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Honors Projects Greek and Roman Studies
1960
The Greek Language: An Historical Study
Richard C. Leonard '60 Illinois Wesleyan University
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Recommended Citation Leonard '60, Richard C., "The Greek Language: An Historical Study" (1960). Honors Projects. 3. https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/grs_honproj/3
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I /' IJ � -t. <7 �/.o, b� rn G"l 0\
GREECE 400 B.C. \
Dialects 1---' Attic- Arca0-0- CJ- L-J Ionic Cypr lan c::J Doric t£�;�r CJ an) o Narth1Ae3tr--""l Th es s alian o Greek L-.J and Boetian Richard C. Leonard
Tim GREEK LANGUAGE: AN HISTORICAL ST1JlJY
prepared under the spon-
sorship of Dr. Cho.rles H.
�I.'hrall, as a requirement
for graduation with Honors
in Greek at the Commence-
ment of June, 1960.
T'/ L f Illinois Wesleyan University
Bloomington, Illinois
May, 1960
/ IIIJCK M1i!MOIIlAL LIlIIIAIi:Y lLU'IOIS WESLEYAN!IISH'Y UMV 'fEE GREEK LfllWUAGE: AN HISTORICAL STUDY
Richard C. Leonard
CONTErlTS
Map of Greece, 400 B.C. Frontispioce
I. Introductory remarks 1
II. The Indo-European language family 4
III. Early history of Greek; the dialects 9
/ IV. Formation of the 1(0''1'11 20
V. Greek literature 2'7
VI. Greek in English 40
Bibliography 1
Ie Introductory
This is deS.LguCiu so that it can without dif-
f iculty not only by those who have 8 tudj_ed the Greek language but
also by those with only a limited knowledge of the Greek alphabet.
Accordingly, although all Gre words in the Greek a1pha-
bet, most of them are transliterated in parentheses, especially
where the Greek letters do not resemble their English equivalents.
Furthermore, most quotations of texts are provided with in-
ter1inear cl'aIlLslations so that the arrangement of is appar-
ent to those who cannot translate the Greek themselves.
In Section VI. the usual method of transliteration is explained,
s the English words of Greek derivation 1isteci in that section
were transliterated according to t!lat method. However, t method
used the viritel' differs slightly, as he fe that in certain
cases the usual transliteration tends to give an incorrect of
the actual pronunciation of the Greek word. For example, the
letter upsilon is usually transliterated as whereas act- u ( ) I, " u£11 s of Iet te r 'if D.S S orr,ei; hing 1 the German �, oc-
cas :tonally as in chute 0 writer's system of transl ion � is glven along \'lith the Greek alphabet on the follonlng two
and can refer to it whenever necess reading this
paper.
no a tternpt has been to deal with the acc of in
terms of cruLl:sliteration. In ancient t three ac
acute " , c irclunflex '"' amI the ' -- denoted a ( ) ( ) ( ) c :tn pitch, i1' function at 8 is to iate
spell , o:r� 80me cases to indicate s
in 8 from an , as th the c over
vovlel c tions. jThe Greek A.lphabet
Capital Small Viriter's I,etters Letters Name 'l'ranslitera tion Pronunciation
A Beta b b' sometimes v B � -' - r Gamma g, (n)g g as in got; sometimes y soft, byI'Oroing air through it; n as in finger before K, orX 1, � Delta d d', sometimes th as in weather e. Epsilon e e as in get E Zeta dz dz as in adz 'Z. � H 'I') Eta (!j a as in late e Theta th th as in hothousel e Iota i i as in pit, ee as in r :reet I� Kappa k k K A A Lambda 1 1 },Iu m m .M fA n n 'V Uu N '=' Xi x X a8 in fix (not as in ,.... � xylophone) 0 Omicron 0 0 as in obey 0 - --" 7T Pi P II 1: p P Rho l' l' '» 2 <1"( ) Sigma s s as in sit I: ,. T Tau t u T u Upsilon u, {13 u as in chute, b1tt more T often a8 German u l q, oj> Phi ph ph as in mop handle Chi kh kh as blockheadl X X (1) ot th as in theory, ph as f in fat, nor ch a8 in German according to ChadV!lck, ,Tonn, The DecTj5nermentof Ioinear 12, p (2) at the end of a word (3) transliterated as H 1n cases where the ish trans- 11terat10n is y 3 Hal ','Jri tor! s Le ters Letters Harne !11ransll tion prommcintion Psi ps ps as in tipsy, not 'Y 'I' in psychology as LV Omoga (5 o as in note {} Digamma v v or orobably -'w as F Tn povler4 ( Rough h h Breathing ,['he Greek alphabet has been in constant use since the eighth century B.C., and Vias derived from the Phoenician alphabet. Greek colonists in Ita.ly gave the Romans a modtfied vers1�on of the Gre alphabet, which became the Roman alphabet in vlh:tch EnGlish is virit- ten. The principle source for the information contained in this paper is The Greek L,unguage, by Basil F. C. Atkinson (London: l�aber and Faber, 19:5::\), hereinafter referred to as "Atkinson." ,F'or information on other sources referred to, consult the bib110- graph�l � Of the importance of the study of the Greek language little need be said; the final section of this paper ShOllld be evidence enough. The greatness of Greek civilization is in no small meas- ure due to the fJ,daptability of the language with which the Greeks expressed themselves,: and as western civilization owes much to that of ancient Greece, so it is indebted to the vehicle of that civilization. D and the rough are not considered part 4) of the( Greek alphabet. fell out of use around .C., since in most cases it was superfluous; Similarly, we350 drop the w in power spell it�, ;1ith sour. • The Greek is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. TherE) are seven other branches represented by currently spoken languages: (1) Ger",anic-- extinct Gothic; modern German, ish, Dutch and the Scandinavian languages: (2) Balto-Slavic-- Lith- uanian, Polish, Russian and the southern Slavic tone;ues (3) Ary- an-- ancient Vedic and Sanskr:tt; modern Hindi, Bengali and Per- sian (4) Italic-- ancient Oscan and Umbrian; Latin and the mod- ern Romance languae;es such as French, Spanish, Italian and Ruman- ian (5) Celtic, once widely spoken but noVi confined to the Brit- ish Isles and Brittany (6 ) modern Armenian modern Albanian. (7) There have been Indo-European lane;uages belonging to none of these groups, as is the case ;vith certain languages of the ancient Hit- tite Empire. Indo-European languages have, of course, certain cOEimon char- acteristics and even certain vJords � For example, our English word �hel' is the equivalent of Sa nskrit pitar, Greek ITaTl)p (pa ter), Latin pater, German yater, Prench pere, Armenian �, and Old Irish athir. In each case a COl,"!non Indo-J�ur'opean root has been altered according to certain linguistic tendencies. In Indo-European "'O.H!:"A·"IC,VS a word normally consis t8 of three elements: a root, which carries the princtpal meaning of the word, plus 8. ix and ending, each of which conveys certain informfl- t ion about how the vlOrd is be used. For example, the Greek ., !t Vlord IWplOU (kuriou) "of a lord" may be divided into a root (KUpl-) signifying a noble person, 9. suffix (-0-) indicating the masculine , gender means "lady"), and an ending indicating the (Iwpla (-u) 8enetive case. In lanGuQGes such as Enelinh tho inflec- tions, or chane8S in suffix ending, have been lost. VIe ern- ploy pl'epositions, emphasis, punctuation and \Iord order to ex- press Vias formerly conveyed by inflections. We make no change in the Vlord itself, except to add::!. in the plural. 'l'he following table Viill illustrate the difference between an in- flected and a non-inflected language ef the Indo-]�uropean group: - a lord speaks I t' A" (ho logos k��ur�ou" ' ) - the Vlord of a lord o 0"(05 I{UP'OU Ao.AiI KUp(� (lalei ,{ur�o1" . -) - he speaks to a lord Ii , (blep1:l kurion) - I s ee a lord ��i.TTw l<°PIO'V (lalEd, lrur�e) - Lord, speakl A�A(.I, 1< tip I (- " . The five cases of Greek (neminative, genetive, dative, accusa- tive and vocative, in the order listed above), ,lith five more forms in the plural, are able to do v:hat in English recl'uires an extensive rev;ol"lking of the sentence {I Certain English nouns illustrate the use of suffix and end- to a ted For example, the ytor'd aetorts can be divided :into a root (act-) plus a suffix (-01'-) signifyin8 mas culine gendel' (as opposed to actress) and an (-�) indi- eating possession. r'e have been us nouns as examples of inflection; the 8it- uation is similar in the case of verbs � 0 Indo-Eln�opean W.�i"vO, of which Greek is a good , expressed person, number', va :tee, e meod through inflections of the verb, \'lhereas in these are 88ed means of , orGel', relative c18.us8s, and, to ft:-1.r less an extent thiln in verb , inflections (con ) . 