Roots & Tubers

182 October 2010 - No. English edition

ROOTS & TUBERS

Winter tomato: substantial supply in the second part of the 2010-11 season

Environmental impact assessment Objective: maintaining confidence /passionfruit.cirad.fr :/ Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite http The taste of Morocco CCherry TTomatoes You will just love them ... and ask for more !

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Tel. +212 522 35 55 55 - Fax +212 522 35 33 98 Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite [email protected] www.delassus.com

Hard times for European middlemen in the fresh fruits and vegetables sector! At their annual meeting in Palma de Mallorca, they assessed the damage caused to their profession by globalisation and modernism. Somewhat disgusted and slightly masochistic, they examined their sector that has become an obstacle course over the years: a host of standards required by retail distributors, restrictive phytosanitary legislation, the promotion of alternative distribution channels, decreased value and consumption, criticism of practices by NGOs, etc. The tone of the press release issued by their professional organisation seems to indicate that the wounds are still fresh and not at all ready to heal in the face of the questioning of the utility of middlemen. It is true that the 'What are they for?' critics or, worse, 'They just eat into margins without creating value-added' are now classics. More serious, the 'Let's get back to the link between producer and consumer' attitude is a pretty children's picture that is beginning to take a hold. So goodbye margins and parasites. It's beautiful, it's ethical and—to top it all it is doubtless nice and green. What more © Guy Bréhinier could you want? Life is so simple and the river flows so peacefully. But to come back to earth, consumers—most of whom are urban—insist on produce that is flawless in terms of both sanitary condition and quality together with a broad choice at the lowest prices possible. For this, they are unaware that they deoend on trade and trade operators. Damn! This is certainly not as noble but is extremely effective. So their food will not come from their neighbours' garden. But fortunately the average consumer and citizen will not have to recognise this. Anyway, does he even know his neighbour?

Denis Loeillet

ontents Publisher C Cirad Direct from the markets TA B-26/PS4 34398 Montpellier cedex 5 p. 2 SEPTEMBER 2010 France Tel: 33 (0) 4 67 61 71 41 • Avocado: New Zealand avocados hit by gales — Variety of the month: 'Ettinger' Fax: 33 (0) 4 67 61 59 28 — The summer 2010 avocado season in Europe: a positive performance in spite Email: [email protected] of very large volumes. http://passionfruit.cirad.fr

Publishing Director • Banana: Banana: the United States way ahead — World banana market: the Hubert de Bon morning after the night before — The nineteenth hurricane of the season hits the St Vincent banana plantations. Chief Editors Denis Loeillet and Eric Imbert • Citrus (orange, easy peelers and grapefruit): Variety of the month: 'Naveline' —

Editor A website for the general public aimed at the prevention of the spread of Catherine Sanchez greening, citrus canker and citrus black spot in the United States — Return to an

Computer graphics average citrus harvest volume in Spain — The Japanese market has opened its Martine Duportal gates to grapefruit from Turkey and from parts of Australia in which fruit fly is

Iconography present — The end of cardboard trays? Régis Domergue • Exotics: 2010-11 litchi harvest forecast for Madagascar: late production — Website Kenya visits Rungis. Unité multimédia (Cirad) • Sea freight & sector news: A tough life for pineapples! — A new Managing Advertising Manager Eric Imbert Director for AGREXCO Limited — Catherine Guichard is the new President of the European Initiative for Agricultural Research for Development — 'La saga de la Subscriptions banane — Vers des filières durables et équitables'. Christian Clouet

Translator The latest on... Simon Barnard p. 13 • Winter tomato Printed by Substantial supply in the second part of the 2010-11 season! Pure Impression Rue de la Mourre Cécilia Céleyrette Espace Com. Fréjorgues Est p. 16 34130 Mauguio, France • Environmental impact assessment Objective: maintaining confidence Separate French and English editions Denis Loeillet

ISSN Close-up by Samir-David Ayata French: 1256-544X English: 1256-5458 p. 20 ROOTS AND TUBERS • Exotic roots and tubers: a large ethnic market CPPAP French: 0711 E 88281 • Produce sheet: yam English: 0711 R 88282 • Produce sheet: cassava

© Copyright Cirad • Produce sheet: sweet potato • Produce sheet: taro (eddoe, dasheen, tannia) Subscription rate EUR 210 • General characteristics 11 issues per year • Pests and diseases • Postharvest processing Wholesale market prices in Europe p. 51 SEPTEMBER 2010

cover photograph : Guy Bréhinier

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 1 Direct from the markets

Avocado September 2010 The 'Hass' market thinned gradually Avocado — New Zealand — Exports by destination after a period of substantial supplies in Tonnes 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 August. However, shipments from Total 6 153 5 505 6 092 14 389 4 186 13 257 7 721 12 707 Australia 4 665 4 958 5 542 12 989 3 904 9 066 6 976 10 764 South Africa and Peru and the comple- Japan 204 328 278 957 144 1 174 550 1 247 ment from Kenya were distinctly larger United States 1 192 117 131 61 0 2 603 2 257 than average. However, the Chilean Singapore 13 5 13 121 100 83 72 250 season had a very slow, late start and South Korea 39 56 95 116 15 165 68 101 the first substantial shipments arrived Others 40 41 33 145 23 166 53 88 only at the end of the month because of Source: New Zealand customs the small harvest. As a result, overall supply displayed a marked deficit, es- New Zealand avocados hit by The summer 2010 pecially in the second half of the month. gales. In mid-September, gales avocado season in

r e Thus the rising price trend that started i n blasted the Bay of Plenty region in Europe: a positive i h é r in mid-August continued for most of the B the northern part of North Island y performance in u G month. The slowing of demand result- where 60% of the avocado orchards © spite of very ing from high retail prices led to stabili- are found, causing crop loss of sation at the end of September. Supply about 10%. The volumes expected large volumes. was still small on the market for green were already moderate for reasons Supply of the EU varieties, which remained satisfactory. of negative alternate bearing and are market in sum- estimated at 3 million 5.5 kg boxes mer 2010 probably totalling 16 500 t in comparison with equalled the record of some 22 000 t in 2009-10 and an 110 000 t set in 2008. Profes- AvocatAvocado - France- France - -Prix Import import price average of 18 600 t over the last four sional statistics indicate that Peru- vian exporters had their best sea- 2.8 years. The decrease will affect domestic supply and exports, 85-90% son ever with shipments to the 2.4 of which are shipped to Australia. EU totalling 13.5 million 4 kg 2.0 boxes, in comparison with 11.5 to 1.6 Source: ReeferTrends 12.5 million boxes in the two pre- 1.2 vious seasons. The South African euro/kg 0.8 Variety of the month: season was also one of its largest, with shipments probably ex- 0.4 'Ettinger'. This cultivar with 'Fuerte' ceeding 12 million boxes after 0.0 as parent was selected at Kefar Malal in Israel, where it is mainly reaching between 9 and 12 mil- ONDJFMAMJJAS grown. The tree is very fertile and lion in the last four seasons. Only 09/10 08/09 07/08 vigorous with an upright habit. The Kenya shipped a little less at fruits are similar to those of 'Fuerte'. some 3 million boxes in comparison with 5 million in 2009. None- Average The bright green, thin and more or Comparison monthly less smooth skin is theless, the market behaved par- P Varieties with the last price subject to 'corky' ticularly well thanks to a good R 2 years euro/box patches and staggering of volumes and the I promotion operations set up by C Green 5.00-5.50 - 4% tends to adhere E to the pulp. The Peru (in the UK and France) and Hass 7.50-8.00 + 27% latter is soft and South Africa. The EUR 6.25 per melting and box average season price for all varieties calculated by our market Comparison fibre-free with V good or- news service is in line with the O Varieties previous last 2 years ganoleptic average for the last four years. L month average qualities. U Sources: professional, CIRAD M Green = + 3% Source: CIRAD E S Hass = - 8%

Comparison Cumulated total / Source previous average for Observations cumulated month last 2 years average for V last 2 years O Supply large, especially of 'Hass', in particular in comparison with the last L South Africa + 60% + 5% U = season, which ended early. M Distinct decrease in supply of 'Hass' at the beginning of the month but Peru + 16% + 21% E volumes remained larger than average. S Started much later and much more gradually than in 2009 as the crop is Chile - 75% - 75% limited (frost and negative alternate bearing). Peak in supply. Volumes of 'Hass' distinctly larger than those of previous Kenya + 73% + 13% = seasons but still moderate.

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite 2 October 2010 No. 182 Direct from the markets

Banana September 2010 The trend for market improvement felt Banana: the United States World banana market: the during the second half of August disap- way ahead. The recovery of ba- morning after the night before. peared at the beginning of September. nana consumption in the USA has The hurricane season is practically Although demand was fairly slow in been confirmed, increasing by over and none of the 20 or so that France with the continuation of the sea- 20% during the first eight crossed the Atlantic damaged the son for competing fruits and large retail months of 2010! Imports in- major sources supplying the world margins, sales were very good in some creased by 16% and re-exports market. However, operators were major consumer countries such as Ger- (mainly to Canada) decreased not spared. The problem has been many. Arrivals from dollar sources con- by 8%. Guatemala, the leading the situation on the banana market. tinued the increase started in August supplier, has returned to its Demand is sluggish in Europe, supply and were particularly large. With me- best level at nearly 780 000 is peaking and the market is chaotic. tonnes. The trend is the same in The indicators used—import prices on dium potential, Costa Rican exporters Costa Rica where, after a distinct the Polish and Russian markets—show favoured the North American market. In decrease in 2009 after major mete- that the market is very depressed. In contrast, strategies in Ecuador were orological problems, production ex- mid-October, EUR 7 per box was re- favourable for the EU market in spite of ceeded half a million tonnes ported in Poland and EUR 9 per box in moderate export potential as a result of again. Colombian production Russia (CIF St Petersburg). Ecua- unfavourable weather conditions. In is stable at 300 000 tonnes. It dorean producers are wondering addition, Colombian production hit a can already be announced whether to go on strike, without really historical peak at 20% more than aver- that 2010 will be a record year. believing it. A farm gate price of some age. In addition, shipments from the The contrast with EU-27 where USD 2 per box has been mentioned, other sources were also extremely sub- imports are stable (+ 1%) is far from the guaranteed minimum of stantial. Volumes from Martinique and sharp. Closer examination shows USD 5.40 per box. The Guatemalan Guadeloupe were much larger than that this sluggishness hides diver- central bank is complaining about the those of preceding years, marking a gent trends by type of source. Dollar decrease in returns from banana (- 20% return to production with normal sea- suppliers (MFN) are losing volume in the first half of the year). Costa Rica is sonal features after three unusual years somewhat (- 23 000 tonnes) whereas announcing the shutting down of planta- following the 2007 hurricane. The sea- shipments from ACP countries have tions reported to be no longer profitable. sonal increase in shipments from Africa increased by 10%! The Dominican French producers report that their earn- Republic is the leading supplier with ings are down by 25 to 30%. Growers in continued until the end of the month 205 000 tonnes released on the the Canaries are demanding aid for sea and was more marked than in other market in eight months. Africa has transport. African producers condemn years. Finally, shipments from Surinam also performed well with strong the increase in intermediate costs and were also very large, as were those growth in Côte d’Ivoire (+ 11%) the fall in prices. The ACORBAT from the Canaries in spite of the appli- and Ghana (+ 50%). In South meeting to be held from 8 to 12 No- cation of a quota from the beginning of America, Surinam (+ 29%) is still vember in Medellin (Colombia) will be the month. Prices started to weaken all developing strongly. There is a the right moment for the banana sec- over Europe in mid-month, especially dangerous downward slide in the tor to look itself in the eyes and per- as the Eastern European markets re- Lesser Antilles (St Lucia, St Vin- haps remember that another banana ceived direct shipments and no longer cent and Dominica). world was possible... served as a buffer. In spite of the large volumes received, the average Euro- Source: CIRAD Source: CIRAD pean price for the month even though large volumes had arrived. Banana - January to August 2010 (provisional) Variation tonnes 2007 2008 2009 2010 2010/2009 Imports by EU-27 3 116 687 3 243 934 2 996 983 3 033 915 + 1% EUROPE — ALDI IMPORT PRICE MFN 2 541 657 2 664 591 2 373 907 2 350 649 - 1% Comparison September ACP Caribbean and others 287 771 233 969 288 778 324 032 + 12% 2010 previous average for ACP Africa 287 260 345 374 334 297 359 234 + 7%

euro/box month last 2 years Imports by USA 2 406 382 2 343 289 2 036 424 2 446 136 + 20% Sources: USDA, EUROSTAT 13.05 + 8% + 7%

EuropeEurope - AldiPrix importimport price Aldi (GlobalGap) EUROPE — RETAIL PRICE 14.8 September 2010 Comparison 14.5 15.9 13.3 average 14.2 Country September 12.5 13.3 13.1 type euro/kg for last E 2009 12.1 3 years U R France normal 1.40 + 13% + 5% O special offer 1.15 + 7% + 3% euro/box

P euro/colis Germany normal 1.12 + 1% 0% E discount 0.96 + 3% + 3% UK (£/kg) packed 1.23 0% + 10% JFMAMJJASOND loose 0.77 - 15% - 5% Spain plátano 1.71 - 1% - 4% 2010 2009 2008 banano 1.41 - 2% - 4%

Photos © Régis Domergue Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 3 ON RECONNAîT LES FRUITS DE QUALITÉ À LEUR COURONNE

www.compagniefruitiere.com

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite Direct from the markets

Banana

Etats-UnisUSA - Green - Prix price vert (spot) (spot) The nineteenth hurricane of U 15.5 the season hits the St Vincent N 16.7 15.2 15.0 banana plantations. No signifi- I 14.8 15.3 17.2 T 15.915.3 cant damage was caused to ba- E nana plantations in the Caribbean D arc until one of the very last hurri- canes of the season. Hurricane S USD/box Tomas swept between St Vincent USD/colis T and St Lucia right at the end of A T October. Strong winds also E JFMAMJ JASOND touched Martinique. According to S our partner Reefer Trends, nearly 2010 2009 2008 1 000 hectares of banana plantations were destroyed in St Vincent, USA — IMPORT PRICE worth an estimated USD25 million. Comparison There were also deaths and seri- September ous damage to infrastructure, run- 2010 previous average for

USD/box month last 2 years

15.31 - 4% + 5% Banana - Exports to EU ning to the tune of USD300 million to 400 million according to the is- 300 land authorities. This is a serious RussiaRussie - Green - Prix pricevert blow, especially for the St Vincent banana sector. Banana exports 250 15.3 17.0 16.3 had already been decreasing, with 15.8 11.7 only 8 000 tonnes in 2009, that is R 15.3 10.8 to say half the figure attained in U 200 10.3 2006. The last substantial export

S USD/box

USD/colis 8.4 S volumes were observed at the be- I ginning of the common market or- 150 A ganisation of banana in 1993 when shipments totalled 58 000 tonnes. 000 tonnes It is feared that St Vincent might JFMAMJJASOND 100 follow in the footsteps of Jamaica 2010 2009 2008 which seems to have definitively 50 abandoned export bananas since RUSSIA — IMPORT PRICE 2008. Exports from St Vincent totalled 2 900 tonnes in the first eight September Comparison months of 2010 in comparison with 2010 previous average for 0 4 500 tonnes during the same pe- month last 2 years USD/box riod in 2009. At the time of going to 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 11.71 + 8% + 4% press, we do not know the extent of St Lucia Martinique the damage in St Lucia and Martin- St Vincent Dom. Rep. ique. Hurricane Tomas is now SpainEspagne - Green - Prix price vert - Platano*platano* heading for Haiti and the Domini- Sourc es : EUROSTA T, CIRA D can Republic.

