Notes

Introduction

1. Report of the Prefect of of 25 April 1865 (Alatri 1954, p.92). 2. For a detailed analysis of Pitrè and his interpretation of the word exclu- sively from a psychological and folkloristic point-of-view, see the following chapters.

1 The Origins of the Mafia as a Criminal Phenomenon and as a spirit

1. The maestranze survived the suppression of the 18th century, carried out else- where, which followed the new Enlightenment ideology. The very close sense of solidarity between members and the ties which were both religious and economic guaranteed stability and strength to these organisations, but they were bound to an ecclesiastical and feudal system of privileges. For a detailed analysis of the role of the maestranze in pre-unification , see Domenico Novacco, Inchiesta sulla mafia, (1963, pp.86–87) and, by the same author, Mafia ieri, mafia oggi, (1972, pp.83–84). 2. For further analysis of the legend of the , see the following chapters. 3. The text of the proclamation of 28 May 1621 reads: ‘vendere et alienare ... ogni giurisdizione di mero e misto impero, alta e bassa, cum gladii potestate, a tutte quelle città et università et terre del Regno che la vorranno comprare’ (Bonaffini, 1975, pp.18–19). 4. The writer Brydone, whom we will go on to look at in detail, was one of the first to describe with spirit and efficiency the link between the noble class and mafiosi ante litteram. 5. The first chapter of the Promessi Sposi is largely dedicated to enumerating the grida, with which the viceroys and governors of Milan tried to solve the problem of the bravi, paid by the local lords to guarantee their personal safety, but who often behaved more like paid assassins. 6. The legations were the administrative and territorial divisions of the Roman Curia. The organisation of the church’s territory dates from under Clemente XI (1700–1721), Dizionario di Storia, 1995. 7. The first edition was published in London in 1773, followed immediately by nine other editions. The book was rapidly translated into German and French. The Italian version only appeared in 1901. 8. See the following chapters.

225 226 Notes

2 The Abolition of Feudalism, Mafia in the Unified Kingdom and I Mafiusi della Vicaria

1. For a more detailed picture on the Bourbon restoration, see also La mafia in un villaggio siciliano (1860–1960) by A. Block and Storia della Sicilia medievale e moderna by D. Mack Smith. 2. See also on this subject the interesting work by Giovanna Fiume Le bande armate in Sicilia, Palermo, Sellerio, 1984. 3. See the following chapters. 4. F. Renda, ‘Mitologia e sociologia della mafia’ in La mafia. Quattro studi, Aa.Vv, Bologna, 1970. 5. F. Renda, Storia della Sicilia, Vol. III, Palermo, Sellerio, 1984–87, p.115. 6. The gabellotto in Sicily was someone who paid the gabella, or the tax for renting a property, usually of a large size. He was therefore a tenant, except that the gabellotto did not usually cultivate the land himself but sublet to others, thereby loading the extra cost of mediation onto the last person in the chain. 7. The terrible prison was between Piazza Marina and the Cala del Carbone; completed in 1598 and in use until the end of the 19th century, it was then replaced by the safer prison of the Ucciardone. 8. Although literary verismo is best represented by Southern and Sicilians (Verga and Capuana above all), it was in Milan that the movement origi- nated in the 1870s. It was partly the positive outcome of the non-conformist, subversive Scapigliatura movement which involved painters, musicians, poets, critics and had its centre in Milan. The aspiration to free themselves from cultural provincialism led the scapigliati to look outside towards France, in particular, and Germany. French naturalism and Zola became major cultural references. Verga’s arrival in Milan, in 1872, came at the right moment in his literary career. Verga’s verismo, after his arrival in Milan, was a rediscovery of the popular, ethical world of his rural Sicily which he contemplated and described with the detachment and nostalgia of a transplanted intellectual. ‘Restraint may be singled out as the dominant feature of Verga’s stories and novels of the 1880s: restraint of passion and emotion in the portrayal of Sicilian peasants and fishermen; formal restraint in the elaboration of a terse, self- effacing, sapid prose style which almost lets the story tell itself and the characters speak their minds in their own way. Sensationalism and excess are banished on principle. Violence may occur in the form of murder and is set within the natural ethics of the community which endorses it. (Sansone, 1987 p.15). A good example is the short story novella, Cavalleria rusticana, where Alfio has to challenge Turiddu in public and then kill him in a rustic duel. Cavalleria rusticana was later adapted as an opera in one act by Pietro Mascagni in 1890, and considered one of the classic verismo operas. Its music has been the inspiration for mafia movies (the most notable example is the opera which Anthony appeared in at the Teatro Massimo in Palermo). 9. M. Onofri, Tutti a cena da Don Mariano, Milano, Bompiani, 1996, p.52. Notes 227

10. Antonio Starabba, marquis di Rudinì, a Sicilian politician, was mayor (1864) and then prefect (1866), before moving to Naples in 1868. He was minister and member of parliament for right-wing movements and headed two governments (1891–92 and 1896–98) whose policies were anti-Crispi (i.e. limits to expenditure on the home front and a rapprochement with France on the foreign front). 11. G. Nicastro, Teatro e società in Sicilia, Roma, Siia, 1978, p.16. 12. S.F. Romano, Storia della mafia, Milano, Mondadori, 1963, pp.170–71. 13. D. Pantano, ‘Proposta di messa in scena de I mafiusi della Vicaria’ in Risorgimento e mafia in Sicilia, edited by S. Di Bella, Cosenza, Pellegrini, 1991, p.95. 14. S. Pedone, Prefazione a I mafiusi della Vicaria, Palermo, La Zisa, 1994, p.vi. 15. G. Rizzotto, I mafiusi della Vicaria, Palermo, La Zisa,1994, p.54. 16. Loschiavo rightly notes that the last act of the play, added later, ‘is fairly flat and stilted ... with a rhetorical, bombastic and non-spontaneous finale, where the unknown or Incognito turns up’. He adds that ‘to have this unknown man, armed with a revolver, appear in the workshop of Gioacchnio Funciazza to stop the outbreak of fighting single-handedly, and threaten judicial perse- cution like a policeman, seems to me to have been an act of stupidity on the part on the author’ (Loschiavo 1962, p.95). 17. Probably the author meant to be ironic here; the mafia is also a society of mutual assistance. For Diego Gambetta, in fact, this is the fundamental nature of the honourable society. 18. P. Mazzamuto, La mafia nella letteratura, Palermo, Andò, 1970, p.15. 19. All classes of society from the nobility to the working class saw the play, and this is above all what made it so important. The play enjoyed great success nationwide and the company toured as far as Milan and Turin, as would happen later with Verga’s Cavalleria rusticana. 20. The lampa was ‘the name of a sort of tribute that a new prisoner was asked and obliged to pay to the head-camorrista of the cell on the first evening’ (Pitrè 1889, p.325). 21. S. Di Bella, Risorgimento e mafia in Sicilia, i mafiusi della Vicaria di Palermo, Cosenza, Pellegrini, 1991, p.17. 22. L. Franchetti, Condizioni politiche e amministrative, Roma, Donzelli, 1993, p.93.

3 Public and Private Enquiries on the Criminal Consortium ... but the Mafia Doesn’t Exist

1. R. Catanzaro, Il delitto come impresa, Milano, Rizzoli, 1991, p.126. 2. Atti Parlamentari della Camera dei deputati, (1874–75), ‘Discussioni’, 11 giugno 1875, p.4126 in Storia della mafia, S. Lupo, Roma, Donzelli, 1993, p.28. 3. This historian was one of the most important intellectuals of the second half of the 19th century. He gave rise to the theories of Italian positivism and wanted to apply the methods of the exact sciences to the humanities (the so-called historic method). His intellectual activities were matched by his intense participation in political life. Apart from his institutional roles (he 228 Notes