6 reader \/Ih.o IN to explore this matter further is 1'"'0ferrocl to a Gre Grammar. It should be adlled that the use of sl-l.f'fixes and endings in Tndo-European and other inflectional languages differs fron tllG method of agglutinative languages, such as Bantu, �Tapanese, Korean and tbe Ural-Altaic family. In agglutinative languages the various addenda to the verb stem have moaning even when standing alone, and can be shifted around in different combina- tions or piled up in long and complicated forms baseel on a singlo stem. This is not true of inflectional languaGes; the inflections of a word have no neaning apart fron sten, and each inflect- ional element is limited to a certain usage and position relative to the stem. 'Ihe various branches of the Indo -European family not only the charactel'istic of inflection, but also certain lec- tions themselves.. Atkinson gives trlese examples. 1 A hypot;het- .ieal COHllTIOn tive singulaxl ending ?r-as occurs in such varied forms as ISthu.aniEtD rank-os Hof Latin familias "of , Ii \ I the family', Irish nIDa of the woman" and Greek (eklde- el sias) "of th.e church." Eeeluplication of the verb stem in perfect tense be observed in Sanskrit mamnat�, (m8mona) a:nd IJatin memini, all involvine redv.pllcation of the root -iGmen- ato think, 11 lTo trace of the parent Indo-European language survives to- day; forms , hOWfm,')r, been bypothet :tcally reCOI1S tructed not S yzhlch have oc in various OD, P .. -"-1: ( 1 ) 7 the Indo-European Such forms nrc preceded an asterisk, as with *-�s -it-men.... above II history of tho various branches of the Indo-European family trates the fact that the matters of language and race Elre entirely separate; a normal human being of any race can speak any language of vlorlc1 pl�ovided he learns it as a ;:rouns child. Language is, howevor, affected by social condi- tions; the English language, for , is product of SO� cial cODcl:ttions in E:rlc;lnncl In the perioa fol1oYling the Norman conquest. The Prench-s!)ealring rulers and Anglo-Sazon-speaking populace had to cOYln:ml1icate vlith one another, Elnd the ond re sult of this need for mutuEll in lligibility ViElS a combination their two languages. strong nationalistic ling can pre- sorvo a oven when social conditions favor its combina- tion language or perhaps its comple disappearance. revival of as the everyday speech of Israel is a case in point, as are the preservation of the Irish and Welsh tongues in spite of the orts of English to impose their on tho conquered peoples. There vias, apparently, no Indo-European race, nor any Inclo- European empire to s use of as Roman ire did in the case of Latin. Probably Indo-Europoan was propagated ory bands Vihose language supers those of peoples in VIhose lands they settled. '1'his seems to have been the case Europe; the Basque language of the PyreneGs is a t • -European s an home 5.n • Being s one bands opee the OVin dialect.s of ; these dialects came s contact v!ith other oples e vIas not; or • The oldest extant literature in an Indo-European language is the Sanskrit Rig-Veda, a collection of hyw.J:ls dating from the twelfth century B.C. or earlier. 1'he Aryans, who produced this literature, were inhabitants of India who had migrated fl�om s outheas tern Europe, via Asia l;'inor, around B.C. 2000 III. Early tory GX'8 , The period vfhich Greek developec1 as a separate Indo- European seems to 2100-1600 B.C. Greek ",,cas brought into Greece from the north; around 2000 B.C. Greek- speaking peoples began to move from the Danube valley toward trle Aegean. Upon reaching the sea, they came into contact with the l[;inoans of Crete, and with the l'Iycenaeans, who vlere a part of the Minoan civilization. Possibly the Mycenaeans had been an earlier Greek migration which had absorbed the Minoan culture of the ori- ginal inhabitants of Mycenae. The four main dialect groups of the Greek language were (1) Hc-Ionic (2) Aeolic (3 ) Arcado-Cyprian, and (4) West Gl'eek. Possibly these dialects were the result of four separate invasions from the north. '1'he Ionis.ns were probably the first to reach Greece; they so themselves in historic times, and Ionian is the name give to Greeks ancient Porsian and the pentateuch. Our name Greek comes from Graeci, a small tribe of iru8 with nhom the Romans first came into contact. The Dorians, a part of �'lest Greck dialect group, vlere the last migration; they set- tIed around the Peloponnesus and drove the previously-established Arcadians into the center of the is thnms • For tho areas in ,:hich the several dialects wero spoken, consult the accompanying map. The people speaking the different dialects were not isolated from one anothel�; moreover, from early times VIas a deal of COmr:l0rce between Greece ann the Greek must been 1.nfluenced ian, Carian, Tscean and other non- ( 1) t of the ial in this section 1s ken from on, 11-2.6 and 65-197. l"P' 10 Indo"'European languaGes or Asia I'ilinor. l\.ncient recor;ds 8hov"1 that the speakers of these languages had lCY10Wn the original l1on- Greek lD.habitants of Greece:J the Pelasgians, Leleges and Minyans 0 The Greeks must have come into contact with them also, and no doubt absorbed characteristics of their lanGuages into the Greok. It Vias the influence of these languages which enabled Greek to build a wealth of vocabulary and expression, and made i.t pos- sible for Greek to become the greatest vehicle of world litera- ture. In selecting at random five passages of Greek literature from Homer to Plato, Atkinson fOlmd a proportion of from onA i.n thirteen to one in seven VJords not of Indo-European origin. "'['hus the Greek language tends to confirm evidence obtained from other sources that points to the fact that the Greeks borrowed much of their religion and particularly their ideas of Government from older civilizations, that they came down from lands remote f'rom the sea, and that to some extent they absorbed the peoples in whose territory they settled. Greek is a language predominantly Indo-European, which yet shoVis clear traces of the impact of' an o cient cultures upon the Greek mind and manner of' life."� The period of the cUalects lasted until the time of Alexander , the Great of Macedonia (356-323 B.C.), vihen the KOIV'I1 (koine) or common Greek arose a8 a viOrld-language based principally on the Attic dialect. A remnant of the Doric dialect spoken in I,aconia is thought to have persisted to the present day in the Tsakonia11 '7 dialect spoken in the same region.o (2 ) on, p.26 (3) The reader Vlill perhaps recall LaDlpito, the Spart�fln women i11 Aristophanest Lysistrata. Her Laconian d ct is often re11- dered in English as a Scottish 1/ The ie-Ionic dialect �us spoken in of the Cyclades, Ionia (in Asia i:jinor), :ma the islands of Chio8, Samos and Icaria. One prominent characteristic of tic-Ionic Vias the change of an original long ex (a as in father) to a sound represented by (is, equivalent to English lone; a as in late). 11 " Examples are (histemi) "I stand", from an original root I "mother", from an original root ':-matr. Another characteristic VlaG the substitution of the combination E.W (eo) for ceo (ao), as 1n for (Uios) "a people.ll The letter (digamma, Ae.�S Aaos f pronounced like English v or was lost very early in Attic- 'II) Ionic. Attic and Ionic differ in a number of respects. Certain vowel combinat;ions contract into one vovJel in Attic, but rem9.in uncontracted in Ion1c. Cl'he combination crcr (ss) in Ionic is of ten TT in Attic, as in (glC5tta) for ...... a. "tongue. ,,4 yA�TTG( y>,..{, The noun term1nation -1')10- is found in Ionic other clialects, J but in Attic appears a8-&I,o-, as in �a(nAt:lo'5 (basileios) "royal.l! .Attic influence becomes apparent in Ionic inscriptions around the fifth century B.C. and increases from t time ol1ward. tic came to be the language of educated people Athens became the cultural center of Greece; hence the Attic dialect has been abunc.lantly preserved for us in literature, whereas the other dialects are lmown to us chiefly through inscriptions preserved in various Greek cities. The Aeolic dialect group had three main subdivis Les- Notice that vfords glot tal glossary, derived from(4) the Greek, same difference in speJ.lingo 12. bian, s on tho is of L08b08 and in is, on tho rnnln- land of Asia }'iIinor; rrhessalian, spoken in eastern Thessaly; and Boetian. These last tVIO were overlaid with Northwest Greek. A- mong the characteristics of Aeolic was a tendency to replace C( viith 0 in conjlmction with p, as in ppoXu') (brokhus) for �po:X05 "short." 