Sources: ReeferTrends, CIRAD C A 15.2 15.415.4 N 12.1 14.5 11.1 11.6 12.7 A 9.5

R euro/box I euro/colis EUROPE — IMPORTED VOLUMES — September 2010 E Comparison S Origine cumulated total 2010 August 2010 September 2009 JFMAMJJASOND compared to 2009 2010 2009 2008 French West Indies + 11% + 7% Cameroon/Ghana - 2% + 6% CANARIES — IMPORT PRICE* Surinam + 62% + 29% Comparison Canaries + 11% + 11% September 2010 previous average for Dollar: + 13% + 2% euro/box month last 2 years Ecuador + 17% + 2% Colombia* + 17% + 1% 12.74 - 17% - 25% Costa Rica +1% + 2% * équivalent colis 18.5 kg * total all destinations Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 5 Direct from the markets

Orange September 2010 The market remained very satisfactory Variety of Return to an average citrus even though it became more fragile. the month: harvest volume in Spain. The supply of juice oranges increased, 'Naveline'. The increase in Spanish citrus pro- especially because of a peak in ship- This dessert orange duction will not be as marked as ments from South Africa. In spite of an is round to oval with expected. The physiological alter- early end to the Argentinian season, a strongly marked nate bearing phenomenon has total volumes received were distinctly navel. The skin is been favourable but weather condi- larger than in 2009 but still smaller than granular, thin and tions were poor during the crucial the two-year average. In addition, fairly well coloured. fruit setting period and the summer stocks were practically exhausted at The flesh is crisp, was particularly dry. The easy the beginning of the month. Thus, as fine and not very peeler harvest should therefore be demand was fairly sluggish but typical juicy. The early culti- about 5% smaller than average as of the season, prices just lost some vars ('Naveline') and the return to normal of the ground while remaining distinctly higher the late ones clementine of the season ('Nules') than average. Even though large vol- ('Navelate', 'Lane is counter-balanced by still low umes were received. Late') –bred from early clementine and late hybrid them means that crops. Although the volume of or- Navels are available anges is distinctly larger than last on northern hemi- season's, it will still probably fall sphere markets 5% short of the average figure. from October to Volumes of 'Valencia' should be May. satisfactory but the 'Navel' group will continue to display a deficit. OrangeOrange - France -- ImportPrix import price Source: CIRAD Lemons are the only group for which the crop will be some 5% 1.1 1.0 larger than average, in particular 0.9 thanks to the recovery of 'Verna' to 0.8 A website for the general a good level. The fruit size profile is 0.7 public aimed at the preven- 0.6 currently average to low for all cit- 0.5 tion of the spread of greening, rus groups.

euro/kg 0.4 0.3 citrus canker and citrus black 0.2 spot in the United States. Sources: professional, Agricultural administrations 0.1 in Valencia, Murcia and Andalusia 0.0 'Save our citrus'. This call for help ONDJFMAMJ JAS is also the name of a website launched by USDA to foster public 09/10 08/09 07/08 awareness of the measures to take to protection local citrus production from greening citrus canker and Comparison Average citrus black spot: identification of monthly with average P Type price for last 2 the symptoms of the three dis- R euro/box 15 kg years eases, the risks involved in the I Dessert transport of fruits and plant mate- C oranges na na E rial, etc. And there is even music Juice 11.50-12.00 + 21% because web surfers can click on a oranges number of titles that obviously refer to citrus. Things are serious but the Comparison V show must go on! O Type previous average for L month last 2 years saveourcitrus.org U Dessert M oranges + 31% E Juice S oranges - 8%

Comparison Cumulated Varieties total / by previous average for Observations cumulated V source month last 2 years average for O last 2 years L U Navel from + 31% Volumes decreasing and moderate but larger than average. + 9% M South Africa E Valencia from S South Africa - 9% Peak supply distinctly larger than in 2009 but smaller than average. - 7% Valencia from Argentina - 5% The season tailed off early in mid-month. Volumes smaller than average. - 1%

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite 6 October 2010 No. 182 Direct from the markets

Grapefruit September 2010 Already moderate, overall market sup- world's ten leading producer coun- ply decreased further. First, the de- tries and exports about 130 000 t crease in shipments from South Africa © EricImbert per year, mainly to Eastern Europe. continued and volumes remained 20% However, the fact that Japanese smaller than normal. Second, inter- consumers have a taste for very season shipments were moderate with sweet grapefruit leads to thinking limited volumes from Michoacán, late that shipments from Turkey will deliveries from Yucatán and Cuba and probably remain limited. hardly any produce at all from Hondu- Sources: professional, CIRAD ras. In this context, supply matched demand. Prices were firm and above average for fruits from all sources. The Japanese market has The end of cardboard trays? opened its gates to grapefruit A plastic frame, two plastic sleeves The Israeli season started early at the from Turkey and from parts of and that's the end of cardboard end of the month in a favourable mar- trays! This solution is proposed by ket context. Australia in which fruit fly is present. Japan, with imports of Eco Pack, an Israeli company and about 200 000 t making it the sec- used in South Africa by Graham ond largest market for grapefruit in Barry of the XLnT Citrus company. the world after the EU, has not This patented innovation is surfing been unaware of the efforts made on the 'green' wave as the material by these two countries to conform used are entirely recyclable or re- with the strict sanitary protection usable. It also saves energy in both manufacturing and transport as the GrapefruitPomelo - -France France - - Prix Import import price measures in force for imports to Japan. At the end of June, the list packaging is lighter and loading 1.1 of the Australian regions permitted can be optimised, with less space wasted in palettes. Finally, market- 1.0 to export to this market was length- ened to include zones not free of ing is involved as well since the 0.9 fruit fly, on condition that a sanitary sleeves can be printed according to 0.8 procedure including cold treatment customer requirements. And to top

euro/kg 0.7 is respected. Australia produces it all, the palette cap and corner pieces are also made of recyclable 0.6 about 10 000 t of grapefruit each year, mainly in Victoria and New materials. 0.5 South Wales. The ambitions of Source: XLnT citrus OND JFMAMJ JAS Judith Damiani, head of Citrus Aus- 09/10 08/09 07/08 tralia, are comparatively modest at 4 000 t per year in the medium term. At the end of September it Average Comparison was the turn of Turkish produc- P monthly with average ers to gain access to this po- Type R price for last 2 tentially very profitable market. euro/box I 17 kg box eq. years The latter must also follow a C very strict procedure including E Summer grapefruit 16.32 + 28% cold treatment and the in- spection and certification of orchards by the Turkish Comparison authorities and in situ con- V trol by Japanese inspec- O Type tors. Turkey is among the L previous average for U month last 2 years M E Summer S grapefruit - 2%

Cumulated Comparison total / Source Observations cumulated V previous average for average for O month last 2 years last 2 years L U M E S South Africa + 6% Season ending, volumes short. - 8%

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 7 Contenu publiéparl’Observatoire desMarchésduCIRAD−Toutereproduction interdite www.dole.fr —DoleFrance SASisaCompany ofCompagnie Fruitière group Cour d’Alsace-Bât.C6A -94619RungisCedex France - Tel.:+33 1 56 34 26-Fax :+33 01 56342699 Dole France SAS ISO 9001:2000 andfreshness makethedifference Dole, where quality Morethanhalf ofoursuppliershaveGlobalgapcertification. > Byairandbysea, > AselectionofthebestsuppliersinMadagascar > Leaderonthelitchimarketfornearly15years, > > and SouthAfrica, 4000 tonsimportedeachyear, COMPAGNIE FRUITIERE

Conception TPC Tél. : 01 41 31 58 90 Direct from the markets

Mango Litchi September 2010 September 2010 Sales conditions were fairly satisfactory Sales of Israeli litchis ended gradually in September. The greater part of sup- in September. Prices remained high in ply consisted of 'Tommy Atkins' from the Netherlands and even firmed a little Brazil and shipments from Spain, because supply was small. The prices where the 'Osteen' season had started. on the Belgian market were distinctly In the first half of the month, the last lower (EUR 1.50 to 2.25 per kg) be- batches of 'Kent' from Mexico were sold cause of mediocre fruit quality and at respectable prices. The Israeli sea- small demand. Sales ended rapidly on son also ended, but strongly decreas- this market. In France, prices oscillated ing volumes of fruits ('Keitt') from this between EUR 3.50 and 4.00 per kg in source were sold until the end of the the first half of the month and then month. The resumption of shipments weakened to EUR 3.25 to 3.50 per kg. from Senegal completed market supply. A few batches of litchi from Spain were The changes in supply took place in available from the end of August until 07, the latest of the decade and when such a way that the volumes received the end of September, in particular on the first ship docked on 19 December. remained practically steady. Only the French market where they fetched The official start of the season was on 'Tommy Atkins' suffered from a weak- between EUR 8.50 and 10.00 per kg on 4 December to take into account both ening in prices because of their domi- wholesale markets. A few batches from the ripeness of the fruits and the presi- nation of the market and also a degree the same source were sold from time to dential elections. According to the infor- of disaffection of buyers for this pro- time at high prices on other European mation available today, the sea freight duce. Counterbalancing this, demand markets. season could start towards 28-29 for the other varieties ('Keitt', 'Osteen', November with the first fruits arriving in 'Kent') was better and prices were Europe around 15-16 December, given firmer. In this context, the prices of the loading and voyage times. fruits from the sources whose seasons LITCHI — IMPORT PRICE ON THE were ending lost some ground because DUTCH MARKET — euro/kg Weeks Examination of previous seasons has 35 36 37 38 of the uneven quality of the produce 2010 led operators in Madagascar to limit released on the market. At the end of By sea once again the volumes shipped to the the month, the larked increase in the Israel 4.00 5.00 5.00-5.50 5.25 European market to 17 000 to 18 000 volumes shipped from Brazil was soon tonnes to ensure the best possible followed by a serious fall in their selling sales. The season should start with the price. These volumes weighed on the loading of two conventional ships with market and caused the prices of the the same capacity before switching to other varieties to weaken slightly. 2010-11 litchi harvest forecast for containers at the beginning of 2011. The Madagascar: late production. There overall reduction in tonnage and the late The quantities shipped from Spain in- will be hardly any litchis on the European harvest should result in market release creased considerably in the second half markets in October. The break in supply at prices similar to last year's. The first of September, causing an overall de- precedes the start of the Indian Ocean ship will probably dock at a Mediterra- crease in prices. In addition to 'Osteen', export season which promises to be com- nean port to facilitate the rapid delivery Spain also shipped a few batches of plicated again because of late crop in of the fruits before Christmas. The sec- 'Tommy Atkins' and 'Irwin' that fetched most production zones. Shortage of rain- ond could be sent to the Netherlands. higher prices. fall in Madagascar is slowing fruit swelling. This information is subject to confirma- Thus, for the second year running, late tion when the season approaches as we The air mango market was lightly sup- production will result in release on the all know about the variability that can plied throughout the month. The price market close to Christmas for fruits affect the logistics of this sector. To be of 'Kent' from Brazil soon broadened shipped by sea. The fruit growth observed continued… with the disparity in colour and ripeness makes the season similar to that of 2006- of the fruits received. Complementary Source: Pierre Gerbaud batches of 'Kent' from Egypt sold at around EUR 3.80-4.00 per kg. MANGO — IMPORT PRICE ON THE FRENCH MARKET — Euro Average Average Weeks 2010 35 36 37 38 39 Sept. 2010 Sept. 2009 MANGO — ARRIVAL ESTIMATES Tonnes By air (kg) Brazil Haden/Palmer 3.50-3.80 3.50-3.80 3.50-4.50 - 4.00-4.25 3.60-4.10 3.00-3.10 Brazil Kent - 4.00 3.50-4.00 3.50-4.50 4.00-4.50 3.65-4.15 3.50-3.80 Weeks 35 36 37 38 39 2010 Israel Kent 3.50-4.20 - - - - 3.50-4.20 3.25-3.70 E Israel Shelly/Kasturi 3.50-4.00 3.50-3.80 - - - 3.50-4.90 2.30-2.75 U By air By sea (box) R Brazil Tommy Atkins 4.00-4.50 4.00-5.00 3.50-5.00 3.20-4.00 3.20-3.50 3.60-4.40 4.75-5.75 O Brazil 10-15 20-30 30-50 30-40 30-40 P Brazil Keitt - - - 4.50-5.00 4.50-5.00 4.50-5.00 - E Senegal - 5 - - - Brazil Kent - 6.00-6.50 5.50-6.00 5.50-6.00 5.50-6.00 5.60-6.10 - Mexico Kent 5.00-6.50 - - - - 5.00-6.50 - Israel 15-20 15-20 Senegal Kent - 5.50-6.50 5.00-6.00 4.00-5.00 4.00-5.00 4.60-5.60 4.60-5.25 By sea Israel Keitt 6.00-7.00 5.50-6.50 4.50-6.00 4.00-6.00 3.00-5.00 4.60-6.10 4.50-5.50 By road (box) Brazil 1 120 1 690 1 520 2 330 2 680 Spain Osteen 8.00-11.00 8.00-9.00 7.00-9.00 7.00-8.00 6.50-8.00 7.30-9.00 6.50-8.00