was MP for the right twice and minister for education in the government of Rudinì in 1891–92), his comments about Italian social problems were considered to be authoritative, and he was regarded as one of the most lucid and attentive analysts of the time. His writings about the Mezzogiorno were particularly important, and his Le lettere meridionali (Napoli, Roma-Firenze, Bocca, 1882) are considered the starting point for Italian meridionalismo. 4. These were inspired by a series of writings in letter form sent by Pasquale Villari to the newspaper L’opinione in 1875. At the centre of attention were the appalling socio-cultural conditions of the South, but also the means and methods of the Italian Unification, and in general the cultural and political omissions of the country. Altogether, Le lettere meridionali represent an exam- ination of the conscience of the whole generation which had directed the Unification, and they are considered the first expression of the meridional- ismo (meridionalist movement). 5. The notabili (important people) were those who controlled the political and economic power in liberal Italy of the late 19th century, thanks to their capacity to create a network of clients who ensured their re-election to parliament. 6. G.C. Marino, L’opposizione mafiosa, Palermo, Flaccovio, 1996, p.139. 7. Archivio Centrale di Stato, ‘L’inchiesta sulle condizioni sociali ed econom- iche della Sicilia (1875–76)’, Bologna, 1969, in Il nome e la cosa, Tessitore, Milano Angeli, 1997, p.110. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid., p.110–11. 10. G. Bonfadini, ‘L’inchiesta sulle condizioni sociali ed economiche della Sicilia (1875–76)’, in Il nome e la cosa, Tessitore, Milano Angeli, 1997, pp.110–11. 11. Franchetti was a 29-year-old from . He was a rich landowner who had studied in Paris and then at the Law Faculty at Pisa. He was a liberal, influenced by the ideas of positivism proposed by Stuart Mill. In Florence, during the 1870s, he became associated with Pasquale Villari and . Together they created a group of conservative intellectuals, openly hostile to the left-wing government. Franchetti, along with Sonnino, dedicated his life to politics and was elected to the Chamber in 1882, becoming Senator in 1909. He was a famous landowner, but his life was marked by his humanitarian sentiment and philanthropy, and he founded a cloth factory that was managed directly by the workers. On hearing of the defeat at Caporetto, he shot himself, leaving his lands to the peasants and creating scandal among the landowners. Sonnino, Franchetti’s contemporary, was Florentine, son of a banker and an English prot- estant; he had started a diplomatic career, and had shared the experience of the Commune in the French capital along with Franchetti. Sonnino had a long, brilliant political career, becoming minister several times, and prime minister, even if only for a few months, in 1906 and 1909, respectively. 12. E. Cavalieri, Introduzione a La Sicilia del ‘76, di L. Franchetti e S. Sonnino, Firenze, Vallecchi, 1926, p.XV. 13. L. Franchetti, Condizioni politiche e amministrative della Sicilia, Roma, Donzelli, 1993, pp.14, 34. 14. This state of affairs was also recorded by a noble lady in c.1900 in her auto- biographical novel, L. De Stefani La mafia alle mie spalle, Milano, Mondadori, 1991. The family estate had been left to a local head-mafioso. Notes 229

15. R. Conti, Risposta all’orrendo libello di intitolato ‘La Sicilia nel 1876: condizioni politiche e amministrative’, , Trinacria, 1877, p.112. 16. P. Pezzino, Industria della violenza, Firenze, La Nuova Italia, 1995, pp.34–35. 17. Rudinì follows the paradigm of the play by Rizzotto, even if the word mafiusu appeared only in the title. 18. As regards this, we should note the position of Giuseppe Stocchi, in one (the fifth) of the 14 letters published in August and September 1874 in the Gazzetta d’Italia, which dealt with law and order in Sicily. However, the mafia is not really an association, or at least it isn’t always, and it is one only very rarely. Whosoever out of physical strength or mental superiority, or other obvious merits, feels capable of imposing himself on others ... behaves like a mafioso ... this is, in a manner of speaking, the good mafia, usually innocuous and sometimes even posi- tive, when the aims and intentions of the leader are not dishonest and perverse. (In Pezzino 1987, nota p.926) 19. G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, Vol. II, Palermo, Forni, 1889, p.289. 20. M. Onofri, Tutti a cena da Don Mariano, Milano, Bompiani, 1996, p.40. 21. ‘The mafioso wants to be repected and almost always respects others. If he has been offended, he doesn’t turn to justice, or the law; if he did so this would be proof of weakness, and would offend , which regards as schifiusu [offensive word meaning ribald, society’s rubbish, damned etc. V. Mortillaro 1876] or ‘nfami [infame, vile] those who for whatever motive turn to the magistrates’ (Pitrè 1889, Vol. II, p.292, my italics). 22. This is the socio-anthropological school of thought which during the 1970s and 1980s produced interesting but, according to some historians, some- times misleading studies. If the works of Hess (1970), Block (1986), Boissevain (1974), Schneider and Schneider (1988) and Arlacchi (1983) are to be believed, Lupo observes, ‘the network of family, client and friend relationships of the various mafia heads would in itself describe the structure of the ; which would thus represent one of the forms taken by family relationships, clients and friendships in Sicily. The cosca would thus represent a small, unstable structure, unwilling to formalise the associative ties’ (Lupo 1993, p.13). 23. See the interesting work of G. Alongi La maffia nei suoi fattori e nelle sue mani- festazioni. Saggio sulle classi pericolose in Sicilia, Palermo, Napoli, Sandron, 1940. 24. L. Sciascia, Opere, Vol. II, 1987, pp.1106–107. 25. We should remember the various theories of the schools of penal law, with exponents such as Ferri and Lombroso (L’uomo delinquente, Torino, Bocca, 1889). According to these two eminent jurists and sociologists, physical factors (climate, temperature) and anthropological ones (race) have a funda- mental influence on the criminal phenomenon. Lombroso also produces a well-known study of the somatic characteristics which indicate an innate tendency to crime: dolichocephalism and brachycephalism. The theory, staunchly supported by Lombroso, claims to indicate a geographical distri- bution of crime, because the climate and racial characteristics are the cursed heritages which incite crime, violence and robbery. 26. Collected in the fascinating book by Antonino Uccello, Carcere e mafia nei canti popolari siciliani, Bari, De Donato, 1974. 230 Notes

27. As we have seen, the word ‘’ in the language of the time, is used mainly for associations of malefactors in the prisons, and by extension, for a violent imposition of an illegal force, for example, in the expression ‘la camorra delle aste pubbliche’ (the camorra of the public bids for contracts). 28. G. Pitrè, Canti popolari siciliani, Vol. I, Palermo, Carlo Clausen, 1940, pp.69–70. 29. Giuseppe di Menza was a Sicilian magistrate famous for a popular series about Sicilian brigands, who in open conflict with Franchetti, used linguistic and ethnological facts about the word mafia and the phenomenon shame- lessly. His theories were taken up even outside Sicily, as is demonstrated by the book written by a lieutenant of the Bersaglieri, sent to Sicily to fight brigandage, who dogmatically repeats Menza’s theories (Fincati 1881). 30. G. Pitrè, Usi e costumi, credenze e pregiudizi del popolo siciliano, Vol. II, Palermo, Forni, 1889, p.294. 31. Ibid., pp.294–301.

4 Mafia and Politics in Sicilian Society at the End of the 19th Century: The Notarbartolo Affair, the Formation of ‘Sicilianism’ and Consolidation of the Mafia Mystique

1. Gaetano Mosca (1858–1941) was an Italian jurist, lecturer in constitutional law, deputy (1909–19), senator from 1919, and undersecretary for the colo- nies (1914–16). He was a political theorist linked to the right-wing group, and he criticised the problems of the parliamentary system. He wrote several works including Elementi di scienza politica (Roma, Letta, 1896) in which he outlined his theory about the political class (Mondadori 1999). 2. In finance, stornare means transferral of money from one entry to another; rectify; correct an account. 3. Barone notes that ‘the elections of March 1897 required prudence from judges and politicians: Palizzolo became pro-government and Codronchi accepted his candidacy to strengthen the ministerial list in the capital of the island; Di Rudinì, with his typical cynicism, suggested to Notarbartolo’s son that he should avenge himself, finding a paid killer to get rid of Palizzolo’ (Barone 1987, p.312). 4. Giuseppe Fontana, mafioso of Villabate, could boast of a long series of acquit- tals from serious accusations. After the Notarbartolo trial, he was employed by the Prince of Scalea to administer his estate. He was arrested early in 1894 together with other mafiosi from Villabate for criminal association, but not for the Notarbartolo murder, and again acquitted by the Palermo court for lack of evidence – also because the Prince of Scalea gave evidence on his behalf. He then moved on to the Prince of Mirto, whose lands were threatened by the brigand Varsalona, and became his go-between. While he was being hunted for the Notarbartolo murder, Fontana decided to give himself up, and he was accompanied by the prince’s lawyer in the coach, with the family coat of arms, directly to the house of Questor Sangiorgi. This complicated procedure indicated two important aspects of the mafia code: the man of honour did not recognise in any way the constitutional powers (his surrender was just to avoid greater problems for his protector) and he gave himself up to Sangiorgi in private, therefore to the gentleman and not to the state official. Notes 231

5. , 8 gennaio 1900. 6. A newspaper was founded by the committee which supported Palizzolo’s innocence (A. Crisantino 1994, p.44). 7. The Florio family was the only Sicilian industrial group in Sicily in the 19th century and the first decades of the 20th century. They managed to construct a Sicilian mercantile fleet in a few years, producing Marsala, and in the first decades after Unification they created a real industrial empire, which disap- peared quite rapidly, however, because it had no cultural hinterland behind it nor was it part of a commercial network. 8. This movement was created to stir up agitation in the and collect funds to plead for the annulment of the sentence at the Court of Cassation.