1'11ere Vias a tendency to replace a dental consonant (T, with a labial respectively) before front vowels, 0, e) (rr, {3, l! It In Lesbian an d'< T,lessa Iian, the preoosltion ana ) up .'avo:/ ( ,/ � I talms the form 0" (on); the propos ition cora (apo) "from" had the , I form as verbs in as in (kalemi) for (kaleo) "I caU", -J-lI, i\&A'i')/"I' l ]A peculiarity of Thessalian was the tendency to identify a with Eo, resulting in such forms as ole for o,� "through." Long o is alvlays represented by ov, never by w. often the final vow- 01 of' a preposition is cut off, ,1 proe08S known as apoc • particle of.., meaning i!and" 01' a weak "but", is replaced by a form ,...�.,5 'Phe Thessalian dialect appears as late as the first century B.C •. Most extant Lesbian inseriptions date from the late fourth century B.C. Lesbian shows il08 is, or los 8 of the r01.lgh brea th- ing (equivalent to English h). The Boe tlan dialect was s (,I'on!" influenced Nor t s most characteristic was the ift of ':11'1010 I (5) Is iC8.11CG to t that tJ-a: res Italla.n rna mais, bo "but"? 13 tern to Itions 0 fTrnlS f, e,l became I o:t be- \10\"101 s c " came (..).1 came v the Gc rman 0ventu- 01 ( 2!:) • vowel U, hov/ever, never became rounded as it did Eol \1 � . vlC, it came to the German u; in Boetian, U is sometimes spelled Ovor indicating that it had a sound IOU, like the name of our English letter �. The folloViing is an example of Thessalian Aeolic, an in8crip- tion from Phalanna ill Pelasgiotis. It dates fI'om the fifth cen- tury B.C., befoI'e the intI'oduction of the Ionic alphabet; hence E. stands a180 for and for w. Kote the presence of the di- 11, 0 the substitution of 1< for in 1<11) "any", and the (F), T .' � " substitution of 1'01' 1n appe1sai for ' rr T ( . arrOTl-IcrGt, arrrrl-HI"ClI ) (apoteisai) "to repay." A law. If ever of the citizens any one appropriates os . I(f, K/� FCtMcr.:rIH:'Ta�J N or A'( ,07/ Fct common moneys having and not is able to repay the ••. , •• _ KOlva XtpJZfAllTtX �[)(]O'V I(QI p.[z,] <5UV,fE,T[a], cnrrrc:.[7rraU TO II If citizen spends public money VJhich is in his DOS- session and is unable to I'eimburse •••,,6 Here is hov! tho above ar in Attic: A lavJ. If of the citizens any one appropriates common � , , \ , � , / TWV a Arcado-Cyprian was spoken only Arc and on the :ts land of Cyprus; this dialect was furthest removed from At tic. Some peculiarit of Arcado lan are the replacement of T " / I ore I; the 8ubstttutlon of I(a� for Il If and lTO, for l ( (\) ven anti. trans in on, p ..170 own translation (7) It r pr(:3pOS i1� , Attic forms begin to appear in 4uc"""ian inscriptions in the third B.C.; considerable Doric and in- fluence is also present, since Arcadian was surrounded by t11e Vlest Gree], dialect. 1'he following inscription is from I;lantinea datos fl"om the fifth centul"Y B.C. Note the ps ilos is in ') I c I with the rough breathing it viould (hose01). Ocr2,OI; 00"£01 and 0 stand for and l'espectively, und the is pre- So 1') W sent. TrE.. is a shortened form of TT£6� (peda, for Attic ;tt.T� "with"). With whomever the oracle condemns 01' by investigation ')\ / '-' '\ /." I ov c, Ocrf:OI av X P&1: ) €. The inscription would ar in Attic as follows: d '1\ I I 'lo\ I I a'll TO Xp't) , , \ ,'2, � • OIl{Hc\S ___ TC!S _0 OVQ"as,,/ 8 ':Phe ian branch of Arcado-Cyprian vIas 'written not In Gl'eek t in a s ic 8 to bho :is lcmd . The s Vfi-lS del' d from an iot on, pp .. 17'7-178 (8 ) 15 extreme tLYlVJ:te • A vov:el 8 to tween tv/o adjacent consonants, since s no of re sent [l consor;nnt without attaching a vowel to it to fOl1n1 the syllable" , ;' in the example below, the word �ac:rIAeU$ (basileus) "king" is 9 written pa si Ie use. Between the vowel I and a succeeding vowel, a consonant equivalent to English was inserted (writ I ten 1 as in German .ia I; hence in the example I In addition to its viriting system, Cyprian had other pe- culiarities, such as the occas ional use of � (x) in place of (g), the replacement of the preposition , ; 'f'upon' t with ,\ y '::'Tn U, the substitut10n of the forms (duvano) and for 6Ufa.vw &�JKW the present stem of cS(,!;Wf' "I give." The syllabary 11 out I of use after 300 B.C., c[hen the Attic 1<0171" spread to Cyprus. The 1nscription beloYI tes from between 449 B.C., vihen the Athenians vfithdrew from Cyprus, and 391, ion (Ic1alium) lmitec1 vlith Citium. It consists of an ment tVleen the city of J�dalion and the ician Onasilos for care of the wounded dur the siege of 110n by the Persians and Oitian8. ,/ \ I on:. "ral' 1TT6AI'�" 'E.5d.A101' KaTE. o te ta po to Ii ne e ta Ii 0 ne ka tefOPiOY vo 1'0 ko ne \ , - I IV TOI I 1<0.') I (9) This is of course, 8. tr8.nslj.teration s lables of s us iot s IE> .1 o:VO - lell pO ro se ka se pO to Ij� 88 e ta Ii e ve 8(:; a no .... " / , ) , TOV OVCl!TIKV TOV yOV 'Ovt1(,.,AOV lTpOV Uc.t.- leo ne o na si no to no na si 1m po 1'0 ne to ni ja- 10 " \ \ I ,I, H:.. ]ao-eat p�V I�CIS IH1!TlyVC\.1"OS I te ra ne ae toTO,) se ka si ke ne to se i ja sa ts i , ' , , � ,I , a.v, B TOS IV TOS porraS ,0.1 /"ctXal 1I(1ACl.- to se a to 1'0 po se to se i to. i ma ka i i ki ma- , ,/ � &.vo'} Cl'Vc:.V f41 "ljlhen the city of Idalium Vias besieged by the Persians and Gitians.in the year of office of Philocyprus son of Onasagoras, King Stacicyprus and the city of Idalhull directed Onasilus son of Onasicyprus the ph;rsician and 10 his brothers to attend the men Ylol.U1ded in the fighting." (The remainder tells hoVi Onaailos Vias paid.) at Greek divides int·o two major dialects, Northwest Groek and Doric, both having subdiviaions. Those of Northv!est Greek included Phocian, 111est Locrian and Elean. In the third century B.C. the Aetolian league, an alLtance of city-states, produced / ., j , a A1 i nV.-" o·f 1';orc-, �h 3les' t l,ree � 1( prlnclpa y,1 or ClJ.p oma 1lC ",ur- I�OIV'l1' 11 " " 1 poses. Attic influence is detected in Phocian inscriptions as early as the middle of the fourth century B.C., but tbe North- 1 vlest KOIV71 persisted to the second century A.D. In Northwest Greek, ex occurs in many cases "here other di- t I � I alec ts have E, as in lC'pO) for 1 t..poS (hieros) "temple II and Adverbs of place are formed with ,� " ratber than -au, as In for lJ'OU 11'lhere." T is retained be- -&1 rrl:,.l fore and not replaced by leading to such forms as I cr, OI�WTl for cSrOW!Tl position af "ords of conditional Ber�ence at th£ a is unique among thE) dialects; in Northwest 0-re one �f lnCts" 01,I T'S' � on, lip. (10) 180-181 17 " / , I ,I , tead of 0.1 10:. ollo), tllV tic) [lnll (. KL TIl) TIS ( ITI) " . . . Tb,is sion is prominent in inscriptions, vIhich are usual concerned with governmental decrees � The example below is from Delphl and dates from the fifth century B.C.; 11 [lnd Ware not present, but the dialect employed a symbol represented by the letter !.:' which Vias e(lUiv�llent to the rOUGh breathing mark. The wine not do carry from the track: if but ever .... � TO I((X. To FO'VOY tAt. In Attic the above inscription would appear as follows: \. 0"'\ ,,1 ,\ " I > , � � t.J( TOV ttl.V oc Tl5 Tov OIYOY fA" e'Vetl(� OpOfAOU. , ,?, I t.V�tl<'r')'l '1\0.\,0.:0-t\ " e. W TOV \ e' COY ur elY 1(t.pCl"'''''''V&ra., \ I \, I I I .I1CII fAt.ra.eUO-Cl.rw 1<<:<1 dnOTI (11) Atldnson, 9.183 (12) oVin transla t ion 18 the dialect of Ar["olis; and that of the Dorlc :tS�LLL.llc\�", Crotog ia The most distinctive of the Do- ric alects is Cretan. In this dialect tho form of the prepo- sition is is represented hy indicating t1o'lt lTpo'S lTqn{; A v, it had come to be pronounced far back in the mouth. Final <; is often assimilated into the firBt letter of the next word, I , I as in TaB euyOil:-pClS (tath thugateras) for TOS Buyo,t.pa, II the daughters." 'fhe example of Doric presented below is from Argos, dating from about 500 B.C. No Attic rendering has been attempted; an English translation must supply several vlOrds and rearrange this Ciuaintly phrased document (or 80 it seems to us). In the first sentence, for example, the Vlords -a mag:ts, tra te being inquires --into mus t be inserted after if anyone; in the Gl'eek, of course, the meaning would be clear duo to the inflections, but in English the word order mus be changed to mal{e any sense. 