Inclusive Education Strategies: a Textbook

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Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook

University of Minnesota, United States of America Armenian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Armenia UNICEF Armenia Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook © 2018 Regents of the University of Minnesota

Editors (English version): Renáta Tichá, University of Minnesota, USA Brian H. Abery, University of Minnesota, USA Christopher Johnstone, University of Minnesota, USA Alvard Poghosyan, UNICEF Armenia, Republic of Armenia Paula Frederica Hunt, Disability, Education & Development, Lda., Portugal

Collaborating Institutions: Institute on Community Integration (UCEDD), University of Minnesota, United States of America Armenian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Armenia UNICEF Armenia Graphic Design: Connie Burkhart, University of Minnesota, USA

Photos: Copyright of UNICEFF country office in Armenia

This publication has been produced with support of the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), grant number #43200594, awarded to Institute on Community Integration at the University of Minnesota.

The opinions of the authors expressed herein do not necessarily reflect those of UNICEF, the Institute on Community Integration, University of Minnesota, or their funding sources.

The University of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer.

This document is available in alternative formats upon request.

Suggested citation — Tichá, R., Abery, B., Johnstone, C., Poghosyan, A., & Hunt, P. (Eds.) (2018). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook. Minneapolis, MN, USA: University of Minnesota; Yerevan, Armenia: UNICEF Armenia & Arme- nian State Pedagogical University. Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the project funder, UNICEF Armenia, for supporting this important work. We would also like to thank Alvard Poghosyan and Armine Ter-Ghevondyan from UNICEF Armenia for their tireless encouragement and support. Our thanks also go to Mher Melik-Bakhshyan from Armenian State Pedagogical University for his unwavering understanding and enthusiasm for the project.

Contributing Authors in Alphabetical Order

United States of America Brian H. Abery, University of Minnesota Erik W. Carter, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee Elizabeth Criswell, University of Minnesota Marietta N. Janecky, Holland Center, Minnesota LeAnne Johnson, University of Minnesota Christopher Johnstone, University of Minnesota Michael Lovett, University of Minnesota Kristen McMaster, University of Minnesota Susan O’Connor, Augsburg University, Minnesota Charissa O’Neill, University of Minnesota Renáta Tichá, University of Minnesota Sheila Williams Ridge, University of Minnesota

Republic of Armenia Armenuhi Avagyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Tereza Azatyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Marianna Harutyunyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Lilit Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Siranush Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Marine Marutyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Mher Melik-Bakhshyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Zhanna Paylozyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Alvard Poghosyan, UNICEF Armenia Araksia Svajyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Vergine Yesayan, Principal of Special School, Yerevan

Portugal Paula Frederica Hunt, Disability, Education & Development, Lda. 4 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook Table of Contents

Foreword / i

CHAPTER 1: Introduction / 1

CHAPTER 2: Universal Design for Learning / 7

CHAPTER 3: Multidisciplinary Teams and Co-Teaching / 21

CHAPTER 4: The Role of Families in Inclusive Education / 39

CHAPTER 5: Assessment in the Context of Inclusive Education: The Need for an Instructional Approach / 53

CHAPTER 6: Multi-tiered Systems of Support (MTSS): Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS) / 67

CHAPTER 7: The Role of Individualized Learning Plans (ILPs) in Inclusive Education / 85

CHAPTER 8: Instructional Strategies for Inclusive Classrooms: PALS, Cooperative Learning, Direct Instruction and Play-based Strategies / 105

CHAPTER 9: Transition to Adulthood for Youth with Disabilities / 125

CHAPTER 10: The Role of Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) in Inclusive Education / 139

CHAPTER 11: Enhancing the Social and Psychological Inclusion of Students with Special Education Needs / 151

CHAPTER 12: Supporting the Self-Determination of Students with Special Education Needs in the Inclusive Classroom / 179

CHAPTER 13: Inclusive Early Childhood Development Programs: Opportunities for Promoting Effective Transition to Schooling / 205

CHAPTER 14: Leadership and Administrative Support of Inclusion / 225

CHAPTER 15: Conclusion: Inclusive Education or a Sum Bigger than its Parts / 239

APPENDIX / 245

Author Bios in Alphabetical Order / 246

Collaborating Institutions / 249 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook i

Foreword Inclusive education assumes that students — The system of inclusive education in Ar- diverse and unique — are learning side by side menia was officially embraced in 2003 as a within the same school and classroom context. national policy. So far, many local and interna- It treasures the unique contribution each stu- tional organizations have launched different dent brings to the learning process. However, programs and projects aligned with the newly this definition somehow conceals the complexi- adopted system to support teachers and chil- ty of the phenomenon of educational inclusion. dren with disabilities. Thus, many schools cur- The definition of inclusion has changed over rently have children with disabilities, but so far, time, increasingly requiring appropriate inputs, not many teachers have taken part in training strategies and benchmarking. There are many or educational programs to utilize the strate- issues and challenges to be solved regarding gies and services for these children in general the development of social and academic skills education classrooms. At present, despite the of children with disabilities, including teachers’ tremendous need, there is no institutional education and training, social and physical arrangement or special enhancement program environment adjustments in schools, as well for teachers in Armenia to prepare them for as parents’ expectations, attitudes and beliefs. the inclusive classroom and children’s diversity. Furthermore, in order to implement promis- Moreover, most of the existing research evi- ing practices of inclusive education in schools dence on the benefits of inclusion in schools is and in the community, a commitment to the provided by European countries and the United principle of inclusion from policy makers, uni- States of America. From this perspective, the versities, schools, NGOs, parents and others value of this book — as a unique and pioneer- involved are necessary. ing piece of evidence for Armenian readers — ii Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook

seems to be immeasurable. Every chapter of dren with disabilities. Thus, I wish our readers the book refers to the issues that children with all the best and express my gratitude for work- disabilities, general education teachers, mul- ing in this important field. tidisciplinary team members as well as school Finally, my utmost desire is to see our joint principals and parents face every day. efforts providing effective support for children I must extend my sincerest appreciation to with disabilities! project staff from the University of Minnesota, who have greatly contributed to this book with their expertise. I am convinced that this volume will act as a source of knowledge, a guideline and an academic tool for grounding the pertinent practical work of teachers already working in the field as well as future teachers who are Mher Melik-Bakhshyan, currently involved in the teacher training pro- Vice-Chancellor in Charge of Academic Affairs gram at Armenian State Pedagogical University Armenian State Pedagogical University (ASPU). Furthermore, special regard should be given to the project members from the Faculty of Special Education at ASPU, who have invested their efforts in preparing a book relevant to the Armenian context based on their considerable experience and through discussions and individual contributions to each chapter and topic involved. I must also particularly highlight how much ASPU appreciates the prominent role of UNICEF — the world’s leading advocate for children — in the creation of the present book. Without the corresponding financial support, professional assistance and multitask involvement of this organization, this book would have never mate- rialized. So, I am hopeful that a considerable number of readers nationwide will continue to be a part of team structures in inclusive education. This volume is also aimed at interdisciplinary team members and those who decide how best to include a child in the learning process with their peers. This book has been compiled to provide everyone with the information they need to deliver optimum and efficient education to chil- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ] 1

CHAPTER 1: Introduction

Alvard Poghosyan, UNICEF Armenia

This introduction provides background information about the inclusive education movement in Armenia, describes the aims of the partnership between the University of Minnesota, UNICEF, and the Armenian State Pedagogical University, and briefly outlines the textbook. 2 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ]

Since the 1990s, Armenia has adopted several Armenia, there are still barriers at the societal important documents, both international and and educational levels in ensuring that children national, that contributed to the expansion of feel included and successfully educated along- inclusive education policies and practices in the side their peers. In 2003, Armenian education country. Armenia ratified the UN Convention reforms were directed toward the develop- on the Rights of the Child (CRC) in 1992, the In- ment of new approaches and the promotion of clusive Education Concept Paper was adopted quality education, particularly through chang- in 2005, and the UN Convention on the Rights ing the classroom learning environment and of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) was ratified concentrating on student-centered approaches, in 2010, thus confirming the country’s political especially cooperative learning (Duda and Clif- will to ensure the rights of persons with disabil- ford-Amos, 2011). However, legislative educa- ities to family life, education, health, rehabilitation reforms often take a long time to imple- tion, work and employment, social protection; ment and require continuous monitoring and participation in cultural life, leisure, and sport. accountability procedures to succeed. One of Just after the ratification of the CRPD, the ad- the key issues today is the lack of preparedness justment process of the social sector regulatory of general education teachers to teach students framework to the requirement of the con- with disabilities and create an inclusive setting vention took place. Specifically, the education in the classroom. Anapiosyan, Hayrapetyan, sector changes include: application of the WHO and Hovsepyan (2014) reported that 90% of International Classification of Functioning, Dis- teachers lacked teaching methodologies that ability and Health for Children and Youth (ICF- would effectively include children with disabil- CY) for special education needs assessment, ities in class activities. This shortcoming often the amendments to the Law on Mainstream leads to either poor quality inclusion or even to Education followed by development of bi-laws exclusion. Because of Armenia’s Soviet history, to support the implementation of the Law, and there are residual approaches and stereotypes an action plan for implementation of fully inclu- about the teaching process, and teacher-cen- sive general education system which has been tered education is still the norm. Thus in recent endorsed since 2014. years, the Armenian government has consid- While inclusion is a wider concept framed ered education for teachers a most urgent pri- within the context of international discussions ority for ensuring equity and quality in access around the United Nations organizations’ and learning. agenda of “Education for All” (EFA), stimulated In line with government priorities for teach- by the 1990 Jomtien Declaration, the Ministry er education, in 2015 UNICEF sent out a call of Education and Science (MoES), national and for proposals to identify a university that could international NGOs, universities, schools, and propose a training, technical assistance, and UNICEF Armenia have played an important role curriculum development process to enhance in bringing attention to the need for inclusion preservice teacher training capacities in inclu- of children with disabilities in general education sive education (IE) in Armenia. Upon comple- settings as children with disabilities remain the tion of a competitive process, the University of largest group of children out of school or in Minnesota’s (U of M) Global Resource Center’s boarding institutions. While there are numer- (GRC) proposal was selected and UNICEF signed ous pieces of legislation in place that promote a two-year contractual agreement with the de-institutionalization programs and accelerate University. The offer included a comprehensive progress of inclusive education practices in action plan aimed to work with Armenian State Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ] 3

Pedagogical University (ASPU) to align their pro- human rights model of disability, and inclusive fessional education programs and curriculum pedagogy, including how to identify students’ with the international standards and practices functional abilities -strengths, abilities and for inclusive education. learning styles- to ensure their participation in Within the framework of the above-men- inclusive educational environments”. tioned contract, UNICEF facilitated a collabora- The reader will have an opportunity to de- tion between U of M and ASPU to develop this velop an understanding of how the American textbook as an information and teaching re- education system moved from exclusion of source for academics, preservice and in-service children with disabilities to their integration in general and special education teachers, spe- the regular system, and finally to more inclu- cialists in inclusive and special education, and sive practices. The journey is challenging yet administrators. The U of M team reviewed the simultaneously rewarding as it has contributed BA and MA IE syllabi and shared a detailed pro- to an accumulation of considerable knowledge posal with ASPU faculty to update the following on learning and teaching in diverse environ- four courses — ments. The authors also present the Armenian 1. Theory and Practice of Inclusive Education approaches and strategies for making the ed- (BA); ucation system inclusive in the face of remaining challenges ahead. Through comparative 2. Assessment in the context of inclusive analysis, the textbook offers a wide spectrum education (BA); of tools, methodologies, and practical evi- 3. Psychological-Pedagogical Support in dence-based strategies that have been tested, Inclusive education (MA); evaluated, and demonstrated to be effective for 4. Instructional strategies for Inclusive all children, including children with disabilities, Education (MA). developmental delays, and other special educa- The main suggestions included strengthen- tion needs. ing evidence-based content in relation to IE that could be applied on a daily basis in schools and Why the American classrooms and providing information about material adaptation to the Armenian context Experience? and the latest reforms in its education system. The United States of America (USA) has not This textbook complements the above-men- ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of tioned courses and will serve as a methodolog- the Child (UNCRC) and the Convention on the ical resource. The team of American and Arme- Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNPRPD), nian professors worked together on selecting and one will probably not find the term inclusive appropriate texts and other materials that education in U.S. laws regulating the education would enhance the utility of ASPU inclusive ed- system. The country has, however, developed ucation syllabi. The aim is to institutionalize and a sound legal education framework and gener- sustain teacher preparation efforts in line with ated considerable evidence-based classroom Article 24 of CRPD, which requires “States to practices that make inclusion the desired norm. ensure that all teachers are trained in inclusive Education is a right for every child based on the education based on the human rights model USA’s constitution. Since 1965, the U.S. federal of disability. The core content of teacher edu- government passed the Elementary and Sec- cation must address a basic understanding of ondary Education Act (1965), No Child Left Be- human diversity, growth and development, the hind Act (NCLB; 2002), and the Individuals with 4 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ]

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004), all laws that best corresponds to their requirements that became a basis for welcoming all children and preferences. Therefore, the move towards — including children with disabilities — into the inclusion is not simply a technical or organiza- education system. These laws require states to tional change, but also a movement with a clear establish ambitious goals for all students and philosophy. For inclusion to be implemented develop the capacity of schools to identify and effectively, countries need to define a set of serve the diverse needs of all students. inclusive principles together with practical ideas to guide the transition towards policies What is Inclusive Education? addressing inclusion in education (UNESCO, 2005). The term inclusive education, used throughout Recognizing that educational inclusion is a this textbook, considers an understanding of broader concept that applies to all groups of inclusion as an approach to education for all children, the authors focus on children with children. At the core of inclusive education is disabilities as one of the major groups that re- the human right to education. Various inter- main excluded due to prevailing social, cultural, national documents specify the principles of and attitudinal barriers. In addition, throughout inclusion for guiding the states towards their teacher education in Armenia, inclusion needs efforts to introduce rights-based approach to are still an optional topic in preservice teacher education. According to UNICEF, an education training courses (mainly related to special edu- system is inclusive if it “includes all students, cation), state-funded teacher trainings, and do- and welcomes and supports them to learn. nor-funded training initiatives. A considerable No-one should be excluded. Every child has a gap exists between preservice and in-service right to inclusive education, including children teacher training programs, especially in terms with disabilities” (UNICEF, 2017). This statement of a holistic approach based upon the bio-psy- is very much in line with UNCRPD General cho-social model of disability. Comment n.4 regarding inclusive education as “a fundamental human right of all learners” and “a principle that values the well-being of How to Use the Textbook? all students, respects their inherent dignity This textbook, co-authored by U.S. and Arme- and autonomy, and acknowledges individuals’ nian experts in inclusive education and relat- requirements and their ability to effectively be ed fields, is designed to be used by university included in and contribute to society” (the Unit- faculty and lectures, preservice and in-service ed Nations, 2006). UNESCO views inclusion as teachers, education specialists as well as policy “a dynamic approach of responding positively makers who are working to provide, manage, to pupil diversity and of seeing individual differ- or support education services. The textbook ences not as problems, but as opportunities for contains 15 chapters with tools and methodol- enriching learning” (UNESCO, 2005). ogies that will help a teacher in a diverse class- It is important to consider inclusion as a room to create an inclusive, learner-friendly continuous process of systemic reform that environment. Three online learning modules envisages changes in teaching and the curricu- on Co-Teaching, Universal Design for Learn- lum, school buildings, classrooms, play areas, ing, and Instructional Strategies for Inclusive transport, policies and strategies in education Classroom as well three webinars on Formative with a vision to provide all students of the rele- Assessments for Students with Mild and Sig- vant age range with an equitable and participa- nificant Disabilities and Peer Assisted Learning tory learning experience and the environment strategies as well as a film Education for Every Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ] 5

Child: Armenia’s Path to Inclusion accompany Duda, A., & Clifford-Amos, T. (2011). Study on teacher the textbook in providing additional insights education for primary and secondary education in six Countries of the Eastern Partnership: Armenia, Azer- and resources. baijan, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine: final The textbook begins with a forward by the report. Brussels: European Commission, Director- Vice-Chancellor in Charge of Academic Affairs ate-General for Education and Culture. Armenian State Pedagogical University, The United Nations (2006). Convention on the Rights of followed by an introductory chapter written by Persons with Disabilities. Treaty Series, 2515, 3. UNESCO (2005). Guidelines for inclusion: Ensuring access a senior education officer at UNICEF Armenia to education for all. Paris, France. Retrieved from: that provides background for the US-Armenian http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/Guide- collaboration and outlines the remainder of lines_for_Inclusion_UNESCO_2006.pdf the textbook. The next 13 chapters focus on UNICEF (2017). Inclusive education: Understanding Article specific topics of inclusive education, all writ- 24 of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Geneva, Switzerland: UNICEF Regional Office for Europe and ten together by U.S. and Armenian authors. Central Asia. Retrieved from: https://www.unicef. The concluding chapter is a reflection on the org/eca/sites/unicef.org.eca/files/IE_summary_ac- content covered in the textbook as a whole by cessible_220917_0.pdf an international expert in the field. Each of the main chapters begins with a brief overview of the chapter content, guiding questions, main text, tips for teachers, thoughts for leaders, additional resources, glossary, and references.

Additional Resources UNICEF (2014). Conceptualizing inclusive education and contextualizing it within the UNICEF Mission, Webinar 1 and Compan- ion Booklet 1. Series of 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved from https:// www.ded4inclusion.com/inclusive-education-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-education-booklets-and-webinars-english-version

References Anapiosyan, A., Hayrapetyan, G., & Hovsepyan, S. (2014). Approximation of inclusive education in Armenia in relation to international Standards and Practices. Ye- revan: Open Society. Retrieved from: http://www.osf. am/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/Policy-Paper_In- clusive-Education_AAnapiosyan.pdf 6 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 1 ] Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 7

CHAPTER 2: Universal Design for Learning

Christopher Johnstone, University of Minnesota Armenuhi Avagyan & Marine Marutyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

This chapter focuses on Universal Design for Learning as a pedagogy that can facilitate inclusion. Universal Design is a way for teachers to support all students’ learning, even if those students learn differently. 8 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • In what ways can Universal Design help teachers to organize the teaching and learning process for diverse students? • Identify some of the differences between Universal Design for Architecture and Universal Design for Learning. • In what ways can high- and low-technology approaches be used to implement UDL? • In what ways might UDL improve the quality of education in inclusive classrooms?

Introduction eo and can benefit from reading words; those The term Universal Design was first used by who wish to watch television while their part- the U.S. architect, Ron Mace, to describe a ner is sleeping; or those who might be in a loud philosophy of how to create buildings that are area while watching a video and cannot hear accessible to everyone, including those with all the information. Other examples of Univer- disabilities. He famously said “Universal design sal Design abound, including curb cuts (which is the design of products and environments to support wheelchair users, parents walking be usable by all people, to the greatest extent students in strollers, bicycle riders and others); possible, without the need for adaptation or audiobooks (which are used by persons with specialized design.”1 Mace was a wheelchair and without visual impairments) and ‘ringing’ user and became tired of asking for buildings elevators that alert both persons with visual im- to be changed in order to allow for physical pairments and those engrossed in their smart- accessibility. He suggested instead of anticipat- phones that an elevator is coming. ing needs for accessibility from the beginning In Armenia, many buildings are historic in would save time and money, and improve the nature so Universal Design is challenging. In

experience for everyone. many cases, buildings are retrofitted to im- Universal Design is intended to broadly sup- prove physical accessibility. This is a generally port accessibility and can be useful for persons accepted practice, but outcomes are often with and without disabilities. It is an important mixed. Some accessibility approaches (such as design principle for all buildings. However, Uni- creating ramps, installing handrails, etc.) have

versal Design can be found in many examples been very effective for improving accessibility, beyond architecture. For example, a Universal while others have been less helpful. In general, Design approach that is known to YouTubers is Universal Design for architecture is an emerg- the use of closed captioning (CC). This captioning way of thinking about design of new building was originally designed to allow for persons ings in Armenia. with hearing impairments and is now widely used on television and videos. The design is Universal Design and Education “universal” because it supports accessibility for In the early 2000s the principles of Universal persons with hearing impairments but also is Design were transferred to educational practice very useful for many others, such as persons and renamed Universal Design for Learning who are learning the language used in the vid- (UDL). The practice became part of the inclusion movement, which focused on changing 1 See https://www.ncsu.edu/ncsu/design/cud/about_ud/about_ ud.htm systems of education so that they are respon- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 9 sive to all students, regardless of disability or boarding institutions, segregated from other characteristics. David Rose and Anne their families and society. (p. 156) Meyer (2005) described UDL as providing stu- In Armenia today, there is increasing recog- dents multiple means of presentation, allowing nition that all humans have differences in how multiple means of response, and facilitating they process information, recognize patterns, multiple means of engagement. UDL’s underly- engage with information and are motivated ing tenet is that academic content is the most by certain teaching techniques (see Vygotsky, important aspect of the academic experience, 1962). A UDL approach, then, focuses on the but that teachers should provide a variety of fact that there is a wide variety of students in pathways for students to engage with content any school, with a wide variety of needs. UDL and demonstrate mastery. This approach fo- moves away from a narrative that labels stu- cuses on the whole class and finding ways to be dents ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ learners or those responsive to (and respectful of) students’ per- who need regular or special education (Rose & sonality, life experiences, learning style, cultural Meyer, 2005). background, religious background, disability status and language abilities. Differentiated Instruction and Universal Design and Special Universal Design for Learning Education Needs Both special and regular educators are familiar with the concept of differentiated instruction. One important contribution that UDL makes to This broad concept allows teachers to adjust inclusion is its focus on student diversity. For the level of challenge in particular topics to example, in Armenia, steps are being taken to meet the individual needs of their students. For reframe understandings of disability by profes- example, a teacher might increase or decrease sionals. Strategies like examining human dif- the number of new vocabulary words that a ferences through students’ literature (Avagyan, student must learn when beginning a new les- Baghdasaryan, & Sargsyan, 2016) and devel- son in history, science or Armenian language. opment of new norms in teacher development Differentiated instruction has been used in are improving understanding and acceptance inclusive classrooms around the world and is of human diversity. For example, the purpose based on Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Devel- of assessments for students is shifting from opment” (1978) theory, whereby students work a perspective and focus on the problems a best when asked to accomplish tasks that are student has to a perspective that a student moderately difficult, but neither overwhelm- has resources and potential within the context ingly challenging nor too easy. Kauffman and of inclusive classrooms. Avagyan et al. (2016) Hallahan (2011) refer to this as the ‘just barely described this change — manageable’ approach — putting learning tasks During Soviet years the working assump- at a level that is difficult, but not too difficult to tion was that all the people were ‘like handle. each other,’ perfect, beautiful, without Differentiated instruction may be part of problems, without disorders; all those the UDL process, but UDL scholars have noted who did not meet those criteria (who had that changes to the standard or expectations of visual, auditory, physical, mental, even learning for some students may be less nec- speech and communication limitations) essary if such students are offered a variety of grew up and spent their lives in special ways to learn material. Edyburn (2007, 2010), 10 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

for example, has presented cases of students Box 1. Three Types of Learning with learning disabilities whose learning only became effective when teachers moved beyond 1. Recognition — Students recognize and traditional lecture and print-based materials. In remember the characters in a book. such situations, the need for learning accom- 2. Strategic — Students produce a book modations and modifications may be reduced report analyzing the plot of a story. when lessons are designed with flexibility in 3. Affective — Students discuss the book mind. Specifically, when the learning needs of through a ‘book group’ that discusses students are anticipated and accessibility is both events and personal feelings about built into lesson planning, all students may be the book’s characters. better able to learn. Principles of Universal Design for Framework for Universal Design for Learning Learning UDL has three main principles that allow teach- The principles of Universal Design for Learning ers themselves the opportunity to plan accord- are grounded in three types of learning: ing to the needs of their students. UDL prin- recognition learning, strategic learning, and ciples align with a philosophy that embraces affective learning. Recognition learning refers to differences in learners. Teachers can enhance a student’s ability to recognize and remember learning for students with different profiles by concepts. This is usually facilitated through providing flexibility in opportunities for recog- teacher activities or reading from text. Strategic nition, strategic learning and affective learning. learning refers to a student’s ability to respond Such flexibility in teaching disrupts the tradi- to particular content, concepts or skills. Stra- tional method of teacher lecturing, students tegic learning requires that students can both taking notes and students eventually taking recognize a concept and be able to respond to an exam on content. The lecture/notes/exam it. This type of learning is often demonstrated method may create barriers to students who through writing tasks or verbal comments in have trouble understanding the teacher’s voice, class. Affective learning refers to a student’s creates challenges for students who struggle motivation for learning the concept. Without with writing or memorization, and creates motivation, students will have a less robust barriers for students who learn better in active learning experience (Clampa, 2014; Malone & environments or in small groups. Lectures, Lepper, 1987; Mega, Ronconi, & DeBeni, 2014). notes and exams may all be part of a Universal An overview of the three types of learning is Design approach, but they are only one meth- presented here (see Box 1 in the next column). od of many that should be used in a flexible learning classroom. The three principles of UDL are presented below — 1. To support recognition learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of presentation. 2. To support strategic learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of expression. 3. To support affective learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of engagement. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 11