5 The Literature of Defence and the ‘Heresy’ of Don Sturzo

1. This definition is found in a letter of 18 February1881 in C. Madrignani 1970, p.124. 2. In French and European naturalism there is a vitality – a force and social evolution where the intellectuals attempt to portray the world in which they live – with a marked desire to improve, progress and aspire to greater things. 3. In Sicily and the south of Italy, there is an increasing distance between the intelligence of the few and the blind and mute desolation of the majority. The Italian exponent of verismo remains the galantuomo (gentleman) who bows down to contemplate ‘with sincere piety but a touch condescendingly, the material and moral misery in which the masses seen to be immersed without hopes for salvation in the near future’ (N. Sapegno 1973, pp.323–24). 4. The ideological-political position of Capuana with regards to the problems posed by Boutet has been analysed by D. Tanteri 1989, pp.33–55. The same aspect is taken up in the introduction to an edition of L’isola del sole by Nicolò Mineo 1994, pp.9–19. 5. For a detailed analysis of the political events of the period, see G. Candeloro 1970, Vol.IV, pp.408–11; R .Villari 1984, pp.294–96. 6. L. Capuana 1994, p.36, and again on pp.44, 58, 78. 7. The missing act was not destroyed as the critic Montemagno suggested because ‘at a certain stage in his life, Sturzo realised that his play, staged at any time after the Second World War would have seemed to be an unwitting prophecy, but was given to his friend Giuseppe Spataro who realised that he had the last act when the manuscript of the first four acts was due to be published’ (De Rosa 1986, p.XIV). De Rosa adds in his preface, ‘I think that all the story of the fifth act was simply a case of an archival adventure, quite easily explained’. Sturzo had entrusted his mainly Calatine archive to ‘his brother Mario, Bishop of Piazza Armerina, when he went into exile; some manuscripts he gave to Spataro, and others he took with him, incrementing this part with the new documents produced in exile. On his return to Italy, he tried to assemble all this material, and it is quite likely that things got muddled up. I cannot exclude that, before he began to sort it all out, documents were removed or confused, but nothing which would imply a deliberate desire to make the fifth act disappear, because it is part of the logic of the play as Sturzo had conceived it’ (ibid., p.XIX). 232 Notes

8. There was a flourishing popular theatre in Sicily at the time, exemplified by the theatre of Angelo Musco and Giovanni Grasso.

6 The Popular Legitimisation of the Mafia: The Beati Paoli and the Mafioso as an Avenger

1. , socialist mayor of Corleone, director of the agrarian coop- erative movement, and great organiser of the peasant struggles to have the so-called Pact of Corleone applied, was assassinated in this town on 3 November 1915. 2. Many authors were inspired by the idea of a secret society, a theme which is still kept alive today in oral traditions. In the 18th century, the Marquis of Villabianca wrote a work, Opuscolo sui Beati Paoli, which aimed to demon- strate that the sect was not made up of avengers but of assassins; Benedetto Naselli was inspired to write a play on the subject with the same title as Natoli’s book, I Beati Paoli; and Vincenzo Linares and Giuseppe Bruno Arcaro dedicated works to the mysterious sect. Giuseppe Pitrè was also interested in the subject and collected everything that survived about the organisa- tion in the form of songs and tales. Natoli’s novel was then published in a single volume by the publishers Gutemberg of Palermo in 1921, and then in 1949 it was sold by the publishers ‘La Madonnina di Milano’, who reprinted the book in 1955. In 1947 the story became a film I cavalieri dalle maschere nere, produced by the Organizzazione Filmistica Siciliana and directed by Pino Mercanti. 3. These elements will be found again above all in The Godfather by Mario Puzo, but also in the interviews with Genco Russo, both by Sciascia and Dolci. 4. Sciascia also uses the main character in this way in Il giorno della civetta, above all in the famous conversation with Captain Bellodi. 5. This is best represented by the film version by Michael Cimino of The Sicilian, based on the novel by Mario Puzo, The Sicilian in which the story of the Sicilian bandit becomes a true defence of banditry and the ‘benign mafia’ of the day. 6. Cesareo’s play (pp.33–34).

7 Fascism and the Surrender of the Mafia, the Allied Invasion and the Return of the Villains

1. ‘U zu’ is the name given to someone who is well integrated in the mafia group. 2. In May 1924 during his first visit to the island, ‘while Mussolini’s cortege was moving through Piana dei Greci, near Palermo, the mayor, Mafioso Don Francesco Cuccia, gestured disparagingly towards the Prime Minister’s bodi- guards and muttered unctuously in his ear “You are with me, you are under my protection. Why do you need all these cops for?” The Duce did not reply and fumed for the rest of the day at the insolence’ (Dickie 2004, p.182). This episode has passed into legend as ‘catalyst for Mussolini’s war on the mafia’ (ibid.). Notes 233

3. Formerly connected to the American , he had returned to Sicily some years before and was suspected of the murder of the Italo-American policeman Joe Petrosino. 4. It is clear here that the new Nationalistic-Popular course is gaining more followers. 5. Literature and non-fiction, like art (futurist painting, sculpture and the Dannunzian superman), are strongly influenced by fascist ideology. 6. A historic character who also appears in Il Gattopardo. 7. As we will see, a similar self-portrait is drawn by Don Genco Russo in ’s Spreco, and then repeated to in an article in a daily newspaper. 8. The philosophy of Don Mariano Arena, in Il giorno della civetta. 9. Typical of the bourgeoisie, as clearly indicated in Sciascia’s Pirandello e la Sicilia (1961, pp.16–54). 10. From 1849 to an unknown date, after Aspromonte, probably c. 1875. 11. This often happened in the traditional historical novel and would also happen in Tomasi di Lampedusa’s masterpiece, Il Gattopardo. 12. This comment on the survivors of the adventure of Garibaldi is very inter- esting: ‘Heroes and not heroes, all the volunteers had been elevated morally and had acquired an awareness of their own human and social worth: all of them had conquered something and felt deep down that they had new rights to assert, without understanding what or who they were, but they felt them’ (Comandè 1930, p.224). 13. On 10 July 1943, the Allied invasion began in Sicily with a huge deploy- ment of men and resources and marked a turning point in the Second World War. This was, in fact, the first military action of the Allies (the alliance led by the , the Soviet Union and Great Britain) that took place directly in enemy territory. Two entire armies landed in Sicily (the American Seventh and the the British Eighth) and advanced quickly without meeting much opposition; in fact, by 17 August, all of Sicily had been conquered with a minimum of bloodshed. The invasion forced Italy out of the pro- Nazi coalition and on 25 July 1943 the majority of the great council (the supreme organ of the Fascist party) voted to remove Mussolini from his post as head of the regime. Immediately afterwards, the king had the former Duce arrested and formed a new government presided over by General Badoglio who signed the Armistice with the Allies, announced on 8 September 1943. 14. Cited in a number of books published in the years to come. This legend has also been used to justify the re-emergence of the mafia in Sicily after the fall of fascism in a 1993 Timewatch documentary, Allied to the Mafia: the extraor- dinary story of the Second World War’s most secret alliance between the US Naval Intelligence and the Italian . 15. After fascism, when Sicily returned to democratic life once more, the leading figures in public life who had successfully survived the dictatorship also returned to the political scene. At the end of 1943, the American Captain W.E. Scotten, former vice-consul in Sicily, wrote an important report about the mafia in Sicily called The Problem of Mafia in Sicily, which described the reappearance of these important figures: ‘the professional politicians of the pre-Fascist period are few, old and cynical, but they have the great advan- tage of experience in politics, and the networks of the old organisations 234 Notes

are at their disposal. They are particularly active in reconstructing their old patronage networks and they remain independent, tending to form their own political parties or aligning themselves with the smaller groups, such as the Liberals, the Party for Action or, better still, with the Separatists. They are prudent, never make pronouncements and play the waiting game to see which way the wind will blow. A small number are even active in the Democrazia Cristiana’ (Mangiameli 1994, p.LXII). 16. This model of indirect government had been tried out by the British in the years between the two World Wars in the tropical areas of the British Empire. This consisted in entrusting the local chiefs with administrative responsi- bility at local level and avoiding the insertion of modern elements which were foreign to tribal society. 17. An important document which has in many ways contributed to the crystal- lisation of a series of stereotypes about Sicily is the Sicily Zone Handbook 1943, a manual drawn up by the British Foreign Office just before the invasion of the Allied troops in Sicily. Designed for the officials, it contained informa- tion about various aspects of Sicily from politics to administration, religion to culture, mafia crime to the economy. The author of the text, historian Rosario Mangiameli, explains that the origin of the legend about a pactum sceleris between Americans and mafia elites to which Pantaleone refers is in large part explained by ‘a polemical disagreement between American and British about who had greater importance in the Allied military government in Sicily (in the post-war period, these polemics spread to the wider ques- tion of the handing over of power from the British to the Americans in the Mediterranean)’ (Mangiameli 2000, p.22). 18. The Comitato per l’indipendenza della Sicilia (Committee for the Independence of Italy) was founded on 28 July 1943. Among its supporters were mainly professional politicians from varied backgrounds who were some important representatives of the landowning aristocracy. 19. The movement grew up immediately after the Allied invasion, was very strong for four years, but disappeared almost completely after the admin- istrative elections of 1947. When in 1944 the Allies formally handed Sicily over to the Italian government, the reply of the separatists was to form an armed organisation called EVIS which clashed more than once with carab- inieri and the police. From this moment, strange contacts started to develop between the separatists on the one hand and the mafia and bandits on the other; many of the most famous members of the mafia of the post-war period were in the MIS, while , the bandit, was a member of the EVIS organisation. 20. The separatist movement was actually the only movement which made no mention at all of agricultural reform in its manifesto. 21. The EVIS was founded in April 1945 by the representative of the democratic wing of the independence movement, Antonio Canepa. It consisted in some 50 young men, largely students. Representatives of the separatist right-wing parties in Palermo decided to get Salvatore Giuliano involved in EVIS; he already had his own tough band, capable of carrying out terrorist actions against carabinieri and soldiers, before turning against the left-wing parties, the Camere di lavoro and defenceless peasants. Notes 235