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Pineapple September 2010 September was marked by weak de- Kenya visits Rungis. On the countries mentioned above. Kenya mand for pineapple. Demand for occasion of the Franco-Kenyan does not export bananas like Côte 'Sweet' remained very weak even trade mission from 21 to 23 Sep- d’Ivoire and Cameroun but is con- though schools had reopened. Prices tember 2010, a delegation of Ken- centrating on developing its avo- still considered to be high and seasonal yan operators and personalities cado shipments (15 000 tonnes in fruits available at low prices contributed visited Rungis international market. 2009) that form the greater part of to the lack of enthusiasm for pineapple. Led by the Minister of Agriculture its fruit exports. But the country The absence of promotion operations and the Kenyan Ambassador in clearly stands out in its vegetable did not favour sales either. In addition, Paris, it visited the fruit and vegeta- shipments. Nearly 60% of its ex- the supply of 'Sweet' from Latin Amer- bles and flowers and plants sec- ports to Europe consist of French ica was very imbalanced, with a larger tors. This was followed by a meet- beans (35 000 tonnes in 2009), proportion of small fruits for which there ing with the main completed by smaller was no demand. The strong pressure French importers of quantities of peas of these small fruits on sales peaked in Kenyan produce (1 000 tonnes of Week 38, when batches were sold on a and representa- mangetout and price after sale (PAS) basis. Although tives of the French sugar snap) and overall supply of 'Sweet' was limited Ministry of Agricul- Asian vegeta- throughout the month, prices continued ture and of Rungis bles. Kenyan to fall because of numerous poor sales market. This was beans have of small fruits. the occasion for long been a the underlining of reference Supply of 'Smooth Cayenne' was small the importance on Euro- throughout the month. This made it awarded by the Ken- pean mar- easier to sell fruits thanks to a few yan government to ex- kets, with a small promotion operations; prices re- ports of fresh produce to range of bulk mained fairly stable. the French market. The and prepacked pro- development of trade is duce, topped and tailed or The situation was fairly good on the air crucial for consolidating the not. Of the 35 000 tonnes pineapple market. Sales of 'Smooth economic of this East African shipped annually to the EU, 61.5% Cayenne' were fluid at stable prices country with a population of 38.6 go to the British market, 17.5% to even though a few problems of quality million. During the discussions, the Netherlands, 12.5% to France, affected sources such as Cameroon stress was laid on the determina- 5.5% to Belgium and 2.5% to (fruits too green). In contrast, sales of tion of the Kenyan authorities to Germany. 'Sugarloaf' pineapples from Benin got favour business partnerships to off the ground again with difficulty as strengthen existing links. Kenya possesses real advantages customers still remembered the numer- in production and in exports to for- ous problems that affected the source Although Kenya is only in fourth eign markets. Its soil and climate from June onwards, including quality position among sub-Saharan sup- zones are very diverse and both problems and plethoric supply. As a pliers of fruit and vegetables to the tropical and temperate produce can result, prices fluctuated between European market, far behind South be grown. The logistic infrastruc- EUR 1.80 and 2.00 per kg. Africa, Côte d’Ivoire and Camer- ture, with international airports and oon, it is an important partner in the port of Mombasa in the heart of Sales on the 'Victoria' pineapple market certain market segments. Euro- East Africa, provides excellent links were difficult throughout the month pean imports from Kenya differ in with consumer markets. even though supply was fairly small nature to those of the other African overall. Operators often found it difficult Source: Pierre Gerbaud to shift the small quantity of fruits released on the market as demand was very weak. PINEAPPLE — IMPORT PRICE IN FRANCE — MAIN ORIGINS

Weeks 2010 35 36 37 38 39

By air (euro/kg) Smooth Cayenne Benin 1.80-1.90 1.80-1.90 1.80-1.90 1.80-1.90 1.80-1.90 Cameroon 1.70-1.90 1.70-1.90 1.70-1.90 1.70-1.90 1.80-1.90 PINEAPPLE — IMPORT PRICE Ghana 1.75-1.85 1.75-1.85 1.75-1.85 1.75-1.85 1.75-1.90 Côte d’Ivoire 1.80-1.90 1.75-1.85 1.80-1.85 1.75-1.85 - Weeks Min Max E 35 to 39 Victoria Réunion 3.00-3.80 3.30-3.70 3.30-3.50 3.30-3.50 3.30-3.50 U Mauritius 3.00-3.50 3.00-3.30 3.00-3.30 3.00-3.30 3.00-3.30 R By air (euro/kg) O By sea (euro/box) P Smooth Cayenne 1.70 1.90 Smooth Cayenne Côte d’Ivoire 6.00-9.00 6.00-9.00 6.00-8.00 6.00-8.00 6.00-8.00 Victoria 3.00 3.80 E Sweet Côte d’Ivoire 5.00-10.00 5.00-10.00 4.00-8.00 4.00-8.00 5.00-8.50 By sea (euro/box) Cameroon 5.00-10.00 5.00-10.00 4.00-8.00 4.00-8.00 5.00-8.50 Smooth Cayenne 6.00 9.00 Ghana 5.00-10.00 5.00-10.00 4.00-8.00 4.00-8.00 5.00-8.50 Sweet 4.00 10.00 Costa Rica 7.50-10.00 7.00-8.50 6.00-8.00 6.00-8.00 6.00-7.50

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Sea freight September 2010 After a busy August, which saw a bal- A tough life for pineapples! A new Managing Director anced market and TCE yields well The fresh pineapple for AGREXCO Limited. above average the charter market in market has been de- David Bondi took over from Shlomo September was a disappointment. Nei- pressed for months. Tirosh as CEO of AGREXCO in ther activity levels nor upwards momen- Everything that has Israel at the beginning of Septem- tum could be established or maintained been forecast for ber. At 63, Mr Bondi has previously respectively despite the resumption of years has happened: worked in similar positions with the US to Russia poultry trade. the supply of 'Sweet' DHL Express Israel and Dun & has increased in very Bradstreet. The combination of a relatively high many countries while Ecuadorian exit price and weak or Bréhinier © Guy the world market has Source: AGREXCO weakening transatlantic banana mar- stagnated at best. kets provided traders with no incentive And the last attack Catherine Guichard is the

to speculate. The majority of non- against the large new President of the Euro- scheduled fruit shipped was sold in- industrial opera- pean Initiative for Agricultural stead to the traders by the multi- tors in the sec- Research for Development. nationals FOB ex Costa Rica and Co- tor will not This appointment gives the Dele- lombia. And while this may have re- make the fruit gate General of COLEACP the task lieved the production pressure in Cen- any more at- of making businesses heard in tral and South America it did nothing for tractive in the agricultural research for develop- the Med markets, which continue to eyes of consumers. The associa- ment and stimulating European struggle under the weight of a seem- tion Consumers International, research for development. ingly endless banana burden. grouping nearly 80 organisations throughout Europe, made a new Source: CIRAD The month was notable for a brief po- contribution at the beginning of lice insurrection in Ecuador, which October. A film made in Costa 'La saga de la banane — spooked the nation causing a short- Rica, reported by The Guardian, Vers des filières durables et criticised workers' living conditions term breakdown in law and order and équitables', a and cultural practices with little suspension of fruit cutting and packing. book by Alistair respect for the environment. It con- September also saw a transition from Smith, the foun- trasts this traditional system with last winter's El Niño conditions to a cool der of Banana that of fair trade that achieves hap- and strengthening La Niña in the Pa- Link, an associa- piness and prosperity for those cific. During a La Niña episode trade tion that has pro- involved. One can regret that the winds are stronger than normal, and moted fair trade subject is treated in black-and- the cold water that normally exists and sustainability white terms. Good and bad are along the coast of South America ex- in the banana clearly indicated. The message is tends to the central equatorial Pacific. sector. Editions clear and effective. The risk is that Charles Léopold the consumer will understand it La Niña episodes are associated with Mayer, 284 less moisture in the air over cooler only too well and the entire sector pages, EUR 21. ocean waters, resulting in less rain will finally pay the consequences. along the coasts of North and South America and the equator, and more Source: CIRAD rain in the far Western Pacific. If confirmed the phenomenon may also bring an active end to this year’s hurricane season and, more worryingly for reefer operators, fewer Ecuadorian bananas in the early part of next year.

Small reefers GrandsLarge reereefers fers Petits reefers

MONTHLY SPOT AVERAGE 175 150 2010 2010 2009 150 2009 125 2008 2008 R US$cents/cubic foot Large Small 125 100 x 30 days reefers reefers 100 E 75 E 75 50 F September 2010 47 58 50 E 25 R 25 September 2009 29 52 0 0 US Cents / Cubft x 30 days CentsUS / Cubft x30 jours US Cents / Cubft x 30 days US CentsUS / Cubft x 30 jours 1 5 9 13172125293337414549 1 5 9 13172125293337414549 September 2008 33 46 SemainesWeeks / Source:/ Source Reefer : Reefer Trends Trends SemainesWeeks / Source: / Source Reefer : Reefer Trends Trends

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Winter tomato

Substantial supply in the second part of the 2010-11 season!

Interest in the 25% (8 400 t). Some sources was just as rapid, with arri- European market still little represented on the vals still at 65 t per week at EU market also made notable Saint-Charles wholesale mar- still increasing progress. Jordan was one of ket (Perpignan) in Week 40 these, with tomato exports to and then reaching 2 600 t in The growth trend in extra-EU Europe up by 127% to 6 900 Week 42 and 6 400 t in Week imports weakened a little tonnes. 45. However, in contrast with during the last season, the previous year, the growth not because of lesser of supply was slowed by demand but because of strong Spanish presence and bad weather and pest a rapid fall in prices leading problems (Tuta abso- Bugs in the 2009-10 to the setting up of the MTE The 2009-10 luta), affecting Moroc- season! (maximum tariff equivalent) can producers in par- on 21 October 2009. This season was hard ticular. Provisional The 2009-10 season was was maintained until nearly European customs fig- particularly chaotic and dot- once again for the end of November. Plant- ures for October to May ted with numerous difficulties ing was carried out in Spain winter tomato (+ 1% on 2008-09) indi- in both Spain and Morocco. two weeks early so that the cate that the total was Thus, in September, Morocco growers, hit by plants could root well before thus 454 000 t from all featured strong competition the winter cold that had recurrent weather sources. between export markets, caused substantial losses in problems that which are not very dynamic At 266 000 tonnes, im- at this time of year (crisis in the previous year. The par- aggravated ports from Morocco summer fruits) and the local ticularly warm weather in market where the combina- autumn 2009 resulted in a continued pest were 18% down, returning to the level ob- tion of strong demand during marked increase in produc- pressure. But served three years ago. Ramadan and a shortage tion, especially in the Almeria Likewise, bad weather resulting from damage area in No- producers are not limited Spanish ship- caused to open field summer giving up and are ments (682 000 t, provi- production by Tuta abso- sional European cus- luta sent prices up. Nev- testing new toms figures for Octo- ertheless, although it strategies again ber to May). Although happened 10 to 15 the total was 12% up on days later than in this year, while 2008-09 exports at the 2008-09, the growth negotiations for beginning of the season of Moroccan exports (November and Decem- the liberalisation ber), it was 20% smaller of trade are in than in 2007-08. How- Tomato - Extra EU-27 imports ever, the decreased progress around pressure from these 500 the Mediterranean. sources allowed other Mediterranean produc- 400 ers to gain new market shares and continue or 300 accelerate their development. Community 200 imports from Turkey thus 000 tonnes gained 42% in comparison 100 with 2008-09 (106 600 t), shipments from Israel were 0 up by 20% (26 048 t), those 2000-01 2002-03 2004-05 2006-07 2008-09 from Tunisia by 80% (9 950 t) Source: European customs - October to May and those from Senegal by

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Tomato - Morocco - Evolution of the standard import value (SIV) on the European market

1.50 1.40 Entr y pr ic e 1.30 1.20 1.10 1.00 92% entry price 0.90 0.80 euro/kg 0.70 SIV 2009-10 0.60 0.50 0.40 SIV 2008-09 0.30 0.20 8 9 13 18 23 28 14 19 24 29 16 21 26 31 10 15 20 25 30 10 15 20 25 30 4 jan 3 feb 5 mar 5 nov 5 dec 11 oct

vember. The market only cleared gradually sorting in February, and caused much dam- in December when the cold weather started age, especially in the Canary Islands. Prices and slowed Moroccan and Spanish produc- therefore increased steadily, with particu- tion and demand was stimulated by the ap- larly marked tension at the end of March proach of the Christmas period. The market during the Easter period. was then hit by the very heavy rainfall in Week 52 that caused large-scale flooding in both Spain and Morocco. This resulted in the serious spread of pests (Botrytis, Tuta Fresh shift in absoluta, mildew) that worsened with the Spanish production rise in temperatures in mid-January and in 2010-11 growers had to grub up very large numbers of plants. Volumes thus remained small until Spanish growers have had to made fresh the end of the season, especially as more adjustments for the new season and re- rain in Week 7 further aggravated pest pres- structuring is continuing with the creation of sure, with up to 75% of the fruits rejected at 'super cooperatives' and partnerships with northern European operators. The planting calendar was shifted by some two or three weeks throughout the Almeria region to © EricImbert prevent over-production at the beginning of the season and to limit pest pressure. Some pests, such as Tuta absoluta that has caused serious damage in the last two years, seem to be under control. However, it seems that growers must now handle an increase in outbreaks of TYLCV (Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl Virus). These are the result of hot weather at the end of the summer and are reported to have caused large losses on several farms (200 ha in the Níjar area) where 20 to 50% of production has been affected as the varieties do not pos- sess complete resistance. Thus only 70 to 80% of planting had been completed at the end of September. Planted areas should be stable overall in the Almeria region although dips in production have still been observed in some zones (- 5% around Níjar), especially in the small segment where there has been a move to courgettes and cucumbers. Planted areas are also stable overall in the Canary Islands, sometimes with a slight decrease but the modernisation of facilities (increased yields) and the pest manage- ment procedures used should result in a larger crop than last year's, which was down by 16% in comparison with 2008-09 as a

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There should not be any change in the zero-rated quota this season, even though

© EricImbert negotiations of the Euro-Mediterranean Agreement with Morocco—at a standstill in recent months—were officially re-launched on 16 September with the adoption of a draft of the new proposal by the European Commissioners. The process should be a long one because the Council has two months in which to accept the proposal, which is then examined by the European Parliament before returning to the Council and, furthermore, unlike previous agreements, this one involves the reciprocal liberalisation of trade. The Agreement is not forecast to come into force before mid- 2011 at the earliest.

Agreements signed for other supply sources but potential is small

However, negotiations with several countries in the Mediterranean area gained momentum at the end of 2009. They first resulted in an agreement with Egypt, with the total abolition of ad valorem import dues for Egyptian tomatoes between 1 November and 30 June starting in June result of the damage caused in the islands 2010, with no quota and with a minimum by an invasion of Tuta absoluta. Likewise, price on entry. Likewise, an agreement growers in the Murcia region hope for an was finalised with Israel within the frame- increase in production after the losses work of these bilateral negotiations, allow- suffered last year that resulted in a 13% ing the export of 28 000 t of cherry toma- decrease in exports. toes and 5 000 t of other tomatoes with zero customs rating from 1 January 2010. The first agreement submitted by Morocco within the framework of bilateral negotia- Good potential in Morocco, tions at the end of 2009 planned a gradual increase in the Moroccan zero-rated quota but no new agreement from 233 000 t today to 285 000 t in 2014, including additional quotas. These prefer- In contrast, no real increase is expected in ences will be awarded on the same calen- Morocco. Planted areas are reported to be dar basis as today's, that is to say from stable overall at 5 000 ha, of which 4 600 October to May and with the same entry ha is greenhouse production, and produc- price as that currently in force. tion is estimated at 800 000 t, of which 17% is cherry tomatoes. The beginning of the season was somewhat light after the Nevertheless, pest pressure has increased very hot weather at the end of August in the Near East in recent weeks and this, when temperatures of over 45°C affected together with the very hot weather at the the first clusters. Nevertheless, the number end of this summer, has caused a serious of market sales operators is still increasing decrease in production. The first significant in Europe, causing strong demand for Mo- damage attributed to Tuta absoluta was roccan produce. Thus substantial volumes identified in January in greenhouse crops are expected from the second half of Octo- in Turkey, affecting at least 25% of produc- ber onwards and above all in November, tion. The pest has also been detected very especially as growers have concentrated recently in Egypt, Jordan and Iraq, where strongly on control of tomato leaf miner it is reported to have caused seri- (Tuta absoluta), which does not seem to ous damage have caused much damage to open field production. However, planting seems to Cécilia Céleyrette, Infofruit [email protected] have been better staggered this year.