'rhe symbol t � representing the rough breathing is used. I:iost of the words differ in spelling from the Attic; her po.x� (ha bola) "the coun- I c il" is '; J30UA-D (he boule) in '"nc, TOV" I'pa(T(J"r'!l.TOY ( ton grass- � - maton) "of the bills" is (ton grammaton , and ,wvyparrarw" 'll - ) lTOn:.A�TO (potelato) "let it enf orce Ii would be rrpocrn:,A2.G"&TW (oros / telosat5), a combination of "toward" and the imperative of npos Tt.At.W "execute, comple 1113 Of treasures the ones of the Athena, if an;lone, either ,/ [e]�(TQVpSV [TOV] Tc1<; 01 TI) 'A BovClla, [f. the council the around Ariston, or the ones joining together, \ I TOllS TaJv �OA6.v '1lvJ QV As near as I can (13) 1. e., "havj.ng" (14) or court or to laY! the 1)1118, cause .' .' A I e f. SII<.fITOITO f TOV ypacrcrl"'(J(TOY h'tVGI<(l of the deDos it or of the action of the as Gembly. let.hilll flee -' ,.. "',\ � , TCXS (1"0" , I«na et 'Aeavo.lav. "rJith regard to the treasures of Athonaoif any magistrate demands enquirY into the conduct of the council under the presidency -of l\riston or of the body of officers or of any other treasury official, or if any suit is entertained or brought by anyone because of the submission of the pro posals_or because of the action of the assembly, he shall be banished and his property confiscated to Athena. The council which is in office shall enforce this or be them selves liable to Athena."15 Atkinson believes that "generally spoaking, they (i.e. tho dialects ) wore not so far apart as to prevent the speakers of one group from u:nderstanding those of another without undue dif- 16 ficulty .11 The Attic poets seem to have considered Doric clialects "rougb and ridjoculousll; Arcadian Vias probably considered l"USt ic and Arcado-Cyprian seems to have tho rnost pecu- liar vocabulary, and an Athenian Vlould have found the dialect of Crete difficult at first . W,"0 i _ t'n�l",Q. , h��O\fJever, < the situation sem:1S camparable to that the present-clay English-s peaking v:orlcl; A Vermont farmer can converse, if he should care to, v'ith a native of Charleston, south Carolina, and a l'iclv:esterner can reael Robert Burns or the Australian author Eevil Shute . (15 ) Atkinson, p.190 (lE) ) Atkinson, p.196 J3! 0 FOT'rnat ion of Attic becaJ:le the standard lit lanGuage of Greece in the fifth and fourth centurie.s G.C. ']'his classical Attic vias, hO'wever, language of the educated, was paralleled by a I spoken Attic; the or world-language of the Eellenist1c I�OIV'll was a natur[(l development of the spoken or vernacular At- t1c, influenced by the other dialects and also by non-Greek / languages. 'fhe literary was a comprom1se betvleen the '(OIV" spoken and the literary Attic. I I . been types of basee on other dialects, such as the 1:orth- I(OIV" / 1 . Vies t 1<01"'11. I-io\vever, S l.nce Ii.,.,Cl1ens VIas literary center of ITellen1c Greece, 1t was natural t Attic should assume prominence. 11111e other dialects resist its influence blJ.t in most cases eventually gave only the Doric of the agricul- 4-,-,ura1 com:�:lunl'CJ.es. H 0'f' -.Dfl,COn1.a seO.mB t 0 1�'laV0 SU'Vl\TJ�",.,.c,.f!.2J,. __Vv� / 'Cwo main causes brought KOIV'I'l Greek, based principally on Attic, 1nto prom1nonce as a world-languago. first these was the political situat10n of the Uediterranean world in the several centuries precedinG the Christian era. conquests of Alexander the Great introduced Greek culture and language trJroughollt a wide area in the eastern I'j�Bditerranean region, and the subsequent conques t of Greece be.' Rome brought Greek ci vtl1- sation tnto the Dest. Roman Empir.e peoples of d5.- verse nationalities, and a CQlT1ElOn found these peoples were to Itve ther under one See p. 16 (1) (2) See p. 10 , 03 , could fulfil tho role of a vlorld-lan8uage 0 The Gerrnanic lan[juages-- G8rt1an�" Dutch, :�nBl1.sh and the Scandinavian tongues-- have moved farther apart, whereas the several Greek dialects fused into the t(OI'll�. 110 gre8.t conquer- or has 8.risen to unite 8.11 the Germanic-speaking oples,· as Alexander did for the Greeks. The second nain cause for the promi.nence of Greek was "the intrinsic worth and greatness of itself ••,�h8.tever the impetus given to the establisp.ment of the 18.11gU9.ge by Alex- ander, it could never have maintained itself vrere it not pos- sessed of power and flexibility sufficient to Flake it acceptable and accepted by the various races amonc; tihich it became estab- lished,Il0 genius of Greek thinkors and Vlritere was such that fttheir Vlorlc found a response In the human mind vJher'ever it came to be known , The 10(011111 es tabl itself as the language of everyday life in Asia , C,rl'l'!ne, Sicily and other areas; it \'Jas the of COfiUrrerce throughout the Graeco-Roman \'lOrld and the official language of the East, exe for the Roman army which us Lat In places Greek side by 5 side with 10c8.1 languages. It was the of learning; eks VJere the school te2\chers of , n:tlile both Gre La tin YJ ere in the st, Gl'eek alone was in the East. Atkinson, p. (3) OD, (4) p.265 19:19-20-- "Pilato 0 a title (5 ) it ,1Jesus of Nazareth, the this t • for place cruc:t city; and it was wrlt I;fltln, Gre came tnto such 'Ill us e that Beven nntivAS COYlC(H'!wd to iT' OVIn trad:l t us od foY' PlJ.r pos 8, even address ing a na tive audience , and even v!hen us ing tho 6 na tive they frequently adapted forms mot ifs ." 'r he Septuagint Bible , trans lated from the Hebrew , is the f01'e- most example ; it was prepared for the ,T ews outs ide Pales tine , mos t of vIham had adopted Greek as the ir spoken language . Oulturally, Home came to be as much a province of Gr eece as VI ere the nat ions of -the East . Homan literature on Greek mode Is , and al though Homan Vir' i tel'S retained La tin, they used 8. large number of Gre words . Rhythmic verse may have entered La tin by way of Greek, having been a Semitic deve lop- ment . Homan Sene.te and imperial governors had decrees pub- lished in Gre ek; \"l ell-l(110V1D pass in speare 's Julius Oaesar true to actual conditions , since e.l1 uc ated Homans 7 Gr eek. Paul , iI! vfI�it ing to the church at Rome , vJrote in Gre ek, as did the 1'01' Me.rcus Aurelius in c (121-180 ) his Me ditat ions . There VIas no violent bree.k between the Attic verne.cule.r and / the it became ; in develop:tng into a vJol")ld-language , how- 110lVTt eV!!lr , ie Greek a S01' of ications .. of se were the rosult of the abs orption of other dialects . Ionic influence in the KOIVr) is , for' example , the us e (6 ) , }l oses , ;::E:.':e'..:::;==:.::.:t;:.i==-=-c Culture , p ,,45 Cicero say ('7) spoke Gre ek. vlhat effect? an I tell you t, I'll no 'er look you i' the fac those that toad him sr:iled at one another but f'o:[1 mine o\:'crn par·t , was to me . Ii 23 /-"OV- (non- ) te of thE! Attic �Tt.p- (ho1oer- ) "other If "one -eyed . 'I'he influence of Eomer , Yi hose dialec t \"as Ionic , nay I be respons ible for a num ber of vlords used in the 1<0IV1") . "ost Groek is res pons ible for such forns as TrI�fW (piadzCi) for the I Attic 'lTl&fW "press , squeeze", the use of (X in place of £. being a characte ristic of that dialect . cPhe probable soft pronUl1clation of f3,i Ijlnd S in the vernaculal' IH)fV� are mos t like ly due to Doric inf luence; ljorthwes t Greek contributed, among other things , the c" � I I ·l p ,,8 accus ativo plural eneang In -�s, as .en T�(f"uap&5 fol' T€'(l'"Uapas '�oul' . and lal'ge , however, Attic prevailed over the other dialects • . , Attic spelli.ng becamo tho standal'd , as in IAl.W$ (hileos ) "gl'ac ious ", > a - -lowS . tine s l'eplaced those 1n as 1n 6f.IK'VDW for "ShOVI, -UIAI , �dl out ." as point 'tJ appeal's often in place of the DOl'ic long a, In l O 11 pou'\" fol' & �oA� . At tic inflections generslly pl'evailed . I Some changes 1n the formation of the KOlv11 wel'e non-d lalect- lc Y "'Jere necess because of the neVI role the VI[1S coming to perform. At tic grarmnar was simp lifIed � made less s tl'lct ir, the I numbcr of , with the -Twrra'V, was on crease . s of the l'ont d ts ",v era in cons tant as sociatio:rj., as VIas the case \"lith the S old:le rs of ! S , pl'onounced ctiSInS u:nintelli- I;7ost of the terial present0c1 t point comes om (> I}l "" A G:r'?lmmar Gre iJ?8S tamen t - -- tor:tcaT Hesea·rch-,-pp.