8 The Breaking Point: Danilo Dolci and a New Image of the Mafia

1. The evidence that the Piedmontese writer provides about the forgotten South is diverse and interesting, as illustrated by Cristo si è fermato ad Eboli (1945) and Le parole sono pietre (1961), in which we find an affectionate portrait of Dolci himself. 2. Dolci, as Fontanelli observes, ‘was the real promoter of the idea of the “deep South” which we find also in Scotellaro, Butitta and others but he was free from the constrictions of a certain taste for it which dominated in many ways at that time’ (Fontanelli 1984, p.49). 3. Lucianeddu, also known as the scarlet pimpernel, as a young field guard, took over as head-mafia from old and led the Corleonese mafia in the assault on Palermo, in an open challenge to the other families of Cosa Nostra. Apart from the conquest of the illegal markets, he got rich by exploiting construction works in the city, both public and private, using his special relationship with the politician Vito Ciancimino, who was assessor and mayor of Palermo in those years of the sack of the city. He didn’t hesitate to eliminate the many obstacles he encountered, including the trade unionist , murdered in March 1948, and head-mafioso of Corleone Michele Navarra, killed in August 1958. Absolved for lack of evidence, first at Catanzaro and then at Bari in June 1969, he killed the head procurator of Palermo, , in May 1971. After a long period of hiding in the north, he was responsible for many kidnappings, including those of Luigi Rossi di Montelera, Paul Getty III, Giovanni Bulgari, and Egidio Perfetti. 4. For a detailed account of the events, see Processo all’art. 4, in the notes of A. Battaglia, N. Bobbio, P. Calamandrei, C. Levi, D. Dolci, and others (1956). 5. There were many Italo-American anthropologists and sociologists who were interested in discovering a different culture in the peasants of south Italy, on the trail of an idea which had begun after the war with the masterpiece of ’s Cristo si è fermato ad Eboli. Together with American scholars such as Frederik Friedman, George Peck and Donald Pitkin (the work of the most important American scholars can be found in the Italian edition of Banfield’s book Le basi morali di una società arretrata. Nuova edizione di una comunità del Mezzogiorno, 1976), we find intellectuals like Rocco Scotellaro who tried to overcome the sterile logic of the ‘significant example’ and intellectual pater- nalism, trying to understand the human problems and actively working towards a real change, as Scotellaro’s project Per un libro sui contadini e la loro cultura (Scotellaro 1955) in those years demonstrates. 6. Confederazione nazionale dei coltivatori diretti (Coldiretti): Italian peasant organisation with Catholic ideals, founded in 1944 and run by Paolo Bonomi until 1980. For 20 years, along with the Federconsorzi, it was a potent tool for gathering consensus for the hegemony of the DC. 7. ‘When he got out of prison, he decides to change lifestyle, he sells livestock and starts to work with his son, the trade-unionist who was killed, “We sold the animals and he worked with me for the grain. I sold the animals out of need and because I didn’t want to have any more contact with those people who didn’t want to mind their own business”‘ (Dolci 1960, p.168). 236 Notes

8. ‘Bernardino Verro was a quick, common sort; when they killed Verro, I was at the hospital at Palermo. The mafia bosses said: – “Why doesn’t he mind his own business?” – They said he was a spy because he worried about other people’s problems. They wanted him to stop. The high mafia make them do it, they have influence with the prefecture, the magistrates, the police; they emerge unscathed and the other do their orders to have favours done and prestige’ (Dolci 1960, p.171). Fascism had suffocated Verro’s ideals, and Rizzotto and his companions had grown up under fascism, and so they didn’t understand how important a trade union organisation could be. It’s important to remember the historical situation here; unlike the years of the Fasci Siciliani (of which both di Verro and head-mafioso had been members), the years under fascism had been dark days for any form of association. However, Rizzotto had built up people’s faith again and had got the peasant movement involved in a trade union, a difficult thing to do after the period of dictatorship. 9. Carlo Levi and are the other two who worry about the problem of the mafia in this period. 10. This new structure of Cosa Nostra was ‘of a federative, horizontal and vertical type, almost military and hierarchic, respecting the territorial divi- sions between the various mafia groups’ and emerged at the famous summit meeting of 12 October 1957 at the Hotel delle Palme at Palermo, where an international meeting took place with representatives of the American- (, the grand manager, Giuseppe ‘Joe Bananas’ Bonanno, and others), and the most important mafiosi of the island such as Genco Russo and Giuseppe Maggadino. The structure was improved and applied to Sicily on the basis of the previous American experience, aban- doning the old system of the cosche which were only loosely linked together, whose relationships were always mediated by the boss and who usually had decisional autonomy (Marino 1998, pp.213–14). 11. Typical of this situation is what Dolci’s collaborator says: ‘there are some thirty priests here ... there is a tradition in families of shepherds to have one son become a priest, because he has an important position. As soon as they have a son who is a priest, they become rich and respectable people’ (Dolci 1960, p.60). 12. On 20 December 1962 with Decree n.1720, the Commissione parlamentare d’inchiesta sul fenomeno della mafia in Sicilia (Anti-mafia Commission) was founded; it is still active today despite alternating fortunes. The Anti-mafia Commission collected an enormous quantity of information and research about the mafia, but the ‘political’ effects or the capacity to translate this information into effective laws were fairly poor, mainly because of the contra- dictions and resistance of the governing political parties who were more interested in covering up the complicity and links of their Sicilian represent- atives with the mafia. The Commission, set up on 14 February 1963, began work in July – in April there had been national elections – after the tragedy of Ciaculli, when a car full of explosives killed four carabinieri, two soldiers and the police marshall. 13. These allegations have been firmly rejected by the Mattarella’s family. Moreover, , the oldest son of Bernardo was killed by the mafia on the 6th of January in 1980. Piersanti Mattarella was president of the Notes 237

Sicilian regional assembly. He wanted to clean up the government’s public contracts racket that benefited Cosa Nostra and decided to launch a moral renewal of the Sicilian Christian (Stille 1995). Excellent Cadavers. The Mafia and the Death of the First Italian Republic, New York) According to his friend, the current mayor of Palermo and antimafia antivist , the rumours about his father and his party’s expe- riences with the Mafia were probably responsible for Piersanti’s aspiration to clean the Christian Democrat party of any such connections (Orlando (2003) Fighting the mafia and Renewing Sicilian culture New York: Encounter Books)

9 Leonardo Sciascia: The Writer as the Public Conscience

1. Adapted from the novel by Leonardo Sciascia, the Italian mafia crime thriller film directed by Damiano Damiani was released in 1968. In the movie, the widespread level of corruption and omertà – political, judicial and ecclesias- tical – is particularly highlighted. 2. As stated by the deputy mayor of Palermo in a famous interview with Carlo Levi which was published in Le parole sono pietre (1961, p.33). 3. For a more complete examination of the criticisms of Sciascia’s novel, please refer to N. Fano, Come leggere Il giorno della civetta (1993, pp.65–103). 4. This is basically the theory brought forward by Christopher Duggan in his essay La mafia durante il fascismo (1986, pp.15–85). 5. S. Vassalli, 1993. The novel is set in Sicily in 1893, the year of the ‘excellent’ homicide of the commendatory Emanuele Notarbartolo. 6. The controversy which aroused the debate on the fight against the mafia, exploded loudly after the publication of a famous article in the , on 10 January 1987, under the title ‘The anti-mafia professionals’ (Sciascia never wrote about anti-mafia professionals; the title was created by the newspaper’s editors). According to the maestro from Racalmuto, the great new careers (sometimes underserved) under the anti-mafia flag, exploited the indisputable anger of public opinion against the criminal phenomenon. The controversy came to life when the anti-mafia organisation (which included more than 300 members, amongst which were left-wing politicians, magis- trates, university professors, students, and relatives of victims of the mafia) attacked Sciascia and paraphrasing one of his most famous passages from Il giorno they indignantly addressed him as a ‘quaquaraquà’ – a man without qualities or personality (Collura 1996, p.339), or rather, the most ignoble type of person in his scale of individuals. Even if the controversial criterion chosen by Sciascia were correct, the name he chose, Borsellino, was the worst, bearing in mind the contextuality of the period.