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Environmental impact assessment

Objective: maintaining confidence

t is not necessary to make Maîtrise de l'Energie), the lines. I shall refer to the meta- I a reminder of how environ- French environmental and phor of the glass that is half mental questions increasingly energy agency, chose the empty and the one that is half fashion what is said and also method for a French project full to give my impressions. what is done. As we have for the environmental label- Although the global approach often reported and criticised ling of products for the gen- favoured by LCA is interest- here, some sectors have eral public, one of the numer- ing and even essential, the been strongly tar- ous projects set up by the people who use the method geted. Thus the fruit 'Grenelle de l’environnement' and the basic data used to Every two years, the and vegetable sec- meetings. We shall return to calculate impact are far from tors in general and this subject in future issues perfect. international imports in particular as the question is highly stra- conference on Life are often pilloried. tegic for all the stakeholders Cycle Assessment There are many rea- in our fruit and vegetable sons for this. Fruit sectors and promises to be in the Agri-food and vegetables are a particularly complex. The half empty glass Sector is the basic fresh compo- occasion for nent of our diet, one Doubtless overwhelmed by fruit in two eaten in the success of these subjects reviewing Europe is imported, Most and the enthusiasm shown assessment produce is often uncertainties for them, the organisers did methods and actual transported for long not manage to choose be- distances, production are related to tween scientific congress and studies in the is large in most Euro- emission trade fair. The tribune was sector. It was seen pean member states sometimes given to green- that researchers and is well organised factors that washing professionals. Ex- as regards lobbying, plaining that it was too com- working in a fringe of consumers are old, plicated and expensive to run environmental mixes local and sus- unsuitable, an LCA for every product for tainable, pressure subsequent certification and assessment are on a groups have a certain extrapolated, then wait for publication in pioneer front and audience, etc. In estimated, scientific journals, a Swiss that the industry is short, the sector is transnational agri-food corpo- attacked for reasons etc. ration said that it prefers to tending to make ranging from legiti- certify a model that would more rapid progress mate environmental then be used for all their than concepts or questioning to the ranges. The product would defence of particular Meanwhile, on the subject of thus be certified by proxy one methods. The issues economic interests. LCA and the data that it can by one. It does not matter if in terms of market produce, the major event for the data used to parameter- access are All interest groups the champions of LCA world- ise the model are erroneous now base their ap- wide was held in Bari (Italy) or even non-existent. That's enormous and the proaches on environ- from 22 to 24 September. just a detail! pressure on mental impact as- This was the occasion for a research is strong. sessments. Among few days spent exploring this But the most demoralising the methods that can universe that combines re- feature is not caused by the provide information, search and industry in mar- scheming by those few peo- life cycle assessment riages that are often strange ple who twist the concept to (LCA) seems essential. It is and sometimes unnatural. It make it compatible with their standardised by ISO 14040 is obviously risky and com- marketing policy. This has and 14044 (see box). For plex to summarise more than always existed. The most example, ADEME (Agence a hundred presentations and annoying and possibly the de l'Environnement et de la as many posters in just a few most serious feature is the

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lack of confidence finally inspired by present LCAs. If it is considered, as a preliminary approach and with a great dash of optimism, that the method is common to all and applied in a professional manner, doubt can be A definition of Life cast on the data and models used to calculate environmental impacts. Indeed, the Cycle Assessment results proposed display uncertainties bor- dering on the ridiculous. The very serious LCA is an environmental assess- paper by L. Milà-i-Canals for Unilever is an ment method for the quantification edifying example here. The study concerned of the impact of a product (whether the impact in terms of greenhouses gases in this is a good, a service or even a CO2 equivalent of the manufacture and process) for the whole of its life cy- consumption of dehydrated soups in various cle from the extraction of the raw parts of the world. The results displayed variability figures that sometimes doubled. materials that it contains to its dis- There are many such examples. The posal at the end of its life, via method is not in question. The researcher phases of distribution and use. A who conducted the study is an 'LCA-er' re- standardised, recognised tool, LCA spected by his peers. He is employed by the is the most advanced tool in terms company, had access to the process and of global, multicriterion assessment. could have drawn up an accurate inventory. It results from the interpretation of This is the heart of the problem. Most uncer- the matter and energy flows related tainties are related to emission factors that to each stage of the life cycle of are old, unsuitable, extrapolated, estimated, products and is expressed as po- etc. tential impacts on the environment. We gain better understanding of the current Source: ADEME importance of databases. All countries and all sectors would like to own and feed databases. The idea is that it is better to do things yourself and that it is more profitable for an operator or a sector to bring his or its own expertise rather than see that of a competitor. France, for example, via ADEME, has federated agricultural technical institutes and research centres (CIRAD, INRA) in the 'Agribalyse' project to the design of a public database.

Although the intensity of environmental impacts will be the next criterion of choice for referencing in supermarkets or for purchase by consumers, the production of studies and reference material is becoming an important economic issue for economic stakeholders. The temptation to perform greenwashing or to denigrate a competitor's environmental performance is never far off. Especially when you can demonstrate that white is black or that black is white. I have mentioned uncertainty in emission factors. I can also point at the extreme diversity of the systems seem for the same product. Pres- entations of LCA concerning pineapple— one in Costa Rica and the other in Ghana— are interesting in this respect, and only in this respect in fact. The variability of the results presented according to farming system types is phenomenal. In Ghana, acidification and eutrophisation vary from 1 to 8 between plantations A and B and erosion varies from 1 to 2. In Costa Rica, the carbon footprint varies from 90 g to 580 g equivalent CO2 per kilogram of pineapple delivered to the United States.

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The excellent study on apples and kiwifruits performed by New Zealand researchers is a kind of synthesis of the present limits of What is an studies. It shows that the results are very different if the calculation method is emission factor? changed (PAS 2050 against LCA) or if the year factor is not taken into account (via the evolution of yields or by taking climatic pa- An emission factor is a multiplying factor rameters into account). Uncertainty is also for calculating—or at least estimating with enormous in pollutant emissions caused by a certain margin of error—the quantity of sea transport, demonstrating once again the pollutant emitted as a result of a human strong need for accurate reference material activity. For example, travelling by car for (database, range of farming systems, etc.). one kilometre requires on average—with a margin of uncertainty related to the weight One can also regret the voluntary or invol- of the vehicle, the power of the engine, its untary confusing of environmental impacts age, etc.—the combustion of a quantity of and sustainability, with some speakers fuel containing 50 grams of carbon (from switching from one to the other without tak- 40 grams outside a town to 70 grams in a ing economic and social aspects into ac- city centre, calculating the average emis- count. One of the major issues of the com- sions of a petrol engine and a diesel ening years is the design of methodologies for gine). The emission factor resulting from assessment of the impacts on total or global the combustion of fuel alone is therefore sustainability of a certain investment, tech- 50 grams carbon equivalent (CE). To this nique, organisation, etc. Few teams are must be added the emission involved in active here as yet. In France, the initiative of various research institutes in Montpellier the manufacture of the vehicle related to grouped in Elsa (Environmental Lifecycle the kilometre (environ 11 grams CE) and and Sustainability Assessment) can be finally the emissions 'upstream' of the fuel, mentioned (FruiTrop n°169). This is aimed that is to say extraction, refining and at developing methods covering the various transport (approximately 8 grams CE). So dimensions of sustainability. this gives a total emission factor for a 1- kilometre car journey of some 70 grams CE. Emission factors are available for the other impact categories studied: eutrophi- The half full glass sation in NO3 equivalent, potential acidification in SO2 equivalent, etc. These criticisms result to a considerable degree from the youth of this science, which Source: calculateurcarbone.org has been developing for hardly twenty years. Immense progress has been made and the field of study displays great vitality and promise. Of course, scientists have understood the limits of the exercise and are working on improving the reliability of results and incorporating more of the variability of the systems studied. For example, the plu- riannual approach will be better taken into account in fruit and vegetables. In addition, the Bari conference revealed the emergence of very advanced reflection on impacts previously little assessed for lack of appropriate methodology—such as impacts on water. It can be considered that a complete methodology will soon be proposed. Discussion on biodiversity and its assessment were also very fruitful in a field that previously seemed to be unattainable. We saw growing initiatives in databases, in the taking into account of tropical produce and the emergence of a new LCA Code of Good Conduct. The conference was finally an occasion to show the importance of the combination of agrifood industries and researchers in the conducting of impact assessments and also in the development of

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methods. It is just necessary for everyone to keep to his role. We can also praise the small revolution that has made 'eco-socio' Social LCA aspects fully-fledged themes for discussion. A complete session was devoted to the sub- as encouragement ject. The next conference will be held in Rennes, France, in 2012. Progress will cer- for reflection on the tainly have been made in all fields by then.

motivations of LCA Whether it is a tool for communication or one for defending a sector, it seems that we LCA was initially aimed at drawing atten- have lost sight of the prime objective of tion to unintentional negative impacts on LCA, that is to say the comparison of two the environment (Udo de Haes et al., technologies, of two similar systems, in order to identify for each type of impact 2002). It was not intended for the assess- (acidification, eutrophisation, erosion, biodi- ment of sustainability in the most com- versity, etc.) hot spots that can be consid- monly used sense, that is to say with envi- ered the most serious leaks into the environmental, social and economic dimen- ronment, with the aim being to make sions. choices in the design of products made, delivered and consumed. This is the princi- However, the ambitious scope of LCA ple of reverse engineering and ecodesign. (multicriterion, holistic, global analysis, The LCA tables of the law are often trodden etc.) has made it a common tool used by underfoot by users who see the method as institutional, scientific and professional a way of greening their image or ungreening communities. Given the pressures and that of their competitors. The sometimes too issues related to sustainable develop- simplistic comparison of 'produce and con- ment, user expectations have evolved sume locally' and 'produce elsewhere and with regard to this tool that seems particu- consumer here' is a result of this. One has larly suitable for providing a response. the impression that a tool initially reserved for researchers or informed professionals Thus the formal integration of social and has been stolen, without the instructions for economic aspects and the hinging of the use, by industry and consultants to make various assessments seem a strong issue what is often a large environmental washing for methodological development in the machine. The body of studies is increasing coming years. This will not be possible at a rate that has nothing in common with the production of methods, measurements without reflection on the conceptual, theo- of emissions, etc. Let us take care that the retical and methodological framework of foundations will still hold up the Tower of LCA. Babel that we are building. There is no need to remind you what happened to the first As there is such enthusiasm, it is there- one, when its occupants no longer spoke fore the responsibility of the LCA scientific the same language community to consider the objectives of the tool so that it can give a pertinent, co- Denis Loeillet, CIRAD herent response to the logical expecta- [email protected] tions generated.

Source: CIRAD-Unité de Recherche Systèmes Bananes et Ananas

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 19 A n opportunity to reveal a little-known and silent sector strongly linked to ethnic markets. Exotic roots and tubers nevertheless total significant volumes on the European market, with annual imports estimated at 80 000 to 100 000 tonnes. While cassava, yam and taro are sought after mainly by populations from overseas who have moved to Europe, sweet potato is closer to our eating habits and could form a pathway to other roots and tubers whose bulky appearance may perhaps discourage consumption.

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite 20 October 2010 No. 182 A report by Contents Samir-David Ayata p. 22 Exotic roots and tubers A large ethnic market

p. 28 Produce sheet: yam

p. 32 Produce sheet: cassava

p. 35 Produce sheet: sweet potato

p. 38 Produce sheet: taro (eddoe, dasheen, tannia)

p. 45 General characteristics

p. 47 Pests and diseases

p. 50 Postharvest processing

Close-up photos © Guy Bréhinier

Exotic roots and tubers

A large ethnic market

xotic roots and tubers (cassava, E sweet potato, yam and taro) are some of the oldest cultivated plants. They have always been the staple foods of many populations and today still play a primordial role in the poorest countries, thus making a large contribution to food security.

According to the FAO, annual production of exotic roots and tubers totalled more than 400 million tonnes in 2008. A very small proportion of this is supplied to the European market but the volumes and turnover are far from deri- sory.

This section Close-up is limited to yam (Dioscorea spp.), cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batata) and taro in the broad sense (Colocasia esculenta and Xanthosoma sagittifolium). Only the underground parts of these plants in their fresh state are considered here.

What do 'roots and tubers' cover ?

The term 'roots and tubers' indicates a cate- gory. It covers a broad range of underground storage organs. They include 38 roots or similar (carrot, cassava), 23 tubers (potato, yam), 14 rhizomes (ginger) and 11 corms (taro). In contrast, it does not include crops with a swollen stem or pseudo-stem (leek, kohl-rabi), even when it is underground (beetroot). All the plants concerned are food crops but at different levels as they can be a staple foodstuff, a vegetable, raw material for industry or used as a condiment.

Roots and tubers referred to as 'exotic' in our Western cultures are contrasted with 'conventional' plants such as potato, carrot and other crops that we grow. They stand out by their foreign origin, that is historical (origin of their domestication), cultural (the customs

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associated with them) and geographical (their the introduction of grain crops. Today, they production region). form the second-largest food crop by quantity in developing countries. Their names vary greatly according to their origin. There are also contradictory homo- Roots and tubers can be grown nyms, making it difficult to relate the botanical with a low level of inputs. This name of each to commercial names. This ap- contributes to making them an plies to both genera and varieties. Thus the important source of income English 'yam' is also used to refer to 'sweet and employment in marginal potato' in the United States. Another example zones, especially for women. is 'cush-cush' (English) and 'cuscus' (French) The produce is also used in that designate two different yams. Finally, the animal feedstuffs and in the term 'taro' is used for Araceae tubers, that is processing industry as raw to say three different kinds of produce: eddoe, material (starch, etc.). They dasheen and cocoyam. are also grown as commercial crops. Some countries such as Brazil, Ghana, Costa Rica and others are known for exporting large volumes. Important crops

Grown on 33.5 million hectares with an annual tonnage of nearly 407 million t in 2008, exotic roots and tubers are an important feature of Exotic crops world vegetable production. FAO statistics provide information about the In many areas, and especially in humid tropi- main producer countries—mainly in the trop- cal regions, they were the staple foods before ics. Yam is thus grown mainly in Nigeria (31.0

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A little-known market

Exotic roots and tubers are eaten very little in

© Samir-DavidAyata the West. Thus practically all the fresh cassava produced in the world is consumed in Africa, Asia or the Americas, with a probable focus in Latin America. The same populations eat more than 99% of sweet potatoes and 97% of fresh yam is eaten in Africa.

According to the FAO, annual world production of exotic roots and tubers is larger than the world potato crop. The scale of these volumes might therefore go unnoticed in Western cultures, given the small role they play in our diet where they are considered as ethnic produce focused mainly on certain parts of the population.

But these crops are very large and a modest but non-negligible proportion is handled in international trade. European statistics thus show that EU-27 imports an annual 23 700 tonnes of cassava root and 55 500 tonnes of sweet potato, representing respectively sales worth EUR14.6 and 35.7 million per year.

Many commercial sources

The sources of the yams sold on the Euro- pean market are sourced partially in the major million tonnes in 2008), Côte d’Ivoire production countries Brazil, Ghana and Côte (5.2 million t), Ghana (3.7 million d’Ivoire. French yams grown in the Loir-et- t), Benin (1.9 million t) and Togo Cher and Lot departments are traded but on a (0.6 million t). much smaller scale.