-61- 6b. . certain \v ords as GO";/ p"," A (see ) carried the s pe 11 :tnto the KOlvtl. p. (10) J If Ie to all Here • Ie the new world-language could not be expected to mas ter all its subtleties . In bee D. cosmopo litan suited to the praetical affairs of life throughout the Gr eoco-Roman / vl orld, tho los t f 1ne dis t inc t ions of me anine 0 1<017/'1) " A lerge number of '1lords received nevI meall ings in tho K01V1j . (fUVCXiWi� ( silnagoge ), formerly "a coming-toge ther" er lta88embly" , came to 1';1e &n ltreligious me etingH , hence HS'Jrnagogue . n a:vClI (anaklino ), formerly "lean (some thing) agains t" , 01' in the pass- , ive , "recline", became "recline at the me al!! , hence "dine ." �p w- Ttfw (erotao ), formerly "ask (a ques tion)", came also to meen "ask (for somethins )" or "beg ." (1"Xo>'" (skhole ), formerly "lei sure time" , became "school ." Some words undenient modifications in form . AU){v;'ov (lukhnion ) "lamp -stand" became AuJiv(CX in the I< OIV" , sender fron neu- ter to feminine . "builcUng , habitation" be came Oll�O&Of-"�I"ux 011(00 0tA" , , / I / form the diminutive of Tt./(VOV "child!! , lost its <:rT1'JI Although the Gre ek dialects dis appeared h; the period of the , many cities of the terranean area developed char- I(OIV,] acteristic manners of expl'essj.o:tl; se local variations were not , hewever, dialects , but be compared v(ith the s ch of �ifferent cities in the 1)13 vi orld , such as Bes ton, Br eoklyn, Ch:tc , Lendon, New Or leans or 1,:e Ibeurne • Gr eek:1 for examp le , had its peculiar:Lti es , some of \'1 11ich VJ ere t110 < ( us e of of (XI the Ine plural nOl1iinative arti- 01 <1 c in lna for , ad Jectives -'I) l.l(!l(jT0'i toa ) tt eachlt , and the indicat ive in e of the 8ub,iunc tlve . purthep- mope , },�.elcu.uUl' inn manner was some\vh at uJ:lV! J.e ldy and capricious , as seen in such vl opd compounds as KCCT(l(VWTlr�I:.VOs (katanotidz:omenos ) "tupning al'ound agains t" , fpom l , In extant examples of the vernacular 1<01%111 , many va1'iations are due to the diffe rence in education of the VIl'iteps , and to the ip porson8. 1 idiosyncracies . Ins cript ions , be ing usually gov- ernment decre es , e;ene rally have a more formal speech. / Ex isting side -by-s ide vl ith other lanGuages, the Greek 1<01"1"] Vias naturally subject to their influence . Italic , Ce ltic and Germanic lane;uages exerted pressure from Vl es l; and north, but the principle non-Greek influences came from As ia ; inde ed , Alex- and el" " c"8.mpaign had sparked a vi ide spread fus ion of Greek and As iatic cultures . Tlebrew influence , for example , can be o"s erve(l in the case of 1TlI&Uf'ACC (pneuma ), which oric;inally meant simply nO. blast of vl ind" ; .Jewish writers used it to express the Hebrew word ruah "wind" or "spir:i:c ll , and thus TrV£uf'At)(cam e to 111ean "sp1- rit" in a religious sense. The widespread llse of Greek resulted in the deve lopment of linguistic scholarship . ""' he seat of Greek leal'ning in the period / of the KOI"7) Vias not but Alexa:ndria in ]�Gypt , and it vIas the Alexandrian school vihich sought to purge As ianisms from the Greek Alexandr:tan pedants, after some indecis ion as which dialect was to be the standard, finally settled on to the literary Attic , wh ich regarded as the t s :in deve of Gre ., revival resulted in an artificial literary out of touch with the spoken I{OIVrl, although the Atticis ts VIrote in the 1<01'11" period; it had little effect on the further development of the v01'nacular , VJhich became , Vi i th certain modifications , the Greek of today . One s ig nificant contribution of the Alexandrian school, hOViever, ViaS the introduction of the sys tem of accents , around 200 B.C. , as an aid to non-Greeks attemptinG to leo.rn the language . Gr eek continued to be widely spoken in the eastern iter- ranean region af r the cl e cline of Rome and the breakup of the wes tern half of the empire . It vias the offic ial language of the "W:6tlLJtine until the fall of' ium in 1453 . v. literature ear cos of Gre tU.l"6 are the Homer- ic epics , the Iliad and the Odysney. They are tten, ly, living of the island of Chios in the ninth cen- tury B.C., although in a poetic, not conversational, style . 1' he dialect of Homer is Ionic mixed with Aeolic , though later editors inserted many Attic isms . 'l'he Homeric epics form the fOlL'1dation of Greek literature , and epics were written in imitation of Ho- mer after the everyday speech had changed, thus producing an artj.- f icial epic dialect. heaiod the 130etian farmer, who lived in the eighth century B.C., produced vlOrks in imitation of Homer. The seventh century B.C. brought an outburst of lyric poetry in the works of Alcman of Sparta, Sappho and Alcaeus who wrote the Le sbian dialect, and Stesichorus . L;lr ic and elegaic po- etr'y continued strong into the sixth century . Solon wrote in the Attic dialect, Ibycus of RhegiUlTI in Doric-epic , and ognis of in the style of Homer and siod . The ognis wrete politi- cal opinions , for vlhich lyric verse is not we ll suited; hence the for a prose style became apparent. The firs t philosophers also wrote in verse . 'l'hales , Anaxi- mander and Anaximenes introduced new terminology into the Greek ; none of their works have survived, however . Philoso- phers continued to write in verse until the middle of the fifth century 13.C .; Heraclitus (1'1.500) and the Elea tics embodied their increas.Lng.LY abs t The lyric tradition continued ; the lyr:icists are Anacreon of 11 eos (fl.[ioO ), Simonides (1'1.510), '.re lesil1!l (fl.510), Cor inna (1'1.500), .LlilOCrOon (fl .500) , r·"l , \..L .'"";,'; ;;;'0)- ( • EsC and , . Boe t (1'1 .. ) , ) ? om others in s of ex- ( 1 according to Atkins on, is al'ti- , &1 s , ficial upon Ae olic , Doric HomerJ.c elements . One important feature of his work is the creation of compound word.s , indicat ing that he had caught the spirit of the Greek language , that he knew to use it in vlays to which it Vias particularly adapted. Meanwhile a Gree1\: preBe style had arisen; Hecataeus of Mi- le tus the his torian (f1.520 ) Vias one of the firs t prose writers . The vi orks of Empedocles in the middle of the fifth century B.C. mark the change from poetry to prose as the vehicle for philo- sophic thought . At about this time lyr ic poetry lost its prom- inence in Greek literature and Vias replaced by drama and prose. We k'1 oVI little about the spol(e n language from Homer to the fifth century B.C.; vie have only the literary language . Linguist- ic chango occurred between Homer and He siod, but from the time of Hesiod there was simply the adaptation of the Gr eek language to suit various literary purposes . The close of the Pel'sian VJars , which occupied the firs t quar- tel' of the fifth century B.C., ushered in the Golden of Athe - nian culture . Drama had arisen in the sixth centlJ.ry but became prominent in the fifth. Aes chylus (.525-456 B.C.) marks the he ight of' Greek tragedy ; his language is far removed from eve speech and s of failed to catch the emotional t, ac to Oll , would have been t. Sophocles (496?-406 B.C.) car- r on the ition of Ae senvJ..Lucl, btlt re on plot and action p.219 ( 1 ) foT' his ct, s as compared Aes In the s of c oven farther ; in his YJorks there is no ideal world , as in Aes- chylus , but the real world of his audience . After Euripedes , tragedy lingered on in a few minor writers and finally died out around 380 B.C. "Perhaps there was suffic ient tragedy in real life ," remarks Atkinson, "from which comedy alone could provide relief .,, 2 Comedy at Athens increased in importance from the time of its introduc - tion in the first half of the sixth century B.C., but unfortunate- little of the work of earlier comedy writers has been preserved . Iv�" , ..- Comedy gives a better indication of the nature of everyday speech than does tragedy. "Course language , which is a frequent occur- rence in comedy , is •••of great linguistic value , as obscene or semi-obs cene often long to the oldest stratum in a lanl3uage, the u8e by the comic poets bec omes a factor of im- portance in the etymological study of the whole of the Indo-Europ ean family.,, 3 Arist ophanes (448?-380? B.C.) is the chief of the Greek comedy writ'lrs ; l:lis :!jchool'maintained itself till 380 B.C. TheJ;'e is a difference in subject matter between Qr.l'eek prose and verse; the former was thought fit only for practical subjects , the latter being the vehicle of idealistic thoughts. lIenee there is also a difference in vocabulary. Heraclitus , atest of the Ionian school of' philosophers , Virote in prose around 500 B.C. :£'he hist orian (fl ) vias the master st wrote in style b'ised on predecessors . In a 11 (2) p.240 30 t his is SlEJ'PlJo and s , but h-is history canno t this 8 licity . Thucydides (471?- 400? B.O.) flourished about twenty years after Herodotus . He wrote in the Attic dialect, but since his predecessor historians Viere Ionic writers his style retains many Ionicisms . His sentences are somewhat clumsy. 'l'urning to philosophy, Anaxagoras (5001-428 B.O.) used the same literary Ionic as Herodotus . Only a few fragments of the work of Democritus are extant . Hippocrates (460?