10 Conclusion

1. On 13 September 1982, the Italian authorities enacted law No. 646, just a few days after the assassination at Palermo of General Dalla Chiesa, who had been sent to Sicily by the government to fight against the mafia. This law is known to ltalians as the ‘Rognoni–La Torre law’, named after one of its 238 Notes

founders, , head of the communist party in Sicily and member of the anti-mafia commission, who was also assassinated at Palermo by the mafia five months prior to Dalla Chiesa. 2. He revealed that the organisation is composed of various units called famiglie or cosche (families). They usually take their name from the area where they operate, be it a neighbourhood, cities like Palermo or , a small town or a village. A famiglia may include various members, from ten to as many as few dozen; they are called uomini d’onore (men of honour) or soldati (soldiers). They are normally organised in groups of decine (ten) managed by a (head of ten). Each famiglia is run by a capofamiglia or rappresentante (boss of the family or representative), elected by the uomini d’onore, alongside a (advisor) and a vicecapo () or sottocapo (deputy boss). The vicecapo or sottocapo, along with the consiglieri (advisors) and capidecina (heads of ten) are chosen by the family boss, but only if the size of family requires it. There are never more than three consiglieri. A gruppo (group) is formed when a famiglia is eliminated due to a conflict within the organisation. Thereafter a completely new body is created; although it is staffed by men who were not in the old family, it has essen- tially the same function as the family. The group is placed under the command of a boss nominated by the Commission. Three or more families with contiguous territories (particularly in the cities and towns) form a mandamento (district), whose own boss is appointed by the various capifamiglia, Buscetta explained. Two governing bodies operating at provincial and regional levels, the Commissione provin- ciale (provincial commission) and commissione or cupola (regional commis- sion) supervised the activities of the various families. The commissione or cupola is above the families and has a coordinating role. Its members each represent three families with adjacent territories. It is presided over by the head of one of the mandamenti, the segretario or capo commissione (secre- tary/head of commission). Buscetta designed also the organigramme of the organisation. Above all there is the regional commission, which take the most important decisions and dictates the strategic directives of the organisation. However the single families have absolute control of the territory they govern. Outside the organisation there are connected units represented by picciotti or affiliati (often petty criminals, they are not involved in mafia activities but they are tolerated and authorized by the families because they constitute a source of income for the cosche and are men waiting to become men of honour). Finally there is another broad unit of people a disposizione (available) or vicini (close). They are useful for the support of the strategic support of the organisation (see Lo Forte 2004, Grasso 2008, Scarpinato 2008, Falcone 1993). The structure hasn’t really changed in the last three decades as proved the recent note seized at Lo Piccolo’s hideout (one of the mafia bosses arrested in 2007). Bibliography

Primary texts by Sciascia: fir st editions

This list is in chronological order. All references in the thesis are to the three volumes of Sciascia’s collected opere edited by Claude Ambroise. The two excep- tions are La palma va a nord (1982) and Ore di Spagna (1988), and references to these texts in the thesis are to the editions in the list below.

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Brydone, P., Viaggio in Sicilia e a Malta, a cura di Vittorio Frosini, Milano, Longanesi, 1968. Brydone, P., A tour through Sicily and Malta in a Series of Letters to William Beckford, Esq.; of Sommerly in Suffolk; from P. Brydone, F.R.S, in two volumes, Vol. I and II, London, 1790. Bufalino, G., ‘Cere perse’ in Opere Classici Bompiani, Milano, 1992, pp. 860–64. Buttitta, I., La vera storia di Giuliano, Palermo, Sellerio, 1997. Buttitta, I., Lamintu pi la morti di Turiddu Carnivali, Palermo, Sellerio, 1997. Capuana, L., L’isola del sole, Caltanissetta, Lussografica, 1994. Capuana, L., Per l’arte, Napoli, Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 1994. Casarrubea, G., Intervista personale 18/04/2001. Cesareo, G.A., La mafia, Catania, Niccolò Giannotta, 1921. Comandè, G.M., Don Giovanni Malizia, Palermo, Sandron, 1930. De Roberto, F., I Viceré, Milano, Garzanti, 1991. Dolci, D., Fare presto (e bene) perché si muore, Torino-Firenze, De Silva, 1954. Dolci, D., Banditi a , Bari, Laterza, 1955. Dolci, D., Inchiesta a Palermo, Torino, Einaudi, 1956. Dolci, D., Spreco, Torino, Einaudi, 1960. Dolci, D., Conversazioni contadine, Torino, Einaudi, 1962. Dolci, D., Racconti siciliani, Torino, Einaudi, 1963. Dolci, D., Chi gioca solo, Torino, Einaudi, 1966. Dolci, D., Inventare il futuro, Bari, Laterza, 1968. Dolci, D., Appunti per gli amici, ciclostilato 543, Centro Studi e Iniziative, Partinico, 1971, p. 6. Dolci, D., Chissà se i pesci piangono, Torino, Einaudi, 1973. Dolci, D., Esperienze e riflessioni, Bari, Laterza, 1974. Dolci, D., Non esiste il silenzio, Torino, Einaudi, 1974. Dolci, D., Palpitare di nessi, Roma, Armando, 1985. Dolci, D., Dal trasmettere al comunicare, Milano, Sonda, 1988. Dolci, D., Gente semplice, Milano, Camunia, 1993. Dolci, D., Intervista personale, luglio, 1996. Dumas, A., Pasquale Bruno, Palermo, Bardi, 1988, pp. 12–16. Hugo, V., Hernani, Paris, Gallimard, 1995.

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Ab antiquo, 45 Associazione a delinquere (criminal Agrigento association), 122 famous antimafia speech by Austrians, 194 Mussolini, 121 Avellone Giovan Battista, 100–03 mafia in, 121, 122, 167 Austrians, 194 Alasia, Franco, 169–71, 174 Mafia benigna in, 100–03 Alatri, Paolo, 225 Algerian, 194 Balata, Ricu, 29 Baldwin, Thomas Donald, 185, 188, mafia in, 121, 161, 170 189, 199, 207, 215 Alliata, Gianfranco Prince, 143 Balestrate (town), 148 Alongi, Giuseppe VIII, 69, 217, 229 Balilla (Fascist youth organization), 198 Altwegg, Jurg, 190, 204 Banco di Sicilia, 59–61 Amari, Michele, 199 banditry, 11, 14, 23, 25, 37, 42, 43, Ambroise, Claude, 178 51, 72, 103, 105, 145, 147, 149, American, 52, 137–40, 153, 163, 190, 153, 232 233–36 bandits, 7–11, 13, 14, 16, 21, 23–25, anglo- troups, 140 37, 43, 59, 92, 137, 141, 143, anthropologist, 153, 235 148, 233 Black Hand, 223, see Black Hand Banfield, Edward, 153, 235 criminals, 89 Amoral Familism in, 153 Italo policeman, 89, 138, 233 Barone, Giuseppe, 61, 63, 63, 64, 230 mafia, 137, 233 Beckford, William, 11, 12 Sicilian mafia, 236 Berber, 196 Ammafiata, 5, 50 Belpoliti, Marco, 182 ancient regime, 19 Biagi, Enzo, 99 ANPI (Italian Partisan organisation), (town), 89, 163 155 Black Hand, 5, 89, 233 anti-mafia, 2, 22, 79, 80, 127, 138, Block, Anton, 226 147, 148, 150, 151, 155, 158, Bobbio, Norberto, 151, 235 169–71, 174, 181, 209, 210–12, Bocca, Giorgio, 241 217, 224, 236–38 Sciascim in, 210, 228, 229 Commission, 138, 169, 171, Boissevain, Jeremy, 229 236, 238 Bologna (town), 39, 40, 122 judges, 127, 217, 224 Notarbartolo’s trial in, 40, 64–66, manifesto, 224 68, 69 movement, 155, 169, 174, 211, 212 Bonanno, Joseph, 236 novel, 2, 181 Etymology of the Cosa Nostra by, 5 Apostolica Legazia, 10 Bonfadini, Romualdo, 38, 39, 69, 78, Arlacchi, Pino, 98 81, 228 Arlacchi and pentiti, 99, 219 enquiry, 25, 38, 39, 41, 42, 46 Arlacchi against Sciascia, 222, 223, Borgo (neighbourhood of Palermo), 225, 229 4, 49, 50

251 252 Index

Borsellino, Paolo, 147 Verismo in, 70, 71, 74–82 , 147, see also Maxi Trial Carabinieri, 109, 111, 119, 142, 143, murder of, 224 168, 187, 188, 197, 224, 236 Bourbon (dynasty), 17, 21, 23, 26, 29, Caracciolo, Domenico (viceroy of 30, 31, 33, 34, 37, 39, 79, 102, Sicily), 6, 17 130–32, 134, 226 Carboneria, 31 Bravacci (thugs), 94 Carini, 88 Brigandage, 9, 10, 18, 19, 21–25, 48, Carnevale, Salvatore, 145, 155, 217 51, 56, 70, 76, 78, 92, 93, 230 Casarrubbea, Giuseppe, 160, 161 British Foreign office, 234 Cascio Ferro, Vito, 89, 124, 126, 163 Brydone, Patrick, 11–16 Cascittuni (traitor, supergrass), 54 analysis of Sicily by, 11–16 Cassa Comune (communal fund), 20 Cultura criminale in, 16 Cassa del Mezzogiorno (State funds Mafia ante-litteram in, 11, 12, 16, 225 for the South of Italy), 154 Bufalino, Gesualdo, 239 Cassará, Nini’, 220 on Sciascia, 178, 229, see also Sciascia Castellammare, 148 Buscetta, Tommaso, 98, 99, 100, 215, Castiglione, Blasco (character in the 221, 222, 223, 238 popular novel), 96 Buttitta, Ignazio, 235 Castiglione Father (catholic priest close to the boss Genco Russo), 165 Caccamo (town), 59, 61 Castiglione Francesco Paolo, 8 , 77 Castro, Americo, 194 Calamandrei, Pietro, 235 Catalonia, 194 Calderone, Antonino, 99, 222 Catania, 6, 26, 81, 229 Caltagirone, 81, 82, 87, 122 Catanzaro, Raimondo, 227, 235 Caltanissetta, 103, 120, 141, 167, 190 client and protector/patron Cammarata (town), 154, 167 relationship in, 176 Camorra, 4, 28, 29, 33, 34, 39, 51, 56, Caterina La Licatisa, 3 78, 230 Catholic Church, 10, 15, 26, 139, Camorrista, 29–33, 35, 51, 55, 56, 227 164–68, 172–74, 183, 189, 190, Campanilismo (exaggerated local 200, 202, 225 pride), 68 Cattedra, Nicola, 138 Campieri (field guards), 10, 11, 18, 43, Cesareo, Giovanni Alfredo, 126, 132, 123, 128 180, 187, 201 , Prince of, 64 mafia and Fascism in, 100, 103–06, Cancilia, Orazio, 6, 7 110, 112–17 Candeloro, Giorgio, 231 Charles V, 194 Candida, Renato, 3, 181, 182 Chemello, Adriana, 155 Cantastorie (street singers), 24 Ciancimino, Vito, 153, 235 Capitini, Aldo, 151 Ciluffo, Filippo, 213 Capuana, Luigi, 40, 70–79, 81, 82, Cimino, Michael, 232 100–02, 105, 106, 125, 126, 216, Civlli (civilians), 18, 19, 21, 73, 76, 94, 226, 231 145, 175 debate about Franchetti’s enquiry Clientelism, 26, 58, 82 in, 72, 75, 76, 81 Cocca (of Turin), 40 debate about the mafia in, 70–71 Colajanni, Napoleone, 63, 65, 69, 70, Notarbartolo affair in Capuana, 129, 79–81, 121, 217 137, 181, 184, 187, 199, 200, 203 Coldiretti (Italian peasants Pitré theory in, 70–78 organization), 153, 235 Index 253

