THE DISCOURSE OP DEVELOPMENT: THE CONTROL OF COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CULTURES MOIRA QUEREJAZU Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London November 1987 ProQuest Number: 10731340 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10731340 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT This thesis focusses on the various levels involved in the development process with particular attention to a Quechua speaking community in the Andes in Southern Bolivia in which several development projects are being implemented, The process of development involves the identification of problems, the setting of certain goals, and the provisions of certain means to achieve what is perceived as a change which will go towards solving the identified problems. However, for this process to work from the outset it assumes the groups of people involved share the same interpretation of the terms and criteria to identify the problems, of the problems themselves, of the need for the type of change intended and of the preconceptions and aims in general. This thesis considers that this situation is a great deal more complicated. It explores the extent to which there is understanding, conflict and miscomraunication about the relevant concepts, ideas and assumptions on the part of those differentially involved in and affected by the development process. Since 'development' involves political and cultural interests of different groups questions are raised concerning the relationship between economic goals, power, communication and translation. It is precisely because of these that the discourse approach to development is considered relevant. - 3 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is difficult to know where to start thanking so many for so much. Every one has contributed in their different ways towards making this study possible, and without their collaboration, encouragement and patience these pages would never have been written. The financial contribution to this study has come from two sources; first the Economic and Social Research Council which made it possible for me to dedicate my entire time and energy to the study during the initial library research year, during the period of fieldwork and during most of the writing up period. Secondly, the Central Research Fund kindly contributed towards my research and equipment while on fieldwork. My gratitude is expressed to both. Throughout my fieldwork the development institutions have been particularly helpful not only in allowing me to visit and discuss relevant issues with them, but also for always showing much frankness and friendliness. One institution in particular deserves my special gratitude not only for their invaluable cooperation during the period of fieldwork, but also for their their constant support, encouragement and friendship. Although I would very much like to mention the institution and the names of several people, I feel that a sense of loyalty and my desire to reciprocate their trust prevents me from so doing. The people in Horcas, constantly in my heart and memories, deserve my special gratitude. Their initial bewilderment with my presence and their subsequent warmth and companionship shall remain with me always. In many ways I hope that the findings of this - 4 - thesis would go towards contributing to a deeper understanding of their way of life among those who are involved in and dedicated to trying to achieve improvements. In Bolivia several members of my family and friends also deserve my gratitude for their warmth and understanding. My parents, although not in Bolivia at the time, were constantly providing me with encouragement and moral support through their eagerly awaited letters. My special gratitude to my supervisor Dr Andrew Turton for his constant support, encouragement and inspiration, which particularly in the last two months have been invaluable for the completion of this thesis. On my first arrival from fieldwork Prof. Brian Moeran's observations and suggestions of my first draft were particularly helpful. Throughout my writing up period, my greatest debt is to Fiona Stewart whose unstinting and enthusiastic encouragement together with her constant and invaluable help shall never be forgotten. Her moral and practical support at times of intense pressure have been essential for the completion of the thesis. Equally deserving in my gratitude is Astrld Cheong, who was not only greatly supportive materially and practically but who gave constant emotional support, particularly during times of. flagging when moments of pressure proved excessive. Sophie Hwang has my special gratitude for her understanding and sharing in common pressures. Her help and encouragement are much appreciated. Last but certainly not least is Geoff Griffith who not only made the efficient and speedy completion of this thesis possible, but who also provided me with understanding and encouraging support, - 5 - COITEITS LIST OF MAPS 10 TOTE 01 TRA1SLITERATI01 10 IFTRGDUCTI OH 11 Theoretical framework - 13 Why discourse as an approach to development 13 The scene of fieldwork 20 General overview of the development scene 24 The local scene - 32 Methodology 40 Collection of data 41 Constraints and advantages 46 CHAPTER ORE: FROM KURACAS TO PROMOTORES 54 Incas as benevolent or totalitarian 56 Bearers of 'civilization' or 'barbarians' 60 Achieving 'independence' or maintaining dependence 65 Aid for 'revolution' 70 The reforms 77 - 6 - Sindi call shod campesino 82 The last decades 89 CHAPTER TWO: THE COMMUNITY AND SURROUNDING AREAS 93 Geographical background 93 Historical background 98 The community 108 Social organization 110 Marriage 113 Land Tenure 117 The town 120 Local and regional economy 129 Seasonal highlights 136 Distinctions within the community 139 CHAPTER THREE: CAMPESINO THEMES 150 Pachamama in relation to life 156 Life and death 159 Uncertainty 165 Death as a celebration 168 Celebrations related to fertility 171 Q'aras amd campesinos 174 Promotares and catechists themes 179 Comparison and contrast of themes 187 - 7 - CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTIONS' THEMES 194 Private development institutions 197 Financial support 204 Relationship with "counterparts" 208 Prominent themes 214 Local development institutions 228 Ideas and terms in the methods and approaches 234 Translators and interpreters 237 CHAPTER FIVE: PRODUCTION 243 General aspects of agricultural production 244 Local views of pre- and post™ land reform 252 The patrones 252 Development workers 256 Sindicato leaders 259 Local current aspects of production 260 The household 260 Land 263 Other sources of income 265 Strategies 267 External factors 271 Alternative discourses of ’production’ 271 CHAPTER SIX: ORGANIZATION AND LEADERSHIP 281 'Those who know' and those 'who want to know* 284 Compadrazgo 294 - 8 - Interpretations of 'sindicato' 296 People in the community and their sindicato 306 New forms of organization 312 Discourses of organization 316 CHAPTER SEVEN: KNOWLEDGE 321 World views relating to 'knowledge' 322 Aisiris 329 The making of an aisiri 331 Official sources of knowledge 335 The school 335 Health 339 The priest 341 Development workers 344 Contrast and comparison of 'knowledges' 350 CHAPTER EIGHT: FIESTAS AND BLOQUEOS 363 Fiestas 364 Interpretations of fiestas 366 Bloqueos 372 The miracles of St. John and the reclamation of rights 379 - 9 - CHAPTER NINE: THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISCOURSE - MISCOMMUNICATION AND IMPASSES 385 Development workers' premisses 386 Main actors and events 390 Areas of miscommunication 395 Translators and transmitters 398 Ways of dealing with miscommunication 403 MAPS 410 APPENDIX I CHANGE AND WORLD VIEW IN ANDEAN ETHNOGRAPHY 414 BIBLIOGRAPHY 431 - 10 - LIST OF MAPS 1. The country of fieldwork - Bolivia. 410 2. The Department of fieldwork - Chuquisaca 411 3. Roads of the area (from Sucre to Sopachuy) By Tansy Bliss 412 4. Fieldwork area By Edgar Bustillos. 413 MOTE 01 TRANSLITERATION The underlined words in the text refer to the Spanish terms used unless otherwise indicated. The abbreviation CQue.) denotes Quechuan terms. - 11 - IHTRODOCTIOU Broadly speaking this thesis has three foci: a Quechua speaking community in the Andes in Southern Bolivia in which several development projects are being implemented, the 'developers' who carry these out, and the inter-relationships between them. The process of development involves the identification of 'problems', the setting of certain goals, and the provisions of certain means to achieve a 'change' which will go towards solving the identified problems. However, for this process to work from the outset it assumes the groups of people involved share the same interpretation of the terms and criteria used to identify the problems, of the problems themselves, of the need for the type of change intended and of the preconceptions and aims in general. This thesis will show that this situation, as examined in the area I studied,