-377? B.C.) was the first great medical Vlri tel' of Greece , and a large collection of literature has been falsely ascribed to him. The dialect of his authentic Vlr itings is similar to that of Herodotus . Hippo- crates later me dical writers developed medical terminology through the use of compounds , new stem-formations or ordinary words in a technical sense. One of the most popular of all Greek prose vlr iters is Xeno- phon (434 ?-355? ,B. 0.), viho wrote in the Attic dialect. Ana - basis contains some of the simplest language in all Greek litera- ture, and has been widely read by students of Greek . Memo irs of Socrates is not as simple . The orators of Athens produced prose from 440 to 320 B.C. Antipho (4801-411 was the first of the great orators and 13.0.) a contemporary of Eur Thirty later came Lys ias (4501-:5801 B.O.), considered in antiquity the producer of the purest tic oratorical prose . Isocrates ( B.O .) Isaeus followed. most popular of orators \VUS Demos ( ?-322 B.C.), who produced balanced sentences, mOl'e oom- 31 those of his predecessors . orators as a have a continually flowing s in tho pure Attic dialect, both be ing neces due to the nature and role of oratory in Athens the troubled years of its decline as a political power . The high point in Greek philosophic literature Vias reached with Plato ( ?-347 B. C .. ).. dialogues refle ct the actual conversational style of the times , indicating the widespread use of particles and their accompanying stures , unbroken flow of speech . Though Plato has no learned style , he uses or- <:'r " in technical senses , such as £.IOOS an appearance, visual image ", v:hich he used in the sense of "class, sort", or q,ux,f (psiikhe )."l ife force", which he employed to mean 11 soul" or "spirit (o f a man )." Plato 's successor Aristotle -322 B.C. ) ( has a "terse and difficult" style , and he no attempt at flowery or oratorical languageo / T'he beginning of the I the period.,,4 writers of the NeVI Comedy, be \v ith mellal.lU er ( 291 B.O.), such as of (flo ) and ts of II .. 0 .. ) are o deve scientific and mathemat vr:cit 1-212 B .. C .. ), v!h ile in Doric ( (4) , p.48 32. Sic ref ct ic s s • the lect , Lt the sec B.C .. , a ive oi' Pe , / vJrote a tory of Rome the Attic KOI 'V 11; h'",,:1.3 resc:nn- a New ,[' eatament more than it does that of 1' hucy- dides or Plato. Dionysiu8 of Halicarnassus (fl.30 B.C.) and Diordus Siculus (fl.8 B.C.) wrote in an oratorical style , while Strabo the ge ographer (63 B.C.?-24 A.D.?) Vlrote in a stylo -for the gonoral public . come noVi to the two bodios of / literature most cl080- 1(01"11 ly related to tho speech of the common people of the Graeco-Reman world in the Hellenistic period; the New Testament and the papyri . Four linguistic traditions flov! into the New Testament . (1) the mos t prominent is probably that of the Septuagint , apart fror;J which the NevI 1' estament v/Oulcl havo been largely unintelligible , However, unlll(8 Septuagint , the Hev, ,Peatame nt is a book originally con- ce in Gre , not , He braisTma do oc cur .. Luke 1;5-2:38, containing the story of births of .r ohn the Baptist and ,Josus , is a notable ic-flavored 80ction; possibly Luke hoard the s told by one whose native tongue Vias Aramaic , the o" eve of Palestinian .Tevis , (2) Tho s of the t- orian8 is important Lujze -Acts, and the proface to the gospel is worthy of the great orators the period 1n 1ts smoothly floV/- style , 1n sense of cre£tt force , 1s of NeYI Te stamen t , ) of (3 Gre el{ o fou_nd an o'ut 1n the New Testament . / ljIuX11 , to , o A8l' pt al in the New Tes tament . Other words of th1s t;1Po are recent led s that Jews of the first (0) See p. 31 33 , s to Hle an [lson , n in , C t::t1':10 and s tamc:nt; a.px,f , t causeH ; H, which came arunceH as to tance of an , \ ' c such as as 'J embly" , later "church " , and &tlKI\1'IQ"lct 0 I ,I ailol (hoi hagioi) "the holy ones ", later, "the saints", ac technical meanings for the first t in tho New Tos tament . (4) spoken language of the opla figures pI'or:linent in the composi- tion of the '}ieYI Test ; early Christians , the authors receivers of the I-Ze\v i].\3stament 12ritin8s , were not rally of the educated classes , but were !!len of practical affairs . The most literary of the vlritings found in the !{ew Tes l�al!lent are those of Luke , cOlnpr is ing Gospel nhich his name (lnd its continuation, the Acts of Apostles . tlon it that was a ic , and presence of me dical terms and st shovm .Tesus ! miracles of he aling in Luke !s I seem to support graceful style has been to; the Ion is from the story of birth of Je sus . A careful historian, Luke takes pains to relate the event to contempor'ary l"\oman t • nappened in the those ywnt out > , t-v TatS 1)"'�P'US t:IH:.IVQI5 ���t\e!.v from Caesar Augus tus to be enrolled all the � \ Iure(U T1")V inhabited (world); (this enrollment first happened ,/ d . ( '\ .J... / ,f ,"/ oll all of �Tohn , 1:1'18 three c 1 tters , style 9 �rhe language is extremely simple and the vocabularly l:l:mited therefore re- petitive . ye t it is ;John above all the other New 'Te stament writers who stands in the tradition of the philosophical au':" thors ; indeed, it would iC1),1t to imagine a more prefeurl d book in simpler language than Gospel JO]:>Jl . The follo'VJ- ing example , the opening of the Gos pe 1, is perhaps an case, but will give a good indication of what the rest of the is like . In beginning Vias the VJord, and the vIard was toward the < , < , , o I-(ct I 1)v 'r01l lv apXf, 11V )..,6ioS, 0 AOi05 rrpos God God was the word. This one VIas in beginning -' , < , et.ov, KClI et. Os �v 0 )..6.r05 . OOTOS .Ji}v 'C:II apxii toward God .. All throurrh him be c ame , , / 6'-' ,," TOv Tfa'VTO- I' aUTOO") -rrpos et-6l1. ty'iV'f-TO) KCI} from him became not on0 thing o 'I .... ,,I d auro!} !:.1l:'P£TO oM;' &V . "In the be VIas the VJ ord, the lIord Vi as w God , the Viord was God . He Vi as in the beginning \,l ith God ; all things were through him, and without him VJaS not anything W,"U<;:i••• In his use of the nord A6iO� .J ohn has gone beyond the philos 0- , e "prine H of reality with liv son ,Jesus No tViO S c more than e of , Paul 's is s he exhaus t of speech to him, but he OVln as he 80es . Ho (7) Luke 2: (RSV ) (8) 1:1-3 (RSV ) 35' Testament -\iv r iter can c po 12.1' t Vf r:t t (I i/ioreovcr, of-ten s out Vi v: hich the or supply ; e from the t that he c1 ietnted his to a seere , some t in te o Sentences liko follow are not unc omrllon: A door for to me has opened great and active , and , , , , , , Bopa. yap lAol aV'&r.:!if.V IAt'(cH'11 IO(Cl.1 f:Vl.piTJS, 1<0.1 adversaries many . b.VT 11<(,1fAt 'llOI no>-AOI. "POl' a wide door for effectivtl work has opened to me , and there are many adversaries ."v More typical is the example be low , which illustrates Paul 's ar- gumentative manner: If and Ghrist is preached that out of dead he vms rais , '" ,I , !Jtni'l:,. T <:1.1 OTI ILK E i Si. Xp1fTT65 K 1')P 1'£'KPWV r.y�y&pTal, are s among you some that resurrection of· dead , c. '" , " , I � '£. v IV TIVl:$ ,OTI 'WaO"TCl not is ?• If but resurrection of dead not is , ne ither " "I , ,1 , r' OVI( Of the other New Testament vl ritel's , ment ion should of the author of' Re velation to ,John , Vias not tho same as the of Gas tors . contains 1 I; irregularit , indicat that its was none; too fami with rules of Greek grammar . Irregularities of' con- (9) I Cor 16:9 (RSV) (10) I Cor -lt1 ( ) , A / \ are as VIKWV ClUTO'>' who c , 0 'lfOlll!l'"W \ 11 C , I ill make hin1 a pillar (accusat . ( ) ) �rhe various parts of the New 1J.1 estament VJ ere cor;rposed between 50 A.D., the per of Paul's first le tters , 150. The most important books had appeared by 110 . The NeVI Te stament formed a base for the writings of the church fathers , netably ,T us tin 1,,13.1'- tyr (lOO?-l65 ?) and Origen (185 1-254? ). The former possessed a style reminiscent of the New 'r estament in its directness and vi- tality, vJ hile the style of Or igen harks back to Ar istotle in its complexity and lack of spantane ity. The papYl' i form one of the mos t interesting bodies of liter- ature surviving from the anc ient vlOrld, and al'e valuable from a linguistic standpoint . These everyday documents, pl'e served in the dry Egyptian climate , were vl ritten by all sorts of men, from government officials to farm hands . Private letters among the papyri exhibit differences in spelling , according to the education of the writers , and show that many expressions in the New Te sta- ment are stock phrases used by all le tter-writers . 