Collura, Matteo, 180, 237 De Roberto, Federico, 135, 199 Colombo, Gherardo, 218 I Viceré by, 26, 25 Colonna Di Cesaró, Gabriele (Duke), 25 Democrazia Cristiana, 141, 143, 153, 234 Comandè, Giovanni Maria, 130–34, Di Bella, Calogero, Parrinieddu 136, 137, 201, 233 (character in Sciascia’s novel Il Commissione Parlamentare Antimafia giorno della Civetta), 183, 186 (Parliamentary Antimafia Di Bella, Saverio, 18, 28, 35, 216, 227 Commission), 169, 170 Di Rudini’, Marquis of, 227, 230, see Compagnie d’armi (privately hired Starabba gangs), 7, 10, 11, 19 Dickie, John, 219 Conca d’Oro, 87 Disonore (dishonor), 55 Consolo, Vincenzo, 135 Dizionario di Storia, 225 Conti, Rosario, 229 Do ut des (tit-for-tat), 176 Corleone (town), 90, 122, 140, Dolci, Danilo, 1, 2, 145–66, 168–79, 146–48, 153–55, 157–60, 165, 189, 213, 215, 217, 218, 221, 232, 215, 219, 220, 232, 235 235, 236 Anthony, 226 Duggan, Christopher, 118, 124, 237 Corleonesi (mafia group), 215, 219, 220 Dumas, Alexandre, 13, 92, 93 Correnti, Santi, 6 Dutch (jurists), 52 Corriere della sera (daily newspaper), 62, 237 Eco, Umberto, 94, 96–98 Corruption, 20, 37, 68, 71, 76, 105, Emilian, 185, 214 123, 132, 182, 213, 218, 237 Encyclopedie, 11 Corte di Napoli, 11 England, 26, 139, 182 Cosa Nostra, 138, 147, 212, 218, English, 22, 133, 134, 162, 178, 228 219, 219 troops in Sicily, 18 definition of, 5 ERAS (Ente per la Riforma Agraria internal structure of, 220–24, in Sicilia, body for agricultural 236, 237 reform in Sicily), 153–54 origins of, 98–99 European, 11, 16, 74 under the Corleonesi, 220, see also literature, 91 Corleonesi Naturalism, 72, 231 Covoni, General, 36 EVIS (voluntary army for Sicilian Crisantino, Amelia, 9, 231 independence), 141–43, 234 Crispi, Francesco, 21, 30–32, 61, 69, 72, 102, 131, 132, 237 Facinorosi (Mafiosi and delinquents), Croce di Costantino, la (newspaper), 15, 45 81, 83 Falcone, Giovanni, 127, 218, 238 Cronache Sociali (journal), 148 challenging the mafia mystique in, Cultura criminale (criminal culture), 16 210, 224 Cuneo (town), 106 Cosa Nostra secrecy, 223 Cusumano, Geloso, 143 as an ethnologist, 219 Cutrera, Antonino, 68, 69, 162 Falcone’s method, 221, 222 Fascism and the mafia in, 147 Dalla Chiesa, Carlo (general), 237, 238 Generation Falcone, 224 Dalla Chiesa, Nando, 67, 212 mafia as ‘interiorized value’ in, 198 D’Angelo, Gioacchino, 3, 27, 35 mafioso mentality in, 212 D’Azeglio, Massimo, 93 Pentiti in, 221–23 De Giuffrida, Felice, 63 structure of Cosa Nostra in, 223 254 Index

Fano, Nicola, 237 Naturalism, 71, 226, 231 Farrell, Joseph, 209 Friedman, Frederick, 235 Fasci Siciliani (Sicilian Fasci), 72, Frosini, Vittorio, 3, 12 89, 236 Funciazza, Iachinu, 27–33, 227 Fascism, 118–25, 127–31, 133, 135–37, 139, 140–43, 163, 169, 188, 191, Gabella, 156, 226 192, 198, 202, 217, 232, 233, Gabelloti, 8, 9, 15, 18, 19, 43, 67, 81, 236, 237 89, 120, 122, 128, 140, 142, 162 Ferdinando IV (king), 18 Galantuomini (gentlemen), 33 Ferrara, Norma, 224 Galt, William, 91, see also Luigi Natoli Feudalism, 8, 18, 19, 21, 23, 25–27, Gambetta, Diego, 99, 196, 227 41, 45, 78, 177, 226 Gangi (town), 9 abolition of, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25–27, siege of, 122, 124 29, 31, 33, 35, 45, 226 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 3, 6, 21, 23, 26, Feuilleton, 93, 98 28, 34, 37, 131, 132, 233 Filippello, Matteo, 62 Garzone di malavita, (low-life Finocchiaro Aprile, Andrea, 142, 143 characters), 29 First World War, 103, 118, 120, 140 Gattopardo (il) (book), 23, 27, 194, Fiume, Giovanna, 226 216, 233 Fleres, Santo, 147 Gazzetta d’Italia (newspaper), 229 Florentine, 2, 28 Genco Russo, Giuseppe, 119, 124, Florio, family, 64, 66, 231 140, 154, 162–69, 189–91, 199, Fo, Dario, 85 201, 232, 233, 236 Fontana, Giuseppe, 62, 64, 65, 230 Gentile Sara, 192, 207 Fontanelli, G., 235 German, 46, 52, 140, 163, 207, Fracassa (newspaper), 63 225, 226 Franchetti, Leopoldo, 16, 35, 43–47, Ghetti Abbruzzi, G., 186 55, 78, 228–30 Giarrizzo, Giuseppe, 224 and Bonfafini enquiry, 69, see Ginsborg, Paul, 224 Bonfadini Giolitti, Giovanni, 61, 72, 90, 140 Cascittuni (traitor) in, 54 Giornale di Sicilia (Il), 91, 117 mafia as an ‘industry of violence’, Beati Paoli in, 69 in, 41–70 pro-Sicilia committee in, 66 mafia as an organized crime group Giorno (ll), 63 in, 46, 75 Giovani d’onore (honoured young mystification of the mafia in, 113, 116 men), 55 Pitré, see Pitré Girgenti (town), 82 private enquiry on the mafia, 38, Giuliano, Salvatore, 24, 87, 115, 141, 45, 47, 70, 75, 92, 106, 217 143, 147, 153, 161, 234 Sicilianist ideology, in, 203, see Godfather (the) 232 sicilianismo Gramsci, Antonio, 98, 161 and Sonnino Sidney, 8, 41–43, 69, Grasso, Giovanni, 232 70, 72, 76 Grasso, Pietro, 238 Vendetta in, 55 Greek tragegy, 186 Fratellanze, 19, 20, 216, see Grida and prammatiche Brotherhood (proclamations), 10, 225 French, 13, 31, 48, 49, 178, 198, Gualtiero, Filippo, 4, 37 225, 228 Gullo (laws), 142 literature, 72, 75, 92, 93 Guttuso, Renato, 151 Index 255

