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Combined Paper Copyright by Enrique Gilbert-Michael Maestas 2003 The Dissertation Committee for Enrique Gilbert-Michael Maestas Certifies that this is the approved version of the following dissertation: Culture and History of Native American Peoples of South Texas Committee: Martha Menchaca, Supervisor Douglas Foley Maria Franklin Inés Hernandez-Avíla Deward Walker, Jr. Culture and History of Native American Peoples of South Texas by Enrique Gilbert-Michael Maestas, B.A., M.A. Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of The University of Texas at Austin in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Texas at Austin May 2003 Dedication For the Indigenous peoples who have not survived the Native American Holocaust in hopes that the dignity of their travails presented here provides a foundation for Native American people who have survived and continue to set the path down for those to come to give thanks and to remember. Acknowledgements First agradecimiento is to the Creator for which we all live. Second agradecimiento goes to the ancestors and elders who have built lives and families for which we have history and a world of possibilities. Most of all I am thankful to my beautiful wife Lucila Contreras Maestas for her patience and support and to Filiberto “TLITLICHE” Chacón, Enrique JoseKUAUHTLI, LuzTLANEZI, and JesúsTEKUANI. Thank you mother, Vercila Chacón and father, Henrique Gilberto Maestas for all of your help. To the Indígena: Lipan, Mexica, Azteca, Chichimeca, Pamaque, Coahuilteca, Apache, Carrizo, and other Native Americans who shared their oral traditions and answered some very difficult questions. Thanks to the Cualgahen Nde for the courage and dedication that they have instilled in Daniel Castro Romero, Jr. to tell the story of survival. Special thanks goes to Martha Menchaca, the supervisor of this project. Thank you also for your support and guidance in helping to make sure that so many of us achieve the degree completion that we came here to accomplish. Thanks to Doug Foley for experienced insight, Maria Franklin for opening the doors to new constructions of the past, Inés Hernandez-Avila for encouragement, and Thomas Hester for inspiring rigorous expectations. Thanks goes out to Deward Walker, Jr. for the foresight and courage to think and walk ahead and wait for me at the next crossing. Many things could never have come together without you. To Pam Becker, Celeste Neathery, Jennifer Jones and the v Anthropology Department office staff for turning the wheels and to Dr. James Brow for providing consistent and supportive leadership. Thanks for gracious and invaluable archival and library support goes to the archivists at the Center for American History and Benson Latin American Collection at UT, the Bexar County Archives, and Texas General Land Office, as well as the secretaries at TARL, and the many workers in all of these collections that made this research possible. Specifically, Galen, Alfred Rodriguez, John Wheat, and the staff at the Center for American History. I am grateful for the financial support provided by the Ford Foundation, the Graduate Opportunity Program at UT, Department of Anthropology at UT, Lipan Apache Band of Texas, and Accounting Services of Denver. vi Culture and History of Native American Peoples of South Texas Publication No._____________ Enrique Gilbert-Michael Maestas, Ph.D. The University of Texas at Austin, 2003 Supervisor: Martha Menchaca This study documents the origins and migrations of the Cuelgahen Nde Lipan Apache of Texas and the survival of Texas Indian culture among Mexican and Mexican American people. The study provided the data for three findings. First, Nde (Apache) buffalo hunters are ancestors of Chief Cuelga de Castro and the Cuelgahen Nde Lipan Apache of Texas are his descendants. Second, Cuelgahen Nde are historically and culturally affiliated with Native American anti-colonial alliances in south Texas and northeastern Mexico that constitute a historical context, through which the Lipan learned a form of ceremonial observance from the Carrizo that became the foundation for the Native American Church and other twentieth century examples of the religious use of peyote. Third, Native American people of South Texas affiliated with Mexican and Mexican American history and culture presently integrate family traditions into Native American purification lodges, dance traditions, and the religious use of peyote. In all, this study documents Native American cultural survival and revitalization among people known as Mexicanos, Mexicans, Chicanos, Mexican Americans, and American Indians by way of a common genealogical, historical, and cultural affiliation with prehistoric, colonial, and modern Mexican and Texas Indians. vii Table of Contents List of Tables........................................................................................................xiii List of Figures....................................................................................................... xiv List of Illustrations ................................................................................................ xv INTRODUCTION: RECOVERING HISTORY AND CULTURE OF TEXAS INDÍGENA 1 Indigenous Social History..............................................................................2 San Antonio Flavor.........................................................................................7 My Theoretical Stance and Rejection of Mestizaje......................................12 Ethnohistory and Emergence........................................................................16 Native Anthropology....................................................................................18 Auto-Ethnography........................................................................................21 The Chapters.................................................................................................23 PART ONE - ANCESTRY OF THE CUELGAHEN NDE 27 Chapter 1: Ethnohistoric Method and Theory......................................................27 Historical and Anthropological Frameworks ...............................................29 Native American Diaspora..................................................................30 Origins and Migrations ........................................................................31 Historical Survey Techniques.......................................................................34 Bibliographical Note ....................................................................................38 Emergence of the Cuelgahen Nde ................................................................39 Cuelcahen Nde and the Gran Apacheria ......................................................40 Chapter Summary.........................................................................................43 Chapter 2 - Nde Origins: Buffalo Hunters ............................................................44 Nde Buffalo Hunter Origins .........................................................................46 From Caribou to Buffalo Hunters........................................................47 viii Nde Buffalo Hunter Shelter and Food Production..............................49 Nde Buffalo Hunters on the Southern Plains: 1400-1540............................55 Rejecting 1525 as an Entry Date for Nde Buffalo Hunters.................56 Nde Buffalo Hunters in Eastern New Mexico.....................................60 Southern Buffalo Hunter Trade Networks Before 1540......................62 Nde Buffalo Hunter Pottery........................................................64 Southern Plains Buffalo Hunters on Foot 1540-1542 ..................................69 Teya 1540 ............................................................................................70 Querecho 1541 Part I...........................................................................72 Teya 1541 ............................................................................................73 Querecho and Teya 1541.....................................................................73 Querecho 1541 Part II .........................................................................74 Anti-Colonial Action and Warfare 1520-1603.............................................76 Buffalo Hunters South of the Canadian River 1581-1600 ...........................80 Buffalo Hunters Reported on the Rodriguez Expedition 1581 ...........80 Nde Buffalo Hunters Meet Castaño de Sosa 1590-1592.....................85 Vaquero Nde on the Southern Plains 1593..........................................89 Vaquero Nde on the Southern Plains 1598 .........................................94 Nde Fashion Statements...............................................................................97 Chapter Summary.......................................................................................102 Chapter 3 - Mounted Nde Buffalo Hunters .......................................................104 Anti-Colonial Action and Warfare 1600s...................................................104 Nuevo León and Coahuila 1586-1640...............................................105 Nde Buffalo Hunter Relations on the Southern Plains......................107 Vaquero Apache circa 1630 .....................................................113 Colonial Interference in the Nde-Cicuye Trade .......................118 Apache Slavery and Implications for Anti-Colonial Action....121 Nde Buffalo Hunters in the
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