Cassava is grown mainly in Ni- The EU imports practically all (about 90%) of geria (44.6 million tonnes in its cassava from Costa Rica. The rest is from 2008), Thailand (27.6 million t), Bra- Ecuador and Cameroon, considered as fall- zil (25.9 million t), Indonesia (21.6 back sources and where the cultivars avail- million t) and the Democratic able may be different. However, with 97 800 t Republic of Congo (15.0 million produced in 2008 (FAO figure), Costa Rica is tonnes). only the 52nd largest producer in the world, after Niger and the Dominican Republic. Cas- The main sweet potato producer sava for export is also grown in Ecuador but it countries are China (85.2 million is of poorer quality. Quality cassava is grown tonnes in 2008), way ahead of in Brazil but is mainly for domestic consump- Nigeria (3.3 million t), Uganda tion. Finally, African cassava is less competi- (2.6 million t), Indonesia (1.9 tive overall as the poor organisation of local million t) and Vietnam chains reduces the value for money of pro- (1.5 million t). duce by increasing approach costs before shipment. Statistics for taro are more con- fused and inaccurate. Production of ed- The sweet potatoes found on the European doe seems to be concentrated in Africa market are not sourced in the main production (Nigeria, Ghana and Cameroon) and China. countries but in Egypt, the United States, Is- The five leading tannia producing countries rael, Brazil and Honduras together with a few are reported to account for 96% of world ton- African sources. nage. The sources are Cuba (more than half of this tonnage), Venezuela, the Dominican Costa Rica and Brazil are the sources of most Republic, Peru and Panama. Dasheen is not of the exports of eddoe to Europe. Costa Ri- individually referenced. can domination has become established in

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time where there has been rapid organisation The goods are then stored or not by importers of production, enabling it to gain market before forwarding to the main resale destina- shares. tions. These are generally wholesale markets, where retailers buy their stocks. Importers also deliver to supermarket chain purchase Dasheen sold in Europe is shipped mainly centres. from the Caribbean. Produce from Costa Rica, Honduras and Egypt is also found. Most sup- Transport by sea involves long periods of stor- ply for the French market is from the French age and transport. Indeed, it takes about two West Indies. weeks to sail from Central America to the Netherlands, without counting loading Costa Rica, not referenced in official data for time, weather problems, etc. Ship- cocoyam, is the source of practically all ex- ment by sea thus requires spe- ports to the European Union. It is the only cific logistics and also long-term source with significant presence on the French planning, given the time required market. Produce from Cameroon shipped by to book containers from ship- air has been reported recently but is described owners. All the exotic roots and as tannia (new cocoyam). tubers discussed here are suitable for this type of transport, except for certain fresh dasheens whose physiological development is too rapid for long periods of trans- Import channels: port. mainly sea freight Air freight is the other transport The keeping capacity of roots and tubers mode. The annual tonnage is com- means that they can be shipped by sea. As a pletely different and the clientele result, the main European countries importing (up-market), produce (high value- directly are the Netherlands, France, the added) and market (including the United Kingdom and Belgium that all have spot market) are different. Air international scale commercial ports on the freight means that smaller batches European 'northern rail' consisting of the mari- can be shipped with the palette as time routes serving the Channel and North Sea ports. The container ports at Rotterdam (Netherlands), Felixstowe (UK), Le Havre (France) and Antwerp (Belgium) thus handle the greater proportion of the roots and tubers © EricImbert shipped by sea and frequently forwarded to other destinations within the EU, the case in particular for the goods unloaded at Rotter- dam. Yams and taro travel on more or less the same sea routes to one or other of the countries above. The Netherlands handle most of the cassava shipped while the UK takes delivery of sweet potatoes.

Root and tuber producers rarely ship their harvest themselves. The produce is generally collected locally by specialised middlemen and may thus change hands several times before being assembled in large batches and prepared for export. These preparations may include sorting and sizing, post-harvest treatment, individual and point of sale packaging operations that can be performed in the producer country. The export units are 20' or 40' sea containers with capacity for the equivalent of 10 or 20 standard palettes.

Produce is thus handled by export companies in the source country with most shipped by sea—the preferred method for reasons of cost. Rotterdam is the main destination port in Europe.

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the unit. It is a solution for the rapid transport and hence retailing strongly concentrated in of fragile good, small batches or produce for cities. People in search of supplies of these which access to sea freight is difficult, as is goods must therefore go to large urban cen- the case for certain African sources. tres. It is used in particular for dasheens from the West Indies Sweet potato is nonetheless the most west- and sweet potatoes from ernised of the roots and tubers group. It is Cameroon. Air freight ob- fairly readily available in supermarkets al- viously involves extra though the display is often limited to a small expenditure on logistics quantity of a single variety. and this is passed on in the selling price. Supermarket chains do not generally concen- trate much on exotic roots and tubers. They are often only partially included in the ranges seen in large and medium-sized stores. How- Fairly stable ever, such produce is sold in supermarkets in wholesale catchment zones with large immigrants popu- prices lations. They are little seen in the catering industry. The information provided by the various Overall, larger volumes are sold during the sources consulted shows Christmas period and other religious festivals. that the prices of roots and This is explained in particular by strong de- tubers varies little. At the mand from supermarket chains that do not wholesale stage, cassava sells generally sell this produce but seek to in- at between EUR 1.0 and 1.1 per crease their product ranges at such times of kg, eddoe at between EUR 1.5 and 1.7 year. However, given the size of the displays, per kg, yam at EUR 1.2 to 2.0 depending on one might think that they play a role of species and source, and sweet potato at 'representation' rather than being a true broad- between EUR 1.0 and 1.5 per kg with the ening of the range. price depending more on source than varietal type.

Well-targeted consumers Distribution channels: proximity The ethnic feature of the exotic roots and tubers imported into the EU is related to the Like other ethnic produce, exotic clientele for this produce—immigrants with roots and tubers are mainly sold by cultural links with the main world centres of small retailers, including neighbour- consumption. hood shops and street market stalls. In addition, these shops and stalls are run mainly by immigrants European outlets for yams depend strongly on and focused mainly on a similar or species. Thus white yam (poona) are pur- identical clientele. They also chased mainly by West Indians and Africans. tend to be in regions or ar- Chinese yam is strongly demanded by Asians eas with mixed popula- although a signifiant quantity is also resold in tions. An example is the the French West Indies. Cush-cush yam tends Paris region with Asian to be eaten by Africans. Finally, West Indians shops and even super- are partial to yellow yam. markets centred closely on the 13th district, an African/ Fresh cassava is purchased mainly by Afri- West Indian shopping cans and West Indians and steady volumes area in Château-Rouge are released on European markets. However, (18th district), Indian and demand generally decreases during the sum- Pakistani shops near the mer when the consumption of fresh seasonal Gare du Nord (10th district), produce increases. Likewise, demand for cas- street markets in Montreuil and sava increases during Muslim festivals. Saint-Denis and a range of shops in Belleville (20th district). Thus ethnic products Sweet potato is doubtless the member of this have a certain geography, with consumption group that is best-known in the west. Possibly

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because of its history throughout the Mediter- lated sales of dasheen. Today, this ranean region, both in Europe (Spain and strong demand is no longer as Portugal, south-east France and Italy) and in marked as it was and sales are the Maghreb, Egypt and the Near East more regular during the year. (especially Israel). However that may be, sweet potato seems to have advanced in the Cocoyam consumption seems to process of appropriation by western societies. be more seasonal, with demand Demand has increased considerably in recent from Africans and West Indians being years, especially for the variety with orange stronger at Christmas and flesh that is suitable for very varied cuisines. It Easter. is now available to everybody via supermarket chains although sweet potatoes are eaten more by people from black Africa, the Maghreb, the Middle East, Asia (South, East and South-East) and the West Indies. How- Dwindling ever, they also draw a clientele little con- consumption? cerned by its ethnic feature. Proof of this is the frequent mentions made in cookery books. Sales of cassava, yam and taro have decreased somewhat in the last two decades. Eddoe is probably the most cosmopolitan of This seems to be explained by a certain lack the three kinds of taro mentioned here. It is of interest among young people. Second or the subject of strong demand by Asians third generation immigrants seem less inclined (including Indians and Pakistanis) and also to cook these vegetables and prefer foods that Africans, West Indians and even Latin Ameri- are easier to prepare—when not ready-made cans. Stable volumes are sold throughout the dishes—such as rice and pasta. year. Once again sweet potato seems to be escap- ing this trend and is gaining new market West Indians and Africans are the main pur- shares among consumers who are not neces- chasers of dasheen. Historically, the Rama- sarily acquainted with it dan period used to affect demand in France, in particular from Comorians who are mainly Samir-David Ayata Muslim. The end of the Ramadan fast stimu- © Samir-DavidAyata

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Produce sheet

Yam Dioscorea spp (Dioscoreaceae) Common names: yam (English), igname (French), ñame (Spanish)

rapidly and storage can only be bear cordiform leaves in opposite short. It is mainly available on the pairs. The long tubers have a great About yam European market during the Christ- many rootlets, giving them a bushy mas period. appearance. Although they are fairly am belongs to the genus Dio- thin, the tubers can exceed a metre in Y scorea which includes more than Varieties of D. rotundata give the length. The Chinese yam variety 600 species. Most of them are tropical. 'white yams' of Brazil and Africa grown in France produces aerial Only about ten are domesticated and (Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, etc.). Their dor- bulblets that can be used for propaga- grown regularly as food crops. mancy is substantial and they are fairly tion purposes. easy to keep on condition that they are The cultivation of yam goes back a harvested at maturity. African white The species D. alata is from Papua long way, whatever the species. A yams are also called 'clin-clin' and New Guinea and known as the 'greater recent Australian study revealed its 'poona' (also 'puna' and 'pona' among yam' or 'water yam'. The stems have a presence in Papua-New Guinea English-speakers) and also 'assawa'. square, winged cross-section ('alata' 10 000 years ago. Domestication—that Brazilian white yams may be referred means winged). The tubers can be is to say its incorporation in cultural to as 'igname negro' with reference to very large, reaching a length of two practices—in the zone probably goes their dark skin. They are fairly similar metres and weighing up to 40 kg. back 6 500 to 7 000 years. to their West African counterparts and However, the average yield is 3 to 5 kg are grown intensively on deep loamy per plant over a period of 6 to 9 Varietal diversity within each species soils. They are technically of good months. The tubers of these varieties can be considerable. Dioscorea alata, quality but African consumers some- vary considerably in shape. The flesh D. cayenensis and D. rotundata are by times find that the flesh is too firm. is white to dark violet. Leaf shape and far the most commonly cultivated spe- size also vary considerably. cies, accounting for more than 95% of The cheapest yams are probably those 'Cuscus' (this spelling only) yam is an world production. The other species of the Amazonian species D. trifida. English trade name for certain varie- cultivated, without consideration of These include 'cush-cush' or 'cousse- ties of the species and sometimes importance, are D. esculenta, D. trifida couche', 'yampi' or 'Indian yam'. They leads to confusion with the 'cousse- and D. opposita. Several of these are have quadrangular stems, leaves with couche' yams of the species D. trifida described here. three to five lobes and produce com- mentioned above. This produce is paratively small but numerous tubers rarely imported via formal channels. D. cayenensis and D. rotundata form that are often pear-shaped. 'Couche- the African Guinea yam group. D. cay- couche' yams are the least interesting Other cultivated yams originated in the enensis has yellow flesh and a long as regards quality as they do not stand Pacific region, such as D. esculenta cycle (11 to 12 months), while D. ro- cooking very well. (lesser yam), D. transversa ('Wael') tundata has white flesh and a shorter and D. nummularia, or in Africa, such cycle (8 to 9 months). Both have a 'Chinese yam' belongs to the species as D. dumerotum ('bitter yam') and D. round, spiny stem and cordiform D. opposita, also called D. batatas. bulbifera ('aerial yam'). Overall, the (heart-shaped) leaves. This is the only species adapted to crops have a regional character and temperate climates and were intro- are not traded on international mar- D. cayenensis is the greatly appreci- duced in France in the twentieth cen- kets. Some wild yams may also be of ated 'yellow yam' grown above all in tury and still grown in the Blois region importance, especially when food is the West Indies and especially in Ja- under the appellation 'Ignames de short. maica. It is very fragile as it oxidises France'. Their smooth round stems

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Description

ams are annual herbaceous generally harvested after 5 to 11 Y plants with long thin twining months. Staking has a positive stems that grow up various sup- effect on tuber yield. ports. Leaf form varies and leaves are alternate with well- In the humid tropics, the impor- marked veins. The plants are tance of yam is comparable to dioecious, with male and female that of potato in temperate cli- flowers on different plants. A mates. Tubers are sliced and plant produces from one to five boiled, baked or fried. The main tubers that can weight up to 5 kg. yam dish in West Africa is foutou Yam tubers are formed by the or pounded yam. This is an elas- swelling of the rhizome and vary tic paste prepared by the vigor- considerably in shape, being ous pounding of boiled tu- spherical, elongated or even bers in a large wooden branched. The main cultivated mortar. In this region, species generally have white and especially in flesh although species with yel- Nigeria and Be- low or pink flesh exist. Some nin, yam meal produce dioscorine, a toxic alka- is also pre- loid that is broken down by cook- pared from ing. cooked dried tubers. The Yams are grown mainly in savan- meal is used to nah zones. Production requires prepare a more or less brown light, well-drained soils. The coloured paste called 'amala' and plants have specific water, heat a 'couscous' called 'wassa- and photoperiod requirements wassa' that is much appreciated and shortening day-length en- as a snack. hances tuber growth. Tubers are

Supplier countries and calendar

There is no real supply calendar for yam as it is sold all the year round. However, sources and varieties can be changed if necessary. Supply and demand are steady but demand is greater at Christ- mas and Easter and the market shares by variety can be seen to change. However, the quality of produce has certain seasonal features for reasons of the physiol- ogy of yams. In summer, African production and stocks come to an end and are therefore rare on the market. Further- more, many yams sprout during this period. But the growth of the terminal bud little affects quality if it is removed without delay. This feature is often appreciated by consumers who see it as a sign of the vitality of the tuber.

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EU imports

The EUROSTAT database has no heading devoted exclu- sively to yam. Headings combine yam with a whole range of other produce and so direct evaluation of the commercial weight on the European market is not possible. Cumulating shipments from the main sources supplying the market shows that European imports total some 600 tonnes. This seems much smaller than a more em- pirical evaluation comparing the volumes to those of cassava at some 20 000 tonnes per year. This would seem more on the scale of the reality of the market as recently observed.

Unfortunately, FAO statistics for yam exports are partial and the most recent data are for 2007. They show that the strongest export countries from 2000 to 2007 were Costa Rica, Brazil, Jamaica, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire.

According to the FAO, average world imports were 42 2000 tonnes during the period 2005-2007. This should be compared with world production estimated at 49 million tonnes per year during the same period, with 93% of this being in West Africa. International trade would therefore seem to concern less than a thousandth of production.

Wholesale prices

The wholesale price of yam on the French market ranges from EUR 1 250 to 2 000 per t depending on the species. These figures (Service des Nouvelles du Marché, SNM) concern only produce from Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire and Brazil. Our weekly observations from June to August 2010 indicate higher prices of from EUR 1 350 to 2 200 per t at the wholesale stage.