Hess, Henner, 3, 164, 207, 229 Li Causi, Girolamo, 160, 161 mafioso behaviour in, 46, 163 Li Puma, Epifanio, 145 Hobsbawm, Eric, 162, 163, 181 Liberation Committee, 163, 190 mafioso as primitive rebel, 22, 24 Liggio, Luciano, 148, 153 Homines novi (new men), 29, 60 Linares Antonio (bandit), 92 honoured society, 7, 132 Linares Vincenzo, 91, 232 Hotel delle Palme, 162, 236 Lo Forte, Guido, 238 Hugo, Victor, 92 Lodato, Saverio, 219 Lombardy (region), 63, 101, 127, 196 Incognito (an unknownn, mysterious Lombroso, 229 character), 30–34, 115, 227 Loschiavo, Giuseppe Guido, 3, 27, 28, Infami (infame, vile), 28, 52, 54, 229 29, 30, 31, 33, 118, 169, 227 Informatore Parlamentare, 171 Louis XIV, 194 Ingroia, Antonio, 219 Lucky, Luciano, 5, 90, 138, 148, inquisition, 12, 17, 211 153, 236 Inteso (feared figure of authority), 29 Lumia, Luigi, 199 Italians, 34, 53, 62, 73, 81, 93, 171, Lupo, Salvatore, 38, 43, 44, 46, 52, 179, 226 103, 119–22, 130, 141, 162, 169, Italy, 4, 5, 11, 22, 25, 29, 30, 38, 41, 219, 227 49, 50, 51, 63, 72, 75–77, 82, 88, democratisation of violence, in, 44 93, 101, 106, 130, 134, 136, 138, new interpretation of the mafia, 22 139–41, 143, 146, 147, 149, 150, structure of the cosca, 229 173, 177, 180, 181, 185, 194, 218, 226, 228, 231, 233–35 McClellan Commission, 5 Southern, 22 Mack Smith, Denis, 37, 226 United, 25, 29 Madrid, 10 Maestranze (early forms of trade Jato, San Giuseppe (town), 148 unions), 6, 225 maestro (primary school teacher), Kermode, Frank, 182 211, 237 maffia, 3, 4, 5, 48, 229 La Duca, Rosario, 98 mafia La Torre, Pio, 207, 218, 221, 222, 237, agrarian, 154, 162 238 ideology, 94, 133 Rognoni law, 221, 222, 237 in odore di (reeking of mafia), 62 Lajolo, Davide, 181 liberal, 120, 122 Lampa (tribute to be paid to the head- mafia alta (high), 24, 49, 236 camorrista in prison), 35, 227 mafia, Arabic origin of the word, 3, Latifundia (large estates in the hands of 193, 224 a single owner), 8, 22, 26, 41, 120, mafia and bandits, 43, 234 153, 154, 162, see also latifondi; mafia bassa (low), 24 latifondisti, 8, 22, 26, 41, 120 mafia benigna (good), 40, 47, 100, Lazio, 77 136, 232 Leonardo, Don, 29–33 mafia brigandage, 21 Leopard (the) (book), 23, 27, 128, 173, cosche (groupings), 19, 80, 85, 89, 216, see also Il Gattopardo 90, 104, 120, 123, 126, 141, 148, Levi, Carlo, 146, 151, 155, 235, 222, 236, 238 236, 237 mafia brotherhood, 12, 13, 19, 80, 89, Lewis, Norman, 5 see also fratellanze 256 Index mafia crime, 62, 179, 221, 234, 237 mentality, 11, 46, 200, 212, see mafia culture, 69, 80, 209 behaviour mafia delinquency, 22, 39, 124 political-mafioso connection, 10, 105 mafia maligna (bad), 48 proto-mafioso phenomenon, 6, 8, mafia (new), 103, 118, 136 17, 91 mafia novels, 1, 2, 4, 12–14 as Robin Hood, 113, 133, 147 mafia octopus, 77, 78, 149, 177 Sicilian mafioso middle-class, 26, mafia (old), 118, 130, 133, 136, 27, 58 160, 220 mafiun or uomo piccino (small minded mafia and omertá, 28, 57, 70, 77, or petty person), 2 102, 137 mafiusa, 4, 5, 50 mafia organisation, 84, 171 mafiusedda, 4, 50 mafia patronage, 137, 154, 155, 156, mafiusu (mafioso), 3, 27, 50, 51, 102, 166, 174, 175 229 mafia plays, 2, 11 Magrì, Enzo, 62, 63 romantic, 91, 114, 201 maha, 3 mafia and politics, 28, 61, 63, 65, 67, mahias, 3 69, 85, 107, 169, 217, 230 malfattori (delinquents), 42 mafia spirit, 6, 7, 11, 13, 14, 40, 48, man of honour, 57, 103, 105, 108, 56, 57, 67, 68, 78, 79, 80, 97, 99, 112, 126, 131, 132, 222, 230 100, 105, 129, 130, 135, 145, 187, Mangano, Vincent, 5 194, 216, 222, 225 Mangiameli, Rosario, 21–22, 147, 148, mafia structure, 220, 223 161, 234 mafia system, 47, 176 indirect rule in, 139 mafia violence, 168, 176, 193 Sicilian brigandage in, 21 war, 219 maniera di essere (way of being), 45 mafioso, 3, 5, 9, 10, 17, 22, 24–28, Mantua (town), 200 35, 41, 45–47, 50–52, 57–59, Manzoni, Alessandro, 96, 215 61, 62, 67, 70, 76, 78–80, 86, Marchesano, Tommaso Leone, 143 89, 90, 99, 101–05, 111–17, Marino, Giuseppe Carlo, 25, 39, 144, 126–28, 130, 131, 133, 134, 154, 228, 236 137, 147, 148, 150, 162, 170, Sicilianism in, 68 172, 174–76, 178, 180, 181, 1 Marsala (region), 3 84, 187–89, 194, 195, 197, 199, Marsala (town), 25 200, 204, 206, 207, 209, 211, Marsala (wine), 231 212–14, 216, 221, 228–30, 232, Martoglio, Nino, 83 235, 236, theatre of, 103 as avenger, 30, 35, 89, 92, 96–98, Marxist p., 22, 145, 162 100, 103, 108, 116, 131, 155, Mascagni, Pietro, 226 200, 232 masonic organisation, 19, 77, 203 behaviour, 2, 7, 46, 47, 184, 189 Massari, Monica, 219 bourgeoisie, 22, 23, 24, 26, 63, 180, Masticusu, Turiddu, 29 181, 194, 211 Mastro (master), 33, 73, 74 classic mafioso, 30, 174 Mattarella, Bernardo, 143, 169–73, definition of, 3, 5, 41, 45, 46, 50–52, 236 57, 67, 70, 76, 78, 80–82 Piersanti, 236 dishonourable mafioso, 134 Maupassant, Guy de, 75 feeling, 82, 180, 181, 195, 199 Mauro, Giorgio ideology, 2, 67 (mafioso in the play Lamafia), 109 Index 257

Maxi trial, 221, 223, 224 Mussolini, Benito (il Duce), 120–23, Mazzamuto, Pietro, 71, 181, 227 191, 232, 233 literarary representation of the (town), 140, 162, 163, 165, mafia by, 130, 131, 145 166, 168, 189, 190 men of honour, 14, 32, 148, 172, 223, 224, 234, 238 Naples, 11, 23, 28, 29, 40, 112, 227 Menfi (town), 154 Natoli, Luigi, 2, 91, 95, 96, 98, 132, see Mero e misto impero, 8, 225 also the pseudonym William Galt Mezzogiorno (Southern Italy), 51, 72, Navarra, Michele, 140, 147, 159, 235 154, 228, 236 neorealism, 185 Middle Ages, 45, 99 Nicastro, Guido, 227 Milan, 87, 101, 196, 225–27 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 96, 192 Notarbartolo’s trial in, 62–64, 68 Norman, 196 Milanese, 62, 76 Notabili (influential people), 38, Mineo (town), 72, 77, 231 68, 228 Mineo, Nicolo’, 231 Notarbartolo, Emanuele, 59–64, 67, Capuana in, 72, 77 68, 79, 237 Miraglia, Accursio, 146, 155, 160, 169, affair, 40, 50, 58 182, 204 trial, 79, 81, 82, 85, 89, 90, 217, 230 Mirto, Prince of, 230 Notarbartolo, Luigi, 230 MIS (Movement for the independence Novacco, Domenico, 2, 3, 4, 10, of Sicily), 141, 142, 234 152, 225 Monastra, Rosa Maria, 104, 114, Novara (town), 130 116, 135 Nunzio, Don, 29–30 La mafia (play) by Cesareo in Monastra, 104, 114, 116 omertá (code of silence), 28–30, 32, Monarchic party p., 143 35, 45, 46, 49, 52, 54–57, 64, 68, Monreale (town), 27, 87, 122, 130, 70, 74, 77, 78, 82, 83, 84, 86, 102, 132, 136 105, 106, 125–27, 129, 132, 137, Montanelli, Indro, 168 155, 156, 157, 158, 161, 172, 174, interview with Don Calogero 176, 188, 187, 195, 214, 217, 222, Vizzini by, 168 229, 237 Montecitorio, 81, 82 degenerate omertá, 127 Montelepre (town), 141, 147, 148 pure omertá, 125–27, 129, 137 Morello, Vincenzo, 62 omineità (manliness), 57, 129, 184 Mori, Cesare, 163, 201 omu (man), 55, 57, 58, 111 degenerate form of omertá, 125, Onofri, Massimo, 1, 2, 51, 52, 106, 114, 126, 127, 128, 134, 136 121, 129, 130–35, 208, 226, 232 Fascism and mafia, 1, 118, 121, 122, Opera Nazionale Balilla, 198 123, 124, 125, 155, 188, 201, 202, Ora, l’ (newspaper), 66, 145 206, 217 Organizzazione Filmistica Siciliana, 232 Mosca, Gaetano, 60, 64, 67, 230 Orlando, Andrea (Socialist militant in Sicilianism in, 67, 69, 70, 80, Corleone killed by the mafia), 90 81, 115 Orlando, Leoluca, 237 Mosca Gaspare (authour of I Mafiusi Orlando, Vittorio Emanuele, 116, di la Vicaria), 3, 27, 30, 51 117, 119 Motta, Duke (of) in I Beati Paoli, 95, 96 Mu afah, 3 Pactum sceleris, 137, 138, 234 Munna, Liborio, 170 Padovani, Michelle, 198, 212 258 Index