There may be overlap in particular teaching Persons with Disabilities (United Nations, 2006). and learning activities in each of the principles The Convention outlines a broad approach to because flexible lessons will allow for multiple supporting persons with disabilities through activities. For example, in the box above, the inclusive education. Such inclusion requires motivating teaching strategy of student partic- educators to provide accessibility for all people. ipation in a book group is an example of both According to Article 9 of the Convention — affective (motivating) learning and strategic To enable persons with disabilities to live (application) learning. In the sections below, we independently and participate fully in all will provide concrete examples of ways to in- aspects of life, States Parties shall take troduce flexible methods of presentation (how appropriate measures to ensure to per- teachers present), expression (how students sons with disabilities access, on an equal respond), and overall engagement. basis with others, to the physical environment, to transportation, to information Universal Design and Inclusion and communications, including information and communications technologies Using Universal Design in a classroom has and systems, and to other facilities and great potential for improving inclusive prac- services open or provided to the public, tice. Universal Design seeks to eliminate the both in urban and in rural areas. These distinction between ‘special’ and ‘regular’ learn- measures, which shall include the identi- ers, with the assumptions that each individual fication and elimination of obstacles and learns differently and that providing a variety of barriers to accessibility. experiences will help all students. At the same time, Universal Design is more than just “good On a practical level, flexible instruction may teaching.” According to Edyburn (2010), Univer- vary from classroom to classroom. For exam- sal Design is both a philosophical stance that ple, it may mean the use of multiple methods teachers take (proactively valuing diversity) and within each category of presentation, response, a skill they must learn and improve over time. It and engagement, but may also mean that is not easy to have a universally designed class- teachers employ flexibility and improve acces- room. However, when teachers fundamentally sibility within particular activities. For example, value having students with different abilities in a teacher may show a video to a class and use their classrooms, and design their classrooms the CC function so that students can also read to ensure all students can benefit, UDL efforts the closed captioning. This might be considered improve. There are a wide variety of teaching an accommodation for a student with a hear- strategies that teachers can use to promote ing impairment, but provides a flexible way for Universal Design and therefore inclusion in all students to understand content. Additional the classroom. Some of these strategies are examples of how teachers can provide flexibili- described in the paragraphs below. As teach- ty in their classroom are presented (see Table 1 ers begin to know their students throughout a on page 12). school year, while using information sources such as student records, they can best tailor their instruction to fit the needs of their students. At the same time, Universal Design philosophies align with the broader philosophies mentioned in the Convention on the Rights of 12 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

Table 1. Universal Design Examples

Flexible means of presentation Flexible means of response Flexible means of engagement Experience Drama Experiential learning Drama Response cards Choices Video Artwork Self-assessment Oral reporting Shared experiences Peer assessment Drawings Written essay Concrete presentations (e.g., Poems, songs Legos, blocks, models) Concept mapping2 PowerPoint Note-taking Advanced organizers Diorama PowerPoint Advanced organizers Small group conversation Peer learning Meetings with teacher Presentation to class Frayer model3

2 See https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/assessment/assesslearning/conceptmaps.html 3 See wwws://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdjN09VouaU)

Teachers employ UDL when they design Box 2. U.S. History, Universal Design lessons (a conscious action) that incorporate Example flexible means of presentation, response and engagement. Teachers should note that they • A U.S. history teacher using the UDL should not feel like they must use all strategies approach might ask her students to in Table 1 every day, but can incorporate some construct an essay that compares and strategies each day and also allow for flexible contrasts the industrial North with the ways for students to learn material. Different agricultural South in the 1800s. Her focus examples of how a lesson plan uses Universal is the thinking behind the essay, the Design for Learning are presented (see Box 2 in method of comparing and contrasting, as the next column). a means to help her students gain deeper understanding of the period and the geographical locations. • She emphasizes that there are many different approaches to constructing the essay and offers examples — outlines, diagrams, concept maps, digitally recorded ‘think alouds’ and drawings. She uses tools that support each of these approaches, so that students who need extra structure can choose the supports that work for Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 13

them, and she creates templates with model. This means that students with special partially filled in sections and links to more educational needs will still receive services, but information. greater focus has been placed on their right to • Because this is a long-term assignment, the participate in education in their local school. teacher breaks the research and the writing This right is covered in the first main objective into pieces and builds in group sharing and of ILPs: access. As students with disabilities feedback to help students revise as they move from special to regular schools, teachers work. The teacher also provides models of are responsible for ensuring that students can the process by sharing the work of previous access the content they are teaching. students who approached the problem in One way to think about access is through varied ways. distinguishing access and target skills (Kettler, 2014). For example, a teacher may be present- Source: Hitchcock et al., 2002, p. 13 ing on topics in history or mathematics. In history, the target skill is for a student to identify There are many ways to implement UDL in important dates in history. In mathematics, the the classroom. What specific strategies a teach- target skill may be double-digit multiplication. er chooses to use will depend on the profiles However, because of a student’s impairment, of the students in class and the content being she or he may not have the access skills nec- taught. Hitchcock, Rose, Meyer, and Jackson essary to reach the target skill. For example, (2002) provided several examples of lessons if a student has difficulty decoding words in a that use UDL. These examples can be found history book or writing numbers because of a in the article ‘Providing Access to the General physical impairment, that student will never be Curriculum’ available as part of the UDL mod- able to reach the target skill. ule at www.aspu.am. One example, for history, However, if a teacher understands that is found in the box to the right. the target skill is the main goal, she or he can employ Universal Design strategies so that the ILPs and Universal Design student can reach target skills in different ways. In Armenia, students with special education For example, in history, the information might needs have individualized learning plans. There be presented orally, through video, or discus- are three main aims of individualized learning sion. In mathematics, the teacher may allow the plans. These are access, participation and prog- student to use technology or three-dimensional ress. Each of these terms is described below in objects (e.g., blocks) to complete mathemat- the context of Universal Design. ics problems. In either case, teachers can use Universal Design philosophies to help students Access accomplish target skills. Historically, students with disabilities have attended special schools designed to provide Participation therapeutic services for disabilities. Students Similar to access, all students have the right to with disabilities were schooled in separate actively participate in their classes. Such active locations, creating circumstances where they participation will take special planning on the were effectively hidden from mainstream part of teachers, and Universal Design princi- schools and society. When Armenia made a ples may help in this planning. For example, a commitment to inclusion, it changed its focus student with a special educational need may from a service-based model to a rights-based have difficulty with speech, so verbally sharing 14 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

with a classmate may be impossible. In a Uni- • Are there aspects of the classroom that may versally Designed classroom, verbally sharing be impeding the student’s learning (e.g., bor- with a neighbor may be one approach to par- ing atmosphere, poor lighting, bullying, poor ticipation, but the teacher may also employ seating arrangements)? strategies like using drawings to communicate Universal Design, as the name suggests, is information, teaching all students to use tech- about designing a learning environment that nologies to communicate with one another or can be advantageous to all learners. Its core teaching students hand gestures for respond- mission is to improve inclusivity by shifting the ing to information. Although technologies and onus of the teaching and learning process to gestures may be specific strategies for support- the teacher and the way she or he organizes ing a student with a disability, they may be ef- the classroom. This approach differs dramat- fective for other students as well, thus creating ically from approaches that view students as a universally designed classroom experience. having deficits when they are not succeeding in school. Progress In many ways, using Universal Design for Inclusion goes beyond simply encouraging the Learning considers the individualized learning presence of students with disabilities in regular needs of all students. By doing this, teachers classrooms. All students should be expected to can meet the goals of some students’ individu- make progress in their school. The difference alized learning plans (ILPs, which are required between an inclusive and a special education for students with special educational needs model is how student evaluation is used. In a (see Chapter 7) as well as the individualized special education model, if students are not learning needs of other students who do not making progress, it is assumed to be the result use ILPs. In all cases, flexibility in presentation, of a student’s impairment or shortcoming, and response and engagement will allow teachers special provisions are made for the student. In to design their lessons in a way that responds an inclusive setting, if a student is not making to the differences in classrooms, whether stu- progress, teachers and administrators look dents have identified special educational needs at the school, the system and the classroom or not. to determine what types of barriers are preventing the student from learning. Once these Universal Design and Your barriers are identified, a plan of action is put in Classroom place to help the student progress. This plan may include extra help, but teachers will first Applying Universal Design in the classroom examine how the classroom experience may be requires two important commitments from impeding learning. Teachers may ask — teachers. First, teachers must know their students’ needs so that they may plan accordingly • Are there access skills I am requiring in for lessons. Second, teachers must commit to order to meet target skills and can these be the time it takes to plan a lesson with multiple changed? means of representation, response, and en-

• Have I tried teaching the material in differ- gagement. This may require additional planning ent ways so that I might best meet the learn- time on the part of teachers as well as support ing style of the student? for teachers from leaders. In Universally De- • Are there better ways for me to help the signed classrooms, students may be working student demonstrate what they know? in a variety of different ways at once, and each Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 15

day the instruction may look different. School students. The work is difficult and will require leaders must trust their teachers to design the time, but the rewards of a more inclusive edu- pedagogy that works best for their own class. cation system and all students learning togeth- This may mean that one classroom goes about er are worth the effort. its work differently than others. School leaders should be supportive of such design and encourage teachers to design for the needs of their students. We provide an example of how a teacher might plan a lesson using UDL (see Table 2 on page 16).

A Final Note The overview of UDL included in this chapter may at first appear to be a rehashing of ideas about ‘good teaching.’ Edyburn (2010), however, warns against this kind of thinking. Rather than thinking about UDL as a way to provide more engaging lessons, Edyburn sees UDL as a fundamental philosophical shift that must occur on the part of teachers in order to design their classrooms to include all students. Such design requires that teachers use scientific assessment data to know where the students’ needs are as well as creativity to find ways to help students understand and engage with academic content. The focus on good design (not necessarily just ‘good teaching’) requires teachers to be constantly diagnosing situations to ensure that the educational rights of their students are being respected and constantly planning to meet those needs. Teachers must also be always ready to adjust their designs if they are not working. The ultimate goal of multiple means of representation, response and engagement is that the different approaches that teachers use will act as tools and scaffolds (Puntembekar & Hubscher, 2005) to help students best access and independently learn material. Technolo- gies, peer support, different ways of teaching and building upon student strengths are all ways to reach the end goal of education for all, but to reach this goal, teachers must be committed to doing things differently for different 16 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

Table 2. Sample Plan for Universal Design for Learning

Topic of Lesson: Armenia’s eleven provinces (including Yerevan)

Objective: At the end of this lesson, students will locate the 11 provinces (including Yerevan) on a national map.

Multiple means of Multiple means of response Multiple means of engagement representation Provide blank maps to students Students independently fill in Students may work together on and show them provinces on map. completing a map with a model PowerPoint or blackboard. Pause the video and ask from a book. Show a video demonstrating the questions during the video, allow Students share personal stories 11 provinces. for student verbal response. from provinces they have visited Provide one province to each or know. student as part of a broader Students work together to ‘jigsaw’ activity. complete a ‘jigsaw’ map by each adding one province to a larger national map.4 Sequence — 1. Teacher introduces the new topic, then shows video (provides subtitles or audio description if needed). 2. At various points in the video, teacher stops the video to talk about the different provinces, their shapes, and features. Students share personal stories they may have from provinces (e.g., family connections, personal travel). 3. Next, teacher hangs 2 or 3 large blank maps on the wall (3D version if needed). These can be traced by projecting an image from a computer. 4. Students collectively place ‘their’ province on the larger map. 5. Students then work independently to complete a blank map on their own (small, at their desk, but with 3D or enlarged copies as needed). Students may work together or use books as needed. 6. Teacher tells about future activities (e.g., quizzes) to assess students’ knowledge.

4 Additional adjustments may be made according to student sensory need (e.g., tactile maps, enlarged maps, partner support for mobility in the classroom, sign language or increased gesturing by teachers/aides, use of technology for communication). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 17

Tips for Teachers • Universally Designed classrooms do not • Universal Design is about creating lesson necessarily need high-tech devices. Teachers

plans for everyone. This requires thoughtful can employ flexibility with readily available approaches to make sure lessons are acces- materials. sible to all. • Universally Design can also be applied to • Students can receive information in a variety assessment. In this case, the construct (what of ways. It may be visual, auditory, tactile or is being assessed) should remain a constant, through multimedia. Providing flexibility in but the process (how students show their

how students receive messages will enhance knowledge) can be flexible. accessibility. • Students can ‘show what they know’ in a Reflection Questions variety of ways. This may be through writing, • What connections are there between using speaking, assessments, drama, art and other individualized learning programs and univer- demonstrations. Providing students with sally design for learning for students? flexible ways to demonstrate their knowl- • In what ways can Universal Design for Learn- edge will lead to greater accessibility. ing change the teaching and learning pro- • Students need to be engaged to learn. Each cess in Armenia from current practice? student has her or his own level of devel- • What types of strategies that you learned opment, achievement, learning style and from this chapter would you like to use for capabilities. Thinking about different ways presentation, response, and engagement in to engage students will help keep students your practice? interested in learning. • Provide an example of Universal Design that • Accommodations for individuals may still be you have seen in practice. necessary in a universally designed classroom. UDL is intended to be flexible for all students, but some students will still need Additional Materials individualization. UNICEF (2014). Access to School and the Learn- ing Environment I — Physical, Information Thoughts for Leaders and Communication, Webinar 10 and Companion Booklet 10. Series of 14 Webi- • Universal Design is all about instructional nars and Companion Technical Booklets on design. Encourage teachers to think about Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: planning for lessons that allow flexible ways Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved from for students to learn new concepts. This may https://www.ded4inclusion.com/inclu- mean that they need time for planning. sive-education-resources-free/unicef-inclu- • Universally Designed classrooms are often sive-education-booklets-and-webinars-en- active, because students will be learning glish-version concepts in many different ways at once. UNICEF (2014). Access to School and the Learn- • Encourage teachers to be creative in thinking Environment II — Universal Design ing about new ways to help students learn. for Learning, Webinar 11 and Compan- Trust their ideas in relation to flexibility and ion Booklet 11. Series of 14 Webinars and accessibility. Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. 18 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ]

Retrieved from: Retrieved from https:// in a variety of ways. Traditionally, teachers www.ded4inclusion.com/inclusive-educa- use lecture styles to present information, tion-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-edu- but flexible presentation may mean that cation-booklets-and-webinars-english-ver- a variety of sensory inputs are used for sion students, other people besides teachers Learning module on Universal Design for may present, or other ways of accessing Learning (2018). Minneapolis, MN: Univer- information are used (e.g., video sources, sity of Minnesota, Institute on Community visuals/sounds, art, guest speakers). Integration. Flexible means of response — Students can respond in a variety of ways to show they understand information. Flexible means of Glossary response might be through speaking, writ- Advanced organizers — Any process used by ing, sign language, visuals (e.g., drawings), teachers to help students understand a conversation or projects. The main idea of concept before it is actually taught. These flexible means of response is that students might include discussions, maps of con- can demonstrate knowledge in a way that cepts, outlines of data. Students can use is best for them. advance organizers when they are learning Peer assessment — A process where students new concepts to help them understand in the class quiz or assess each other on connections between multiple concepts. content. One strength of peer assessment Affective learning — A student’s motivation for is that students focus more on their learn- learning the concept. Without motivation, ing and may be less focused on earning students will have a less robust learning marks. Peers can then help correct their experience. partners if they misunderstand informa- Concept mapping — A graphical (drawing or tion. Care must be taken to ensure stu- technology-created) representation of dents do not victimize or tease each other student’s thinking on a particular topic. for incorrect answers. The map provides teachers information on Peer learning — Any educational process that how the students organize information in involves peers supporting each other’s un- their minds. derstanding of concepts. Peer groups may Experiential learning — The process of learning be homogeneous (about the same abili- through experience, or learning by doing. ties) or heterogeneous (different abilities, Flexible means of engagement — Allows multi- when certain peers can help others). ple ways to work with educational content Recognition learning — A student’s ability to and ideas. This might mean that students recognize and remember concepts. have choices in assignments, participate Regular learners — The idea that there is a in experiential education or assess their standard group of students in every school own understanding of the content. In all who are ‘normal.’ Universal Design theory cases, the content remains the same, but states that every learner is unique and has students can work with it in different ways their individualized needs. that best suit their learning style. Self-assessment — Based on benchmarks pro- Flexible means of presentation — A teacher can vided by teachers, students can evaluate present or ‘deliver’ information to students Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] 19

their own work, identify their own gaps in Hitchcock, C., Meyer, A., Rose, D., & Jackson, R. (2002). learning and focus their learning. Providing new access to the general curriculum: Universal Design for learning. Teaching Exceptional Shared experiences — When students partici- Children, 25(2), 8–17. pate in ‘experiential learning’ (learning by Kauffman, J., & Hallahan, D. (2011). Handbook of special doing), an important part of the process education. New York: Routledge. is a reflection on the experience that the Malone, T. W., & Lepper, M. R. (1987). Making learning fun: A taxonomy of intrinsic motivations for learning. students shared. By having a common Aptitude, Learning, and Instruction, 3, 223–253. experience, students can later communi- Mega, C., Ronconi, L., & De Beni, R. (2014). What makes a cate what they experienced as a means of good student? How emotions, self-regulated learn- understanding new concepts. ing, and motivation contribute to academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 106(1), 121. Special learners — The misconception that Puntambekar, S., & Hubscher, R. (2005). Tools for scaf- students with special education needs folding students in a complex learning environment: have definitive differences from students What have we gained and what have we missed? who do not have special education needs. Educational Psychologist, 40(1), 1–12. Universal Design theory promotes the idea Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2002). Teaching every student in the digital age. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. that all students have individualized needs Rose, D., & Meyer, A. (2005). The future is in the margins: that should be addressed in classrooms. The role of technology and disability in educational Strategic learning — When students both rec- reform. In D. Meyer, S. Rose, & C. Hitchcock (Eds.). ognize a concept and are able to respond The universally designed classroom: Accessible curriculum and digital technologies, pp. 13-35. Cambridge, to it. This type of learning is often demon- MA: Harvard Educational Press. strated through writing tasks for verbal Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, comments in class. MA: MIT Press. Universal Design — Universal Design is the de- Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. sign of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design (Center for Universal Design).

References Ainscow, M., & Miles, S. (2008). Making education for all inclusive: Where next? Prospects, 37(1), 15–34. Avagyan, A., Baghdasaryan, L., & Sargsyan, K. (2016). Changing stereotypes with regards to special needs through students’ literature. Wisdom, 7(2), 156–161. Edyburn, D. L. (2007). Technology-enhanced reading performance: Defining a research agenda. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(1), 146–152. Edyburn, D. L. (2010). Would you recognize Universal Design if you saw it? Propositions for the second decade of UDL. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33(1), 33–41. 20 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 2 ] Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 21

CHAPTER 3: Multidisciplinary Teams and Co-Teaching

Susan O’Connor, Augsburg University, Minnesota Tereza Azatyan, Marianna Harutyunyan & Marine Marutyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

This chapter explores the topics of multi-disciplinary teams and co-teaching. It discusses why multi-disciplinary teams are important and offers key elements necessary to create successful teams. The chapter introduces co-teaching as a way to practice inclusive education and provides practical ways to transition to a co-teaching model. 22 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • Who are the participants in a multidisciplinary team in a school? • What role do families play in the multidisciplinary team? • What skills do members of the team need? • What are the benefits of co-teaching to education? • What is the difference between a co-teacher and a teaching assistant?

Introduction What Is the Multidisciplinary Team? Providing quality education to all students is A multidisciplinary team is a group of individ- a challenge for teachers. Inclusive education uals from multiple disciplines, as well as the requires that professionals and families co-con- family of the child, who meet to pursue a com- struct learning and develop the best environ- mon goal: the success of the child with special ments for children to succeed in school and in education needs in the general education class- society. Such co-construction requires not only room. The team includes professionals, family collaboration between teachers, but a different members and, when appropriate, the child. The way of working as a team. It also requires new task of the team may vary; sometimes it dis- ways of teaching so that all available resources cusses evaluation and other times the individu- can be best utilized. As Armenia moves toward alized program for the child and how all mem- inclusive educational practices, teamwork and bers can work successfully to support the child. collaboration are important in all levels of edu- The team is a group of people who, according cation. to Villa, Thousand, and Nevin (2013) — The first part of this chapter will discuss the • Partner to achieve a shared goal; work of the multidisciplinary team. The chapter • Believe that all team members have unique will explain how a team works successfully to and needed expertise and skills and value develop, and explains what skills are needed each person’s contribution; for multidisciplinary teams to be successful. • Distribute leadership throughout the team. The second part of the chapter will focus on co-teaching. Co-teaching is a way to most suc- The professional collaboration of a multi- cessfully deliver content to students with and disciplinary team helps ensure that the work without special educational needs in the gener- regarding the child and her or his family is al education classroom. Both multidisciplinary comprehensive — meaning that it encompass- teamwork and co-teaching are key components es all academic, social and functional aspects of of working toward successful inclusion for all education. The ultimate goal of the team is to students. While the two are presented in this serve the student and the family better. Multi- chapter, one does not necessarily need to be in disciplinary teams who meet to evaluate stu- place for the other to be implemented. dents for special education services have various tasks. They collect several types of data to inform the team about the students’ strengths, challenges and needs, including — Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 23

• Medical history, educational performance, parents or others who are close to the child or and the like; have caretaking responsibilities. Community • Formal assessments; members who know the child in a more personal way may also be included. For example, • Informal assessments, such as samples of a child may be nonverbal in the classroom but classroom work and observations of so- when going to the neighborhood store, the cial behavior; information that family has child may communicate in ways not observed shared; in a more formal school setting. Such informa- • A baseline of performance to guide develop- tion on outside participants may provide valu- ment of an IEP and determine the effective- able insights to educational planning teams. ness of future education. Depending on the specific needs of the Tasks might also include determining the child, there may also be a need for additional need for specialized services, creating an indi- specialists who are part of the team. This might vidualized learning plan (ILP) for a student or include members from outside the school simply coming together to discuss the needs setting such as individual therapists who meet of a child as she or he proceeds through the with the child privately. The goal is to bring education system. together people who work with and know the child closely and across multiple settings. At Who Should Be Involved on the the same time, given this broad group of stakeholders, it is not only important to choose the Multidisciplinary Team participants wisely but to limit the meetings, to The key to providing the best services to the the highest degree possible, to a manageable child is to gather information and input from a number of participants. This is especially im- variety of people who know the child. Develop- portant for families who might become over- ing a team that brings a broad perspective base whelmed if they feel outnumbered by profes- of insight into the child’s strengths and needs is sionals. Manageable group size is an important essential. As mentioned above, team member- aspect of developing group trust. ship is inclusive of people from a variety of per- Once the team is determined, one or two spectives. While it is common for professionals people should be designated to take on the such as speech therapists, general educators leadership role in the group. Ideally, this should and special educators, psychologists, and social be determined by the team, but the team lead- workers/pedagogues to be involved in the er role often falls to the teacher, psychologist team, the involvement of the family member(s) or the person most closely involved with the and, when appropriate, the child, is crucial. This child (Azatyan, 2015). Ideally, co-leadership will represents a paradigm shift for professional occur. Co-leadership might be a shared leader teams who have, in the past, made all the deci- role between a teacher or another professional sions and then simply shared the information and a family member. This only occurs once the with the family. family member becomes comfortable with the In addition to the key players mentioned group, which takes time and trust within the above, it is important to think about team team. The following list highlights key tasks that members more broadly as ‘professionals and different members may consider. parents.’ Participants in the multidisciplinary team may also include extended family members who play a critical role in the support of the child; this might include siblings, grand- 24 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Roles and Tasks of Key • Identify supports that school personnel Multidisciplinary Team Members need to help the student progress in the general curriculum; Team coordinator • Maintain communication between the school and home, though this can be shared Completes administrative arrangements for with the special education teacher. The team meetings, such as scheduling the date, teacher keeps parents informed about the time and place for meetings — student’s educational achievement, reports • Identify critical personnel and invite them to grades and explains the educational pro- the meeting; gram. • Invite parents to the meeting; • Chair the meeting or appoint a designee; Special education teacher • Encourage each team member to participate The special educator’s role is that of individual- actively during the meeting; izing and modifying curriculum. As a member • Ensure that each person knows what action of the multidisciplinary team, the special edu- the team recommends, who is responsible cation teacher can offer suggestions for mod- for implementation and what resources are ifying instruction, consulting with the general needed to support implementation ade- education teachers and identifying resources quately; and alternative learning materials. Additional • Communicate administrative support of the tasks include — team to all members of the school commu- • Provide assessment and instructional plan- nity; ning for the student in the general education • Promote the commitment of resources setting; based on needs. • Provide consultation to the regular class teacher (co-teaching); General education teachers • Participate in the school assessment and In inclusive classrooms, the general education eligibility team; teacher and the special education teacher • Search for ways to include students in spe- should have shared and equal responsibility for cial education into all aspects of the schools’ all the children in the classroom. Typically, the program including extracurricular activities. general education teacher’s role is devoted to The special education and general education the instruction of subject matter in the class- teachers can help parents and students in the room. However, in a collaborative team, the following ways — role of the regular education teacher is expand- • Learn as much as possible about the student ed to include — from the parents; • Primary formal assessment; • Provide information regarding the student’s • Input into the individualized plan (help to disability as well as their right to advocate develop, review and revise); and be involved in the IEP process and their • Help in determining appropriate interven- role as team members; tions and strategies for the student; • Help the parents during the planning of the • Help in determining program modifications IEP process, making sure their ideas, con- for the student; cerns and views are expressed and heard; Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 25