'rhe papyri were produced during a thousand�year period from 300 B.C. to 700 A.D. They illus trate the natural changes which / were to transform the 1<0111'1') of the He llenistic into modern Greek . Some of these changes were the use of for E cone this sect with several from papyri", The t of these from or 141 B.C. , and con- sists of a tter of introduction written by a bus sman (11) Reve .3:12 ( l'�\\ )\ 37 has sent to transact re , been 80me sort iness (0 Po to Philoxenos gre et If vou are V1811 and ., '''"I I , &1 £.ppW i7l ' U1 , o.(Y1"JlS. tpPWITO. 1J'TOVij I(9' CPal'u:,'V��] . "Po lykrates to Philoxenus greeting. If you are things general aro go right, j.t will as we sire . As those things we wished, we have sent to you who is personally attached to us to consult you . Please therefore give him a hearing, in8 t1'uo t him oon- oerning those things he has come about . But above all take cape of you1'self that you may be in health . Goodbye . 29th year , Phamenoth .1! lo The "29th ye ar" referre d to is either that of Philometo1', 152 B.C. , or Energetes II, 141 B.C . The vI ord '(t5lO'V"o wn" used to mean favn�v 1! ours" Vias in common usage ; New Tos tament parallels are found in Matthew 22 :5, I Corinthians 7:2, and I '1'he 88alonians 2:14 . letter of introduction is comr:1on in the NeVi Testament ; Romans 16 :1-2 , I Corinthians 16 : 10-12, and Ephesians 6:21-22 are examples . The following itation to dinner, dating from (13) Milligan, orge , �t�i�o=n�s from � Greek Papyri, pp . 24 the sec A.D .. '' In the of Claudius ionll , "in the house of Claudius , , is parallelled in the lieVi '['e stament in 2 :49, £1-' � � I TOI� TOU 1TOTPOS /Aov "in the of the father of me ", , "in father1s house." Asks you fu�tonius to ptolemaios to dine by him unto 'EpWT? In:. 'AVTW'VIO(�J 1TTOAf-�IOI] OITT'VlJ(I"[a� lTap'aOTwl t.lS cOUfh of the lord Sere.pis in the of Claudius Serapion I(A&I"1)'V TOO I The "9 o'clock" referred to would have been 3 p.m.; the "couch" in the interlinear trans lation has been rendered as "table" by ]\'ulligan, but in the Graeco-Roman world one reclined at a banquet . One final example of the papyri Vl ill be given in an English translation ; it cons ists of a le tter from a schoolboy to his fa- > ther . In the Greek vel'S ion the doul)le, nega t i ve / oc curs ; 00 f-A'I'J the effect of this is simply to strengthen the expression , mak- ing it "certainly not" rather than simply "not ." The double ive is common in the New Testament , espec in let- of "Theon to '[' he on his , tine; . You did a fine t You not ta}:en me along Viith you to the c to take me along v/ ith you to , letter, or s to you, or wish do go to Alexandria, I won't take eforth ", you refuse to t t a ones , , you s ) , p .. If don 't eat , f)"11 noy! t I for I preserved in the papyri inc lude a letter hir- girls ( A.D. ) , (l complaint ag;a�.ns t (l pries t (159 - 160 (l pub lic notice disclaiming the debts incurred (l A.D. ) , 1uayvlard son first or second centuries A.D. ), (In erder te return ( home for the census (104 A.D. , the report of a law suit (49 A.D. ), ) a marriage contract (170 A.D.), (lnd (In early Christian letter four th century ) from one .Justinius to certain Papnuthius . A ( (l mos t interest dOCLUlle nt cons is ts of a certif icate of membel'ship in the Worshipful Gymnas tic Club of Nomads , presented to the boxer Herminius on the occas ion of the forty-ninth perfOl�mance of the fi\AV.V3stan Games , 22, 194 A.D. ; enc108 \J1,th the c81"'ti- ficate is a letter from 1'01' '1'ibe1'iu8 P.C .-�57 A.D. ) (42 a gift of a crown the Club had ented to upon his victor;7 in Br itain. (15 ) 4D VI. Gr eek in Engl ish Of all the non-Germanic Indo -ELU' opean languages only Latin can claim a greater influence in English than Greek. La tin re- mained the language of the Church after the fall of the Homan Empire in the West; it became the international language of commerce , diplomacy and learning for western Europe , as the / Greek had been for the Graeco -Homan world in the heyday KOIVT] of the Roman Empire . Latin was thus in direct contact vl ith English in the early stages of the latter 's development , and large numbers of Latin words have entered English either direct ly or indirectly through F'rench, a Lat in-based tongue . Gr eek did not come into direct contact vl ith English until the time of the Henaissance , which brought a revival of Greek learning and literature ; since that time , however, English has borroVled Gr eek words on a large scale . Usually these borrowed words are Latinized, both by transliteration from the Gre 0.1- phabet and by substitution of Latin inflectional endings . K be- comes c, as i n acaCla. 100 1' 0.1<0.1< , ,10( ; GIl be comes ae, becomes ch, X u usually becomes y, and the ending -0, be c omes -us , as in Aes , " \ chylus for i6\(f"XUIIOS; ou becomes u and £( becomes .:!) O( becomes oe , / and final become s as in amoeba for in certain -1'\ -� , O!"OI�1\ ; cases becomes v, and before 1<, ,or becomes vlh ile u y y, � X E, , I \ final -oY becomes as in evangelium for "gospel." -� , LIJGl.Y"(&A(O'V Most words of Greek origin in the English language are com- binations of two ,or more Greek words ; mos t of these comb inations diet not exist as such ih the original Greek but were formed upon incorporation into Lat in, English or wha tever language the new WOI'd is entering . Such words are imUcated by an as tEl1�i8k in the 41 followin8 discussion . liiol'e over, Greek elements have often been combined with Lat in or Hords of other languages; such CO]1l- binations are called hybrids , and are indicated here by a double asterisk. The formation of hybrids from Greek and La tin elements is not difficult , since the two languages are closely related, and have more words in common than either one has with, say, Ge r- man , or any other branch of the Indo -Eul'opean family . In the va st maj ority of cases a Greek Vlord borrowed by Eng- lish had already been derived from an older word in the original Greek. 'f hrough the use of various su.ffixes nouns can be made from .- verbs , and verbs from nouns . The verb rpcul>w 11 I write II , for exam- ple, gives rise to the noun I'P�r-f"(lC "letter" , vlhich in turn gives rise to the noun ypar-I"OoT�6S "secretary, scribe" , from v1h ich is de - / rived a verb YP (lCr't4C1Tt:.uw" to be a secretary" ; from the plural of yporro. comes the ad ,jective ipo.t-'t"OCTIK6s "knovIing one's letters ", / from which arises the vel'b 1pott-'I"OoTIK/:.U 0I"QI "to be a gralml1arian" ; als o from yp¢.fW arise the nouns 1pa.CP,)' "a drawing , a Ylriting" and 1po.l"r� "a line" , plus the ad jectives YPQlTT� "marked as with let ters" and 1PCl What is most important as far as English is concerned is the com bining form of 1P�+W' which is -ypo.<\>IOC"- graphy" , a widely-used form as will be evident from the examples presented below . For this reason we will not attempt to trace the Greek elements in English back to the ir origInal sources ; VIe will content ourse lves Vii th reference to the nearest Gr eek equivalent , t from which the English word is immediately derived. Some words of Greek origin have long and involved histories . "The noun chllrtes [?<6.pTTJSJ 'she et of papy-rus ' (the anc ient Vlriti ng paper ) is interest for the varie of its development in li8h . It Vias borrowed by Lat in in tho form charta (cf. Charta ). 'J.' he Lat in wOl'd passed through French te become the English chart , and through Italian and Prench to produce the doublet card . A Latin diminutive chartula entered Engl ish through Old French to yield charter, and through Italian and Prench to yield cartel . Other prench and Italian derivatives of the word developed into carton and its doublet cartoon . An Ital- ian derivative cartoccio entered English through French to fOl' m cartouche , an architectur al and archaeological term . A corrup- tion of cartouche produced a doublet , the more familiar word 11 1 cartridge . 1'hus the influence of Gr eek upon Englj.sh is a geod deal larger than it appears at first glance . Of any particular body of words in the English language , scientific terminology probably centains the largest number of forms derivod from Greek, and the number of such words increases almost daily as neVi biological species are catalogued, new chem- icals developed, and new techniques perfected. Nybakken lists about 885 Greek words from which approximately four thousand com 2 binat i ons are derived. Religion is another area in which Greek words figure prominently ; Greek was the language of the early Christ ian church and of the New 1' e stament writers . The remainder of this section is devoted to a listing of some English words of Greek or igin, organized in various cate- gories . 