Palermo, 3, 4, 8, 11, 15, 20, 21, 24, Poe, Edgar Allan, 179 27–31, 33, 35–37, 40, 43, 44, 47, Portella della Ginestra (massacre), 49–51, 56, 59–66, 68, 71, 77, 79, 143, 148 81, 87, 89, 91, 99–101, 121, 122, Positive Realism, 71 125, 126, 130, 132, 134, 144, 146, Positivism, 71, 227, 228 149–52, 154, 155, 162–64, 167, Pro-Sicilia 172–74, 177, 183, 193, 195, 200, Committee, 50, 65, 66, 68 205, 211, 212, 219, 221, 225–30, Manifesto, 66 232, 235–38 proto-mafia, 7, 9, 11, 216 Pantaleone, Michele, 120, 137, 173, Provenzano, Bernardo, 219, 220 215, 234, 236 Puccio-Den, Deborah, 221–24 Parma (town), 40, 183–85, 196 Pugnalatori (of Parma), 40 Partinico, 88, 122, 146–50, 152, 154, Puzo, Mario, 232 160, 161, 169 Partito Popolare Italiano, 80–82, 141 Quasimodo, Salvatore, 199 Paterson, Harriet, 221, 223 PCI (), Ravenna (town), 39, 40 160, 161 Renaissance, 200 Peck, George, 235 Renda, Francesco, 7, 12, 24, 63, 64, Pedone, Salvatore, 227 69, 90, 138, 161, 226 Pelavet, Monte, 143 resistance, 40, 102, 119, 139, 155, 183, Petrosino, Joe, 89, 233 185, 236 Pezzino, Paolo, 7, 19, 20, 48, 54, 57, Riina, Toto’, 219, 220 58, 89, 138, 141, 229 Risorgimento, 17, 21, 23, 26, 27, 30, Sicilian Brigandage in, 21–24 32, 33, 131, 136, 227 Piana dei Greci (town), 232 Rizzotto, Giuseppe, 3, 24, 27–32, 34, Piazza Armerina (town), 231 35, 40, 51, 65, 70, 101, 115, 131, Picciotti (young thugs), 21, 148, 187, 216, 227, 229 220, 238 Rizzotto, Placido, 145, 146, 155–60, Picciotto di sgarro (petty criminal), 29 169, 217, 235, 236 Piedmontese, 2, 4, 29, 36, 77, 78, 79, , 154 196, 235 Roman Curia, 10, 225 Pilo, Rosolino, 102 Romano, Saverio Francesco, 93, 227 Pirandello, Luigi, 122, 149, 181, 193, (town), 39, 40, 51, 61, 81, 83, 199, 211, 233 88, 98, 102, 103, 115, 131, 151, Pisciotta, Gaspare, 143, 144 170, 174, 183, 184, 214, 225 Pitkin, Donald, 235 Ruffini Ernesto (Cardinal), 172–74, 200 Pitrè, Giuseppe, 4, 5, 28, 40, 184, 200, Pastorale of, 173, 105 203, 229, 230, 232 concept of omertá, in, 56–57 Sand, George, 92, 93 definition of mafia in, 4, 5 Sangiorgi (questor), 230 Franchetti’s enquiry in, 70 Sant’Anna theatre, 35, 216 pro-Sicilia committee in, 65 Sant’Uffizio (religious tribunal), 17 theory on the mafia, 40, 49–57, 62, Sapegno, Natalino, 231 65, 66, 67, 69, 74, 78, 79, 81, 91, Saracen (tribe), 3 94, 100–02, 116, 124–27, 129, , Kingdom of, 36 130, 131, 133, 137, 143, 171, 180, Savarese, Nino, 199 207, 215, 217, 225, 227 Savoy (dinasty), 29, 34, 36, 37 Pizzu (protection money), 30, 35 Sbirri (police), 29 Index 259

Scaglione, Pietro, 235 151–55, 158–60, 164, 168, 169, Scalea, Prince of, 230 172–74, 176–82, 184–86, 190, Scarpinato, Roberto, 224, 238 193, 194, 196, 198–200, 203, 204, Scelba, Mario, 143 206–10, 212, 214, 216, 217, 219, Schneider, Jane and Schneider, Peter, 225, 226, 229, 230–34, 236–38 229 Siena, San Bernardino da, 181 Sciacca (town), 146, 155, 160, 182, 190 Signori, 8, 21 Sciara (town), 155 Silone, Ignazio, 146, 151 Sciascia, Leonardo, 1–3, 87, 177–85, Smaferi (Word mafia in Tuscany), 4 215, 221, 222, 229, 232, 233, 237 Socialist Party, 66, 157 critics against Il Giorno della sociological studies on the mafia, 1, Civetta, 209–13 146, 149, 153, 175, 179, 189, 210 mafia bourgeois class, 22–24 Somerset, Duke of, 182 mafia and fascism in, 122–24 Spagnoletti, Giovanni, 151, 152 mafia in, 201–07 Spanish, 17, 94, 194, 198 on the mafia bosses in, 187–93, monarchy, 8, 10 208–10 Spannucchiatu, Toto, 29 origin of the mafia in, 6 Spinazzola, Vincenzo?, 71 origin of the word mafia in, 3 Squadracce (of Ravenna or Bologna), romantic mafia in, 110, 114, 117 39–40 Sicilianismo in, 28, 53, 74–79, 194–99 Starabba, Antonino, 30, 47, 227, see Scotellaro, Rocco, 235 also Di Rudini’ Scotsman, 2, 15 Sturzo, Luigi, Don, 1, 2, 70, 79, 80–83, Scott, Walter, 92–93 85, 87, 88, 217, 231 Scotten, W.E., 233 Sue, Eugene, 93 Scottish Superman, 96, 98, 184, 233 Englightnment, 12 Nobleman, 12 Tajani, Diego, 37, 38 Traveller, 11–13, 15, 216 Teatro Massimo, 226 writer, 7, 12, 15 Termini Imerese (town), 61 Second World War, 79, 142, 172, Terrail, Ponson du, 94 231, 233 Tessitore, Giovanni, 8, 10, 46, 228 Sedara, Calogero, 23 Timewatch (documentary), 233 Separatism (Sicilian), 138, 140, 143, 161 Tomasi di Lampedusa, Giuseppe, 194, Sicari (of Rome), 39–40 216, 233 Sicilian mafia, 1, 5, 15, 22, 29, 59, 88, Traina, Antonino, 4, 49 101, 103, 122, 138, 189, 221, 236 Trapani, 37, 119, 121, 170, 238 Sicilianism, 40, 49, 58, 59, 67, 68, 72, Grand criminal Court of, 19 105, 117, 129, 139, 194, 199, 200, (town), 147, 162, 173 209, 217, 230 Trazzera (old council road not Sicilianismo, 23, 28, 217, see asphalted), 150 Sicilianism Tribuna di Roma (newspaper), 62 Sicilitude (the feeling of being Trieste (town), 146, 173 Sicilian), 199, 200, 211 Trombadori, Antonello, 151 Sicily, 1–12, 15–18, 20, 22–24, 26, 28, Tronto (river), 63 30, 31, 36–50, 53, 56, 58, 62–81, Turin (town), 40, 237 83, 87, 90–94, 98–104, 106–08, turris eburnea (ivory tower), 178 110, 114–22, 124, 126–28, Tuscan, 4, 41, 44, 47, 49, 72, 76, 77 130–32, 137–42, 146, 147, 149, Tuzet, Helene, 11, 12, 13 260 Index

Ucciardone (prison), 144, 226 Vespers (Sicilian), 99 Ulloa P. Calà, 19, 20 Vicaria (old prison of Palermo), 3, 6, umiltá (humility), 55, 56 17, 26–35, 48, 51, 65, 180, United States of America, 10, 200, 226, 227 219, 233 Villabate (town), 61, 62, 230 Uomini d’onore, 14, 238, see also men Villafranca Prince of, 12–15 of honour Villagrazia (town), 87 Uomo di panza, 109 Villalba (town), 103, 120, 138, 140, Uomo di rispetto (man of respect), 14, 164, 167 120 Villari, Pasquale, 38, 121, 228, 231 Uzeda (family), 26 Viterbo (town), 77, 143 Vittorini, Elio, 150, 151, 199 Val Demoni, 12 Vizzini, Calogero, Don Caló, 103, 119, Valachi, Joseph, 5 120, 139–41, 160, 162, 163, 168, Vassalli, Sebastiano, 209–12, 237 169, 236 Verdura (Duke of), 61 Voce comunista, la (newspaper), 160 Verga, Giovanni, 71, 73, 74, 81, 101, Volpe, Calogero, 162, 171 149, 181, 199, 226, 227 Verismo, 70, 71, 226, 231 Zaccagnini, Benigno, 167 Sicilian, 28, 71, 74, 82 zizza (well turned out), 50 Veronese, Antonella, 96 Zola, Emile, 71, 226 Verro, Bernardino, 90, 157, 232, 236 zu (uncle), 30, 33, 120, 232