• Provide parents with reports and sugges- • Conduct interventions (i.e., develop com- tions on how to work with their child at munication skills, reading and writing skill home; development); • Assist the student and the student’s parents • Conduct follow-up observations to deter- in the planning of the student’s future after mine the success of modifications and inter- leaving school; ventions. • Act as the student’s advocate, i.e., represent the interests, preferences and rights of the Social worker/pedagogue student or parents; Contributes in the following ways — • Make sure that students are taught to be ac- • Complete assessment of the child; tive participants in their own school process. • Cooperate with families and other team They should be taught self-determination members; skills and how to set their own life goals and objectives. • Organize home visits; • Collaborate with support organizations out- School psychologists side of the school. May assume the following responsibilities — • Complete an assessment of the child; Occupational therapist (OT) • Analyze and interpret assessment data for Contributes in the following ways — families and other team members; • Complete an OT assessment; • Participate in identification of curricula mod- • Share ideas with the teacher to support the ifications and instructional interventions child in the learning environment. This might appropriate to the identified needs of the include working on handwriting or fine mo- pupil; tor skills so the child can complete written • Conduct follow-up observations to deter- assignments and helping the child organize mine the success of modifications and inter- himself or herself in the classroom (includ- ventions. ing workspace in and around the desk); • Work with the teacher to modify the class- Speech therapist room and adapt learning materials to facilitate successful participation; Contributes to the team in the following • Share ideas with family members on how ways — they can best support the child in the home • Complete a thorough assessment of the environment. child with special educational needs; • Collaborate with families and other team members; Essentials of Effective Teams • Participate in identification of curricula mod- A major part of working as a multidisciplinary ifications and instructional interventions team is teamwork. Effective teamwork requires appropriate to the identified needs of the not just inviting members (including families) to student; a meeting, but creating a sense of community where all members feel they have an import- 26 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

ant role in developing a common purpose to explore joint decision-making and eliminate and commitment to the child. Such teamwork quick decisions that might be based on only occurs by creating equal opportunities to be limited information. For example, a child with heard and valued during the meeting by all autism is very active during class and throws others. Building a sense of community among things out the window. The team discusses, team members requires thoughtful attention and parents add comments like, “When he does to the environment where the meeting takes this at home, I give him music, and he listens place (such as the comfort of the room for and calms down.” The team accepts this sug- parents) and how welcomed people feel. The gestion and thanks the family. This creates a comfort of parents is especially significant as sense of openness, where the family members families are welcomed into the team so that feel heard and validated. that parents know that ideas are crucial to the process and they are to be heard as well as to Keep communication meaningful listen in meetings. People are more willing to invest in communi- As discussed in Chapter 4, communication cation when they feel it is meaningful. Team skills are also essential in establishing effective members can be selective in what they share in teams. Effective verbal and nonverbal com- order to present the most meaningful informa- munication skills play a significant role in how tion. This is especially important when families effective teams develop and grow. Without and students with disabilities are involved. effective communication skills, both verbal Often a simple question can elicit a lengthy and nonverbal, members perceive their con- response by professionals. Be mindful of this. tributions as either valued or dismissed. How Too much information is not meaningful and information is delivered plays a key role in the can be overwhelming. Meaningful information positive functioning of the team. Profession- creates opportunities for all members to speak. als, for example, may believe they have strong communication skills because they are used to communicating extensively, but good commu- Use silence effectively nication skills require attentiveness to specific Silence and pauses can be productive non- aspects of the communication process. Friend verbal communication skills. Often silence is and Cook (2010) provide some tips on how to viewed as uncomfortable and awkward or even improve communication when working on mul- punitive. Few of us reflect on the benefits of tidisciplinary teams. Strategies like nurturing silence to communicate interest, concern and open communication, keeping communication empathy as well as respect. In more difficult meaningful, using silence effectively and adapt- situations, silence can allow for the team to ing communication to match the task and the pause and reflect and possibly take the conver- relationship can all be employed by team mem- sation in a more productive direction. Silence bers to improve effectiveness. These concepts or a pause helps avoid interruptions or talking are described in the following paragraphs — over another. It opens space for all members to contribute. It is important for professionals Nurture and communicate openness to read the social cues of the group in deciding how much silence is effective so that all voices This term refers to a person’s ability to sus- are able to enter the dialogue. pend judgment or evaluation until he or she has gathered all perspectives. Communicating openness to others lends itself to a willingness Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 27

Adapt communication to match the task • Using commands or directives: “Never mind and the relationship what she did! Just ignore her.” Good communication facilitators are able to • Using ‘shoulds’: For example, “You should be adapt their communication as it relates to the dealing with your child more directly when task, the individuals involved and the rela- they say no,” or “You should be able to deal tionship. Questions professionals may ask with his behavior more directly!” themselves are: How comfortable is the family • Judging and criticizing: for example, “Why with the language that is used to describe the did you use that method? It is not effective!” assessment or goals for the child? How can • Labeling or stereotyping, for example: “You a professional best communicate goals? Are are like all the other psychologists; you just general and special educators understanding think it has to be done one way!” or agreeing with assessment data? Do members of the assessment team understand some Creating a welcoming environment and of the drawbacks the teacher or families might working to understand the roles and needs of have when it comes to implementation? Good the group can create effective communication communication requires reading the situation in multidisciplinary teams. It takes intention and making it meaningful for all members. and commitment to build strong teams, and Equally important in the communication strong multidisciplinary teams are essential process is to think about events in meetings for inclusive education to flourish. Ideas are that might interfere with or shut down commu- provided (see Table 1 below) on how to evaluate nication and divide the team. Things such as — effective teamwork.

Table 1. Evaluating Effective Teamwork

Team members are committed to their work, The team understands its goals and has a clear value sharing new ideas. sense of purpose. Team members are flexible and take on roles that Team members can recognize when they are being help the process move forward. Members can productive and proceed, versus when they should take on different roles such as consensus builder, rethink the issue if they are not moving forward question asker, seeker of additional information. productively. The team uses a variety of problem-solving and Team members can discuss differences in decision-making strategies. opinions openly. Disagreements are respected and considered. Team members respect the limits the team may Team members communicate effectively and have within the broader school. continue to develop positive communication skills.

Source: P. H. Ephross & T. V. Vassil, Groups that work: Structure and process, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2005). 28 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Inclusive education requires a paradigm responsibility to plan for Michael’s education. shift from historic practice on many levels. The school decided to send the social worker Building strong multidisciplinary teams who to the home to talk to the family and explain to understand that collaboration with each other them why it was important for them to come to and with families requires a new mindset and the school to meet with the team. After getting a strong set of communication skills. The skills information and talking among themselves, required as part of this collaboration also serve the family began to trust the social worker and teachers well in the classroom setting as they agreed to come to the school for the meeting. work to support all students and especially During the meeting, which included a social their students with special education needs. worker, psychologist, speech therapist, special The next portion of this chapter will focus on pedagogue and general education teacher, the co-teaching, a way for teachers to collaborate social worker welcomed the family and intro- within the classroom to best provide quality duced them to the team. The team members inclusive education. The section begins with an talked about the child informally and then activity (see Box 1 below) that readers can do to started the meeting. practice effective teamwork. One purpose of the meeting was to discuss the ILP. In addition, team members noticed Box 1. Role Play as Teamwork that the child frequently refused to interact with the specialists. The social worker started Read Michael’s story below, then complete with the following prompt: “Let’s all share what the following activities — we all know about Michael so that we can best • Role play a multidisciplinary team meeting. support him in his education.” Team members, In groups assign a role to each member. including the parents, shared their thoughts on Take on the role you are assigned. Michael’s strengths and challenges. They were • Practice communication skills that have very attentive to the concerns and input of the been identified above. Potential roles: family, and at the end of the meeting the family General education teacher, special expressed their gratitude because at the last education teacher, speech therapist, social school Michael attended, they were not con- worker, family member and child. sulted about Michael’s educational plan. • The meeting deals with the child’s current education plan for the year. Go over results The Role of Co-teaching in Inclusive and discuss the plan on how to move Education forward. Successful inclusive education requires collaboration on many levels. While multidisciplinary Michael’s Story teams are important for creating a sense of Michael is a 10-year-old who has moved from ownership and involvement to best meet the his special school to an inclusive school. Mi- needs of the children with disabilities and their chael has been labeled with a cognitive disabil- families, full inclusion also necessitates collab- ity and is in the fourth grade. He started in his oration in the classroom. Creating successful new school one month ago. The school con- learning environments for all students requires tacted the family about setting up a multidis- a new way of looking at teaching: one which ciplinary meeting. The family refused to come uses the resources of the school most effec- to the meeting, saying that it was the school’s tively and where children are learning in more engaging environments that best meet a vari- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 29 ety of learning needs. To most effectively teach with other inclusive strategies (Friend & Cook, all children in inclusive classrooms, a practice 2004). The intent of co-teaching is to make known as co-teaching is used. Research on the general education curriculum accessible co-teaching is still in its early stages, but one to students with special needs (Friend, Cook, study found that students with learning dis- Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010). abilities in co-taught classes showed higher This practice also enhances the participation of attendance and better grades on report cards students with special educational needs as full than those taught in classrooms with just one classroom members, giving them access to the teacher (Rea, McLaughlin, & Walther-Thomas, general education curriculum and to teachers 2002). When research was conducted with stu- who are highly qualified in particular subjects. dents at the high school level, findings showed Co-teaching also provides support to the teach- that students favored co-teaching and would ers involved in the co-teaching setting (Friend, participate in co-taught classes again if given 2005). the opportunity (Wilson & Michaels, 2006). Stu- While co-teaching, two teachers (typically a dents reported that more help was available, regular and special educator) share physical and they experienced multiple teaching styles. space in order to instruct a group of students The co-teaching practice provides teachers with within an inclusive learning environment. The the necessary support in the teaching process model combines general education teach- and also provides all students with multiple ers’ knowledge of curriculum with the special ways of engaging with teachers. The practice of education teachers’ expertise in individualizing co-teaching challenges teachers to re-examine instruction. Individualization includes students their teaching practice and build on each oth- who are academically gifted because it allows er’s strengths. for a variety of teaching delivery strategies. The co-teaching method provides all stu- What Is Co-Teaching in the Schools? dents with a wider range of instructional strategies and allows for more participation of While co-teaching can occur in multiple educa- students with special education needs than in tional experiences, from university classes to classrooms taught by just one teacher (Friend & primary and secondary schools, this chapter Cook, 2010). The end goal of co-teaching is for will focus on co-teaching in the inclusive school. students to be more effectively included with Co-teaching is a partnership between educa- their general education peers. It also allows tors (Friend & Cook, 2010) or other specialists for more varied and creative teaching meth- in order to instruct students with diverse needs ods, increases support for teachers and other within the general education classroom. It is service specialists by providing shared teaching aligned with inclusive strategies in a number time, and may more efficiently use the resourc- of ways, in that it reduces stigma for students es of all professionals than separate delivery with special needs and improves instruction for does. Co-teaching requires professionals to all students. Various methods of co-teaching plan and implement instruction (Friend, Cook, also allow for diverse instructional opportu- Hurley-Chamberlain, & Shamberger, 2010). In nities for students and more varied and cre- the paragraphs below, six approaches to imple- ative teaching methods. While co-teaching is menting co-teaching are described. an important part of an inclusive practice, it is not a requirement for inclusion to occur. It is, however, a very effective way to provide services to students, and it shares many benefits 30 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Ways to Implement Co-Teaching Parallel teaching Co-teaching can be implemented in a num- In this approach, teachers co-plan instruc- ber of ways. The key is to understand which tion, but the class is divided into two groups, of the following best meets the needs of the and each teacher works with one group. This content being taught and the needs of the stu- approach reduces student-teacher ratio and dents. Teacher resources and time are also key works best when conducting test reviews and factors in determining which style to use. Based projects that need more intense teacher sup- on the six approaches listed below, teachers port. For example, in preparation for a math address the individualized goals and objectives test, one group may include students with of students with disabilities while also meeting learning disabilities and the other a student the learning needs of the other students in the with autism. This allows teachers to mix the class. groups, and the needs of the students in each group can be diversified. One teach, one observe One benefit to this approach to co-teaching is Alternative teaching that both teachers at one point have the op- This strategy allows for small groups to be portunity to observe the class and individual taught based on skills that may need to be de- students. The main teacher plans the lesson, so veloped that are different from the large group. it requires little preplanning. One caution with One teacher may take a small group (students this approach is that if one teacher remains with and without special educational needs in the main primary teaching role most of the may populate this group). Alternative teach- time (often the general education teacher), ing allows for in-depth instruction within the the result may be that the other begins to be inclusive classroom environment. It allows for viewed as a teaching assistant, not a profes- all students in the classroom to receive some sional with equal teaching status. small-group instruction. One consideration with this approach is that often it becomes only the Station teaching students with special needs who are pulled on a consistent basis, thus creating a segregated A ‘station’ is an activity set up by teachers for setting within the general education classroom. students to complete in one part of a classroom. Various stations are set up, and students move through them with one teacher support- Team teaching ing each station. For example, one station may In team teaching, both teachers deliver the have an activity related to reading and another same instruction at the same time, so they ulti- may have an activity where students write. All mately co-instruct with one group of students. of these relate to the lesson, which may be in Instruction becomes more like a conversation. any subject area. Each station has a different This approach is considered by some to be the task that relates to the overall objectives of the most complex but also the most satisfying. lesson, and teachers and assistants each provide support at a different station. One teach, one assist In this strategy, one teacher maintains the role of classroom manager while the other takes primary responsibility for teaching. For example, if math is being taught, one will teach Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 31 and the other will monitor students, observing Box 2. Considerations for Selecting a Co- where help might be needed. This allows a Teaching Approach teacher to provide individual support to students who may be students with disabilities or • Student characteristics and needs. An others who are struggling with the lesson. This example of this would be if a student has a approach can also be problematic, because if difficult time transitioning during activities. planning time is not available, this becomes the You would not want to select an approach approach that is most often used whether or that has many changes in the lesson. not it is the best for the learning needs of the • Teacher characteristics and needs. If co- students (Friend & Cook, 2010). teachers vary in their teaching styles, it is In deciding which approach to use, it is best to select approaches that allow them important to determine the one that is most to teach independently. If teachers work useful given the teacher resources, the needs easily together, a more shared approach of students and content of the subject being might work best. taught. Here is an illustration of some of the • Curriculum, including content and approaches mentioned above (see Figure 1). instructional strategies. Considering the content and which instructional strategy Figure 1. Strategies for Co-Teaching best fits is important. Content that is highly structured, such as teaching steps in a process, may require an approach that is different from content where there is open discussion of ideas. • Practical considerations. If the classroom is crowded, you may want to consider an approach that does not depend on space and spreading out. • School readiness. Another consideration before implementing co-teaching is how ready the team or the school is to begin the process. Some schools may be open to new ideas about co-teaching, while others are more resistant.

Beginning the co-teaching process starts Friend and Cook (2004) also provided some with communication between regular and guidelines that help the teams determine which specialist teachers as well as support from the co-teaching strategy to use for particular les- management of the school. Friend and Cook sons (see Box 2 in the next column). It is import- (2010) have provided guidelines that teachers ant for teams to discuss the content of the or schools can reflect on to check for readiness lesson and which approach is most suitable for (see Box 3). These guidelines may also act as the needs of the students. conversation starters for a school as it begins to transition to a co-teaching model. 32 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Box 3. Checklist to Determine Readiness for Who Are Teacher Assistants?

Co-Teaching While co-teaching often occurs between the general and special education teachers, teach- My co-teacher and I have — ing assistants may also be important to the ___ 1. Discussed our perceptions of how team. Teacher assistants provide support for a classroom is shared, identifying classroom teachers in primary, secondary both our similar beliefs and resolving and preschool education. A teacher assistant

differences in our understanding. is the person who works under a teacher’s For example, in relation to classroom supervision to give students additional atten- noise, one might believe that a noisy tion and instruction. They may work in public classroom is productive and busy, and private schools, childcare centers and for while the other might believe a noisy nonprofit organizations. A teacher assistant will classroom interferes with some stu- typically do the following — dents’ learning. • Reinforce lessons presented by teachers by ___ 2. Reviewed the instructional needs of reviewing material with students one-on-one students with disabilities in the class or in small groups; and agreed on accommodations • Enforce school and class rules to help teach likely to be needed. students appropriate behavior; ___ 3. Identified how we will convey to stu- • Help teachers with record-keeping, such as dents from the first day of co-teach- tracking attendance and calculating grades; ing that we are partners and have equal classroom authority. • Help teachers prepare for lessons by getting materials ready or setting up equipment, ___ 4. Conferred on day-to-day matters such as computers; such as expectations for classroom routines and a time to debrief about • Supervise students in class, between classes, the co-teaching. during lunch and recess, and on field trips. ___ 5. Shared our perceptions of how Teacher assistants are also called teacher’s instruction and classroom duties can aides, instructional helpers, paraprofessionals be shared. and para educators. Commonly, teachers in- ___ 6. Addressed what potential strengths troduce new material to students, and teacher and liabilities each member brings to assistants help reinforce the lessons by working with individual students or small groups of co-teaching. students. For example, they may help students learn research skills by helping them find information for reports. Teacher assistants sometimes help teachers by grading tests and checking homework. Teachers may seek feedback from assistants to monitor students’ progress. Some teachers and teacher assistants meet regularly to discuss lesson plans and student development. Some teacher assistants work only with students with special education needs. These students attend inclusive schools, and teacher assistants Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 33 help them understand the material and adapt sufficient knowledge and understanding the information to their learning style. With regarding the particular subject; students who have more severe disabilities, • Conduct class and case assessment and assistants may work with them in both regular data analysis; classes and separate classes. Teacher assis- • Support teachers in preparation of teaching tants may help these students with basic needs materials, including those for children with such as feeding or personal hygiene. In the special educational needs; case of young adults, they may help students • Participate in class preparation activities; with special education needs learn skills necessary for them to find a job after graduation. • Along with teachers, justify, assess and ob- Finally, some teacher assistants work in specif- serve issues applied to the learning process ic locations in the school. For example, some of the particular child; work in computer laboratories, teaching stu- • Enable formulation of self-regulation in dents how to use computers and helping them learners; use software. Others may work with cafeteria • Protect learners’ rights and freedom; attendants, supervising students during these • Collaborate with the multidisciplinary team; times of the day. • Participate in methodological subject group Although most teacher assistants work in discussions; elementary, middle and high schools, others work in preschools and other childcare centers. • Contribute to social services case discussion Often, one or two assistants work with a lead and introduction. teacher to give the individual attention that In order to hold the position of teacher young children need. They help with education- assistant, the professional must have a higher al activities. They also supervise the children pedagogical or higher degree or have at least at play and help with feeding and other basic three years of pedagogical experience within care. the last 10 years (Teacher Assistant, 2017). To successfully implement co-teaching, it is The Role of Teacher Assistants in important that both the teacher and the teach- Armenian Schools ing assistant recognize that they are a team, and both must take responsibility to create The teacher assistant position in Armenia a productive co-teaching environment. This occurs within the structure of inclusive educa- practice has been implemented in the United tion in order to provide qualitative service to all States for well over 10 years, but is a new prac- learners. The position was created to help ad- tice in Armenia. To promote inclusive educa- dress the need for supporting student learning tional practices, co-teaching has proven to be in the inclusive classroom. Within this scope, extremely effective because it allows schools the teacher assistant’s responsibilities and roles and teachers to maximize the limited resources in inclusive schools are identified as follows — available. As was mentioned above, co-teaching • Help teachers to plan and implement teach- between the teacher and teaching assistant re- ing and tutoring issues; quires an attitude of shared classroom respon- • Support realization of ILP; sibilities. It shifts from an attitude of ‘my’ class- • Support general teachers to use appropriate room for teachers to one of ‘our classroom’ for methods and techniques in order to provide the two professionals who will work together to promote education for children. 34 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

Issues to Consider for administrator(s) be on board and introduce Implementation the topic to the school staff. It is important at first that people understand that developing A shift to a co-teaching model requires strong co-teaching practice is a process and thoughtful planning and ongoing communica- that not everyone will be co-teaching right tion. Co-teaching represents a change in prac- away. Second, discussing the role of the teach- tice, especially for general education teachers, ing assistant in the classroom is important as who have typically claimed the classroom as well. When teachers teach together, the role their own. It presents the idea of a shared of the teaching assistant can be confusing. It classroom and shared styles of teaching. Some is important to clearly designate the tasks of considerations that teachers should take into each person in the learning environment. Third, account before they begin the process include since it may be difficult for general educators instructional content and expectations for to share the teaching, suggest a strategy where students; creating time for planning, which you might begin the process by co-teaching a should include the strategy that will be used unit for several weeks. This will allow for under- and who will do what; styles of instruction and standing of styles and philosophy and finally, organization and discipline expectations for the develop a thought process of ‘we’ versus ‘I’ and classroom; how to discuss issues that arise and ‘team’ versus ‘my.’ how you will give feedback to each other on approaches to teaching tasks related to aspects of teaching like grading and lesson preparation Co-Teaching Example (Friend & Cook, 2004, 2010). A young first-grade teacher started the year It is beneficial for teachers to have ongoing working with 32 students. Three students had dialogue when co-teaching. This includes ques- special educational needs, two with behavior tions such as — challenges and one with a cognitive disability. • How do we create time to plan and share The teacher was very challenged by the needs teaching chores such as assignment prepa- in the classroom and talked with the teaching ration and grading? assistant to find better ways to work with the • Do we understand each other’s teaching class. Since the teaching assistant was focused styles? on working only with the children with disabilities, they thought that a co-teaching approach • How will it be clear that both educators have would help them to best use their resources the same status in the classroom? and also provide all students with a richer • How is space designated that supports stu- learning experience. dents and both teachers? The teacher and teaching assistant decided • How do we each feel about noise and stu- that they would begin co-teaching in math. The dent activity in the classroom? class was working on addition and subtraction, • What are our instructional and organization- so using the station approach was a good way al routines? to begin. The teacher and co-teacher met the • How do we provide feedback to each other, week before they were to begin so they were including when and how to discuss issues? well prepared. They decided that after a short (Cook, 2004) math lesson to the whole group, they would develop two stations. One station would be for When considering implementing co-teaching students to practice the math problems using strategies, Friend and Cook (2003) suggest that manipulatives where they would use cubes to Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 35 add and subtract problems. The teaching assis- classroom by leveraging the strengths of pro- tant worked with the students at this station. fessionals as a team. At the other station, the teacher worked on the workbook and applying the problems. Tips for Teachers and Teacher The first day went well, and they found that the students were more engaged in their math Assistants work. The fact that the students were able to • Create a welcoming environment. move around also helped them focus more. • Make sure all voices are heard. Both the teacher and the teaching assistant felt • Create opportunities for families to be active successful because co-teaching allowed them members of the team. to both have an active role in the teaching pro- • Include specialists based on child’s individual cess because they could divide 32 students into needs. smaller groups. The team then decided that • Whenever possible, get the support of the they would continue to use other co-teaching school administrator to introduce the con- techniques because they found students to be cept to the school staff as part of best prac- more engaged and focused. They also found tices in developing inclusive practices. that when they collaborated in their teaching, they were able to help and support each other, • Teachers should clearly communicate the which also benefited their students. role of each teacher. This might occur during a weekly planning meeting about who is responsible for what during a given lesson. Conclusion • When beginning co-teaching, begin small, Inclusive schools require intense collabora- taking only one unit or subject area to begin tion in order to meet the educational needs so they get a sense of each other’s teaching of all students. Some of this collaboration styles and expertise. occurs when planning individualized learning • Develop a habit of using ‘we’ language. Stu- programs for students with special education dents don’t belong with one teacher or the needs. In such planning, teachers, therapeutic other; think of it as ‘our’ classroom and the professionals, school leaders and parents must lesson ‘we’ planned. join together to find the most effective plan for the child. Open communication and egalitarian principles for group dynamics will help ensure Thoughts for Leaders that all team members’ voices are heard in the • Support all multidisciplinary team members best interest of the student. based the needs of the team. In inclusive schools, teachers are no longer • Create a climate where the expectation is expected to be in full charge of the learning in clear that all members work together with the classroom. An emerging model of co-teach- families to function as a productive team. ing allows for special teachers or teachers’ assistants to work together with teachers to plan • Offer information sessions for families who lessons effectively. In co-teaching, professionals have children with disabilities, describing the can work with small groups, co-lead lessons, multidisciplinary team process. target support for specific children or move • Follow up with the multidisciplinary team to between roles fluidly. Co-teaching allows sup- make sure what they determined is imple- port for all children to occur within an inclusive mented. 36 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ]