Yam - France - Wholesale prices

2.5

2.0

1.5

euro/kg 1.0 Brazil 0.5 Ghana Côte d'Ivoire 0.0 jan-07 jul-07 jan-08 jul-08 jan-09 jul-09 jan-10

Source: SNM

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Packing and sizes

Yams are generally packed in telescopic cardboard boxes of 15, 20 or 22 kg and 25 kg in rare cases. The 15 kg boxes are for French yams only. Boxes generally contain about 15 tubers generally individually wrapped in Kraft paper (except for French yams).

Yams are sized in various categories ranging from XS to XL. The tubers generally weight from 800 g to 2 kg. Although customers appreciate medium-sized yams weighing about 1 kg, size is not of great importance.

Postharvest

Yams are not usually subjected to post-harvest treat- ments. Only Brazilian yams receive anti-germinative treatment.

Yam is very sensitive to low temperatures that can cause damage. The recommended storage temperature is generally 16°C (± 1°C).

YAM Nutritional value Protein Nutrition 2.0-4.0 (% fresh weight) Fibres 0.6 Yams contain starchy reserves. (% fresh weight) Dry matter is generally 30% of Vitamin A 117 total weight and consists of at (mg/100 g/fresh weight) least 70% starch (the levels vary Vitamin C 25 according to species). (mg/100 g/fresh weight) Minerals 0.5-1.0 (% fresh weight) Energy 440 (kJ/100 g/fresh weight)

Regulations

Yam is not covered by a specific Codex Alimentarius standard. Maximum residue limits are those of cassava extrapolated for yam.

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Produce sheet

Cassava Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae) Common names: cassava, manioc, tapioca (English), manioc (French), cassave (West Indies, Guiana), yuca (Spanish)

History

assava was domes- C ticated in the Ama- zon basin, a low elevation zone where the plant has been known for 7 000 years. The Portuguese introduced it in Africa in the sixteenth century. It then reached Asia in the eighteenth century. Cassava is grown in all tropical and sub- tropical zones today. It is a rustic crop that can grow on degraded land with low fertility. It prefers precipitation of more than 1 000 mm per year but it is grown increasingly in drier regions such as the Sahel in Africa where precipitation peaks at 400 mm per year. It is grown in more favourable environments (low- lying land, gardens that are watered).

Description

assava is a shrub 1 to 4 metres vesting much easier than that of tisanal retting—before processing to C tall. It is monoecious (separate plants grown from seed. give various secondary products male and female flowers on the same (attiéké in Côte d'Ivoire, gari and lafou plant) and mainly allogamous (cross- Cassava varieties are classified ac- in the Gulf of Benin, chikwangue in fertilisation between two plants). In cording to the amount of hydrocyanic Central Africa, etc.). Only fresh sweet the natural state, wild species display compounds (HCN) that they contain variety tubers are imported to Europe. sexual propagation. Cassava is and that make them more or less bit- propagated vegetatively by node cut- ter. Tubers of sweet varieties (less The leaves are often eaten in some tings (sections of stem with two or than 50 mg HCN per kg pulp) can be countries and imported frozen to three nodes). The tubers, the main cooked directly. In contrast, those of Europe. A small cassava crop is part consumed, are swollen lateral the so-called bitter varieties (more grown in France for harvesting fresh roots. Their shallow depth and rela- than 80 mg per kg HCN) require treat- leaves. tively horizontal position makes har- ment before cooking— generally ar-

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An Indian legend...

Whether raw or processed, cassava has a great variety of names in the various parts of the world and in various languages and dialects. These names are vary varied because cassava is grown throughout the tropics. The word 'manioc' is thought to have been given by the Tupi- guarani Indians. According to one of their legends, Mani was a small Indian girl with a very white skin, the daughter of a warrior chief and who died when she was one year old. An unknown plant appeared on her tomb and nobody dared to pull it out, until one day the soil split, revealing a root which people saw as the body of the child. Considering it of divine origin, it was named 'Mani-so-ho', which means 'flesh of Mani'. By awarding a divine origin to cassava, the legend shows its importance to the people who domesticated it.

Supplier countries and calendar

Nearly 90% of fresh cassava supplies for the European Un- ion is imported from Costa Rica. The rest is mainly from Ec- uador and Cameroon when Costa Rican produce is less competitive or in short supply.

Sales are handled in the source country by export companies or by importers. Cassava roots are shipped by sea to specialised European ports. Rotterdam is the leading destination, from where the produce is shipped to wholesale markets. The cassava arrival calendar is fairly linear, except in January and February when shipments from Costa Rica are reduced.

EU imports

European imports of fresh cassava roots have more than doubled in just a few years, increasing from 11 500 tonnes from 2000 to 2004 to 23 700 tonnes from 2007 to 2009. World production is 235 million tonnes per year, half of which is grown in Africa (source: FAO).

According to EUROSTAT, France imported 3 500 tonnes of cassava per year from 2007 to 2009, including 1 600 tonnes directly. Imports have increased by a third since 2000. The apparent weakness of direct imports is explained by the structure of the cassava sector manioc. The greater part of European imports is handled by Dutch companies that take delivery in the Netherlands and then resell to their European partners.

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Wholesale prices Costa Rican cassava - France - Wholesale price

French cassava imports were worth EUR 2.7 2.0 million per year from 2007 to 2009. The figure was only EUR 1.8 million per year at the 1.5 beginning of the decade (EUROSTAT). The wholesale price of cassava on the French 1.0

market has not changed much in the last euro/kg decade, except perhaps from the beginning 0.5 of 2008 to February 2009 when it increased considerably (+ 40 %). This average price 0.0 then decreased in 2009 and returned to a dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- dec- more classic EUR 1.00 per kg, a price still 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 valid in 2010 (SNM). Source: SNM

Packing and sizes

Cassava is generally packed in 18 to 22 kg telescopic boxes and most commonly in 20 kg boxes. Each box contains about 30 units.

There is not real consideration of the size of the roots or at least the wholesale market takes no account of this. Indeed, size varies little and is not an importers' selling point. At the wholesale stage, even though size variations are seen within a box, the average size is often identical, whatever the batch. The notion of size is not addressed in transactions. Furthermore, this is not mentioned on packaging. Postharvest

Export cassava roots are waxed by dipping is a bath of liquid paraffin wax to prevent drying and deterioration in contact with air. This treatment allows storage for more than a month in com- Regulations parison with just a few days for roots not treated in this way. The treatment is not harmful for consumers as it has no particular toxicity and is Sweet cassava is covered by a removed when the root is peeled. specific Codex Alimen- tarius standard Codex Stan 238-2003, amended in 2005.

Cassava is concerned by about a hundred maximum residue limits that also apply to numer- CASSAVA ous other tropical roots and

Nutritional value tubers that are not the subject Protein of specific MRLs. 0.5-2.0 (% fresh weight) Nutrition Fibres 1 Cassava is generally stored at (% fresh weight) Cassava roots contain between 0 and 5°C during Vitamin A 17 starch reserves. The transport to the point of sale. (mg/100 g/fresh weight) Waxed roots can be kept for a Vitamin C dry matter content is 50 further two weeks at 20°C. (mg/100 g/fresh weight) 35% of total weight Minerals and consists of 90% 0.5-1.5 (% fresh weight) starch. Energy 600 (kJ/100 g/fresh weight)

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Produce sheet

Sweet potato Ipomoea batata (Convolvulacées) Common names: sweet potato, patate douce (French), camote, batata (Spanish), kumara (in the Pacific)

History

weet potato originated in Amer- ries BC. Analysis of the starch grains S ica and its centre of diversifica- that they contain showed that the tion is between Mexico (Yucatan pen- tubers were much smaller then than insula) and Venezuela. The oldest they are today. remains of dried sweet potato, dating back more than 8000 years, are re- Cultivation of sweet potato soon went ported to have been found in caves in beyond tropical America. It was Chilca Canyon in Peru. Other re- grown in the Pacific islands (in Poly- mains of sweet potato tubers were nesia and New Zealand) before the found at an archaeological site in arrival of Europeans, indicating older Casma Valley in Peru and are contacts between Amerindian and thought to date back 11 to 17 centu- Polynesian civilisations.

Description

he genus Ipo- violet peel and white flesh, red peel and yellow T moea consists flesh or orange peel and flesh. The orange flesh of some 400 species. types are slightly less sweet. They include twining plants, shrubs and trees. The plant has difficulty in withstanding tempera- The genus is represented tures of less than 10°C. Zero vegetation (the mini- mainly in the tropics mum temperature required for plant development and subtropics, where and growth) is 15°C. Optimal temperature is 21 to several species are culti- 28°C. Tuberisation takes place when days are vated such as water spinach short and is inhibited during long days (more than (Ipomoea aquatica) that is eaten in particular in 14 hours of daylight). Highland cultivation is possi- South-East Asia. ble to 1 200 m, but the vegetative cycles are longer, running to six months instead of four to five The sweet potato, Ipomoea batata, is a perennial months. herb grown as an annual. Depending on the variety, the creeping stems may trail or be erect and Ipomoea batata has numerous uses. Sweet potato can be from one to five metres long. Stems have a tubers can be eaten boiled, braised, as purée, as comparatively small diameter at from 3 to 10 mm chips, etc. They can also be used to make cakes. and they root when nodes come into contact with the soil. The pale green to dark violet leaves are Sweet potatoes are used for the preparation of denticulate to varying degrees. meal and starch for industry, especially in Japan and Korea. They also have outlets for animal Sweet potato is grown for its tubers (these are in feeds (mainly pigs and cattle). The leaves can be fact tuberous roots), which are spherical to elon- eaten like spinach or used as forage. The shoot gated and vary in colour. There are thus varieties tips, particularly rich in vitamins A and B2 are with white peel and flesh, red peel and white flesh, eaten as leaf vegetable in the Far East.

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Supplier countries and calendar

The main sweet potato producer Sweet potato — European Union — Supply calendar countries are China (80.5 million ton- J F M A M J J A S O N D nes in 2008), far ahead of Nigeria (3.3 million tonnes), Uganda (2.6 Egypt million tonnes), Indonesia (1.9 million South Africa tonnes) and Vietnam (1.5 million ton- Israel nes), with a world total of 106 million Honduras tonnes (FAO, 2010). These coun- China tries—in the same order— were already the main producers in 2000. Brazil World production decreased by more than 20% from 2000 to 2008, falling from 139 to 106 million tonnes, mainly as a Sweet potato is the only produce in this result of the strong decrease of Chinese pro- Close-up to display a true import calendar duction (- 28% during the period concerned). and this is comparatively dense as Overall, the other producer countries in- sources supplying the market are creased their tonnages. varied. Seasonal alternance between producer countries The European market does not source sweet means that at least three potatoes in the main producer countries but in sources can be present at the Egypt, South Africa, the United States, Israel, same time, without considera- Brazil and Honduras. tion of varietal types. The importing of produce from China Sweet potato is also grown in Europe. Spain, and Brazil is generally ex- Portugal, Greece and Italy also produce a total plained by the absence of a par- of 67 000 tonnes. These crops are for the do- ticular variety from the market. mestic market.

EU imports

All imported sweet potato is from outside Europe. Annual EU imports increased from 13 000 tonnes in 2000 to 23 500 tonnes in 2004 and increased to 55 500 tonnes from 2007 to 2009. They averaged 38 000 tonnes for the United Kingdom, 12 500 tonnes for France, 10 300 tonnes for the Netherlands and 1 000 tonnes for Belgium. France is thus in a good position on the sweet potato market as it takes nearly a quarter of EU imports.

Packing and sizes

Sweet potato is generally packed in 6 to 10 kg telescopic boxes or trays. Small packs are mainly used for orange-flesh varieties. The boxes contain a varying number of units, ranging from about 10 to 60. Partly cleaned, the produce may have a number of bursting buds, generally depending on age. The tubers can be kept for more than a month under storage conditions. There are six sizes: S, M, L1, L2, XL and XXL. Tubers thus weight from 150 to more than 900 grams.

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Wholesale prices Sweet potato - France - Wholesale price

1.9 Egy pt It is estimated that the value of European sweet po- South Africa tato imports in 2007-2009 was EUR 35.7 million per 1.7 Is rael year whereas it had been only EUR 16.9 million from 1.5 2000 to 2004 (EUROSTAT). All else being equal, 1.3 turnover increased more slowly than volumes, result- 1.1

ing in a decrease in prices over a 10-year period. euro/kg 0.9 From 2007 to 2009 again, European statistics report French sweet potato imports worth an average of 0.7 EUR 9.3 million per year. The figure was EUR 5.1 0.5 million per year from 2000 to 2004 (+ 83 % from jan-06 jul-06 jan-07 jul-07 jan-08 jul-08 jan-09 jul-09 jan-10 2000 to 2009). Source: SNM The Service des Nouvelles du Marché (SNM) provides regular data on three sources of sweet potato at Rungis wholesale market, with no distinction between varieties. It monitors South African, Israeli and Egyptian produce. Brazilian produce is also referenced but less frequently. Figures for 2000-2010 highlight fairly substantial monthly variations for South African and Israeli produce. Their prices fluctuated regularly during the decade, with the wholesale price varying over the year from EUR 1 210 to 1 460 per tonne for South African produce and from EUR 1 230 to 1 490 per tonne for sweet potato from Israel.

The variation in the prices of South African produce are probably the most regular. They seem to coin- cide with the beginning and end of the season, which starts in March and finishes at the end of Octo- ber. These variations might be explained by a gradual decrease in the quality of produce harvested at the beginning of the year and then stored for varying lengths of time in cold stores before being sold.

Postharvest

Egyptian sweet potatoes do not seem to be subjected to anti-germination treatment as they are the only ones that sometimes have large shoots. The shoots sometimes seen on produce from other sources, especially South Africa and the United States, display a notable lack of vigour.

It is generally recommended that the storage temperature should be 13°C. Optimal conservation temperature is 13 to 14°C (with 85 to 90% relative humidity). The risk of deterioration is high at less than 10°C.

