Productivity of Finnish Vowel Harmony: Experimental Evidence by Liisa Christine Duncan A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Linguistics University of Toronto © Copyright by Liisa Christine Duncan 2015 Productivity of Finnish Vowel Harmony: Experimental Evidence Liisa Christine Duncan Doctor of Philosophy Department of Linguistics University of Toronto 2015 Abstract Finnish has a well-studied palatal harmony system whereby front and back vowels cannot co- occur in non-compound words and suffixes alternate according to the stem’s harmonic class. Nevertheless, disharmonic forms exist in the language. This thesis examines the phonetic realization of vowels in harmonic and disharmonic loanwords and nonce forms created by a language game in order to establish the productivity of stem and suffix harmony. With respect to stem harmony, when words were borrowed into Finnish in the past, disharmonic stems tended to be repaired, providing evidence for the productivity of stem harmony. If stem harmony is robust, some degree of harmonization is expected in disharmonic loans and language games. While stem harmonization was observed in existent words and novel forms created by the game, the harmonization rates were lower than would be expected of a robust constraint, indicating that stem harmony is no longer fully productive, at least for some speakers. When harmonization did occur, a strength asymmetry was apparent with [+back] functioning as a stronger harmony trigger. ii The examination of the phonetic suffixes indicated that front suffixes were unexpectedly common with all loanword stem types. While co-articulation was a possible cause of some fronting, certain speakers, especially young females, exhibited substantial overlap in the expected front and back suffix categories. For some, this overlap was not exclusive to loanwords but was also observed with compound words. Even in the speech of speakers with discrete front and back suffix categories, front suffixes were unexpectedly frequent in the language game output and occurred even in certain cases where the stem contained no front harmonic vowels to condition the suffix. The phonetic results indicate that stem and suffix harmony in Finnish appear to be in a state of decline. The change is likely due to internal pressures which occur in Finnish and have been associated with weakening cross-linguistically. These factors include low pitch, stresslessness, and non-modal phonation. This conspiracy of phonetic factors may result in lessened prominence of the suffix vowels. Together, these internal pressures may have conspired to reduce the perceptibility of the harmonic suffix vowels, leading to the weakening of harmony. iii Acknowledgments There are so many people who supported me in innumerable ways over the course of this doctoral degree that I feel it would be impossible for these acknowledgements to do them all justice. Since I have been given this opportunity, however, I would like to try to thank everyone who has played a role. I was very fortunate to have such a wonderful committee. I would first like to extend my gratitude to my advisor, Keren Rice, who is a model for all that a professor should be. She has always been inspiring and insightful. She has also always encouraged exploration: her open- mindedness to different ideas and her ability to find value in many approaches have shaped how I view linguistics, and research in general. Moreover, she was understanding and supportive throughout the entire process. Yoonjung Kang was endlessly generous with her time and was beyond patient with me as I stumbled my way through learning statistics. Because she is very humble and kind, in spite of her vast knowledge and astuteness, I always felt comfortable asking her questions and seeking guidance from her. Alexei Kochetov was an invaluable part of my committee. I was consistently amazed by his ability to simultaneously handle so many details and facts. Alexei was always willing to meet with me and discuss any issues I had, and all of his suggestions improved my dissertation. I was very happy to have Peter Avery serve as part of my defense committee. His comments and questions concerning both my Generals paper and dissertation were perceptive and interesting. Peter somehow manages to make any situation relaxed and enjoyable, for which I have been very thankful on several occasions. Peter Jurgec was also a welcome addition whose kindness and thoughtful questions were much appreciated. Thank you for your support! I was honoured to have Andries Coetzee as my external examiner. His perspective and insights have contributed greatly to how I now see the data which form the basis of this dissertation. His thought-provoking and perceptive questions have encouraged me to extend my gaze beyond the data and to really think about big-picture questions. iv Beyond my committee members, I would like to thank Börje Vähämäki, who was not only a wonderful teacher who integrated many interesting linguistic and historical facts into his language teaching, but also the only instructor I have ever had who would spontaneously burst into song! He continued to be a valuable resource long after I last sat in his classroom, and I thank him for this generosity. I owe much gratitude to all of the Finnish speakers who were willing to be part of my research, as this thesis would not exist without them. I would like to thank the directors and members of the Mikkelin lukion kuoro and Järvenpään mieslaulajat, who took time from their tours to participate. I would also like to thank Marita Hokkanen and Johanna Alpia of Joensuun normaalikoulu, who not only allowed me to conduct my experiment in their school, but also provided much practical assistance. I am also very grateful to all the students who participated in my experiment. Thank you to Maikki Rouvinen who introduced me to the beautiful city of Joensuu. I must especially thank Satu Mäki-Lassila and Matti Lassila, who made me feel welcome in Helsinki. I appreciate your generosity and friendship, and I was happy to be able to spend that time with you. Paljon kiitoksia kaikille! Graduate school has been at times overwhelming, and often humbling. But it has also been wonderful because of the people that I have met. I would like to acknowledge my linguistics friends, especially Sarah Clarke, Beth MacLeod, and Catherine Macdonald, who made school more fun, more interesting, and somewhere I wanted to be even when things were difficult and not progressing as I had hoped. Though she is no longer in linguistics, I must thank Lidia- Gabriela Jarmasz, whose friendship, unwavering support, and ability to listen without judgement were always appreciated, yet not acknowledged enough. I would also like to thank all my non- linguistics friends who supported me through this long journey and only rarely wondered aloud (in my presence) why I was doing this. Thank you all for my life outside school! An enormous debt of gratitude is due to my family for their support over many years and many degrees. I would like to thank Rob and Kattrin Duncan for always showing (possibly feigned) interest in my work, for encouraging me, and for providing the occasional place to sleep! I would especially like to thank my parents, Stuart and Anja Duncan, who provided every possible form of support over all these years. I am well aware that this would not have been possible otherwise. For all you have done, Mum and Dad, I am very profoundly grateful. Thank you also for v instilling in me a love of, and respect for, knowledge for its own sake, for encouraging me to study, learn, and to follow my interests wherever they led. It is almost impossible to convey all of the efforts and all of the sacrifices made by my husband, Kevin Chocorlan, as I worked on my doctorate. Kevin, your unshakable confidence that this was possible, often in the face of all evidence, was at times annoying, but more often, it was what drove me to continue. Your support was fundamental, once again, to my completing this degree. Thank you for all you have done for me; thank you for all you have enabled me to do. Finally, I would like to thank my children, James and Maija. James, your curiosity and work ethic encouraged me to get excited by new ideas when things began to seem stale, and then to follow up that enthusiasm with a willingness to simply put my head down and do the work. Maija, your inexhaustible optimism and compassion are rare and have always inspired me. You have a gift of knowing when a kind word and a hug are needed. Both of you have motivated me in your own ways to finish this work. And so it is to you, James and Maija, that I dedicate this thesis. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .......................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ xii List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. xiv List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ xv List of Abbreviations ..................................................................................................................