• Provide time for teachers and teacher assis- Glossary tants to plan and provide activities based on Co-leadership — Leadership style that broadly the curriculum. distributes leader responsibility, such that people within a team and organization Reflection Questions lead each other. • How might a teacher and teaching assistant Community — A group of people living in the find time to plan together for lessons that same place or having a particular charac- create the best opportunity for all children teristic. It requires a feeling of fellowship to learn? with others as a result of sharing common attitudes, interests and goals. • How do teachers best use their strengths (e.g., regular teachers’ content strengths Inclusive strategies — Teaching approaches and teaching assistant’s individualization that address the needs of students with a strengths) in a co-teaching environment? variety of backgrounds, learning styles and abilities. Stakeholder — Person or group of people who Additional Resources have common interests or concerns that UNICEF (2014). Teachers, Inclusive, Child-Cen- affect or can be affected by an organiza- tred Teaching and Pedagogy, Webinar 12 tion’s actions. and Companion Booklet 12. Series of 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: References Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved from Azatyan, T. (2015). Training of future specialists for working with children with multiple developmental https://www.ded4inclusion.com/inclu- disabilities. Problems of deaf-blind: Experience, sive-education-resources-free/unicef-inclu- tasks, and perspectives. Materials of the international sive-education-booklets-and-webinars-en- scientific conference, 120–122. Moscow. glish-version Friend, M., & Cook, L. (2004). Collaborating with professionals and parents without being overwhelmed: Learning module on Co-Teaching (2018). Min- Building partnerships and teams. In J. Burnette & C. neapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Peters-Johnson, (Eds.), Thriving as a special educator Institute on Community Integration. (pp. 29–40). Alexandria, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Websites that describe co-teaching Friend, M. (2005). The power of 2: Making a difference collaborations — through co-teaching (2nd ed.). Ashford, CT: Elephant • https://www.hewlett-woodmere.net/ Rock Productions. Friend, M., & Cook, L. (2010). Interactions: Collaboration cms/lib/NY01000519/Centricity/Do- skills for school professionals (6th ed.). Columbus, OH: main/29/20120522095107.pdf Merrill. • http://people.uncw.edu/rabidouxs/coteach/ Friend, M., Cook, L., Hurley-Chamberlain, D., & Sham- Co-teaching%20Article.pdf berger, C. (2010). Co-teaching: An illustration of the complexity of collaboration in special education. • https://study.com/articles/difference_be- Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, tween_teacher_teaching_assistant.html 20, 9–27. Mehrabian, A. (1971). Silent messages. Belmont, CA: Wad- sworth. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] 37

Rea, P., McLaughlin, V. L., & Walther-Thomas, C. S. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68, 203–222. RA Law on Additions and Amendments to RA Law on Gen- eral Education (HO-200-N). Teacher assistant, methodological manual (2017). Wilson, G. L., & Michaels, C. A. (2006). General and special education students’ perceptions of co-teaching: Implications for secondary-level literacy instruction. Reading and Writing Quarterly, 22, 205–225. 38 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 3 ] Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 39

CHAPTER 4: The Role of Families in Inclusive Education

Susan O’Connor, Augsburg University, Minnesota Tereza Azatyan, Lilit Karapetyan, & Zhanna Paylozyan Armenian State Pedagogical University

This chapter explores the importance of inviting families of children with disabilities into the educational process and provides ideas and considerations for creating strong family and professional partnerships in order to enhance inclusive practices. 40 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • When you see a child with special education needs in the community with her or his family, what thoughts do you have about the child and the family? • What do you think families need in relation to supporting children with special educational needs? • What do you think families’ concerns are in relation to their children and society? • What is your role in relation to supporting families with children with special education needs?

Introduction sionals or what the results of tests and assess- The role that families play in the process of ments show. Most families understand the inclusive education is crucial. Families are the growth and the needs of their child, yet largely first people to know the child and the ones who remain an untapped resource.

will be involved in their lives as their children In Armenia, the first contact between fami- move from primary to middle to high school. lies, students with special education needs and Why, then, do they often play a minor role in professionals happens during the process of the education process of their children? His- pedagogical and psychological assessments. torically, families have been relegated to the Families are members of this team, and the sidelines when it comes to working with their most common means of communication be- child’s educational team, mainly taking on the tween them is through discussions, consul- role of recipient of professional knowledge. tation, meetings and trainings. However, in This has been the case in Armenia where com- inclusive settings, most of the teachers and munication between parents and profession- families lack the required knowledge and skills als has continued to follow a more traditional to establish a strong and more equitable part- hierarchical approach. Parents or families nership. would typically come to meetings and receive Such partnerships, however, are essential

test results, listen to the goals that have been for effective inclusive education. Research set for their child and often receive commu- shows that when families and educators work nication from the school when something is together as partners, it enhances the likeli- needed from them or when something goes hood that all children will have positive and wrong. Shifting the role of families from passive successful learning experiences (Ferrel, 2012; recipients of information to active participants Nez, Suárez, Rosário; Vallejo, Valle, & Epstein, in the planning process is critical when we plan 2015). A comprehensive study conducted by for inclusive education for students with special Hoy (2012), who reviewed those characteristics education needs. Understanding the role of that lead to improved student achievement, families as advocates and partners with the ed- found that higher math and reading scores ucational team is a major shift for both families were achieved when teachers developed trust and professionals from past educational prac- in parents and worked in partnership with tice. The shift is important, though, because them. Another national longitudinal study in families hold a wealth of information and know the United States looked at secondary school the child in far more intimate ways than profes- students with disabilities as they related to academic achievement. The study found higher Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 41 achievement levels for youth whose families • What motivates a family? were more involved in their school experi- • What concerns do families have that might ence. Positive results included achieving better deter them from participation? grades, developing more friendships and being • How has the school invited the family to the more likely to be successful after they graduate planning process? (Newman, 2005). Turnbull et al. (2015) found that family involvement improved skill devel- These types of questions help provide a deep- opment and increased motivation and positive er understanding of ways that families might behaviors. be better understood and welcomed into the Including families in the educational process educational planning process. Additionally, is both logical and has been demonstrated to families must accept that their child has special produce better outcomes for the students. This education needs and be willing to work with chapter discusses the role that families should teachers and other professionals to provide play in the education process of their children the best support for the child. Changing these and how schools can move to a family-centered behaviors will be a process — one that may be approach that includes the whole family as re- unfamiliar to families and professionals. This cipients of support and as partners (Epley et al, new approach will take time and intentionality 2010). The chapter addresses the cultural and for both families and professionals. behavioral changes that need to occur in order One tool that can be used by professionals to be inclusive of families and develop a view of to begin to understand the perceptions that families’ role as a resource rather than a road- often go unseen when it comes to why par- block to progress. The chapter also discusses ents might be unwilling to participate is what the skills and strategies needed by profession- Day (2016) calls a parent empathy map (p. 41). als to include and communicate with families in This map allows teachers to better under- order to support them to be active participants stand family perspectives and might ultimately in the child’s school life. make families feel more understood. The map encourages teachers to reflect on four questions — Understanding the Needs of 1. What do parents think and feel? Families 2. What do parents see and hear? In working with families, it is essential to be- 3. What are parents saying and doing? gin to develop a different type of relationship than relationships experienced by families in 4. What do parents want? the past. Inclusive relationships are character- Day provided an example of such a map ized by professionals who gain a deep under- for teachers to use (see Table 1 on page 42). In standing of the needs and perspectives of the Armenia, close family members such as grand- families and their children. This approach is parents are key to understanding the family often not a part of current practice because it is dynamic. This map requires teachers to reflect challenging for professionals to begin to under- on the needs of families in a more in-depth way stand how families perceive the school envi- and can be used as a tool to begin to create ronment and their role within it. One place to empathy and solutions that work toward build- begin is for professionals to ask different types ing constructive ongoing relationships. of questions in order to develop stronger relationships with families. Professionals who wish to work closely with families can find out — 42 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

Table 1. Parent Empathy Map

What do families think and feel? What do families see and hear?

What are families saying and doing? What do families want?

What concerns do families have? What gains are families making?

Family-Centered Approach the team working with the family. The follow- As mentioned above, families are involved ing chart (see Table 2 on page 43) defines these with their child across the lifespan. Developing key behaviors and provides examples of how strong relationships early in the child’s school professionals might take action when it comes experience will help the child and the relation- to implementing these behaviors and how each ship between families and schools and will also can lead to developing trust or cause families help families to develop skills to work with pro- to distrust the process. fessionals as their children mature. These partnerships require a family-centered approach to partnering with families, which is not limited to parents. Family-centered partnerships should involve other family members, such as grand- parents, siblings and even family friends (Turn- bull et al., 2015). In this chapter, the word family will indicate the broader network. The inclusion of families in planning processes requires that professionals have strong partnership skills. Basic to any partnership is a focus on the strengths, expertise and resources that each partner brings. Seven behaviors that are key to developing these relationships, according to Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Sooda, and Shogren (2011), are communication, respect, professional competence, equality, commitment and trust. Blue-Banning, Sum- mers, Frankland, Lord Nelson, and Begle (2004) also add confidentiality — the need for families to know that what they say will be kept within Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 43

Table 2. Creating Partnership Through Trust Building

Actions Leading Actions Leading Partnership Principles and Practices Issues to Distrust to Trust Communication. The verbal, nonverbal or You are Tell the family Listen written messages that partners exchange participating in a during the empathetically among themselves. Indicators include — conference with meeting that and ask if they • Being friendly parents of the they have not would be willing • Listening child with special provided proper to brainstorm educational supervision for options that • Being clear needs who are homework and would involve • Being honest extremely angry that the poor them and you • Providing and coordinating information. that their child grades are their collaborating to is making poor fault. promote their grades and child’s program. believe that it is their fault.

Respect. Relationships in which each partner The school Tell the family that Talk with your regards all others with esteem. Communicate develops a maybe their child administrator care for family through actions and words. guidebook on or some friends about getting Indicators include — inclusion and can translate or the handbook • Honoring family’s background holds a meeting explain parts of translated into • Affirming strengths to discuss it with the handbook to Russian or finding families and the them. someone to • Treating students and families with dignity. community. explain it to the families.

Professional competence. Family of a Tell the family Meet with the • Set high expectations. student who that you object family and find • Provide a quality education. is failing every to their family out, from their subject are not priorities and perspective, their • Continue to learn. showing any that they are only priorities for their concern about hurting their son. son, both this school failure. year and in the future.

Equality. Each partner has roughly equal A family Tell the family it Ask the family if it opportunity and talent to influence the member asks is against school would be possible decisions that the partners make. Indicators if a conference policy to meet to talk on the include — can be arranged during the school telephone early • Sharing power so families are consulted before school to day. in the school day on decisions related to the child’s goals accommodate her rather than meet and program work schedule. at school. • Fostering empowerment where the family is listened to and encouraged to speak up even if the team does not agree • Providing options. 44 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

Actions Leading Actions Leading Partnership Principles and Practices Issues to Distrust to Trust Commitment. Be sensitive to emotional The family has Assume that Call the family; needs of the family. Do they experience just moved to a the family may issue a special challenges at home that teachers are not new community, be interested in invitation to aware of? Indicators include — and neither the coming to the come to a school • Being available to the family for student nor the school open event or a field consultation family know house next year; trip and arrange • Going above and beyond what is expected anyone at the leave them on with another child’s new middle their own to make family to meet • Being sensitive to families’ emotional school. connections in the the new family needs. new community and student and and school. introduce them to others.

Trust. Maintain confidentiality. The school Tell them they’ll Identify a Having confidence in another person’s word, administration not be able to nonmonetary judgment and action and believing that the asks parents to take part in the way for them to trusted person will act in the best interest of contribute to a activity, since they contribute to the the person. Indicators include — fund to pay for have to ‘pay their class; tell them • Being reliable the classroom own way.’ their classroom • Maintaining confidentiality activity, but the contribution parents do not represents their • Trusting yourself. have money to contribution; contribute. keep everything confidential.

Source: Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Shodak & Shogren (2015). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 45

Communication with Families Developing strong communication skills As mentioned in the previous section, com- involves active and empathetic listening as pro- munication between teachers and families is a fessionals attempt to understand the perspec- critical aspect of the educational process, espe- tives of the family. Families often feel looked cially as it relates to inclusion. It is important to down upon if they have not been engaged in recognize that this is a new way of interacting the process or do not understand the informa- for both families and professionals who are tion that is shared with them. It is important more familiar with hierarchical roles where pro- for the team to try to understand the family’s fessionals are considered to be the experts and challenges without judgment, so that when parents accept that expertise with few ques- communicating with the family, the profession- tions asked. Shifting such a focus required new al understands that the family may be feeling attitudes and new skills. Communication plays overwhelmed and may not have the capacity to an important role in this shift. It means more communicate. Only after developing an under- than simply conveying information, it requires standing of the family and communicating with establishing strong relationships with families them over time can these deeper relationships and opportunities for them to become effective occur. Parents and professionals often have members of the team. different ideas about what communication Effective communication involves conveying means. This is highlighted in the following information in ways that families can under- quotes from a family member and a profes- stand. Often the message families receive when sional (see Table 3 below). They provide insights they attend meetings is that they are merely into how parents and professionals may view there to receive information. When parents the same conversation differently. are talked to (rather than communicated with), Table 3. Different Perspectives on information often comes in the form of as- Communication sessment results and program goals that are shared using technical language they may not Professional Parent Perspective understand. Use of such terminology commu- Perspective nicates a strong message to families that they The first thing is to I talk a lot … I give them are not part of the team but there only to be listen to us … because so much information … told about their child. In addition, families are we know our kids They are really grateful better than anyone … about that because often surrounded by a large group of profes- so if I tried to say, to no one else really sionals, which creates an atmosphere of ‘them tell them (professional) gives them that much vs. us,’ sending a message to families that their something, it’d be information … They voice is not valued. LISTEN TO ME. trust me now … I build Likewise, there is often resistance from fam- a lot of relationships ilies to participation as a member of the team. through a lot of talking They may not know how to enter the process, and giving them or they may feel that planning is the work of information and that’s professionals. Developing strong family-school important to them. bonds that invite parents to see themselves as Source: Blue-Banning et al., 2004, p. 175 equal and important members of the team is essential, and communication is a key element What families and professionals view as in this process. communication can vary greatly. The parent in Table 3 wants to be heard and valued, and 46 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

the professional believes she is doing just that. Building ongoing communication By sharing all the information she can, this Often, teachers think that family members professional believes that her communication should come in to school only when receiving with the family is successful. She assumes that information on the ILP or to discuss another is- she knows what the family needs from her. sue about the child. Such a perspective is prob- This barrier to communication can be bridged lematic. In such a model, once parents listen to only by building effective communication that the information and plan for their child, they requires listening and reflection on why things sign off, and communication has been com- might not be working — often, deeper under- plete. Building rapport and strong relationships standing of not only what is being shared, but requires different types of communication and more importantly, what is not being shared. It a way of communicating that occurs over time. is something that occurs on many levels and Families appreciate frequent communication. begins by developing a relationship where the Letting them know how their child is doing on parent and professional(s) work together. We an ongoing basis is essential to developing a highlight how, with a few small changes, more relationship. effective communication builds a stronger rela- Some teachers provide family members tionship (see Table 4 below). with daily communication. This might be in the form of a phone call, online communication Table 4. Stronger Relationship Perspectives (for example, via Dasaran.am) if families have Professional access, or in the form of initiating a notebook Parent Perspective Perspective in which the teacher writes a few comments I was worried that I noticed that I stop about how the day went if there are specific my child was always myself more now things he or she feels the family needs to know. causing problems in when I am talking with This is also an opportunity for family members class, so I went in and families to listen to what to write back to the teacher, perhaps providing talked to his teacher, they have to say before the teacher with essential information regard- and she sat down with I start talking. Since ing stressors or behaviors that might affect me for as long as I doing that, I notice that the child’s school day. For example, perhaps needed and explained families are more willing the child did not sleep well the night before some things I might try to share their ideas, at home. and our collaboration is because there was an unsettling situation in stronger. the family. Or, there may have been a dis- agreement at school between two students One important way to develop a working that upset the child. This type of exchange can relationship with families is to consider how develop an ongoing way to communicate the communication occurs on a daily, weekly or accomplishments and needs of the child for monthly basis. Building such a relationship both the family and the teacher. Because it helps to allow for effective communication occurs on a frequent basis, it allows for families when it comes to ILP or other critical meetings to hear from teachers, not only when there is a that will take place. The following section will problem, but also when there are successes, or discuss some ways in which teachers might simply to say their child had an okay day. When begin to build strong connections to parents as they hear only the problems from school, par- they work to create inclusive classrooms. ents might begin to distance themselves from the teacher, and communication breaks down. Allowing for more frequent communication Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 47 provides more opportunities for families and Developing Interpersonal professionals to connect. Communication Skills Nonverbal and verbal skills are necessary Communication at more formal meetings when communicating in a positive way with As was mentioned above, parents frequently families. Developing or refining such skills attend meetings and are told about their child takes self-awareness and practice. Nonverbal without the opportunity to add their perspec- communication skill such as facial expression, tives. Shifting this one-way communication gestures and physical proximity are often dynamic begins with looking at how the meet- unconscious activities, but all convey powerful ing is constructed and how parents are invited messages. Some examples of nonverbal com- to participate. Inviting families to participate munication are listed below. It is important to in a meeting is different from inviting them to read nonverbal communication cues, which attend. Initially parents may choose to have show in the form of — a more limited role because they are accus- • Physical attending. Activities such as making tomed to remaining quiet in meetings, but eye contact, warm facial expressions and some parents will welcome more involvement physical proximity will create engagement, immediately. It is important to remember that while leaning away or sitting with crossed providing opportunities to participate is critical legs or arms might show being closed to the to shifting the communication paradigm. There information; are a number of tips to remember when invit- • Listening. There are many ways to listen. ing parents to be involved in meetings — Evaluate whether or not you are paying 1. Create a welcoming environment; parents attention to the parent or merely pretending often feel as though it is them versus the to be listening. Teachers might ask them- professionals. Create an environment that selves: Are you listening attentively to all is hospitable and engaging; that is being said or just selective parts? Are 2. Make sure parent contributions are valued. you actively listening, meaning you make Parents do not want to feel they are blamed comments and repeat what is being said to for things that have occurred; check for understanding? Are you listening 3. Maintain confidentiality; empathetically, trying to understand where 4. Share information in a way that all mem- that parent or family member is coming bers understand instead of using jargon from, trying to understand their perspective? understood only by professionals; Verbal communication is another important 5. Use active listening skills. Establishing aspect of the communication process. We pres- empathy and listening without judging is ent some important skills to keep in mind (see critical in establishing trust. Table 5 on page 48). How teachers interact with families at these meetings will strongly influence their involvement in the school process and their child’s education. The climate that is created on a daily basis as well as at more formal meetings affects not only the degree of family involvement but also the success of the child. 48 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

Table 5. Verbal Communication Strategies

In your own words, restate the message in language similar as possible to what was Paraphrasing used to clarify content. You might begin with, “Let me see if I am understanding what you are asking,” followed by the message. This demonstrates attentive listening. There are two types: encouraging, which includes responses such as “Oh? Then . . .” or “I see. Then. . .” and the second type, Furthering response verbal following, which involves restating the main points using the words of the family. This encourages the family member to go on speaking. Paying attention to not only what the person says but to how they say it. You are Responding to trying to verbalize their feelings and attitudes. For example, “Helen, it seems you affect are feeling upset with your mom, who you thought was going to help you.” Open-ended questions invite the family to share — questions such as “What seems to be working well for Michael now?” Keep the use of closed-ended questions to a minimum. Things that require Questioning more a yes and no or just a direct response such as “How long has Ann been at this school?” orDo you feel comfortable today?” can be answered without much elaboration. Restating what was said with an emphasis on the most important thoughts. Summarizing Summaries are longer than paraphrasing. A summary might begin with, “Let’s review what we have discussed about the math program for George.”

Source: Turnbull, Turnbull, Erwin, Soodak, & Shogren (2011)

Moving from Participation to 2012). Often, families have not experienced a Empowerment sense of empowerment in their relationship with schools and have felt disempowered and There are many ways to think about how to disengaged from the process. Part of creating involve families and many skills that need to strong, empowering partnerships requires that be developed. Having parents participate at professionals create opportunities for families all is sometimes a major accomplishment that to develop and practice taking active roles in begins to shift communication toward more the team process. inclusive family–professional relationships. It Moving from a model of participation and is important to take into account that all family involvement to empowerment requires a more members are encouraged to participate. Par- in-depth level of communication and collabo- ticipants include both parents and extended ration. Participation then requires some form family members. When discussing this shift, of commitment, where becoming involved terms such as participation and involvement requires more action. One framework (see are frequently used. While both are import- Table 6 on page 49) to help understand this shift ant, moving a step beyond mere participation is provided by Day. This chart provides some — toward empowerment — provides a new examples of how school personnel might sup- framework that recognizes that families have port movement toward empowerment. It helps within them the ability to act and take charge professionals to identify progress on three of their child’s education as an equal member different levels: participation, involvement and of the team. People who feel empowered take action to get what they want and need (Trainor, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 49 empowerment. In the first phase, participation, of collaboration and enriches the family, the the main goal is to help and support parents teacher and other members of the classroom with the reality of the child being part of the team. Empowerment also provides an opportu- inclusive school setting and the parents’ role in nity for families to develop creative approaches their child’s education. The next, involvement, to support their child. Using this framework, we assumes the presence of parents during school provide an example (see Table 6 below) of each events and, from time to time, visits to the of the phases. Schools might use this format to classroom to get to know various pedagogical create their own path toward empowerment. tools that can be used at home to assist their The process takes time and intentionality, but child. The empowerment phase develops when when families are empowered, they become parents and teachers begin to collaborate more fully engaged members of the team and and see each other as partners in the child’s the school community that seeks to provide the learning. Empowerment requires a high level best inclusive education for the child.

Table 6. Moving Toward an Empowerment Model

Participation Empowerment Involvement Families attend meetings that are Family (and student) lead ILP Family and teacher co-lead meeting teacher led meeting Families receive and review Family shares and acts upon Families have two-way teacher communication. information with children. communication with schools, advocating for needs and receiving responses. Families are given an ILP to sign. Families participate in meetings Family actively participates: but on a limited basis (passive providing input into goals, participation). bringing questions to meetings and eventually helping to co- facilitate meetings. Subject specific: Families Family observes the teacher work Family discusses with the teacher are informed about reading with child. how these goals might be curriculum/goals. reinforced at home.