Regulations

SWEET POTATO Sweet potato is not covered by a specific Codex Alimentarius Nutritional value standard. Maximum residue Protein 1.0-3.0 Nutrition limits are those of cassava (% fresh weight) extrapolated for Fibres 1 (% fresh weight) In addition to sweet potato. Vitamin A 900 starch, sweet po- (mg/100 g/fresh weight) tato tubers contain Vitamin C 35 dextrin, sugars and (mg/100 g/fresh weight) beta-carotene in Minerals 1 varying proportions. (% fresh weight) Energy 500 (kJ/100 g/fresh weight)

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Produce sheet

Taro Colocasia esculenta L. (Araceae) Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott (syn. X. violaceum) (Araceae)

History

aro types in the broad sense are a kiwifruit grow on the main corm (the eaten as a gratin while T part of the Araceae botanical underground part of the stem), which the laminae can be family and the plants have a great is not eaten. In contrast, in dasheen, used to make soup. variety of names. In fact the term taro the main corm the size of a melon is Xanthosoma brasiliense covers two different genera, Coloca- used. is related to cocoyam sia of Asian origin and Xanthosoma and called 'calalou' or from tropical America. Whatever their In the trade, the term cocoyam (the 'herbage'. It is grown only domestication region, taro in the name 'malanga' is also used) refers to for its leaves (lamina and broad sense covers some of the old- the American species Xanthosoma petiole) known for their high est cultivated plants. Traces of culti- sagittifolium. The elongated pear- vitamin A and C content. vation going back 10 000 years have shaped secondary corms of this are thus been found in Asia. The plant also eaten. The Araceae are not used only as a was then grown on irrigated terraces. foodstuff. The term 'edible Araceae' is Cocoyam was grown in pre- Taro is a staple foodstuff for many used in contrast with ornamental Columbian America. peoples around the world—a total of Araceae. However, the main orna- more than 400 million people. It is mental Araceae such as anthurium The commercial denominations ed- grown mainly for the underground (Anthurium spp.) and arum lily doe and dasheen found in France (reserve) organs but the aerial parts (Zantedeschia aethiopica) are not refer to the Asian species Colocasia (young shoots or whole leaves) are edible. Xanthosoma violaceum esculenta. The morphology of the two also eaten. In the case of leaves, has fine violet foliage and types is very different. The secondary distinction is made between lami- found more and more com- corms of eddoe (or Japanese taro) nae and petioles. As for celery, monly in nurseries. are eaten; these cormlets the size of the petioles can be boiled or

TARO Nutritional value

Protein 1.5-3.0 (% fresh weight) Fibres 0.5-3.0 (% fresh weight) Vitamin A 0-42 (mg/100 g/fresh weight) Vitamin C 10 (mg/100 g/fresh weight) Minerals 0.5-1.5 (% fresh weight) Energy 400 (kJ/100 g/fresh weight)

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Taro produce sheet

Eddoe Colocasia esculenta L. (Araceae) Common names: eddoe, madère (West Indies), songe maurice (Réunion), arouille carri (Mauritius), taro bourbon (New Caledonia), eddoe, taro

Description

lants of taro (Colocasia escu- For the same reasons, the colour Raw taros are an irritant when P lenta) or cocoyam of the ed- of the foliage ranges from very touched or eaten as they contain doe type rarely grow taller than 1 pale green to very deep violet, a strong concentration of calcium metre. The leaves are cordiform either evenly or not. The leaves oxalate crystals. Appropriate and shield-shaped (inserted in the may display lines or spots. The cooking eliminates this substance lower third of the lamina, like an- colour of petioles and laminae and the prepared product is com- thurium leaves). The laminae vary may also vary. pletely innocuous. in size, being from 30 to 80 centi- metres long and 20 to 50 cm Only secondary eddoe corms are Eddoe is of great socio-economic wide. The robust petioles join at eaten. The main corm is too fi- importance in South-East Asia the base of the plant and also brous and is used to regenerate and in the Pacific islands. Like vary considerably in length (from the plants. The flesh of eddoe is potatoes, eddoes are eaten 30 to 150 cm) according to variety white and the taste is reminiscent cooked—generally boiled, fried or and soil and climate conditions. of potato but not as sweet. prepared as purée.

Supplier countries and calendar

The European market is supplied with eddoe by two main sources, Costa Rica and Brazil. Brazilian corms are generally larger than those shipped from Central America and more appreciated on the market. The Costa Rican produce is often called 'ñampi'.

The plant is grown all the year round as there is no dormant period. However, planting is recommended at the beginning of the rainy season. The tubers can be stored for several weeks after harvesting. Supply is therefore fairly stable and arrivals are regular on import markets in terms of both quality and quantity.

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EU imports

The EUROSTAT database has no separate heading for any taro varie- Wholesale prices ties. They are probably included in a heading assembling other roots and The Service des Nouvelles du tubers. Marché (SNM) 'taro' quotations are in fact for eddoe. This information service On the French market, taros form the monitors three sources: Brazil, Costa Rica smallest volume of the exotic roots and China (since 2007 in the latter case). and tubers discussed here. Three to The SNM mentions a wholesale price of five times less is sold than of cas- about EUR 1 500 per tonne. Some monthly sava, yam or price fluctuations are seen sweet potato. Eddoe - France - Wholesale price according to source (except for An estimated China). The wholesale prices 4 000 à 6 000 2.0 of Brazilian and Costa Rican tonnes is sold produce thus follow a certain in Europe. 1.8 pattern over the year, with prices tending to rise from Oc- 1.6 tober to March and tending to fall from April to September.

euro/kg 1.4 Brazil Our weekly price observations 1.2 Cos ta Ric a at Rungis wholesale market show higher wholesale prices 1.0 during the summer at EUR jan-01 jan-02 jan-03 jan-04 jan-05 jan-06 jan-07 jan-08 jan-09 jan-10 1 700 to 1 800 per tonne.

Source: SNM

Packing and sizes Postharvest

Eddoe is generally packed in 10 or 15 No postharvest phytosani- kg telescopic boxes. Depending on size tary products are applied. and commercial weight, boxes contain The generally recom- 50 to 150 corms. mended storage temperature is 10°C and 85 to 90% Eddoes are always presented cleaned relative humidity. Eddoe is (brushed) and free of rootlets. Dormant sensitive to cold (less than tubers can be kept for several weeks 7°C) as this causes chilling when relative humidity, light and tem- injury such as pitting. It perature are controlled. The nature of also increases susceptibil- the produce (an organ for storage and ity to postharvest dis- conservation) makes it robust on condi- eases, mainly related to tion that it is harvested at maturity. Nutrition fungal development. Corms can be kept for more than a month at 10°C so transport by sea is The corms contain reserves of possible. It is also very suitable for starch. The dry matter content is freezing. Some batches contain corms around 30%. Eddoe is also very with a swollen terminal bud; this is the digestible as the starch grains are sign of germination and is a negative very small. Products derived from feature after a certain stage of develop- Colocasia corms are used in hy- ment. poallergenic foods for sick people and babies. Tubers are sized in four categories: S, M, L and XL. Corms usually weigh 100 to 200 g. In general, the larger sizes Regulations fetch higher prices. Eddoe is not covered by a specific Codex Alimen- tarius standard. Maximum residue limits are those of cassava extrapolated for eddoe.

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Taro produce sheet

Dasheen Colocasia esculenta L. (Araceae) Common names: dasheen, madère (Guadeloupe), dachine or chouchine (Martinique, Guiana), songe (Réunion, Mayotte), taro d’eau (Nouvelle-Calédonie), old cocoyam, taro

Description EU imports asheen is also a Colocasia esculenta corm D and distinct from eddoe in varietal type. The aerial parts resemble those of eddoe but plant Under the name 'taro (cocoyam)' in English and 'taro growth may be larger. In contrast with eddoe (colocase)' in French, FAOSTAT estimated 2007 production which is sensitive to excess water and requires to be 11 million tonnes, with the largest producers being well-drained soil, dasheen can be grown in Nigeria (5 million tonnes), Ghana (1.7 million tonnes), China flooded soil, often in the middle of paddy fields. (1.64 million tonnes) and Cameroon (1.2 million tonnes); these are followed by Papua New Guinea (285 000 t), The primary corms of dasheen are eaten. The Madagascar (240 000 t) and Japan (173 200 t). However, it cormlets are difficult to use and their production is very probable that a large proportion of production in the is not sought. Dasheen comes in various forms first three African countries is in fact tannia or cocoyam according to moisture content. One usually finds (Xanthosoma). 'fresh' dasheens with a high moisture content and 'dry' ones whose appearance and texture As European statistics do not provide individual coverage of closely resemble those of eddoe. The corms dasheen or of taro in general it is difficult to estimate the have white flesh often speckled with red. Traces volumes imported. of cormlet insertion remain visible. Dasheen tends to have a niche market and is little traded Raw dasheen is also seriously toxic because it internationally even though demand is fairly steady. Thus contains calcium oxalate crystals but this com- import companies sell it in parallel with other produce traded pound is broken down during cooking. Like ed- in larger volumes, such as cassava, making it possible to fill doe, it is boiled, fried or prepared as purée. sea containers. Exported volumes are generally small and, unlike the other Araceae, dasheen is often unavailable. Dasheen is of great economic importance in the Pacific, South-East Asia and the West Indies. The freshness and moisture characteristics of dasheen mean that the corms develop rapidly either by germinating or drying. Some extra-fresh dasheens from the Caribbean are shipped by air. Egyptian produce can be transported by sea because of the proximity of the European markets. Dried dasheen travels very well by sea. However, the latter type is rare on the market—especially in France—except when supplies of fresh dasheen are small.

Supplier countries and calendar

Almost all the dasheens sold in France are from the Caribbean, with the main source being the French West Indies (Guadeloupe and Martinique). Produce from Costa Rica, Honduras and Egypt are also found. Dasheen does not have a dormancy period and it can therefore be grown all the year round. However, planting at the beginning of the rainy season is recommended. The production calendar is regular.

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Wholesale prices

Official statistics do not contain any information about the wholesale price of dasheen. However, weekly observations of Packing and sizes prices at Rungis wholesale market in recent months show, as a guide, prices rang- Dasheen is generally packed in 15 to 20 kg ing from EUR 3 000 to 3 900 per tonne. boxes. The quantity per box generally varies from 10 to 20 tubers according to size and commercial weight. The corms are protected by opaque plastic sheets to maintain the moisture content.

Fresh dasheen corms are cleaned (brushed) but gently to conserve the moisture that ensures their freshness. They often bear crowns of young rootlets. Dry dasheens are presented like eddoes.

The shelf life of fresh dasheen is not more than a week after arrival in Europe. Dry dasheen is robust. Like eddoe, dried corms can be kept for several weeks at about 10°C, making sea transport easier.

Dasheen tubers are not calibrated and corm size may vary considerably in the same box. Corms generally weigh from 600 g to nearly 2 kg.

Postharvest

No postharvest phytosanitary products are applied. The recommended storage temperature is 10°C.

Nutrition Regulations

The corms have a high Dasheen is not covered by a starch content and the specific Codex Alimen- dry matter content is tarius standard. Maximum around 30%. residue limits are those of cassava extrapolated for dasheen.

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Taro produce sheet

Tannia, new cocoyam Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott (syn. X. violaceum) (Araceae) Common names: malanga, chou caraïbe (West Indies), macabo (Cameroon), new cocoyam, yautia (English), taro tania (Spanish)

Description

annia (or new cocoyam) is guish between Xanthosoma and with white flesh (malanga blanca) T the tuber of Xanthosoma Colocasia when the plants are in and one with white flesh speckled sagittifolium. In contrast with da- vegetation. The petioles are ro- with red (red cocoyam). Red co- sheen the secondary corms are bust and join at the base of the coyam also has pink shoots. eaten. The plant closely resem- plant. The green of the foliage bles taro or cocoyam (Colocasia can be more or less intense. The Tannia or new cocoyam is also esculenta). It is a herbaceous plants generally grow to a height an irritant when raw because of plant that originated in Amazon of more than two metres. the calcium oxalate present in the region. The leaves are cordiform tissue. The corms are therefore and sagittate (inserted in the pro- Tannia corms are more elongated eaten cooked—boiled, fried or longation of the central vein). This than those of cocoyam. Two va- prepared as purée. feature makes it easy to distin- rieties are sold in France: one

Supplier countries and calendar

Costa Rica controls practically all the export market for the European Un- ion. It is also the only source with significant presence on the market.

There is no real tannia production calendar as, like the other Araceae, plant requirements do not necessi- tate the drawing up of a special EU imports planting or harvest calendar. How- ever, planting at the beginning of the Tannia is of great economic importance through Central America rainy season is recommended. The and in certain parts of South America (Venezuela and Peru) and in tubers can easily be stored for sev- equatorial Africa. However, FAOSTAT only records American tan- eral weeks after harvesting. nia production, mainly in Cuba, Venezuela, the Dominican Repub- lic and Peru, referring to 'Taro' (yautia) in English and 'chou- caraïbe' in French.

Production was estimated at 415 000 tonnes in 2007, with the countries producing the most being Cuba (207 000 t), Venezuela (80 000 t), Salvador (52 000 t) and Peru (30 000 t). However, the import-export data clearly do not correspond to the reality of trade and Eurostat groups the item with similar produce.

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Wholesale prices

Official statistics do not include any information about the retail price of tannia. However, prices recorded weekly at Rungis wholesale market enable us to suggest a price ranging between EUR 1 800 and 2 800 per tonne.

Postharvest

Postharvest phytosanitary Packing and sizes products are not applied. The recommended storage Tannia is generally packed in 15 or 18 kg tele- temperature is 10°C. scopic boxes. Depending on size and commercial weight, the number of units per box ranges from 50 to 120.

Tannia—whether white or red—is always presented in the same way: the corms are brushed and free of rootlets. They very often display one or more swollen lateral buds. This is not neces- sarily a bad thing within certain limits. This robust produce can be kept for more than a month at 10°C and so can be shipped by sea.

The tubers are sorted in four size categories: S, M, L and XL. Units thus generally weight from 150 to 350 g. In general, the larger sizes sell at higher prices. Tannia corms vary somewhat in shape: the curve often varies and the diameters of the upper and lower parts of the corms are rarely the same.

Nutrition

Corm reserves are starchy. The dry matter content is around 30%.

Regulations

Tannia is covered by a specific Codex Alimentarius standard: CODEX STAN 224- 2001, amended in 2005. The maximum residue limits are the same as those of cassava.

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Tropical roots and tubers

General characteristics

by Philippe Vernier

oot and tuber plants have the common feature of being grown for their underground parts and reproduced by R Yam means of cuttings. Production focuses on underground stor- (D. alata) age organs (roots or tubers) and not on seeds following the fertilisation of flowers as in grain crops for example. The fact Nordeste that the crop is not dependent on fertilisation makes produc- Brazil tion more stable and less affected by meteorological events. Pollination is always a sensitive period and water stress can compromise the harvest irremediably at this stage. Root and tuber production is a continuous process. A water shortage at one period in the cycle will certainly slow the accumulation of reserves but will not halt it definitively as the process will re- sume when it rains again. Finally, except during a period of total, prolonged drought, there will always be a crop whereas drought lasting a few weeks at the wrong time will wipe out a Cassava grain crop. This is how the introduction of the potato in Europe in the seventeenth century made it possible to overcome the problem of the recurrent famines that occurred in Europe.

Vegetative multiplication leads to identical reproduction (cloning) of plants that remain genetically identical as seasons go by, except in the case of somatic mutation, a rare phenomenon. This means that it is easy to conserve the characteristics of each variety without risk of the degeneration that can occur in grain plants where a variety can easily drift if it is contaminated by foreign pollen. The risk is great in cross- pollinated plants (separate female and male flowers) and a complex seed production system is needed to guarantee varietal purity (maize). This risk does not exist for root and tuber plants but the situation is not completely wonderful as other constraints are involved in vegetative multiplication.

In return for this genetic stability, adaptation in case of changes in the environment (the appearance of new diseases, climate change) means that sexual reproduction must be used to breed new, better adapted varieties. As the plants concerned have often lost their natural fertility, the procedure is Sweet potato more complicated than for grain plants.

A cutting is a plant fragment with a high moisture content and therefore perishable, bulky and heavy and also more difficult to store and transport. In contrast, seeds are small, have a low moisture content and can easily be stored for several years. The type of cutting used for planting varies according to the species concerned. Tannia (Xanthosoma The other problem involved in vegetative multiplication is the sagittifolium) much greater biological pest load. Seeds do not spread vi- or macabo ruses much but cuttings do. Likewise, this type of planting in Cameroon material can easily carry all kinds of pests (nematodes, fungi, insects, etc.) and is more complicated to treat than seeds because of its bulk and perishability.

