategie přizpůsobeny, nebo dojde-li k nesprávné interpretaci těchto rolí a funkcí, vede to k vážnému narušení zamýšleného celkového působení díla na čtenáře. Nicméně, z důvodu omezeného rozsahu práce by bylo zapotřebí provést rozsáhlejší výzkum za účelem ověření a dalšího zpřesnění získaných poznatků.

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