Source: C. G. Day (2016). Use the chart below to create your own examples. Moving Toward an Empowerment Model

Participation Involvement Empowerment 50 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

An Example of Communication: The previous teacher shares that she in- David’s Story volved the parents and David in the daily routines and expectations. The new teacher David is 11 years old and is just beginning and David’s parents decide to share journal middle school. In his primary school, he liked correspondence on a weekly basis. The school his teachers because they understood his team asks the family if they have suggestions strengths and challenges and knew how to for what they want to do. Together they decide work and communicate with him. Now he has they would invite all the teachers who knew new teachers and more is demanded of him. David in his new school. They also decide that He is acting out and aggressive in school; he they will keep an ongoing communication diary. is angry when he gets home and won’t do his The team also decides that they will meet every homework. His parents are very concerned week to begin with to monitor David’s progress. about the change in David’s behavior. They call The school leaders also offer to have any family the school and are very upset and angry, de- members come into the classroom to visit. manding to know what is happening at school. Before leaving, the parents thank the teachers The classroom teacher speaks to the principal, for listening. where it is decided to organize a meeting be- The school team hopes that by establishing tween David’s team and his family. a relationship with this family, in the future When the family comes to the meeting, they they will be involved on school committees are still very upset. They come in saying that and bring their ideas to developing an inclusive the new teacher is a problem and does not school setting where families’ voices are heard know how to work with David. They say they and where they feel they participate and are want to change teachers and are also con- empowered. cerned that the school does not know how to support their son’s increasing behavioral outbursts. They share that his previous teachers Summary knew how to work with him and that they were This chapter provided professionals with a very effective: “He learned at his last school, but challenge to begin to bring families into the ed- here he does not pay attention and gets into ucational process. In order to develop inclusive fights. What is wrong?” David’s father wonders educational practices, family involvement is es- why things have changed. The teacher and sential. Professionals must examine the ways in school leader invite the family to sit down and which they work with families and develop new begin by telling them that they want to listen to practices that shift the communication para- their concerns. digm from one in which professionals are the After listening and asking questions, the absolute experts to a model in which shared school team asks if the parents and school expertise is valued and all members are viewed team would like to have a meeting with the as having important roles and information. previous teachers. The family is excited about This chapter described communication skills this, believing it will help the new teachers and ways to develop relationships with fami- understand how the previous teacher worked lies. It provided a challenge to move toward a with David. They also decide that it is important family-centered approach that empowers fam- to involve David in this meeting with his family, ilies to be active players in providing inclusive his current classroom teacher and his previous school experiences that prepare the child to be classroom teacher. a full participant in school and society. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ] 51

Tips for Teachers Additional Resources • Develop rapport and ongoing relationships PACER Center. This is an organization providing with families. assistance to individual families, work- • Ask for family input before and during meet- shops, materials for parents and profes- ings. sionals, and leadership in securing a free and appropriate public education for all • Create a welcoming environment when fam- children. PACER’s work affects and encour- ilies attend meetings. ages families in Minnesota and across the • Practice good communication skills. nation. http://www.pacer.org/ • Communicate on a daily or weekly basis. Source Foundation — Supporting Children with • Share the positives about a student’s devel- Disabilities. A parent-founded association opment as well as the challenges. supporting families and children with • Include families in classroom communities. disabilities. The goal of this program is to • Thoughts for Leaders better the life and health conditions of children with disabilities, as well as sup- • Involve families in school events. port the process of protecting the rights of • Include families with special education their families. https://www.facebook.com/ needs in school-parent committees. SourceFoundation.am/ • Treat family members as equal members of UNICEF (2014). Parents, Family and Commu- the team. nity Participation in Inclusive Education, • Organize clubs within the school to share Webinar 13 and Companion Booklet knowledge about educational and pedagog- 13. Series of 14 Webinars and Companion ical issues. Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved Reflection Questions from: Retrieved from https://www.ded4in- clusion.com/inclusive-education-resourc- • How welcoming and connected are you with es-free/unicef-inclusive-education-book- families and students? lets-and-webinars-english-version • How open and ready are families to collaborate? • Are you effectively communicating with Glossary families? Educational team — A group of professionals that might include teachers who work with • Are families seen and treated as equal part- the child with special needs, speech thera- ners in decision-making? pists, and possibly psychologists. • Is there meaningful engagement of families Empowerment model (includes phases) — A in all aspects of their child’s learning? high level of collaboration between the • Is your school moving toward an empower- family and the school team, in which fam- ment model? If yes, how? ily members and teachers see each other as equal partners in the child’s learning. Empowerment includes phases: The first is participation, and the next is involvement. 52 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 4 ]

Family-centered approach — Skills and strategies used by professionals to include families in the education process of their child and to communicate with family members as recipients of support and as active participants in the child’s school life.

References Blue-Banning, M., Summers, J. A., Frankland, H. C., Lord Nelson, L., & Begle, G. (2004). Dimensions of family and professional partnerships: Constructive guidelines for collaboration. Exceptional Children, 70(2), 167–184. Day, C. G. (2016). Authentically engaging families: A collaborative care framework for student success. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Epley, P., Summers, J. A, & Turnbull, A. P. (2010). Charac- teristics and trends in family-centered conceptual- izations. Journal of Family Social Work, 12, 269–285. Ferrel, J. (2012). Family engagement and children with disabilities. A resource guide for educators and parents. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Research Project. Hoy, W. (2012). School characteristics that make a difference for the achievement of all students: A 40-year odyssey. Journal of Education Administration, 50(1), 76–97. Newman, L. (2005). Family involvement in the educational development of youth with disabilities. A special topic report of findings from the National Longitudinal Tran- sition Study-2 (NTLS-2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI Interna- tional. Nez, J., Suárez, N., Rosário, P., Vallejo, G., Valle, A., & Epstein, J. (2015). Relationships between perceived parental involvement in homework, student homework behaviors, and academic achievement: Differences among elementary, junior high, and high school. Metacognition and Learning, 10(3), 375–406. Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Erwin, E. J., Soodak, L. C., & Shogren, K. A. (2011). Families, professionals, and exceptionality: Positive outcomes through partnerships and trust (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/ Pearson Hall. Svajyan A., (2009). The role of family in the process of preparation children with special educational needs for school education, Scientific-Methodological Directory of Special Education, Yerevan, pp 69-84. Svajyan А. (2011). Participation of parents in the process of preparation children with limited abilities to school education. Special Education and Rehabilitation Ped- agogy Scientific Journal, Yerevan, pp 56-62. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 53

CHAPTER 5: Assessment in the Context of Inclusive Education: The Need for an Instructional Approach

Renáta Tichá, University of Minnesota Araksia Svajyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Vergine Yesayan, Principal of Special School, Yerevan

Formative assessment plays an important role in monitoring instructional inclusion of children with disabilities. Assessment data form the basis for making decisions about the child’s individualized educational programming. 54 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What type of assessments do you have available to evaluate your students’ progress? • Who is responsible for the assessment of a child’s learning needs? • Should a parent be involved in the assessment process? • Is it important to involve the child in the assessment process beyond the role of a test- taker?

Introduction modifications. The diagnostic labels and condi- In the Republic of Armenia, assessment for chil- tion descriptions did not provide any guidelines dren with disabilities has recently been given or suggestions to teachers for adapting learn- special attention under the multi-tiered reform ing environments and adopting alternative in- to make assessments more relevant and useful structional approaches based on the children’s

to teachers in inclusive schools and preschools, specific needs. In addition, the assessments and in classrooms. A new assessment system were conducted in the MPPC, and teachers has been developed and is currently being im- were not included in the assessment process. plemented in different regions of Armenia. The To address the shortcomings of the exist- impetuses for the reform have been the Inter- ing assessment process, UNICEF established a national Classification of Functioning, Disability collaborative partnership between internation- and Health for Children and Youth (ICF–CY; al consultants and the local team of experts WHO, 2007) and the United Nations Conven- from the PPC in 2013. The consultants from tion on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities the Porto Polytechnic Institute in Portugal had (CRPD) that Armenia ratified in 2010. Prior to expertise in inclusive education principles and 2013, assessment of children with disabilities practice, in the evaluation of special educa- was based on a traditional medical model and tion policies, and in the use of the ICF–CY. The used a categorical approach to diagnosis. The Armenian PPC experts had backgrounds in assessment process was the responsibility of psychology and social work. The collaboration the Medical-Psychological-Pedagogical Assess- included representatives from other key enti- ment Centre (MPPC), now Pedagogical-Psycho- ties in education and inclusion in Armenia, i.e., logical Support Centre (PPC) in Yerevan, which Bridge of Hope, the Ministry of Education and resulted in the categorization of children with Science, the Pedagogical and Yerevan State disabilities into the following disability types: Universities, and the National Institute of Edu- speech impairments, hearing impairments, cation (Sanches-Ferreira et al., n.d.).

sight impairments, mental underdevelopment, In the effort to revise and improve the as- impairments of movement system, psycho- sessment system for children with disabilities logical development problems, and behavior in Armenia, in 2013 and 2014 a transfer to a and emotional impairments (Castro & Palikara, biopsychological model was made through an 2017; Hunt, 2009). alignment of assessment tools and methodol- This diagnostic approach to assessment was ogy with ICF–CY. In 2014, amendments to the not sufficient to help teachers in mainstream Law on General Education were endorsed. The and inclusive classrooms in designing mean- Law aims to align the goal of education in the ingful individualized learning plans (ILPs) with Republic of Armenia with CRPD requirements appropriate instructional accommodations and and to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning oppor- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 55 tunities for all.” After signing CRPD, an action develop an intervention plan with the as- plan was developed to implement the main sistance of a multidisciplinary team, where requirement of making the education system available. The plan includes a development inclusive by 2025. This process is underway and strategy, short-term steps, responsibilities includes, among other components, the reform and time frames designed to mediate the of special schools into psychological-pedagogi- problem. cal support centers (PPCs), training of teachers 2. If the problem is more complicated and the and school administrators to introduce IE prin- child has more severe learning needs, the ciples into their practice as well as establishing child’s support plan is guided by a Level regional PPCs with multidisciplinary teams to 2 assessment that is implemented by the conduct special needs assessments and sup- regional psychological-pedagogical support porting teachers in the development of ILPs center (PPC). The multidisciplinary team of and resources for specialist support to children the center together with the teacher carries with disabilities (A. Poghosyan, personal com- out a comprehensive assessment of the munication, 17 October 2017). One of the key child’s development from medical, so- overarching principles of the reform has been cial-psychological and pedagogical perspec- to make all activities, including assessments, tives based on the ICF. This comprehensive more child centered. assessment can include a multitude of assessment tools, including a questionnaire New Three-Stage Assessment on the health history of the child, a ques- System tionnaire on the social history of the child and the family, an ‘everything about me’ The new Armenian assessment system has questionnaire and the diagnostic package three levels — for assessing the student’s mental devel- 1. Level 1 is conducted by teachers in schools. opment (Papoyan, Galstyan, & Bejanyan, If there is a multidisciplinary team at the 2009). This includes CARS - Childhood Au- school that includes such professionals as a tism Rating Scale (Schopler & Reichler, 1971, psychologist, speech therapist, and special 1980); TPBA - Transdisciplinary Play-Based educator, the team members can also assist Assessment (Linder, 1993); COSA - Child the teacher. Teachers use observations, and Occupational Self-Assessment (Kramer et a review with a child, parent and other pro- al., 2014); SFA - School Function Assessment fessionals is conducted after assessment (Coster et al., 1998); SIS - Support Intensity data is analyzed by teachers. The Functional Scale (Thompson, 2004); CFFS - Child and Assessment Measure (FAM; Wright, 2000), Family Follow-up Survey (Bedell, 2004) and based on the ICF with rehabilitation focus, Arc’s Self-Determination Scale (Wehmeyer, is recommended as a tool to be used during 1995). All tools mentioned in this chapter the observations and reviews to assess the have been adopted and localized by spe- child’s functioning. The FAM describes the cialists from the Medical-Psychological-Ped- behavior of the child, alone or with the help agogical Assessment Center, (today known of someone, in various fields of activity. At as the Republic Assessment Center), experts this level, the types of learning problem(s) from Yerevan State University and also as within the classroom setting are identi- part of a collaboration between Porto Uni- fied. At Level 1, mild learning and behavior versity in Portugal and UNICEF Armenia. problems of a child are typically the focus. As a result of Level 1 assessment, teachers 56 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

The parent is a mandatory participant This student underwent the typical assessment in the assessment at this level. Multidis- process in Armenia. The results (in the form of ciplinary teams connect the results of the a report) are provided below as an indicator assessment to the education standards and of the information that parents, teachers and discuss a suggested new approach with the assessment centers use to make education- teacher. Usually, the specialists will imple- al planning decisions. The first section of the ment the proposed intervention. report provides demographic information on The assessment used at this level usually A.A., followed by a narrative description of recognizes the student as having a disabil- current functioning. Following this description, ity and evaluates his or her function. The assessment data are provided. multidisciplinary team develops an individual learning plan (ILP) for the student, but it Box 1. The Case of A.A. is not the role of the assessment center to monitor the quality of inclusive education. Description of Functionality: Level 2 There is an ongoing training for the new Name, Middle Name, Surname: А. А. regional assessment centers taking place Date of Birth (day, month, year): by region. It is the center’s responsibility to 04.07.2007Birth Certificate: N train multidisciplinary teams and teachers Registration: N in schools. Name of the Educational Institution: 3. Level 3 assessment is conducted by the Grade: IV Republic Assessment Center in Yerevan that Narrative: A. is 9 years old and in the fourth coordinates the work of the regional PPCs. grade. The child has difficulties in several It conducts assessments of students with areas, such as studying and applying her more severe disabilities and for contro- knowledge, performing general requirements and tasks, demonstrating communication skills, versial or more complicated cases. Assess- interpersonal communication and relationship ment process and tools are the same as in and integrating into public and social life. regional assessment centers. The Republic Assessment Center is also responsible for The child is educated through an individualized developing general assessment processes learning plan. She lives with her father, mother, and policies and for providing trainings to sister and brother. the PPCs. The child can express her feelings by several vague voice tones. Her speech is almost This new system of assessment has already unintelligible; she uses only four or five unclear been implemented in the Syunik (2016), Tav- words. ush (2017) and Lori (2017), and Armavir (2018) regions. Yerevan is the next implementation The child has difficulty concentrating. Her region, followed by other regions in sequence, attention is not stable; she can focus for one or two minutes and only if prompted by an adult. to be completed by 2025. It is an ongoing initiative to assure that there is a data-based She understands oral speech, but is not able process to include students with disabilities in to respond immediately. When she responds, regular instruction. Based on the results from she uses gestures. A. likes listening to music, the pilot regions, the system of assessment will she responds to her name, and she knows the be refined. specialists who work with her. The paragraphs below (see Box 1 in the next The child is mostly attached to her mother; column) provide a case study of Student A.A. family relations are satisfactory. The child has Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 57 difficulties in relationships with adults and peers In a ‘real’ report, actual assessment data as well as while integrating into group work. would have also been provided to parents. This The child often expresses negative emotions data would have included scores attained on while trying to achieve a goal. She needs various assessment instruments and the mean- continuous and full support of adults to be able ing of those scores. Data are used to under- to control her emotions. stand how A. is functioning in comparison to other youths her age and what might be target If A. needs to adjust to changes, she can do points for interventions. In this assessment, the it only with her mother’s support, but very teacher used the following tools — often her behavior is impossible to manage. • The social story of the child and the family; The child knows household items and • The story of the health of the student; knows three colors; red, green and blue. She can put geometric items into the • The assessment package of the student’s corresponding shapes. emotional development; • The assessment scale of the psychological A. learns new items by seeing and touching development; them. Her visual and audible response corresponds to her age. • The development and education standards of children from 0 to 6. The child can use the toilet and wash her hands, brush her teeth and take a bath with Once data were collected from all par- her mother’s support. She eats and uses ticipants in the team, A.’s support network table items by herself. She spends most of signed the form, agreeing that the process was the time at home with her mother. The child conducted using available data and that results likes to use a computer, play with soil and are understood by all. The forms documenting cut paper. this approval look similar to the one on the next page (Figure 1 on page 58). A. follows safety rules only after the adults’ reminder. The child walks and moves by herself, but sometimes she uses repetitive and irregular movements. She gets services of a psychologist, a special educator, a speech therapist and a social educator. There is a need to continue the services. 58 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

Figure 1. Sample Approval Document

Assessed by — Parent ______Social educator ______Assessment focal point ______Assessment focal point ______Doctor ______Director ______Seal

Benefits of Current Assessment environment, including activities in school and System and Areas for Improvement in the community. There is, however, an important missing The new assessment system developed in component of the ICF approach to assessment, 2014, based on a collaboration between the i.e., its lack of connection to the local education Porto Polytechnic Institute in Portugal and curriculum and instruction. Sanches-Ferreira, in Armenian education institutions and other her presentation at the Towards the Implemen- organizations, e.g., Bridge of Hope, has made tation of the UN Convention on the Rights of some important advances, not only in the way Persons with Disabilities conference in Yerevan children are assessed, but also in the approach in 2016, noted that there is a difficulty with the to identifying the child’s needs and potential for ICF–CY in relating the functioning profile with successful learning. Adapting the assessment an intervention, or in other words, to the ILP. system based on the ICF has shifted the focus This is a problem in that the assessment should from a medical perspective historically used provide a teacher with practical guidance on in Armenia and other post-Soviet countries to how best to adapt or modify materials and identifying environmental and personal fac- instruction to meet the child’s learning needs. tors of the child related to body functions and Simply identifying the deficits of the child structures as well as activity and participation (physical, intellectual or emotional) or in the (Imrie, 2004; Simeonsson, 2009). It is an im- environment is not sufficient to provide strug- portant step in the right direction that provides gling students and students with disabilities teachers and parents with an understanding with true learning opportunities comparable to of some of the barriers that likely prevent the those of their peers. child from effectively participating in his or her Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 59

For example, in a third-grade class study- dent progress. It is characterized by frequent ing a unit on fractions in math, there are two measurements (e.g., weekly, monthly) and brief students with disabilities. Student A has a pro- durations: one to five minutes. Formative as- found vision loss, while Student B has a moder- sessment provides information about student ate intellectual disability. What is needed is for learning and instructional effectiveness and is the teacher to know how to adapt her teaching designed to assist teachers in evaluating and materials in order for both students to under- modifying their instruction to improve student stand the concept of fractions. For Student A, outcomes. In short, formative assessment is in addition to explaining the concept orally, the an assessment for learning. Formative assess- teacher would also provide manipulatives for ment is typically very localized, i.e., based on the student to be able to physically feel how the school’s curriculum and standardized, but different parts make a whole. This approach not necessarily normed, as it does not strive to will also benefit Student B, but in addition this compare groups of students to one another. student will need multiple trials to correctly It is designed to monitor the learning progress assemble a circle into a whole from differently of students who are lagging behind their peers sized parts. Instructional methodology or tar- or require other special attention. Formative geted (in some cases, special) pedagogy can be assessments include portfolios and curricu- improved and become more effective with the lum-based and general outcomes measures. use of formative assessments. Without adding an instructional component to the assessment Curriculum-Based Measurement process, students with disabilities will not be given the full opportunity to be included in (CBM) learning along with their peers in ways that are Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is a most effective. type of formative assessment developed to measure student growth in basic skills, i.e., literacy and numeracy, developed at the Uni- Alternative Approaches to versity of Minnesota Institute for Research on Assessment Learning Disabilities in the late 1970s and early There are two main types of assessments in 1980s (Deno, 1985; 1992). This assessment was education: summative and formative. They are originally developed to help teachers in reg- designed for different purposes and should ular education to design effective instruction not be used in a way other than that for which for students with specific learning disabilities5 they were originally intended. Summative as- (LD). Researchers at the University of Minne- sessment typically occurs after instruction and sota, with the help of collaborating teachers, reflects a summary of student performance. designed CBM to be administered to students It is usually done at a single point (e.g., end of frequently (weekly or biweekly) to monitor semester or school year). These assessments small changes in student reading and later also are typically standardized and normed on a in math performance. Today, CBM is a key as- representative student sample. Student per- sessment tool used for all students within the formance is measured against a standard or Response to Intervention (RTI) framework for a benchmark. Summative assessment can be considered an assessment of learning and includes different types of achievement tests. 5 In Armenia, specific educational disorder is a diagnosis that Formative assessment, in contrast, occurs as used to be one of the categories in the medical assessment model. The term learning difficulty is used with the new func- part of instruction and reflects ongoing stu- tional assessment approach. 60 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

screening and tracking their progress (refer to number of correct words read or selected. We Chapter 6). provide an overview of a CBM Maze (see Box 2 CBM methodology was adapted from ob- below). servational approaches to assessment used to monitor changes in student behavior. The Box 2. CBM Maze Example advantages of using an observational and Eddie Learns to Swim behaviorally based approach to assessment are that the assessment (a) captures student’s Eddie sat on his front porch, sweating in the performance in real time rather than having to summer heat. Overhead the sun beamed make inferences about student learning and (b) down with in / a / it bright, yellow light. can be administered for only short periods of The grass and trees / funny / crash looked time by taking frequent samples of behavior. withered and dusty in the stammered / Another important characteristic of CBM is that students / scorching summer light. Eddie it is directly tied to the national or local curricu- sighed for the flower / clips / tenth time and lum and thus has instructional relevance. waved a fly away from / sock / tile his face. Each CBM assessment takes only 1–3 min- “Summer is great because cut / you / mind utes and is easy to administer and to score,

with the goal to complement, rather than to are out of school,” he thought, “but / fit / on disrupt, instruction. CBMs are inexpensive to summer isn’t so much fun when it / for / at prepare and administer because materials is as hot and dusty as even / today / rules.” for their development are based on the local Scored for number of correct selections or curriculum. The items are sampled from the correct minus incorrect selections. full sequence of a curriculum (e.g., over an academic year) versus from a single unit within CBM in math was developed to measure the curriculum to be able to evaluate whether mathematical computation and concepts and the students are learning the curriculum mate- applications (Foegen, Jiban, & Deno, 2007; rials consistently across time and not forgetting Fuchs & Fuchs, 2005). These assessments what they have learned earlier. are administered in a group silently for three The assessment procedures have been minutes and scored for the number of correct tested for many years with students at differ- digits or problems. Similar to reading, in math ent ages, grade levels and type of disabilities the problems are sampled from the whole (Wayman et al., 2007). Research has shown grade-level curriculum to monitor student that CBM is able to produce consistent results progress. across time for individual students and able to In written expression, McMaster and Camp- measure three key aspects of reading: decod- bell (2008) summarized the research on dif- ing, fluency and comprehension (Wayman et ferent types of writing prompts and methods al., 2007). There are two main types of CBM and scoring methods to assess writing skills of reading measures: (a) oral reading fluency students with disabilities, struggling students administered for one minute individually; and and students who are English language learn- (b) maze administered for three minutes to a ers. Students respond to a picture or sentence group of students, in which the students select prompt by writing narrative or expository text the correct word out of three choices that best for three to five minutes based on their age fits into a sentence as they read the passage and ability. silently. Both measures are scored for the For students with moderate to severe intellectual disabilities, Wallace, Tichá, and Gus- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 61 tafson (2010) adapted the CBM approach to suspecting a learning problem or a disability. assessment to suit the teaching content and The teacher set a goal for her to identify at least materials for this population and developed 17 correct words in seven months. In order general outcome measures (GOMs). In addition for the student to be able to achieve her goal, to adapting the content for the measures, they the teacher implemented three different early also changed the format to a series of cards reading interventions. The first intervention (see Figure 2 below) that were later adapted was effective for the student at the beginning for use on touchscreen tablets (Abery & Tichá, of implementation, but was not producing the 2018). intended results after a while. The second early reading intervention was not very effective, Figure 2. Example of GOMs and as a result, a third intervention was tried with the student, starting in the fifth month. This approach led to a significant improvement in word recognition for Hasmik to be able to identify 11 words in a minute, thus getting clos- er to her goal. Hasmik’s teacher, with the help of a multidisciplinary team, graphed Hasmik’s word identification data across seven months and used the data to see if Hasmik was making progress in the number of words she was able to identify based on the lessons. Hasmik’s progress in word identification meant that she was able to focus on reading fluency and comprehension. By using formative assessment such as CBM, the teacher was able to demonstrate Hasmik’s progress as a result of the interventions, and there was no need to refer her for a Use of CBM Data for Progress formal special education evaluation to identify Monitoring: Case Study a potential disability and label her unnecessar- One of the main benefits of using formative ily. Using CBMs and tracking data also helped assessments such as CBM compared to sum- the teacher to understand which interventions mative, diagnostic and functional assessments were more and less successful with Hasmik. is their specific design and purpose for being As can be seen from this case study, assess- administered frequently (weekly or biweekly) ment tools designed for progress monitoring to monitor student progress. Visual displays have an important instructional value. They are of student scores using graphs provide teach- able to provide the teacher, other educators, ers, students and their parents with a trend of and the student and his or her parents with student learning as well as an indication of the information directly related to the effective- effectiveness of teacher instruction. ness of the curriculum and instruction on a As indicated below (see Figure 3 on page 62), regular basis. Progress monitoring also shifts the student Hasmik was initially unable to iden- the problem target from the student to the tify even one correct word. The teacher and teaching environment and pedagogy. This type Hasmik’s parents were concerned that Hasmik of assessment is a very much needed addition was not learning at the same pace as her peers, to the ICF approach that specifically focuses on 62 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

improving the child’s learning. By monitoring the child’s basic academic or behavioral progress, the teacher and multidisciplinary team will have the necessary information about the effectiveness of the approaches and materials they are using in class in order to successfully include struggling students or students with disabilities in regular education.