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Tropical roots and tubers — Taking and storing cuttings

Species Type of cutting Storage Observations

Cassava 20 to 40 cm stem fragment Ligneous stem cuttings, good Production and harvesting all the resistance. Several weeks under dry year round. No competition with root conditions in the dark. production .

Sweet potato Green stem cuttings with 2 or 3 Green stems. Low resistance. A few No competition with tuber leaves. days with good protection. production. Continuous cycles needed (3 or 4 per year). In countries with cold winters (USA), seeds are stored and germinated in seedbeds for producing cuttings.

Taro: Corm tops (dasheen), secondary Short for corm tops, several weeks Partial competition with production. cocoyam and tannia corms (dasheen, tannia) or small for tubers; 1.5 to 3 tonnes of cuttings The removal of corm tops makes tubers (eddoe). per ha. corms for consumption fragile.

Yam Pieces of tuber, small tubers (200 Storage for 1 to 6 months is 1 to 5 t/ha, up to a third of to 500 g). possible, even if germination starts production. Strong competition with (if shoots are removed). production. Investment in cuttings is expensive. The germination of pieces of tubers is strongly staggered in time (heterogeneous sprouting).

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Tropical roots and tubers

Pests and diseases

by Philippe Vernier oth the aerial parts (stems and foliage) and underground parts of the plants B can be attacked by biological pests. Photosynthetic capacity is reduced in the first case, resulting in production loss. In the second case, the quality of the produce itself may be affected.

Yam — Pests and diseases Biological pests Observations Damage Control strategies Virus diseases Mosaic Several types of virus Leaf discoloration and • Resistant varieties. Yam Mosaic Virus are involved and often deformation, decreased • Use of planting material from (YMV), Yam Mild interact. yield; D. rotundata is Mosaic healthy plants. Mosaic Potyvirus often more susceptible (YMMV), than D. alata. Cucumovirus (CMV)

Internal Brown Spot Brown spots on tubers, (ISBV) affecting especially D. alata in the Caribbean.

Leaf fungi Anthracnose Mainly attacks the Leaf spots. Decrease in • Crop rotation. Fungal complex yam D. alata. yield. Destruction in • Destroy lianas after attacks. including case of severe attack. • Avoid sprinkler irrigation during Colletotrichum Anthracnose wind. gloeosporioides • Fungicide application to foliage.

Other leaf spots Impact on D. Leaf spots. Decreased Alternaria, Curvularia rotundata strong yield. Destruction in cercospora, locally. case of severe attack. Sclerotum rolfsii, Rhizoctonia

Tuber rot Wet rots Internal rot during Rot, oozing, smell of • Avoid harvest wounds. Botryodiplodia storage resulting from rot. • Sort and separate wounded theobromae, wounding by insects Decreased commercial tubers. Rhizopus nodosus and harvesting tools. value. • Apply wood ash to tuber wounds. and other • Disinfection, aeration et ventilation of storage premises. Green rot Develops on wounds Powdery greenish • Crop rotation: plant yam at Penicillium spp. during storage spots. Decreased intervals of several years. commercial value.

Nematodes Nematodes causing Infection via tubers Small cracks in tuber • Rigorous selection of seed wounds and the soil skins continuing with in tubers material. Scutellonema bradys, aggravated by black patches beneath • Discard all contaminated material Pratylenchus coffea, irrigation. the epidermis. (galls, lesions, nematode cracks). Nematodes Stronger attacks Decreased commercial • Remove weeds that form hosts for towards the head of and seed value. nematodes. the tuber. • Rotation Crop rotation. Avoid crops susceptible to nematodes Gall nematodes More on yam D. alata. Galls on tuber surfaces. (Solanaceae for Meloidogyne). Meloidogyne spp. Decreased commercial • Plant nematifuge-nematicide crops and seed value. (Crotalaria, groundnut, etc.) as the preceding crop. • Thermotherapy (soaking planting material in hot water).

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 47 CLOSE-UP

Cassava — Pests and diseases

Biological pests Observations Damage Control strategies

Virus diseases More virulent strains Foliage discoloured and deformed, • Creation of (African Cassava Mosaic have appeared in Africa, decreased root production. Leaves resistant Disease - ACMD), (Cassava spread by insect vectors affected by mosaic are often varieties. Brown Streak Virus - CBSD), and cuttings. preferred for consumption! • Cutting etc. selected from healthy plants.

Mosaic

Bacterial Blight Spread in planting Wilt of aerial parts of plants, Prevention: (Cassava Bacterial Blight - material. decrease in • Healthy planting material, CBB) production. • destruction of infected plants after the harvest, • disinfection of cutting tools.

Root rot Numerous fungi are Browning of root flesh, smell of rot. • Phytophthora: thermotherapy of involved: Fusarium, cuttings (immersion in water at 49°C for Phytophthora, 49 min). Pythium, Sclerotium, • Biological control: Trichoderma etc. (antagonist fungi).

Pests Accidental introduction Serious damage to foliage, growth • Chemical: risky and expensive. Cassava mealybug from Latin America, halted, yield loss. • Biological control using an (Phenacoccus manihoti), periodic outbreaks. entomophagous wasp (Epidinocanis green mites lopezi) for mealybug and a predatory mite from Brazil for green mite. Success varies from country to country in Africa.

Mealybugs

Sweet potato — Pests and diseases

Biological pests Observations Damage Control strategies

Leaf viruses Often spread by insects Stunted stems, foliage mosaic and • Use of resistant varieties. (various viral complexes) (aphid, whitefly). dwarfing, cracks in tubers. • Select healthy cuttings. • Protection against insect vectors.

Fungi Scab Leaf spots, yield loss of up to 60%. • Crop rotation. on stems and tub • Fungicide spray on cuttings and foliage. Fusarium wilt Foliage yellows and then wilts.

Soil insects Weevils: Euscepes Galleries in tubers making them • Pheromone traps to catch and destroy batatae and Cylas unsuitable for sale. males. formicarius

Root node nematodes Meloidogyne, Nodes on tubers. • Avoid crops susceptible to nematodes Rotylenchulus (Solanaceae) in the rotation.

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Taro: cocoyam (Colocasia escuelenta) and tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) — Pests and diseases

Biological pests Observations Damage Control strategies

Virus Dasheen Mosaic Serious yield loss Mosaic discoloration of • Grub up infected plants as soon as Virus (DMV) on may occur. foliage. diseases the first symptoms appear. cocoyam and tannia • Control the vectors (aphids).

Alomae Bobone ABVC is fatal for Leaves become small, dark Virus Complex taro. Very few green and remain crumpled. (ABVC) resistant varieties.

Fungi Taro leaf blight Does not attack Small circular leaf spots that • Elimination by burning infected disease tannia. become larger and leaves. (Phytophthora sometimes destroy the • Fungicide application. colocasiae) harvest entirely. • Isolate the fields from other taro fields. • Above all, use resistant varieties.

Phytophthora

Pythium spp. Fungus enhanced by Corm rot especially in tannia • Avoid waterlogged and poorly drained soil hydromorphy. and sometimes in cocoyam. soils. • Plant tannia on ridges. • Use healthy cuttings. • Use tolerant cultivars. • Fungicide treatment. • Banana is good as a preceding crop.

Insects Taro beetles The proximity of Larvae (white grubs) tunnel • Use clean cuttings (with no trace of (Papuana spp.) on cleared forest and into corms, reducing their soil). cocoyam river banks enhances commercial value. • Biological control with an entomo- reproduction of pathogenic fungus. beetles. • Crop rotation. • Fallow with Glycine wightii for two years.

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 49 CLOSE-UP

Tropical roots and tubers

Postharvest processing

by Philippe Vernier

oots and tubers are rela- and availability. The procedures extraction, meal, instant purée, R tively perishable and are are very varied and widespread crisps and freezing. Better knowl- heavy as their water content is in the case of cassava where the edge of the functional properties high. Thus in addition to fresh so-called bitter varieties require of the starch in these plants is produce prepared in various clas- detoxification to remove the hy- leading to an increasing number sical manners (boiled, baked, drocyanic compounds that are of agrifood outlets. Their resis- fried, pounded), there is a whole less widespread in other tubers. tance to cold is an advantage for range of traditional processing frozen preparations, and to high operations aimed at stabilising Numerous industrial processing temperatures for foods requiring the foodstuff to enhance storage operations are also used: starch good sterilisation (baby foods).

Tropical roots and tubers — Postharvest processing

Techniques Products Sources Observations

Cassava Drying Drying and grinding to meal. Africa Peeled and dried in the open air. Dried roots strongly attacked by weevils.

Grilled meal Farinha: grating, pressing, Brazil Numerous regional variants: farinha sieving, toasting and possibly seca branca fina, farinha seca grossa grinding. amarela, farinha de agua, farinha mixta do para, goma (starch), farinha de tapioca, tucupi.

Gari: the same process as Togo Regional distribution in West Africa. farinha but stronger fermentation of paste (3 to 6 days) before pressing.

Moist product, Attiéké: fresh precooked Côte d’Ivoire Export demand for ethnic markets in fermented and rolled cassava grain. Europe. Fermented paste Chikwangue: elastic strips of Central Africa paste rolled in banana leaves. (Congo)

Fermented starch Sour cassava: bread making Brazil (polvilho Used for making cheese breads (pao de starch obtained by spontaneous azedo), queijo, pan de yuca). fermentation and drying in the Colombia sun. (amidon agrio)

Yam Drying: tubers are Dried yams (a very hard Nigeria, Benin In traditional processing, drying is precooked and dried product) suitable for keeping. performed during the harmattan season rapidly to prevent the Various preparations can be when the air is very dry (RH <20%). growth of moulds made when the product has Solar drying is a possible improvement been ground to meal: elastic to handle weather problems. paste (amala), rolled product (wassa-wassa), fritters, etc.

Sweet potato Drying Meal: sundried after peeling, East Africa Dried sweet potato can be boiled and cutting into rings, crushing and reduced to purée. Varieties with orange milling. flesh have a high beta-carotene content.

Taro Semi-liquid acid Poi: prepared by pressure Hawaii and A processed preparation that is very fermented paste cooking, pounding, fine sieving Polynesia popular among Polynesians. Sometimes and lactic fermentation. enriched with grated coconut.

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Wholesale market prices in Europe September 2010

EUROPEAN UNION — IN EUROS Germany Belgium France Holland UK AVOCADO Air TROPICAL BRAZIL Box 12.80 DOMINICAN REP. Box 11.40 Sea EDRANOL SOUTH AFRICA Box 7.25 FUERTE SOUTH AFRICA Box 7.50 HASS CHILE Box 9.25 KENYA Box 7.61 PERU Box 6.50 8.03 SOUTH AFRICA Box 9.25 8.03 9.00 7.19 NOT DETERMINED SOUTH AFRICA Box 5.69 7.25 RYAN SOUTH AFRICA Box 7.25 7.50 7.50

BANANA Air RED ECUADOR kg 4.88 SMALL COLOMBIA kg 6.50 ECUADOR kg 5.00 Sea SMALL COLOMBIA kg 3.57 ECUADOR kg 1.75

CARAMBOLA Air MALAYSIA kg 4.14 4.50 4.14 Sea MALAYSIA kg 2.85

CHAYOTE Air COSTA RICA kg 1.53 1.25

COCONUT Sea COSTA RICA Bag 15.50 COTE D'IVOIRE Bag 12.50 10.33 8.92 DOMINICAN REP. Bag 11.99

DATE Sea MEDJOOL ISRAEL kg 6.00 7.86 8.00 7.00 MEXICO kg 8.40 SOUTH AFRICA kg 8.30 8.40 NOT DETERMINED ISRAEL kg 2.50 TUNISIA kg 3.40 2.08

GINGER Sea BRAZIL kg 1.81 2.17 2.26 CHINA kg 1.73 1.93 2.50 2.19 THAILAND kg 2.23

GUAVA Air BRAZIL kg 5.50 THAILAND kg 6.75 6.75

LIME Air MEXICO kg 3.80 Sea BRAZIL kg 1.02 1.12 1.26 MEXICO kg 1.00 1.44 1.31 1.43

LITCHI Sea ISRAEL kg 5.50

MANGO Air KENT BRAZIL kg 4.80 3.83 NAM DOK MAI THAILAND kg 7.90 PALMER BRAZIL kg 3.38 Sea ATKINS BRAZIL kg 1.07 1.00 1.25 1.33 KEITT BRAZIL kg 1.31 KENT BRAZIL kg 1.65 SENEGAL kg 1.46 1.38 PALMER BRAZIL kg 1.10 Truck OSTEEN SPAIN kg 2.20 2.20

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite No. 182 October 2010 51 WHOLESALE MARKET PRICES IN EUROPE — SEPTEMBER 2010

EUROPEAN UNION — IN EUROS Germany Belgium France Holland UK MANGOSTEEN Air THAILAND kg 8.00 6.50 VIET NAM kg 8.08

MANIOC Sea COSTA RICA kg 1.32 1.25 1.04

MELON Sea CANTALOUP BRAZIL kg 1.60 1.74 GALIA BRAZIL kg 1.65 ISRAEL kg 1.50 HONEY DEW BRAZIL kg 0.96 COSTA RICA kg 0.88 WATERMELON BRAZIL kg 0.80

PAPAYA Air FORMOSA BRAZIL kg 3.22 NOT DETERMINED BRAZIL kg 3.45 2.79 Sea BRAZIL kg 2.85 ECUADOR kg 2.00 2.00

PASSION FRUIT Air NOT DETERMINED COLOMBIA kg 4.75 5.88 5.50 PURPLE KENYA kg 4.75 SOUTH AFRICA kg 5.25 ZIMBABWE kg 5.10 5.25 YELLOW COLOMBIA kg 8.00

PHYSALIS Air PREPACKED COLOMBIA kg 5.63 8.33 Sea COLOMBIA kg 4.17 5.25 5.42

PINEAPPLE Air SMOOTH CAYENNE GHANA kg 2.10 VICTORIA MAURITIUS Box 10.50 MAURITIUS kg 3.10 REUNION kg 4.00 SOUTH AFRICA Box 11.50 11.00 Sea MD-2 COSTA RICA Box 10.00 8.43 6.58 6.54 9.59 COSTA RICA kg 1.20

PITAHAYA Air RED ECUADOR kg 8.00 ISRAEL kg 3.13 7.00 THAILAND kg 5.67 VIET NAM kg 6.17 6.50 YELLOW ISRAEL kg 7.00

PLANTAIN Sea COLOMBIA kg 1.00 1.14 ECUADOR kg 1.00

RAMBUTAN Air INDONESIA kg 8.00 VIET NAM kg 6.75 6.75

SWEET POTATO Sea BRAZIL kg 1.50 EGYPT kg 1.54 1.25 ISRAEL kg 1.25 UNITED STATES kg 1.25

TAMARILLO Air COLOMBIA kg 5.90

YAM Sea COTE D'IVOIRE kg 1.35 GHANA kg 1.60 1.50

Note: according to grade

These prices are based on monthly information from the Market News Service, International Trade Centre UNCTAD/WTO (ITC), Geneva. MNS - International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/WTO (ITC), Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland T. 41 (22) 730 01 11 / F. 41 (22) 730 09 06

Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite 52 October 2010 No. 182 Contenu publié par l’Observatoire des Marchés du CIRAD − Toute reproduction interdite Cycle of Freshness

Growing and delivering fresh produce

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