1' he list is by no moans exhaustive , but attempts to S13rve as an introduc tion to the Greek in English. 1. Words taken directly from Gr eek vJ ith no change except transliteration (1 ) Burriss , Eli E. and Casson, Lionel, Lat in and Gr eek in Current Us e, pp . 200-201 (2) Nybakken, Os car E., Gr eek and Latin in Scientific 'rermin ology, pp . 148-223 " , \l foothold" -- bas "opinion" , "d60ree "-- do ma b6it"0l g �)(c,{, "echo" -- echo 6u1S "a placing" -- thesis lbior Il idea" -- idea k>,,(/,,(1� "ladd6r"-- climax l{bcr/"oS "world" -- cosmos I "w i tnes s" -- martyr tAapTvp 'IT�B05 "passion, emotion" -- pathos Cl"1(f.Az"T671 "dried-up"-- skeleton cp�pu1'� "throat " __ pharynx XboS "void, first state of ths universell-- chaos / Xapal 2. Words slightly changed, usually due to La tinization (/1 1&A05 "mes enger"-- ange� ?"r'0l�� "change " -- amoeba I 1u/"VCA.crIOY "gyrrmas ium" -- g;'lmnasium O( <:r4>cdpoC "ball" -- sphere ,I u/"VO$ Ilhynm" -- hymn .pv>"OY "1'ace , tribe " __ phylum 3. derived from Greek VJords �o"o:v" "plant"-- botany "tongue"-- glossary iAIf.JIjIj<1. LKI / - - lTP&<1VT1")S " Presbyterian ()"XOA� " isure time"-- school 4. Vlord combinations of Greek origin 1�t:.cp"A" "head" . lfOUS , lToc56S "foot" -- cephalopoda" , .1 1fA OTVS "flat", 'LA, f'AllIS, ./t:."fAI1Ie� OS "worm" -- platyhe lminth1< I "wise" , "foolish" -- sophomore" t-'IilPO$ "friend , lover" , (l"Otj>rd "wisdom" -- philos ophy 5. Greek words widely used in forminc; compounds , us ing their combininc; forms as the first element of the new word o.�rc5s "he , self, same" , combining form aOTo- "auto-" : with f$(O') 0 'life" and -ypacp{o.. "a writ inc;" -- autobiography" with - oS "writer , ins trument for wr itinc;"-- autoc;raph" iPb.q, with Latin mobilis "able to move"-- automobile'''' with -71oJAfex "law, principle"-- aut onomy T"l)AE- "far off" , combininc; form "tele-" : I with iPCLJAf'Cl. "letter" -- telegram" I with (}I I wi th trueo) "feelinc;, emotion" -- telepa thyl' with .pW1l� ll voice" -- telephone?' .1 c "water" , combininc; form "hydro-" : vowp 0,sp o- with Latinocarbo "coal" -- hydrocarbon;Hf ' ' ,/ \ 'I 1t " Vl l t n ""t.I�TpOV 'amber -- hydroelectric" wi th cp6j305 , combining form -¢Of5�a: "fear" -- hydrophobia 6. Greek words 1i1idely used in forming compounds , us ing their combining forms as the second element of the nevI vlOrd I tI , combining form -YP" I Viith 131PAI0 71 ll book" -- bibliography / Vi / with Torr.oS "place"-- topography t"\ / " with cpws, with (;{plcrros tlbea t"-- aria tocracy , I with o. with l? rench bureau "desk" -- bureaucratoH' with ';�!-,05 "pe ople" -- democracy >with IT"Aoiho,) "wealth"-- plutocrat·), "word, pI' inc iple", comb ining form -logy" , c 01- A6io� -'\0tra !t 11 lection of k- nowledge" : u ,. Vii th o.'VepwTT05 "man" -- anthropology" I with /31.0$ "manner of living" -- biology" / : with II earth" -- olo t· 1'1') ge g with !-'0P'MI" I "shape "-- morphology",. / with "God" -- theology 6&05 with La tin socius "companionn -- sociology"" '" with Xp�05 "time "-- chronology Viith o/u)(" "life force , soul" -- psychology" I >' v0tl0S "law , cus tom" , combining form -VOfL'o. "-nomy" : with �a-TP0'jl "the s tars \I -- as tronomy / vd th "second" -- Deuteronomy �!'Ul&'pO� with T6il) "order , arrangement "-- taxonomy" CPW1'1) II vo ice" : , with "small" -- microphone" ","(paS v,r ith La tin radius 11 vdth (A. J. inventor )-- saxophone?H:> Sax Sax , 46 7. and other -words COl1x;l only used as pre - fixe s O�I, .1/ "both, both sides , I wi th �l 05 "manner of living"'-- amphibian I with 6t.ClTpW It theatre"-- amphitheatre b-, b:v- lI not , withoutll : VIi th p.op • ,1 I vn th ClpXW ' , I rule" , combining form -apXt .. / l' ''''lin . oppos i'1;e, agalns. t" : with English aircraft-- antiaircraft,H:- with e& with 2:.1<,sa me as L8.tin � "out of, away from" , "formerly" : with A&(rrw "I leavo "-- eclipse vlith (T"Tc;erl,) "standing , position"-- ecstacy &(.1-, "'we ll , good." ·: / vl ith -(1-'7/0) "family" , "birth"-- eugenics" with )vf.."o,) "Vlord" , combining form -AOl'IOC "_logy" __ eulogy vl ith with 'A6ios llword, list1l -- catalogue Vi Averl'; ll a loosingll -- catalys is with c/ "who le "-- catholic oAO'> / II form , semblance "-- metamorphos is !-"oP with English film-- microfilm,Hf with I�O'(/'�OS "worldll -- microcosmos':'· " with cnd�lToS 11161tchor , obs ervor" -- micros cope';· ",6'1105 "ono ", combining forms I"'0V- "mon_" and tA0vo- "mono-II : wi th ACrOS "word , saying" -- monologue;f with English rail, from Latin regula-- monorail,Hf � TIel'; "all" , combining form TIO'll- "pan_" : wi th American-- Pan-American'''f with 8�6S "godlt -- pantheon .1 with opo/",a. "sight, spectaclelt -- panorama"· 1Tap� IIbeside , beyondlt : " Viith 1pacpw 1I I write It -- paragraph with psychology-- parapsychology"· It 110'\65 "much, many" , combining form lToAv- " poly- : with -(c:.ro,) "marriage " -- polygamous·;;· with -(w-,l-a. "angle"-- polygon " with -r,j.,".... "11 "voice ", comb ining form -Twv\«x..,' It _phony" _- polYfbonY'". " npo , same as Lat in pro "bef ore " : I with A0105 "WOl'd"-- prologue / with "tent lt-- proscenium <:I'"K'rJ'""" TT'P�T05 "first", combining form irpWTO-lI proto-ll : " with 1TAil�ac"formll -- protoplasm ' vi i th T,slTOS "model, t;:lpe" -- prototype" with o.lW1'� "a brinGing , a leadingll -- synagogue I I with JAtTPO'P "mmsure" , comb ining farm-fA 2..Tfll!lI-metryll- symme tTy with ei with ethyl , from "ether"-- tetl'ae thyl'" ell'8 'l)P/ ,- wi th tJ-&TpO"Y "measlu' e" - tetrameter" < / "over, above , beyond 1l : V"lTt.p with I Vlith sensetive , from Lat in sensus -- bypersensetiveiH:. �rr6 "under , below" : with .5�p,..\C� "skin" -- hypodermic': with Xbv.5po) "cartilage , breast bone " __ hypochondr iac':' 8. Noun-forming suffixes with noun or ad jective bases com monly used in English -&IOV "-eum" , signifying "place for" : with "li1us e"- - mus eum MOUG""Gt with Mozart-- Mozarteu.lJ1"''' (in Salzburg ) / - 1 0: forming an abstract noun (many examples in 6. above ) -1 (TfA6� "-ism" , denoting "belief in, doctrine of, character istic of't , and-l (Very often this suffix is combined with -ist in 8. a bove, resulting in such forms as socialistTC; atheistic .) , r ,1 . , ., -O£I "-oid" , from "form" , lnC1. l.Cat :.Lng' II I l_{e' ) , resembl me;' ". � Ol\� &IOOS , .I with ClIITT'l')P "star"-- asteroid" with Latin humanus "human" -- humanoid"" 11. Ad jective-forming suff ix with vel'b bases I -TI 1(0<; "-tictI , denot IIfit for, able to, pertaining to" : th "to a sign, signify" -- semantic" 12. Verb-fv�'lU-'-H6 rdth no em, or ad ject bases -(�w "-ize" , incl "te Ii :; ll t o subject li , te ac t with" : ':';: with Diesel (Rudolf Diesel, inventor )-- dieselize / : with IA,!)X01l1) "machine \! -- mechanize':- ?' with phllosophy-- philosophize ,H< with Lat in vapor "vapor\! -- vaporize Arndt , ':\filliam F. and Gingrich , F. Yl ilbur , A Greek-English Lexicon of the New 'I' estament (Chicago : Unive rsity of' Chi cago pre;; , 195� Atkins on, Bas il F. C., '17 he Gr eek Language (London : Faber and Faber, 1933 ) Burriss, Eli E. and Casson, Lionel, Lat in and Greek in Current Us e (New York: Prentice Hal l, 1940) Chadwick, John, The Decipherment of Linear B (NevI York: Random House, 1958) Dana , H. E. and lEantey, Julius R., A Manual Gra=ar of the Greek New Testament (NeVI York: lilacmillan , 1959 ) Encyclopedia Britallilica (Chicago : Encyclopedia Br italli�ica, 1956 ), Volume 10, "The Greek Language" by Frederick Henry IJarshall Hadas , Mos es , He llenistic Culture (Kornings ide He ights : Columb ia University Press , 1959 ) Liddell, Henry George and Scott , Hobert , A Gre ek-English Lexicon (New York: Alnorican Book Co ., 1897) Liddell, Henry George and Scott, Robert, An Intermediate Greek English Lexicon (New York: American Bo ok Co ., n.d. ) Mul ligan, George , Selections from the Greek Papyri (Cambr idge : Crun bridge Un ivers ity Press, 1910) Nybakken, Oscar E., Greek and La tin in Scientific Terminology (Ames : Iowa S tate College Pres s, 1959 ) Hobertson, A. T., A Grammar of the Greek NeVi Testament in the Light of torical Resea;Qh (Hew York7Iioran, 191,5)--- We stcott, Brooke Foss and Hort , Penton John Anthony, The New Testament .!:� the Original Gr eek (Kew York : ],la cmillan, 1956 ) Wh ibley, Leonard, A Companion to Greek Studies (Cambridge : Cambridge Univers ity .P ress , 1931)