Figure 3. Case study: CBM graph of Hasmik’s early reading progress.

The Use of Assessment Data for ILP should be implemented to measure to what Planning extent the student is improving in the areas identified by ILP goals and objectives as mea- Once the assessment data is collected and sured against the baseline data collection. reviewed, the team (from center, school and Based on the progress monitoring data, addi- parent) need to prioritize the ILP goals and tional supports and interventions or new goals objectives based on the most important quanti- and objectives should be implemented for each tative and qualitative information learned. The child by the team. team needs to utilize their expertise and experience to prioritize which areas of the student need they are going to address first, second Interpreting Progress-Monitoring and third. For example, a student might need a Data functional goal (e.g., how to open a bathroom The case study above illustrates the need for door), and at the same time need to learn how understanding data graphing and data inter- to greet their peers in a classroom (social goal). pretation by teachers and multidisciplinary In addition, the team should identify academic teams. Because CBM is essentially sampling goals, e.g., in reading or math. It is important of a student’s academic (learning) behavior, it that assessment data are collected on all the is important that the samples and trends of aspects of student needs (Svajyan, 2014, 2016). student performance using each CBM measure Once ILP goals and objectives are estab- are reliable. This means that at the beginning, lished for each child, progress monitoring Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 63 the student should read aloud or complete used. Based on the data collected, benchmarks math problems using CBM at least three times are established to indicate below average, aver- within 1–2 weeks’ time to assure that the scores age and above average student performance. reflect student performance accurately. The This system assists teachers with using CBM teacher should assess the student at least six data, not only in determining how the student times in 6–12 weeks to see if the intervention is progressing over time, but also how he or is working before instruction is changed again, she is progressing in comparison to other stu- if needed, based on the data trends. Visual dents in the school and school district. displays of data, e.g., in graphs, are useful tools in data-based decision-making about the best Roles and Responsibilities in the instructional approaches for specific students. The teacher, with assistance of the multi- Assessment Process disciplinary team, develops a goal line for each In Armenia, the responsibility for the assess- student who is struggling, or already has an ment of children with disabilities or those at ILP, for each CBM measure. Each goal is based risk for disabilities lies at several different on existing expectations for the student at that levels, including schools, regional psycholog- grade level for a specific subject and the type ical-pedagogical support centers (PPCs) and of learning problem or disability. For students the Republic Assessment Center. The role of with a special education need, the goal will be universities and other scientific organizations, recorded in their ILP. Students with disabilities, however, should not be forgotten, especially in especially with more severe disabilities, will typ- the development and evaluation of assessment ically have a less ambitious goal to reflect their appropriateness and quality. Assessments are special learning needs. not of much use if they are not developed for One of the advantages of CBM and GOMs specific purposes or evaluated for their reliabil- for students with significant disabilities over ity, validity, sensitivity to change and usefulness other types of assessments is their sensitivity for learning. An assessment that is not being to change. Historically, it has been assumed used for its intended purpose, e.g., determining that students with more severe disabilities the type of services needed and monitoring have very limited learning capacity and do not progress, or that does not provide consistent need to be exposed to academic content such and accurate data, can do more harm than as reading or math. CBM has been shown to good for the teaching and learning process. reliably detect even slow progress of students Universities and other scientific organizations with disabilities, thus providing teachers and are most appropriately equipped with the other educators with the needed information necessary knowledge and skills to develop and about the effectiveness of their instruction for evaluate assessment properties and uses. all students. By preparing future teachers, current teach- It has been beneficial to develop local norms ers and other specialists, universities and and benchmarks for the different CBM mea- institutes of education play an important role sures to be able to set appropriate goals for in ensuring that those working in schools and students in each of the basic academic skills centers have the capacity to select the right (Hosp, Hosp, & Howell, 2007). In order to devel- assessments for different purposes, administer op norms and benchmarks, it is necessary to them correctly, and interpret and use their data collect CBM data from a representative sample most effectively. of the student population for which CBM will be 64 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

Summary • Collaborate with other members of multidis- Over the past decade, the process of assess- ciplinary teams within your school and with ment has changed rapidly in Armenia. Current resource center specialists. practice relies on the structural assumptions • Involve parents in the assessment process. of the ICF–CY as a way to better understand how a child’s impairment interacts with his or Thoughts for Leaders her environment. Specifically, assessments are used in all educational settings as a way • Support and empower teachers and spe- to better understand how and why children cialists in collecting and using all necessary may be functioning as they are. Recent innova- assessments, including progress-monitoring tions in Armenia include an increased focus on tools, to promote student inclusion. teacher use of assessment and its data to make • Provide teachers and specialists with oppor- educational decisions. A missing link to current tunities to discuss student data in relation to practice, however, is assessment that can help student inclusion in instruction and to share teachers make instructional decisions based the data with parents and students. on the curriculum in their classrooms. Curric- • Ensure that teachers and specialists have ulum-based measurements (CBMs) provide a the necessary training to implement assess- way for teachers to understand student prog- ments and interpret data. ress on particular academic goals and plan in- • Monitor the coordination of assessments structional interventions to help children reach between schools and regional assessment their individualized goals. CBM development is centers for students who need extra sup- likely the next stage of progress in assessment port. for Armenia’s schools. • Ensure that there is an effective collaboration between schools and the regional Tips for Teachers assessment centers. • Use data collected through different assessments to develop specific IEP goals and Recommendations objectives that are SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time bound). • Develop progress-monitoring systems, e.g., CBM, for Armenia, including assessment • Collect sufficient data based on the student’s materials and benchmarks. learning need and disability type to be able to monitor progress and adjust instruction • Train teachers and specialists in progress accordingly (three data points at baseline monitoring of students with disabilities in and six data points to evaluate the effective- inclusive settings. ness of instruction). • Foster collaboration between teachers and • Adapt your formative and summative as- specialists within schools and between sessment to monitor student academic schools and assessment centers to increase progress and performance to local curricu- the appropriateness, accuracy and timeli- lum. ness of the assessment process. • Use assessment data you collect effectively, • Fund research at universities to develop and and interpret it in the context of the teach- evaluate assessment tools and materials to

ing and learning environment. reflect current needs, e.g., students whose first language is not Armenian and are lagging behind their peers in reading. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ] 65

Reflection Questions Glossary • For what purposes can you use curricu- Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) — Type lum-based measurement? of formative assessment for progress • How frequently should you use progress monitoring of basic academic skills based monitoring? on the local curriculum for students with mild disabilities. • How can you apply the progress-monitoring approach to assessment to the three-tier Formative assessment — Assessment of stu- system of assessment in Armenia? dent progress (for learning) that has a high instructional utility. • How can you analyze assessment data for developing ILP goals and objectives? General outcome measures (GOM) — Type of formative assessment for progress monitoring of basic skills for students with Additional Resources moderate to severe disabilities. UNICEF (2014). Definition and Classification International Classification of Functioning, Dis- of Disability, Webinar 2 and Compan- ability and Health for Children and Youth ion Booklet 2. Series of 14 Webinars and (ICF–CY) — is an international classifica- Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive tions developed by the World Health Orga- Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. nization that provides a framework for the Retrieved from: Retrieved from https:// classification of health and function. www.ded4inclusion.com/inclusive-educa- Progress monitoring — Monitoring (collecting tion-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-edu- and graphing data) of student progress in cation-booklets-and-webinars-english-ver- basic academic skills on regular basis with sion the goal to modify instruction when need- UNICEF (2014). Planning, Monitoring and Evalu- ed ation, Webinar 14 and Companion Booklet Psychological-pedagogical support centers 14. Series of 14 Webinars and Companion (PPSCs) — Regional centers that conduct Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. assessments at Level 2 of the Armenian Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved assessment system. from: Retrieved from https://www.ded4in- Republic Assessment Center — National center clusion.com/inclusive-education-resourc- that conducts assessments at Level 3. es-free/unicef-inclusive-education-booklets-and-webinars-english-version Summative assessment — Assessment of student academic performance (of learning). Webinar on Assessment for students with mild disabilities (2018). Minneapolis, MN: Uni- versity of Minnesota, Institute on Commu- References nity Integration. Abery, B., & Tichá, R. (2018). Pilot study results of general Webinar on Assessment for students with outcomes measures in reading for students with significant cognitive disabilities using touchscreen tablets. significant disabilities. (2018). Minneapolis, Manuscript submitted for publication. MN: University of Minnesota, Institute on Bedell, G. (2004). Developing a follow-up survey focused Community Integration. on participation of children and youth with acquired brain injuries after inpatient rehabilitation. NeuroRe- habilitation, 19, 191–205. 66 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 5 ]

Castro, S., & Palikara, O. (2017). An emerging approach Svajyan, A. (2014). Inclusive Education: Achievements and for education and care implementing a worldwide prospects, Pedagogy and Psychology Issues. Inter- classification of functioning and disability. New York: university Consortium Journal, p. 37-42. Routledge. Svajyan, A. (2016). Difficulties of organization of inclusive Coster, W., Deeney, T., Haltiwanger, J., & Haley, S. (1998). education and support system of children with spe- School function assessment (SFA). New York: Psycho- cial educational needs. Journal of Special Pedagogy logical Corporation. and Psychology, p. 104-112. Deno, S. L. (1985). Curriculum-based measurement: The Thompson, J. R. (2004). Supports Intensity Scale: Users’ emerging alternative. Exceptional Children, 52(3), manual. Washington, DC: American Association on 219–232. Mental Retardation. Deno, S. L. (1992). The nature and development of curric- Wallace, T., Tichá, R., & Gustafson, K. (2010). Techni- ulum-based measurement. Preventing School Failure, cal characteristics of general outcome measures 36(2), 5–10. (GOMs) in reading for students with significant Hosp, M. K, Hosp, J. L., & Howell, K. W. (2007). The ABCs of cognitive disabilities. Reading and Writing Quarterly CBM. New York: Guilford. 26(4), 333–360. Foegen, A., Jiban, C., & Deno, S. (2007). Progress monitor- Wayman, M. M., Wallace, T., Wiley, H. I., Tichá, R., & ing measures in mathematics: A review of the litera- Espin, C. A. (2007). Literature synthesis on curricu- ture. The Journal of Special Education, 41, 121–139. lum-based measurement in reading. The Journal of Fuchs. L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2005). Using CBM for progress Special Education, 41, 85–120. monitoring in math. Retrieved from https://files.eric. Wehmeyer, M. L. (1995). The Arc’s self-determination scale: ed.gov/fulltext/ED519252.pdf Procedural guidelines. Arlington, TX: [Washington, Imrie, R. (2004). Demystifying disability: A review of the DC]: Arc of the United States; U.S. Dept. of Educa-

International Classification of Functioning, Disabil- tion, Office of Educational Research and Improve- ity and Health. Sociology of Health & Illness, 26(3), ment, Educational Resources Information Center. 287–305. World Health Organization. (2007). International classifi- Kramer, J., ten Velden, M., Kafkes, A., Basu, S., Federico, cation of functioning. disability and health: Children J., & Kielhofner, G. (2014). COSA: Child occupational and youth version (ICF–CY). Geneva: World Health self-assessment. Chicago: UIC. Organization. Linder, T. W. (1993). Transdisciplinary play-based assess- Wright, J. (2000). Introduction to the Functional Assessment ment: A functional approach to working with young Measure. The Center for Outcome Measurement in children. Baltimore: Paul H Brookes Publishing. Brain Injury. San Jose, CA: Santa Clara Valley Medical Center. McMaster, K. L., & Campbell, H. (2008). Technical features of new and existing measures of written expression: An examination within and across grade levels. School Psychology Review, 37, 550–566. Papoyan, V., Galstyan, A., & Bejanyan, A. (2009). The child’s cognitive development evaluation package. Yerevan: YSU. Poghosyan, A. Personal communication, October 17, 2017. Sanches-Ferreira, M. (n.d.). Developing teachers’ assessment practice in Armenia. Retrieved from http://www.inclusive-education-in-action.org/example-109.html Schopler, E., & Reichler, J. (1971). Individualized assessment and treatment for autistic and developmentally delayed children, Vol. I, psychoeducational profile. Baltimore: University Park Press. Schopler, E., & Reichler, J. (1980). Toward objective classification of childhood autism: Childhood Autism Rating Scale (C.A.R.S.). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 10, 91–103. Simeonsson, R. (2009). ICF–CY: A universal tool for docu- mentation of disability. Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities, 6(2), 70–72. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 67

CHAPTER 6: Multi-tiered Systems of Support (MTSS): Response to Intervention (RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

Renáta Tichá & Brian H. Abery, University of Minnesota Lilit Karapetyan & Araksia Svajyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

Multi-tiered Systems of Supports represents a preventative framework that provides students who lag behind their peers with targeted academic or behavioral interventions to give them a chance to close the achievement gap. 68 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What supports do students who are struggling at school currently receive? • What steps can be taken to avoid immediate referral to special education? • How are student academic performance and behavior related? • What supports does the general education teacher need to be able to address learning needs of all students?

of evidence-based high-quality curriculum and Introduction instruction. Armenia and the United States possess edu- To ensure that students with and without cational systems that are intended to serve all disabilities have access to the general educa- their country’s children and youth, including tion curriculum, one very important aspect of those with disabilities. The two nations also inclusion, they must acquire sufficient literacy share a common problem. In both, there are and mathematics skills and be able to manage large achievement gaps between children with their emotions and behavior. Effective pro- and without disabilities. Regardless of the cedures are therefore needed to ensure that country of residence, students who struggle these skills are learned early and their acqui- with mastering basic literacy and mathematics sition and mastery is assessed. To prepare all skills in the elementary years experience signifi- students to meet these expectations, educa- cantly poorer educational outcomes. Similarly, tors need to have access to evidence-based students with emotional or behavioral prob- practices that promote learning and behavior lems are at a high risk for learning difficulties management (Copeland & Cosbey, 2008, 2009; and generally struggle at school. Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, & Sugai, Improvement in literacy and numeracy 2008) and be able to effectively and efficiently knowledge and skills, especially for students measure progress. with disabilities and other special education Many students, both in Armenia and the needs (SEN), has been emphasized through United States, who struggle with developing ba- recent U.S. legislation. The No Child Left Behind sic literacy and mathematics skills or with their (NCLB; 2002) legislation and its replacement, behavior may not experience disabilities, but the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; 2015), can be the products of socioeconomic disad- focus on the accountability of U.S. states with vantage (Biemiller, 2006; Chowdry & McBride, respect to the education of students from 2017; Farkas & Beron, 2004; Hart & Risley, traditionally underserved populations and/ 2003). Due to multiple factors associated with or attending low-performing schools, includ- growing up in an environment in which parents ing students with disabilities. This legislation struggle to meet the family’s basic needs, such and the reauthorization of the Individuals with children often enter school without prerequi- Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; 2004) consid- sites that support learning (Downey, von Hip- er it important that all students are included pel, & Broh, 2004; Duncan & Magnuson, 2005; in state and school accountability systems to Reardon, 2003). As a result, they quickly fall demonstrate their learning progress as a result behind their peers in the acquisition of basic skills (Lareau, 2003). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 69

To ensure that all students in Armenia are ing and formative assessment and data-based able to acquire basic skills effectively, educa- instructional decision-making — a tiered ap- tional systems across the country must prepare proach to targeted intervention and high-quali- teachers to provide differentiated and indi- ty instruction at multiple levels (Fuchs & Fuchs, vidualized instruction that meets the needs of 2006; Grosch & Volpe, 2013; Shapiro, Zigmond, students who struggle academically or behav- Wallace, & Marston, 2011). iorally. In addition, evidenced-based practices To ensure appropriate supports are pres- that have been shown to be both feasible and ent at all school levels, it is necessary for RTI usable in other countries need to be adapted to be implemented on a schoolwide basis. The to meet the needs of schools and implemented purpose of this systems-wide approach is to on a wide-scale basis. The response to inter- provide educators with the tools to ensure that vention (RTI) and positive behavior interven- all students are learning, supporting students tions and supports (PBIS) frameworks, part falling behind academically with targeted of multi-tier systems of support (MTSS), have interventions to prevent their premature and been implemented in many school districts and unnecessary identification for special education schools to assist with differentiated instruction services. The system is proactive and positive in to address diverse student learning and behav- the sense that it does not assume from the be- ior needs. Multi-tier systems of support (MTSS) ginning that a student has a learning deficit, but is a set of schoolwide instructional approaches, rather that the teaching environment might be interventions and assessments designed to falling short of providing effective instruction address the learning and behavior needs of for the student. RTI is also designed to foster all students. Both RTI and PBIS became part collaboration between general and special edu- of national special education legislation in cators and other specialists in the development the United States in 2004 to assure adequate and effective implementation of targeted inter- instructional support for struggling students in ventions for students with disabilities to ensure acquiring positive behaviors and basic academ- they are making adequate progress. ic skills, rather than directly referring students If instructional resources of a school are vi- for special education evaluations. sualized as a pyramid or triangle, they would be distributed into four quadrants (see Figure 1 on The Response to Intervention (RTI) page 70). The largest quadrant at the bottom of the pyramid represents the general education Framework (core) curriculum delivered within a general ed- Response to intervention, or RTI (adapted from ucation setting (Tier 1). This instruction should Tichá, Abery, & Kincade, 2018), is a multi-tier be of high quality, evidenced-based and effec- approach to the early identification, prevention tive for the majority of students (approximately and support of students who are struggling 80%). As many authors (e.g., Fuchs, 2003; Harry academically. It was developed in the Unit- & Klingner, 2006; Klingner & Edwards, 2006; ed States to bridge the achievement gap of Vaughn & Fuchs, 2003) suggest, analysis of students from different backgrounds. It is a general education classroom instructional envi- schoolwide intervention based on a preventa- ronments always needs to occur as part of the tive system of tiered instruction that provides implementation of the RTI framework. When struggling students with supports before, or large numbers of students struggle academi- instead of, their referral for special education cally, it typically indicates that the instruction evaluation and services. It is an instructional they are receiving in the general education problem-solving model based on early screen- 70 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

classroom does not meet their needs. Although The RTI framework differs significantly from such analysis typically takes place when RTI a student-deficit model, focusing on creating is implemented, all too often insufficient at- an educational environment supportive of all tention is paid to the role teachers play in the students. Within the framework, screening and under achievement of students. progress-monitoring assessments are essential. Students who do not respond positively Universal screening ideally occurs three times to the core curriculum, even after necessary a year (fall, winter, spring) for all students, with adjustments have been made to make ma- the purpose of identifying those who are at terial accessible to all students, are provided risk and grouping those who are struggling into with Tier 2 supports. This typically includes instructional tiers. This early prevention strat- small-group-targeted instruction focused on egy ensures that students do not fall through the development of basic academic skills (e.g., the cracks of the educational system and lag explicit phonics or reading comprehension in- behind their peers. Throughout the school struction). Studies in the United States suggest year, a variety of short (i.e., 1–3 minute) forma- that students who receive Tier 2 supports show tive progress-monitoring assessments are also significant gains in their academic performance administered, in some cases as frequently as (Gersten et al., 2009). When students do not every week (in Tier 3), to determine if students respond positively, more frequent and inten- are profiting from instruction. In most cases, sive instruction with fewer students in the small the formative assessments used in RTI are group is implemented at Tier 3. At this level, curriculum-based measures (CBM; Deno, 1992, not only is the group smaller, but the frequency 2003) described in Chapter 5. Following the or intensity of intervention is increased. Those RTI framework, students are placed into tiered students who, despite taking part in multi- instructional groups based on their screening ple interventions at Tiers 2 and 3, still do not data. This placement takes into consideration demonstrate adequate learning on the basis both their academic strengths and challenges. of progress monitoring are referred for special CBM is used to monitor student progress and education evaluation and services.

Figure 1. Response to Intervention (RTI) Framework Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 71 their continued need for supplemental instruc- setting (sometimes referred to as the push-in tion. model). It is preferred that teachers with the Students who respond well to the general most experience serve students with the high- education curriculum continue to receive core est needs (i.e., special educators or instruction- (Tier 1) instruction. At-risk students who need al specialists). further support receive differentiated instruc- Within the U.S. educational system, those tion within the general education classroom. students who continue to struggle academi- Differentiated instruction in small groups (Tier cally in spite of Tier 2 and 3 interventions are 2) can be administered by a trained teaching typically deemed eligible for special education assistant, special educator or the general edu- services. These supports, which may be pro- cation teacher. Tier 2 instruction is conducted vided either within or outside of the general in small-group settings (6–8 students) approx- education setting, are based on individualized imately three times a week in 30–45 minute education plans (IEPs), and student progress is sessions, each using intervention strategies to monitored on an ongoing basis. supplement key concepts being taught in Tier 1 The decisions about student placement in instruction. For example, in math, a sixth-grade tiered instruction using data are made by data class might be practicing algebra. The sixth- teams consisting of the general and special ed- grade teacher would be instructing the class ucation teachers, school psychologists, instruc- on algebra, while a small group of students tional specialists and school leadership during might be simultaneously meeting with the data meetings. Data meetings are typically held teaching assistant or a special educator, who is monthly in each school for two hours at a time reviewing the basic pre-algebraic mathematics and are used to report on student progress us- skills of addition and subtraction and answering graphs and charts for everyone to see and ing questions about past instruction, possibly discuss. Students who are falling behind their implementing the same lesson but at a slower peers in core instruction or not progressing in pace and with additional supports. This educa- tiered instruction as expected are discussed in tor may also include pre-teaching (i.e., prepar- more detail with respect to new approaches ing students for an upcoming lesson) within the and strategies to help them succeed. small-group sessions. In every school, a relatively small number Research Evidence in Support of RTI of students will not progress at an acceptable Multiple studies have been published on the ef- rate in spite of receiving Tier 2 instruction. fectiveness of RTI in the United States (Barnett, These students, often referred to as non-re- Daily, Jones, & Lentz, 2004; Hughes & Dexter, sponders, are not assumed to have disabilities, 2014; Vellutino, Scanlon, Zhang, & Schatsch- but rather viewed as in need of greater differ- neider, 2008). The studies demonstrated im- entiation of instruction to build and reinforce provements in student academic performance, basic skills. Potentially they could respond well academically related behavior and a greater to more intense targeted instruction (i.e., a 1:2 precision in the identification of whether or not to 1:4 teacher-student ratio) or more frequent the student has a disability as a result of partic- target instruction at a Tier 3 or an alternative ipating in RTI. curriculum. Special educators typically assume responsibility for the implementation of more intensive instruction with these students but do so within the context of the general education 72 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

RTI Implementation dent. If, however, progress-monitoring data in- When a leadership team under the guidance dicates inadequate gains for at least six consec-

of the principal is ready to implement RTI in a utive weeks, the RTI team identifies the student school, the following steps should be taken into as being at risk and recommends him or her consideration when planning such implementa- for a special education services referral. Several tion — studies in the United States have examined the effectiveness of using the RTI approach as a 1. Assess school readiness: e.g., infrastructure, way to reduce the referral of students for spe- resources, staff motivation. cial education services (Hughes & Dexter, 2014) 2. Assemble RTI leadership team: e.g., princi- as well as a valid procedure for identification of pal, school psychologist, general and special students as having SLD (Vaughn, Thompson, & education teachers. Hickman, 2003). 3. Create infrastructure for RTI implementation: e.g., data team, instructional materials Positive Behavior Interventions and and strategies. Supports (PBIS) 4. Evaluate and reflect: What aspects of RTI are working and what aspects need im- One of the critical challenges to inclusive edu- provement? cation voiced by administrators, teachers and parents are behavioral problems assumed to 5. Plan for sustainability: school staff taking on occur when students with special education leadership roles in tiered instruction, as- needs (SEN) are educated with their peers sessment and data management. (Cassady, 2011; Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007). These perceptions have been found to Use of RTI for Identification of have a significant impact on the attitudes that Specific Learning Disabilities educators and parents have about inclusive education and their willingness to implement Since 1977 in the United States, students have initiatives in this area (Abrams, 2005; Avramidis been evaluated for specific learning disabilities et al., 2000; Ryan, 2009). In addition, research (SLD) using the ‘discrepancy’ formula, (i.e., dis- across national boundaries indicates that be- crepancy between IQ and achievement scores). havioral challenges (i.e., inappropriate behavior This approach to identifying students with SLD on the part of students while in school) that by highlighting the deficits that students may are not effectively addressed have a significant experience has been a subject of much con- negative impact on academic performance (i.e., troversy over the years, especially in relation grades), school and classroom engagement, to the issue of over identification of students and graduation rates (Carr-George, Vannest, for special education services (Vaughn, Thomp- Willson, & Davis, 2009; Farmer et al. 2003; son, & Hickman, 2003). The RTI framework that Mattison, 2008; National Center for Education many school districts have adopted differs in Statistics, 2011; Schwartz et al. 2006; Staff its approach to identifying students with SLD. and Kreager 2008; Wiley, Siperstein, Forness, Student response to intervention is typically & Brigham, 2010;). Given that students from assessed biweekly in Tier 2 and weekly in Tier recent immigrant groups and socioeconomi- 3 using CBM. If the student is making gains cally limited families tend to be more likely to toward reading or math goals set according to be identified as experiencing behavioral chal- national or regional benchmarks, that is a sign lenges and subsequently segregated from their that the intervention is effective for that stu- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 73 peers, this issue is also strongly associated with class. The absence of educational assistants or educational equity. aides in most classes and the fact that Armenia Within the Armenian context, one of the does not, at the current time, have a disability most frequent complaints heard by educa- classification that focuses on emotional and tional faculty about the country’s move toward behavioral challenges leave most general ed- inclusive education is the problem that gen- ucators feeling frustrated. In addition, similar eral teachers experience with the behavior to the situation in the United States and other of students with SEN within the classroom. countries, the typical general education teach- Complaints with respect to students not listener receives limited information and practical ing, their low levels of academic engagement experience dealing with behavioral challenges and inability to focus, as well as inappropriate in their preservice training. out-of-seat behavior (e.g., wandering around If the goal of the Armenian government with the classroom, bothering other students) are respect to inclusive education is to be achieved, some of the primary reasons general educators general education teachers need to develop provide when they argue that the inclusion of effective strategies that they can confidently these students is not feasible (personal com- use to manage the behavior of diverse groups munication, Harutyunyan & Avagyan, 2018). of students in their classrooms. Approaches Complicating matters is the traditional ap- that focus on individual students (e.g., function- proach to educating children of all ages still al behavioral analysis) that are implemented used in most of Armenia. Classrooms are ar- only after behavior becomes a problem are ranged so students sit in rows facing the front insufficient. What is needed is a system-wide of the class, where their teacher spends most approach that focuses on ensuring that all stu- of her time lecturing them. Children are ex- dents have the support to behave in an appro- pected to sit calmly for long periods, only speak priate manner within the school context. One when spoken to and intently listen to their such approach is schoolwide positive behavior lessons. Frequent solicitation of feedback from interventions and supports, or PBIS. students to ascertain their understanding of concepts being presented is a rare occurrence. What is PBIS? Activity-based, cooperative and peer-assisted A relatively recent advance to address the learning strategies are used infrequently, and behavioral challenges of students with SENs problem-solving-based learning that actively that is widely used in many schools in the engages students is not often observed. When United States is the implementation of posi- children misbehave, the author’s experience, tive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS). confirmed by a host of other educators, has PBIS is an evidenced-based system of support been that teachers shout at the children using designed to provide educators with proactive, coercion, complain to parents, or send such positive strategies for defining, teaching and children to school administrators as punish- supporting appropriate student behavior, with ment in an attempt to minimize such behavior. the goal of creating a positive school environ- Given the situation described above, it ment (Bradshaw, Koth, Bevans, Lalongo, & Leaf, should not be unexpected that many students 2008; Sugai et al., 2000). This approach, which who struggle academically, are bored listening is based on ongoing progress monitoring and to their teacher, or experience limited self-regu- data-based decision-making at three differ- lation capacity find that one of the easiest ways ent levels or tiers, attempts to minimize the to gain attention is to behaviorally act out in negative attention to students from teachers 74 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

that typically far outweighs reinforcement for When implementing PBIS, instead of using behaving appropriately and often serves to the traditional piecemeal approach of individu- reinforce the behaviors teachers most want to al behavioral management plans, a continuum minimize (Sugai & Horner, 2009). of positive behavioral support for all students In the past, classroom teachers in most within a school is implemented in areas includ- countries were responsible for creating individ- ing the classroom and non-classroom settings ual behavioral plans for students whose be- (e.g., hallways, buses and restrooms). Positive havior was disruptive or socially inappropriate. behavior support is an application of a behav- However, such plans were typically developed iorally based systems approach to enhance the only after a student engaged in inappropriate capacity of schools, families and communities behavior for some period of time. In addition, to design effective environments that improve the system’s response was primarily negative in the link between research-validated practices its orientation: focused on punishment-based and the environments in which teaching and strategies including reprimands, loss of privi- learning occur. Attention is focused on creating leges, office referrals, suspensions and expul- and sustaining Tier 1 (universal and focused on sions. Research, however, has shown that the all students); Tier 2 (targeted groups) and Tier 3 implementation of coercive, power-assertive (individual) support systems that improve both forms of discipline alone (i.e., punishment) is social and academic results for all children and ineffective. Such responses from teachers and youth by making targeted behaviors less effec- school administrators tend to be used inconsis- tive, efficient and relevant and desired behavior tently, so students on at least some occasions more functional. When PBIS is implemented in experience reinforcement for their inappro- the intended manner, a school and classroom priate behavior. Additionally, in the absence of climate is established in which positive, appro- positive strategies that teach students how to priate behavior is the norm. behave appropriately, such an approach results As Horner and colleagues noted (Horner et in only a temporary suppression of challenging al., 2009) PBIS is based on a set of basic prin- behavior when authority figures are present, ciples that have much in common with those and does little to ensure students behave ap- underlying RTI. These include the following propriately when teachers and school admin- ideas — istrators are not close by (e.g., in the hallways, • All students can be taught to behave in a on the bus). Introducing, modeling and rein- socially appropriate manner; forcing positive social behavior is therefore an • All students possess the behavioral capacity important step to ensure that student behavior to engage in challenging behavior, but only is positive even when authority figures are not some actually do; present (Simonsen, Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers, • Intervening early and effectively using evi- & Sugai, 2008). Teaching behavioral expec- denced-based practices when challenging tations and rewarding students for following behavior is initially observed can prevent them rather than waiting for misbehavior to more serious problems in the future; occur before responding is a positive approach that helps children avoid challenging behavior • Because each student is unique, schools in the first place, creates a positive classroom need to provide a variety of forms of behav- atmosphere for all students and leads to in- ioral support that the use of a multi-tiered creases in student academic engagement. model of service delivery makes possible; Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 75

• The probability that schools will be effective Figure 2. SW-PBIS Model in teaching students positive behavior and minimizing challenging behavior is directly related to the use of scientifically proven strategies and interventions (i.e., evidence-based practices); • Decisions are best made based on the use of data, and monitoring student progress on an ongoing basis allows educators to make more informed instructional decisions; • All students should be screened for behavioral challenges on a yearly basis.

The Components of PBIS Employing this model, Evanovich and Scott Four key elements are included in any PBIS pro- (2016) suggested that, once adopted, PBIS can gram (see Figure 2 in the next column) and are be implemented in four steps. The first involves implemented at each tier or level of behavioral identification of a school and classroom’s most support. These focus on — salient problem behaviors and the contexts in • The student and schoolwide outcomes that which they occur, including analysis to predict teachers and administrators endorse and who, when, where and why. At the student desire to see in their students and class- level, this is typically accomplished through rooms; universal screening of all students for behavior- • Data, or the information that school personal challenges they present to their teachers. In nel use to determine whether students are addition, educational staff collaborate in small in need of additional supports, what these groups or teams to share what they have ob- supports might be and the impact of teacher served as the most critical behaviors to target interventions (i.e., whether the interventions and the contexts in which they appear most they use bring about desired results; likely to occur. Once the problems and their • The use of evidenced-based practices to contexts have been identified, school person- support students and the school to achieve nel need to develop or identify evidence-based desired outcomes prevention strategies that minimize the occurrence of these behaviors. This involves not only • The supports that are needed to implement decreasing the frequency of behavior that is PBIS practices in an effective and sustain- problematic, but teaching positive replacement able manner. behaviors and routines that are incompatible with the student actions. A key third step in the implementation of PBIS is gaining schoolwide consensus among staff as to the prevention strategies that will be employed and maintaining the approaches that are agreed upon. This consistent approach to dealing with behavioral challenges needs to be adopted and implemented in all classrooms and other school 76 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

environments. To ensure that interventions students, minimizing instructional down time have their intended impact and the program is during transitions between topics and subjects, implemented by staff and administrators with a engaging students in developing behavioral high degree of fidelity, data need to be collect- expectations, and ensuring that students are ed and analyzed so that program effectiveness reinforced for positive behavior on an ongoing can be established and any needed changes to basis are all examples of strategies that can be the program are data driven (Todd, Sampson, & used at this level. Effective Tier 1 strategies are Horner, 2005). employed by all teachers with all students within As with ‘response to intervention’ discussed the school. Research suggests that these ap- earlier in this chapter, the specific strategies proaches will be sufficient with 75–80% of stu- employed at each tier in the implementation dents within most educational environments of PBIS need to match the unique needs of (Bradshaw, Koth, Bevans, Ialongo, & Leaf, 2008; individual students and schools. Each succes- OSEP Center on PBIS, 2015; Sugai & Horner, sive tier is therefore focused on supporting the 2009). needs of students who have not been respon- A good example of a Tier 1 intervention is sive to strategies used in lower tiers. The Tier 1 the establishment of schoolwide programs to focus of PBIS centers on the entire school, with recognize and reinforce positive, socially ap- the goal of implementing positive strategies propriate student behavior. This is especially that will prevent the most common challenging important given that research indicates that, in behaviors across all students. As part of this most schools, students receive 4–10 times as tier — much criticism as opposed to reinforcement for • Classroom rules are operationally defined their actions, even when they are engaging in for each schoolwide behavioral expectation productive, socially appropriate behavior (e.g., and posted in classrooms; being academically engaged). Some schools have used ‘gotcha’ programs in an attempt to • Classroom routines and procedures are do a better job of reinforcing positive student identified for activities where problems behavior. The gotchas are a system for labeling often occur (e.g., entering class, using the appropriate behavior and prompt teachers and restroom, dismissal); administrators to remember to catch students • Expected behavioral routines in classrooms engaging in such actions. Schools can use Post- are taught to students; it Notes, Tweets, or text messages for gotchas, • Classroom teachers use immediate and with copies going to parents, classroom teach- specific praise; ers and administrators so that students can be • Students demonstrating adherence to class- publicly recognized for their efforts. room rules and routines are acknowledged A smaller group of students who do not rein a positive fashion more frequently than spond sufficiently to Tier 1 strategies (15–20%) they are for inappropriate behaviors; receive more intensive supports aimed at pre- • Procedures exist for tracking classroom be- venting the most common behavioral problems havior problems; identified from universal assessments undertaken as part of Tier 1 efforts. Interventions • Classrooms have a range of consequences within Tier 2 are more intensive and developed and interventions for problem behavior that on the basis of the systematic use of behavioral are documented and consistently delivered. and academic data to determine student and Developing structured classroom routines, school needs, monitor progress, and measure using active instructional strategies that engage Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 77 school climate and program implementation Hawken, Lynass, Mielenz, & Waugh, 2009), and fidelity (OSEP Center on PBIS, 2015; Sugai and behavior education plans. Both Tier 1 and Tier Horner 2002). Tier 2 supports often involve 2 supports are typically implemented by gen- targeted group interventions with 10 or more eral education staff in consultation with a PBIS students. Individual PBIS plans at Tier 2 lev- behavioral support team composed of general el are based on observations of the student educators, special educators, specialists and (functional behavioral assessment) and other an administrator. Effective Tier 2 interventions assessments to identify the function that prob- should produce measurable changes in be- lem behaviors serve. Fifty years of behavioral havior as determined by direct observations research indicate that most challenging behav- and frequent monitoring of progress. When ior serves to allow individuals to — necessary, this data can be used to make • Escape unpleasant situations and activities adjustments when student progress does not or gain access to situations and activities in occur within specified time frames (typically 4–6 which there is a high probability of reinforce- weeks). ment (e.g., engaging in challenging behavior In spite of the implementation of Tier 2 and getting sent to the principal’s office to strategies, some students need even more flex- avoid a lesson that is disliked or completing ible, focused, personalized behavioral supports. one’s required work quickly to gain access to Tier 3 provides individualized academic and more preferred activity; behavioral interventions for this smallest group of students (3–5% of school population) whose • Escape or gain access to attention (e.g., re- continued behavioral challenges put them at fusing to make eye contact with the teacher serious risk for eventual segregation in special when she asks the class a question or acting education classes or even school exclusion and inappropriately to make peers laugh; dropout (Carran, Kerins, & Murray, 2005). The • Escape or gain access to sensory stimulation continuous monitoring of student behavior that (e.g., leaving a noisy room or engaging in is a part of the PBIS framework serves to identi- stereotypic behavior). fy those students who have been unresponsive Individualized support plans can then be de- to prevention efforts and provides data for the veloped for students based on the analysis of development of more intensive interventions the function served by challenging behaviors, to promote student success. Tier 3 interven- which include — tions are intensive and evidence based and can • Teaching small groups of students to use include function-based behavioral interven- new skills as a replacement for problem tions (FBA–BIPs) and person-centered plans. behaviors; FBA–BIPs comprise individualized, assessment-based intervention strategies, including a • Rearranging the environment so that prob- wide range of options such as — lems can be prevented and desirable behaviors encouraged and • Guidance or instruction for the student to use new skills as a replacement for problem • Monitoring, evaluating and reassessing out- behaviors through the use of strategies such comes over time. as the development and implementation of Tier 2 interventions include practices such individualized social stories to assist stu- as social skills clubs for students who need to dents in working out positive ways of behav- learn alternative ways to respond to the behaving in specific social situations; ior of others, check in/check out (Cheney, Stage, 78 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

• Rearrangement of the antecedent environ- al., 2003; Weiland et al., 2014). Cheney, Malloy, ment so that problems can be prevented & Hagner (1998) confirmed a positive impact and desirable behaviors encouraged (e.g., of PBIS on dropout rates. In addition, research providing students in need of less or more suggests that students in school in which PBIS sensory stimulation with alternatives to is used experience significantly lower rates screen out levels of stimulation that are too of teacher-reported bullying and peer rejec- high (e.g., noise-canceling headphones) or tion than those in schools who do not use the provision of alternatives to increase stimula- approach (Waasdorp, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2012). tion (e.g., fidget devices); Findings suggest that the effects of PBIS on stu- • Procedures for monitoring, evaluating and dent behavioral outcomes tend to be greatest reassessing of the plan as necessary. In among at-risk and high-risk children (Bradshaw, some situations, the plan may also include Waasdorp, & Leaf, 2015). emergency procedures to ensure safety and The impact of PBIS on academic achieve- rapid de-escalation of severe episodes. ment is less clear but still suggests a probable impact. Nelson, Benner, Lane, and Smith (2004) found improvements in student reading scores The Impact of PBIS: Research after implementation of PBIS, and Muscott, Findings Mann, and LeBrun (2008) found a connection Over the past 20 years, considerable research between PBIS and math achievement. Sailor, has been undertaken in an effort to establish Zuna, Chol, Thomas, McCart, and Roger (2006) the impact of PBIS at both the school and stu- concluded that students attending three mid- dent level. At the school level, research results dle schools and one K–3 school implementing indicate that a more positive school climate PBIS showed improved school-level academic develops in schools implementing PBIS. This is achievement across several areas. More recent- evidenced by higher levels of student and fac- ly, Horner et al. (2009) reported that the pro- ulty understanding of behavioral expectations portion of third graders meeting or exceeding and a stronger atmosphere of professional state reading assessment standards was signifi- trust and respect (Houchens, Zhang, Davis, Niu, cantly higher in PBIS than non-PBIS schools. Chon, & Miller, 2017; Waasdorp et al. 2012); Bradshaw et al. (2010), however, found no Over time, increased staff commitment to PBIS differences in reading or math achievement has been documented along with decreased between students subjected to PBIS and those staff turnover (Netzel & Eber, 2003). who were not. In addition, Childs et al. (2010) Researchers have found a relationship reported no significant increase in the percent- between PBIS implementation and numerous age of students scoring proficient in reading positive student behavioral outcomes, includ- of state-standardized achievement tests in ing lower student aggression, disruptive behav- PBIS-implementing schools. Houchins et al. iors, decreased student disciplinary action, and (2017) concluded that while there were no fewer office disciplinary referrals (ODRs) and significant differences in student achievement suspensions (Bohanon et al. 2006; Bradshaw, levels between PBIS and non-PBIS schools Mitchell, & Leaf, 2010; Lassen, Steele, & Sailor, in their study, analysis revealed that student 2006; Luiselli, Putnam, Handler, & Fienberg, academic outcomes were significantly higher 2005; Mayer et al., 1993; Nelson, Martella, & at high- and medium-fidelity PBIS schools than Marchand-Martella, 2002; Nunn, 2017; Sadler & low-fidelity PBIS schools. This finding is consis- Sugai, 2009; Sugai & Simonsen, 2012; Warren et tent with the results of other investigations that Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 79 have demonstrated that positive outcomes are in each classroom routine (e.g., entering and closely related to the fidelity with which schools exiting the classroom, teacher instruction). implement various features of PBIS (Barrett, A second activity undertaken by the PBIS Bradshaw, & Lewis-Palmer, 2008; Childs, Kin- team is to determine how the behavioral ex- caid, & George, 2010). pectations and routines they have identified will be taught in classroom and non-classroom The Process of Implementing PBIS settings. Possible approaches include — In order to be effective, schoolwide positive • Using several days at the beginning of the behavioral intervention and supports must be year to take the students around the school implemented at a systems level. This ensures to stations, where the skills are taught in that resources needed to support and sustain setting specific locations. the program are available. Typically, implemen- • Teaching expectations within each class- tation starts with a team of approximately 10 room routine as they introduce each routine members of a school attending a two- to three- at the start of the school year. day workshop on the approach conducted by • Providing opportunities for teachers and skilled trainers. Teams include administrators, students to review and reteach expected general and special education teachers, and behavior throughout the year. educational specialists (e.g., social workers, school psychologists). After training, the team is The next activity of the PBIS team is to clear- responsible for — ly define the specific student behaviors that • Developing three to five behavioral expec- merit administrative involvement (i.e., a trip to tations for students at the school level that the principal’s office and what behaviors will be are positively stated and easy to remember. taken care of in the classroom). At this stage, This process typically is focused on school it is important to stress to teachers that it is personnel but can be extended to include critical that every staff member is consistent parents and students, facilitating substan- in how they respond to a student’s challenging tially greater support or buy-in from these behavior. stakeholders. PBIS provides teachers with tools to decrease disruptions, increase instructional • The team then takes these back to the time and improve student social behavior and school to discuss with other staff with the academic outcomes. However, the preservice goal of attaining buy-in for at least 80% of training received by most general education the staff. teachers rarely includes sufficient instruction in • The team subsequently generates a matrix these areas. The school leadership team there- that provides detailed information as to fore needs to take responsibility for providing what the behavioral expectations will look, instruction to general and special educators sound and feel like in all classrooms and with respect to — non-classroom areas (e.g., the bus, cafete- • Ways behavioral expectations can be taught, ria). modeled, practiced and observed. • Team members next work with teachers • Procedures for effectively handling situa- to create matrices for each classroom that tions in which preventative approaches are include examples of what it will look, sound not sufficient. and feel like to follow each expectation with- 80 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

• Strategies to tailor behavioral support to in which it is intended to operate must be taken students’ specific needs and circumstances. into consideration. • Procedures for observing and praising stu- Implementation of the RTI and PBIS frame- dents’ appropriate behavior. works in U.S. schools tends to focus on system-wide in-service training, coaching and • Ways to use behavioral and academic as- mentoring of educators, formative assessment sessments for data-based decision-making, and subsequent adjustments at the systems including screening, diagnostic determina- level based on student performance and tion and progress monitoring. progress data. Responsibility for instructional • Merging classroom PBIS strategies with in- changes at Tier 1 and both the development structional design, curriculum and delivery. and implementation of interventions at Tiers Providing initial instruction in each of these 2 and 3 lies with general educational person- areas to classroom teachers, however, is insuf- nel and intervention specialists, with some ficient. The leadership team also needs to plan help at Tier 3, often by special education staff. for monitoring the fidelity with which teach- Given the current level of resources available ers implement the basic strategies associated to schools and teachers in Armenian schools, with PBIS and offer opportunities for refresher it is clear that the traditional means of imple- training to ensure continued high-fidelity implementing the RTI and PBIS models will need to mentation. To effectively promote implementa- be adapted. Provision of systematic supports tion of proactive classroom PBIS practices, the to students who are struggling academically or school team needs to invest in systems to sup- behaviorally in Armenian schools may provide port teachers: providing professional develop- an opportunity for a reconsideration of the role ment opportunities, supportive and data-driven of specialists at psychological-pedagogical cen- coaching, and staff recognition. In addition, it ters housed outside of school settings. is critical to ensure the cultural and contextual fit and relevance of the PBIS system adopted, Tips for Teachers taking into account local environments (e.g., • Seek assistance from your school’s leader- neighborhood, city) and personal characteris- ship to provide you with supports you need tics (e.g., race, nationality) of students and their to be able to teach all students. learning histories (e.g., family and social routines, customs). • Work with specialists to provide you with assistance to adapt materials and suggest strategies to address needs of students who The Need for Adapting RTI and PBIS need Tier 2 and Tier 3 instruction. to the Armenian Context • Use assessment data to decide which stu- There are numerous similarities between the dents need more intensive instruction/inter- U.S. and Armenian cultures as well as the vention to make progress. educational systems of these countries. Many • Ensure that you praise students for good differences, however, also exist that would behavior and other achievements. likely decrease the feasibility and success of the • Find out what is reinforcing for each student RTI and PBIS frameworks as currently used in and use that for encouraging their academic U.S. schools if directly applied to Armenia. Prior performance and behavior. to implementing a systemic framework such as RTI and PBIS, the culture and education system • Involve students in setting expectations and rules for performance and behavior at Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ] 81

the beginning of the year, and follow those Glossary expectations with all students. Data teams — Multidisciplinary teams of teach- • Implement an instructional approach or ers, school psychologists, special educa- intervention with struggling students for tors and the like in a school who review approximately six weeks while collecting and evaluate student academic and be- data before you decide whether it is or is not havior data to make decisions about their effective. progress. Data-based decision-making — Process of Thoughts for Leaders making instructional decisions for students based on progress-monitoring data in • Provide teachers with necessary materials reading, math and behavior. and supports they need to teach all students. Evidence-based practices — Instructional programs and strategies that have been • Participate in meetings when teachers and evaluated for their effectiveness and that other specialists are discussing student data have demonstrated significant improve- and their progress. ment in academic or behavioral student • Provide professional development for teach- performance. ers to gain new knowledge and strategies MTSS — Multi-tiered system of support that for teaching all students. includes RTI and PBIS. • Provide opportunities for teachers, students PBIS (positive behavior interventions and and parents to celebrate their students’ supports) — Schoolwide framework for successes. addressing student behavioral needs by • Celebrate the successes and important environmental and behavioral approaches milestones of teachers (e.g., completing a to facilitate student learning. professional development course, being Reinforcement — Stimulus (e.g., praise, reward, able to implement an effective strategy for a food) that increases the probability that a student with a disability in the classroom). certain behavior will occur. RTI (response to intervention) — Schoolwide Reflection Questions framework of addressing academic needs • What is the difference between Tier 1 and of all students by differentiated instruction Tier 2 instruction? and continuous assessment. • What is the role of assessment in RTI and Screening — Assessment of all students in a PBIS? school conducted at the beginning, mid- • What are some reasons why a student might dle and end of the school year to identify engage in challenging behavior? students who are achieving significantly below average. • What are some Tier 2 and Tier 3 strategies for improving student academic perfor- Specific learning disabilities (SLD) — Disorder mance? in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in • What are some strategies at Tier 1 and 2 one using language, spoken or written, which can use to improve student behavior? disorder may manifest itself in the imper- fect ability to listen, think, speak, read, 82 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 6 ]

write, spell or do mathematical calcula- Bradshaw, C. P., Pas, E. T., Debnam, K. J., & Johnson, S. L. tions (IDEA, 2004). (2015). A focus on implementation of positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) in high Tier — Instructional level within MTSS (RTI and schools: Associations with bullying and other indi- PBIS) where students are placed based on cators of school disorder. School Psychology Review, their assessment data. 44(4), 480–498. Bradshaw, C., Waasdorp, T., & Leaf, P. (2012) Examining the variation in the impact of school-wide positive References behavioral interventions and supports. Pediat- rics, 10(5), 1136–1145. Abrams, B. J. (2005). Becoming a therapeutic teacher Carran, D., Kerins, M., & Murray, S. (2005). Three-year out- for students with emotional and behavioral disor- comes for positively and negatively discharged EBD ders. Teaching Exceptional Children, 38(2), 40–45. students from nonpublic special education facilities. 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CHAPTER 7: The Role of Individualized Learning Plans (ILPs) in Inclusive Education

Christopher Johnstone, University of Minnesota Araksia Svajan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Vergine Yesayan, Principal of Special School, Yerevan

This chapter provides background information on how ILPs work. These plans are designed to support inclusion by documenting individualized goals that students can work on in inclusive classrooms. 86 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • How can an individualized learning plan (ILP) and individual specialized support services plan (ISSSP) support the learning of children with special education needs? • Who should design ILP and PPSSP? • How can you use goals in ILP and PPSSP to help plan teaching? • How is assessment data used to help create goals for ILP and PPSSP?

Introduction ILPs are helpful for teachers, parents and

Any child who has special education needs students because they provide specific infor- (SEN) in Armenia requires a plan that allows mation about what a child is to learn in school. him or her to meet individualized goals. Accord- For example, a teacher who has a child with ing to the 2014 Amendments to the Education special education needs in the classroom can Law, Section 10.8, an individualized plan is a use the ILP to plan teaching. Within any given “document drawn up on the basis of state and lesson, ILPs help plan for extra supports, adapt subject related standards, programs of general teaching aids or seek one-on-one help for a education and the need of the child for special student to help the student understand the conditions of education, which sets the annual content. The PPSSP also helps teachers to know goal, tasks of organizing the education of the what extra services a child is receiving in the learner and the actions aimed at the implemen- form of therapies or special teaching and helps tation thereof (including support services).” therapists to plan their work for the child’s Individualized support plans have two com- needs. For parents, ILPs and PPSSPs provide ponents: individualized learning plans (ILPs) a transparent way to see the academic, social and individual specialized support services and functional progress their child is making in plan (ISSSP). ILPs are written documents that school. Through annual reviews and progress outline specific learning, social and functional updates, parents can observe that their child is goals for children with disabilities. PPSSPs are getting the attention needed for participation designed to help students meet educational, and progress in school. Finally, students are the

social and functional goals through specific end beneficiaries of ILPs and PPSSPs because therapies. These plans are essential in schools their educational program will be tailored to

because the standards, teaching methods and their specific needs. The paragraphs below outcomes of education may differ by child in show how ILPs are used in schools. inclusive settings. In Armenia, ILPs and PPSSPs are provided only for children with certified ILPs special education needs, according to the Individual learning plans are a means for Amendments to the Education Law (2014). The outlining educational goals for children with purpose of the ILP is to provide a record of the special education needs. Similar plans, called goals and objectives for children with special individualized education plans (IEPs), have education needs so that these objectives can been used for several decades in the United be evaluated and changed over the course of a States as a means of documenting how chil- child’s education in school. dren’s legal rights are being met in schools. In Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 87 the U.S. setting, information about educational ing, Laura would benefit more from smaller and therapeutic goals are combined. In Arme- classroom settings, while for others (access to nia, this information is found on two separate academics), the regular classroom was the best forms: ILP and PPSSP. In both cases, forms location. Below are four of Laura’s goals. These provide multidisciplinary teams with a record of goals are specific, measurable, achievable, decisions made on the educational, social and realistic and time bound. They reflect academ- functional goals of children, including the reg- ics, functional skills and physical development. ular teacher (Everett, 2017). The core feature Each of Laura’s goals (see Box 2 below) are of IEPs, ILPs and PPSSPs is the focus on SMART based on her current level of functioning and goals. Jung (2007) has described the features of an aspirational goal that allows for planning of a SMART goal (see Box 1 below). her instruction and therapies for the next year.

Box 1. Smart Goals Box 2. Laura’s Goals

S - Goal should be specific 1. Goal 1 (academic). Laura will increase her ability to engage in classroom activities by M - Goal should be measurable using a mature grasp on classroom tools A - Goal should be achievable to copy prewriting shapes, draw a person R - Goal should be realistic with nine body parts, write her name, position scissors correctly and cut out T - Goal should be time bound simple shapes from 50% success to 80% success. The example below is taken from an IEP in 2. Goal 2 (social). Laura will increase her the United States that focused on the goals for receptive and expressive language skills a student with a cognitive delay. The goals are by increasing her ability to make com- organized in three domains: academic, social plete independent requests from 40% to and functional. This model helps to support the 75%, her ability to follow directions with development of the ‘whole child.’ This particu- targeted concepts from 25% to 60%, her lar child (Laura, a pseudonym) was functioning ability to answer questions with target- well below her peers academically, but was in- ed concepts from 10% to 50% and her cluded in the regular classroom for part of the expressive single-word vocabulary by at day. Rather than being set to the same expec- least five words per quarter. tations as her typically developing peers, her 3. Goal 3 (functional). Laura will be able to goals were individualized to meet her specific increase her locomotor skills (galloping needs. The team created four goals for Laura. and jumping) from her current level of It was decided that she should spend part of performing 0 out of 4 performance crite- her day in the mainstream classroom, but with ria to 2 out of 4 performance criteria. individualized goals. The rest of her program was spent in specialized locations (within the school) where she could get exposure to basic Laura’s team decided that, in order to meet life skills, therapies and specialized physical her goals, she would need the following sup- activities. The decisions on where Laura would ports — receive services were negotiated by the mul- • A small-group settings in the inclusive class- tidisciplinary team, including her parents. The room at least once per day for 30 minutes team decided that for certain basic skills train- to four hours (this option is not available in 88 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

Armenia, so other options would be needed year. At the time of the assessment, Alexan had for Laura in that country); a sight word vocabulary of 42 words. • Special movement training three days per Alexan was in an inclusion class, so his week for 30 minutes each session; teachers also gave him adapted materials to enable him to work with the other children on • Occupational therapy one time per week for class activities. For Alexan, this meant that he 30 minutes; would listen to an audio version of the books • Speech-language therapy six times per that other children were reading and that the month for 30 minutes each session; speech therapist would work with him once per • The rest of the time Laura would be in the week on his sight-reading goal and on phone- regular classroom, supported partially by a mic awareness. The speech therapist shared classroom assistant. the list of 100 words that she hoped Alexan Overall, the IEP model is helpful because it would learn so that the teacher could be sure keeps the individualized learning goals at the to highlight these words when they were used center of all decision-making on where the stu- in lessons, showing the whole class (not just Al- dent will learn, what therapies are needed, and exan) the importance of these particular words. the time spent on particular activities. In this Periodically the teacher would also quiz Alexan case, the team decided that in order for Laura on his goal to see what progress he was mak- to meet her individualized goals, a combination ing. The list of 100 words was also shared with of small-group setting, educational assistant Alexan’s parents, so they could help him learn support, occupational therapy and speech ther- at home. apy were needed. Each team member (teach- In addition to building his sight word vocab- er, classroom assistant, special teacher and ulary, the teacher assistant and speech ther- therapists) will present evidence to other team apist also worked with Alexan to identify how members about Laura’s progress at the follow- Armenian symbols (letters) make sounds. By ing meeting. This sharing ensures that all team being able to identify how written symbols cre- members are working together to help Laura ate sounds, Alexan could begin to put sounds achieve her IEP goals. together in printed words and recognize the word. At the time his ILP was written, Alexan knew all the sounds of Armenian letters, but The Story of Alexan occasionally forgot, so needed additional prac- Alexan is a boy with moderate reading diffi- tice to help him see the connections between culties who spent many days in class missing letters and sounds. The story of Alexan high- information. Soon he fell further and further lights three key features of ILPs — behind, until an assessment team identified his • ILPs document individual goals for students. reading difficulties. Once he was assessed, the • ILPs outline special services a child may team developed an individualized learning plan. receive to help them achieve their individual For Alexan, this meant that each year he was goals. expected to improve in reading, but not necessarily at the rate of other students. Because his • ILPs require the cooperation of regular plan was individualized, this also meant that he teachers, specialists and parents to help needed to work toward his individualized goals. meet goals. His teachers set a goal that he would know 100 • There is no ‘special education’ provided by words by sight at the end of his Grade 3 school one professional; rather, a team approach is used to help children meet their goals. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 89

Alexan’s Goals 2. Goal 2 (academic). By June 1, Alexan will As noted above, Alexan needed extra support improve his ability to correspond letters in reading, which he received. Below is an ex- to sounds on 95% of trials. ample of a measurable goal for Alexan.

1. Goal 1 (academic). By June 1, Alexan will In order to meet this goal, Alexan’s speech identify 100 vocabulary words by sight therapist and teaching assistant would work from a list provided by his teacher. with him in a one-to-one support mode to help him recall how letters connect to sounds. The team would occasionally use informal assess- The above goal has three distinctive fea- ments to chart Alexan’s progress. tures. First, the goal is specific and measurable, Alexan’s Goals 1 and 2 were academic, but meaning that Alexan’s teachers can track prog- goals may also focus on the social aspects of ress throughout the year. They can see if he school. For example, it may be that Alexan’s has learned 10 words or 150 words and make reading difficulties have caused him to be shy adjustments to teaching and therapy accord- and withdrawn from his classroom peers. His ingly. Second, the goal is achievable and realistic. multidisciplinary team may decide that a social Using the word identify signifies that Alexan goal is important to help Alexan mix well with can see and read a word aloud to a teacher or others. An example of a social goal was created therapist. This is how his support team knows (see below). he is making progress. Words like understand and know are more difficult to observe unless 3. Goal 2 (social). By June 1, Alexan will en- they are accompanied by some way to demon- gage in verbal conversation for a period strate such knowledge. Classroom and other of 10 minutes per day with a peer without assessments are good ways to help children prompting from the teacher. show their knowledge for measuring progress. Finally, the goal is time bound. This means that Alexan’s support team can review the goal be- This social goal was designed to help Alexan fore and on the final date to see his progress. converse with other students. The teacher or If he achieves his goal, it can be rewritten any his parents may help him to come up with con- time. If he does not, the multidisciplinary team versation topics or socially appropriate ways to should examine whether his support plan is start a conversation. The goal is measurable be- helping him. cause a teacher can count the number of min- Alexan’s second academic goal related to his utes that Alexan is conversing and count the ability to combine letter sounds to make words number of prompts it takes to help him start for reading. As noted above, Alexan could a conversation. It may take several prompts make connections between letters in print and at the beginning of the school year, but he the sounds they make, but occasionally forgot may converse independently at the end of the letter sounds, which made it impossible for him school year. The goal is observable because the to read words. In a trial during his assessment teacher can visibly see Alexan conversing with process, the team found that his letter–sound others. Finally, the goal is time bound because it correspondence rate was 84% (he almost can be re-examined in June to evaluate Alexan’s always could make correspondence), but that progress. 100% accuracy would help him in reading. Therefore, his team created Goal 2 (see below). 90 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

The Story of Adam As part of Adam’s plan, he received support Adam is an eight-year-old boy. He has no sight. in learning Braille, orientation and mobility He is currently in eighth grade in an inclusive from specialists. The school did not have re- school. Adam can easily navigate in familiar sources for this at the time of the ILP, so the space (at home and in the classroom), but he school needed to work with the district re-

can’t move independently in other areas of the source to find materials and a solution. Adam’s

school. He doesn’t use a white stick yet, but his goals reflect his academic goals (which are sim- team believes this would help him to become ilar to those of other students, but adapted), more independent. Adam’s intellectual devel- social goals (which focus on his reaching out to opment is consistent with other children his others if he needs assistance), and functional

age, but he has difficulty in writing and takes a independence (which focus on his finding his long time to find his materials when the lesson way around school without any help). is starting. Finally, Adam is newly included in his school and has had difficulty making friends. The Story of Anna Anna is a six-year-old girl who has autism. She Box 3. Adam’s Goals is in first grade in an inclusive school. She does not use verbal communication, but she can un- 1. By June 1 (academic). Upon teacher request, Adam will demonstrate compre- derstand others’ speech. She can also count to

hension of academic content through au- 5 using her fingers. In her class, she can under- dio inputs (such as lectures or recorded stand certain topics. For example, she can rec-

books), Braille materials or other inputs ognize different animals, but does not yet know at the ‘proficient’ level on a teacher-devel- her colors. She can read environmental print oped measurement 70% of the time. sight words (such as signs like ‘Exit’) but does not always grasp the meaning of the words. In 2. By June 1 (social). Adam will ask for a terms of mobility, she can independently move peer for assistance in identifying mate- around the school, remembers where import- rials if he is unsuccessful with school or- ant rooms are and has no problem taking care ganization tasks (such as finding books), of herself at meals or in the restroom. Howev- for over two minutes, for five out of five er, she has difficulty focusing in class and does occurrences (100%). not have many friends. Anna’s ILP team met 3. Short-term objective. By March 31, 2018 and decided to place their attention on Anna’s (social), Adam will ask for help, with one focus in class, making friends, and learning reminder, when he is unsuccessful with colors. school organization tasks (such as finding books), for over two minutes, for five out of five occurrences (100%). 4. By June 1 (functional). Adam will independently walk around school with the use of a cane to the correct desired location each day with 80% accuracy. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 91

Box 4. Anna’s Goals All of Anna’s goals helped her educational team to focus their efforts for the year. Al- 1. By June 1 (functional). Anna will remain though there were likely many directions the on task for a classroom-based activity for ILP could have taken in planning for Anna, the a period of five consecutive minutes, with goals they wrote help her teacher, speech ther- no more than five reminders with 80% apist and teacher assistant to organize learning accuracy. activities. Later in this chapter, there is also a 2. By May 25 (social). Anna will initiate at description on how Anna’s mother’s ideas were least one greeting per day to a classmate incorporated into her ILP goals. or teacher with unlimited verbal reminders from teachers. Options for Supporting Children 3. By May 25 (academic). Anna will point to through Teaching and Goals the primary colors (red, blue and yellow) Although all goals in ILPs are individualized, upon request from teacher and with col- some goals will create more inclusive opportu- or-oriented teaching materials with 50% nities than others for students. A continuum of accuracy. support options for students in inclusive classrooms has been developed (see Table 1 below). The bottom row of the table provides examples of how these options might work for Alexan.

Table 1. Continuum of Support Options

Standard, but with Standard, but with Standard environmental or Modified accommodations teaching changes Child participates in Child participates in Child participates in Goals that are classroom activities regular classroom regular classroom nonstandard but and expectations like activities, but activities, but is needed in order to all other children. teacher makes small provided changes help the child be changes in teaching to timing of successful. These Explanation to help child. These assignments, may be more can be integrated delivery of content difficult or easier into regular or how the student than standard classroom activities. can complete requirements. assignments. Although Alexan has Alexan participates Alexan struggles Alexan has a trouble reading, he in regular instruction with decoding small sight word has good math skills in reading, but words, so he will be vocabulary, so his and can participate teacher makes an allowed to listen to team created a Example for like all students. effort to accentuate an audio version special goal: that Alexan and highlight of the book that he learn 100 sight important words other students are words this year. that are part of reading. Alexan’s goals to learn. 92 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

ILPs in Armenia At the initial ILP meeting, team members The individualized learning plan process is rel- work through all the questions in the ILP form, atively new to Armenia. According to the Action answering them to the best of their ability.

Plan for Implementation of Universal Inclusive Once the final document is signed, it becomes a Education System, Syunik marz (province) was contract between the school, its employees, the the first pilot region for inclusive education and assessment center, parents and the child. The has been practicing inclusive education since plan is intended to have measurable goals that 2017. Tavush and Lori marz followed thereaf- can be checked frequently for progress. The ter. The processes for ILPs listed below are in team reconvenes annually to check progress on progress in Syunik, Tavush and Lori and are goals and plan for the next year. An example of presented as the most current form at the time an ILP form used in Armenia is provided at the of publication of this chapter. Further devel- end of this chapter. opments may occur at a later time. The step- The ILP process is meant to be evidence by-step approach to ILPs follows the timeline informed and participatory. However, what is below, and the actual form used is found at the designed in theory and policy has not devel- end of this chapter. oped in practice. For example, the Center for Educational Researches and Consulting (2013) 1. First, if parents, teachers or principals concluded that there are a variety of issues suspect a child has a condition that is related to implementing ILPs in Armenia. The impairing his or her ability to perform in Center found that — school, a parent conference is called. The school implements additional supports • Multidisciplinary teams do not have a clear and school-based assessments. If the child understanding of their roles, needs further assessments and the parents • Regular education teachers are indifferent agree, the assessment center is called and to individualized goals, the child’s basic information is shared with • Personnel shortages have not allowed for them. individualized goals to be achieved, and 2. Over the next several weeks, personnel • Collaboration within the multidisciplinary from the assessment center perform a se- team named above is weak. ries of assessments and observations of the There are at least two important consider- child within the school. Assessment experts ations for ILPs that teachers should remember. may draw upon diagnostic assessments These is listed below, with relevant resources. (for example, ICF); interviews with parents, teachers and the student; and classroom observations. At the end of the assessment Important Considerations for ILPs period, an ILP meeting is called. 1. Family involvement 3. A multidisciplinary team (that should include student, parents, teachers, principal, Family involvement is essential (including relevant therapists and assessment center students). Although teachers and assessment personnel) meets and develops individual- experts know children well, the experts on chil- ized learning goals for students. If the child dren’s lives are their parents and the children has therapeutic needs, a Individual special- themselves. In current ILP setups, parents are ized support services plan (ISSSP) is also asked to provide narrative information about developed. current levels of functioning, likes, dislikes and other information about their children. How- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 93 ever, in the spirit of a truly individualized education program planning process, parents’ and 4. Who is . . .? — professionals, parents and children’s opinions should also be part of the the child answer the question “Who is . decision-making process on educational goals, . .?” Using the example above, the team levels of support and ideas about the most would ask “Who is Alexan?” and con- important aspects of education on which to sider strengths, likes, social networks, focus. One way of helping parents to become personal qualities, favorite activities and more involved is the MAPS process (‘making so on. Negative characteristics can also action plans’). MAPS is a structured process be shared, but this should be done re- that can help multidisciplinary teams — includ- spectfully in front of the child. Knowing ing parents and children — to look ahead and the whole child can both help with goal plan ILP goals to help reach the desired future. planning and add important documen- Box 5 (see below) provides an overview of MAPS tation of strengths in an ILP process that (Vandercook, York, & Forest, 1989). otherwise focuses on difficulties. 5. Needs — based on the child’s history,

Box 5. MAPS Process dreams, fears and understanding of self, the MAPS conversation should then During the MAPS process, the ILP team focus on what the child needs to have a members come together to answer five positive school experience in the future. structured questions. This team may in- This conversation is not as specific as clude the parent, child, teacher, social educational goals, but provides a general worker, assessment specialists and others. map for setting goals such as ‘more life The five questions to be answered deal with skills training’ or ‘more focus on literacy’ the following — or ‘more opportunities to make friends 1. History — parents and child can tell in the classroom.’ The team (including about the child’s history. Memories and parents and student) should identify what relevant life events should be shared is needed to help the student develop here and documented. optimally. 2. Dreams — professionals, parents and the child share dreams for the future Source: Vandercook, York, & Forest (1989). of the child. It may be that parental and children’s dreams are different. In either The MAPS process adds the important ele- case, identifying dreams helps plan goals ment of the child into the assessment practice. that will help the child reach the future Currently in Armenia, assessment centers make they wish. diagnoses and send data to schools. School 3. Fears — professionals, parents and chil- teams then usually write ILP goals based on dren share their worst fears about the assessment practice. At present, students are child’s future. These fears may be about not asked about what is important to them and consequences in school, the workplace or how their aspirations may translate into goals. social life. This can be a very uncomfort- The MAPS process (above) provides a way for able discussion, but again, help the ILP teams to include the student’s perspectives into team to identify goals that will help avoid the ILP process. Within educational, social and an undesirable future. life skills areas, ILP teams may design goals that are related to the student’s hopes for his or 94 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

her future. For example, Adam (the 8-year-old Box 6. COACH Process boy with a visual impairment described above) would like to have more friends and play on the COACH is a simple way to begin structured playground. After the ILP team heard his de- conversations around setting goals for sires, they built an additional goal for Adam to children. The section below covers ways help him make friends. The goal is below — in which to best set measurable goals, but the sentences below are examples of the 1. By June 1. Adam will initiate conversation COACH process — with peers through a question three out Step 1: Family interview — to enable the of five days per week within 30 minutes family to select learning priorities for the of school breaks. Questions might be student for the upcoming school year. “How are you?” or “What are you doing today?” Step 2: Additional learning outcomes — to determine learning outcomes beyond what the family might have identified. Adam’s goal focuses on what he can do to Professionals, teachers and the student can create friendships with other students. By ask- help in this process. ing them about plans, he may find that children are more interested in including him in activi- Step 3: General supports — to determine ties such as going to the playground during the what is needed to help the student reach break in academics. her/his goals. Step 4: Annual goals — Development of 2. Focus on outcomes specific targets to be met one year from A second consideration for ILPs is to focus the ILP meeting. This helps parents and on outcomes. Parents and professionals will professionals to see what progress has all have ideas about what they would like a been made. child to achieve. The best way to ensure a Step 5: Short-term objectives — To reach child makes progress is by setting measurable annual goals, smaller intermediate steps and achievable goals. The COACH process (an should be identified to ensure progress is acronym for choosing options and accommo- being made. dations for children) developed by Giangreco, Cloninger, Dennis, and Edelman (1993) lays out Step 6: Program-at-a-glance — Families a process similar to MAPS (above) that helps and professionals go over the whole plan ILP teams begin to set initial goals. The process to make sure everyone is in agreement. is as follows (see Box 6 in the next column). This stage provides a final look at what the child’s educational program will look like day to day and over the course of a year.

Source: Giangreco, Cloninger, Dennis, & Edelman, 1993

Similar to the example above, the ILP team decided to use the COACH process as part of the ILP development at Anna’s school. In this case, the team learned that Anna’s mother was concerned that Anna has emotional outbursts when she is excited or angry. At first, Anna’s Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 95

mother wanted her to control her emotions, able, reasonable and time-bound terms so that but the team thought that this was a good op- they can be monitored throughout the year. portunity to teach Anna better ways to commu- Goals might be academic (focused on learning), nicate what she is feeling to others. The team social (focused on friendships and getting along knew that Anna was not verbal, and so her with others or communication) or functional outbursts were probably her way of expressing (focused on skills needed to live and work inde- her emotions. Upon conversation, the team (in- pendently). cluding her mother) thought that giving Anna a communication board on her desk would help Tips for Teachers her to communicate her emotions. The teach- • Use the SMART acronym to guide the devel- er’s assistant then created a page with different opment of ILP goals. emotions and began teaching Anna how to show what she was feeling by using the board. • When appropriate, address academic, func- The team then wrote the goal below for Anna. tional and social goals in ILPs. • Always involve parents and students in the 1. By June 1. Anna will use a communication design of the ILP. board in lieu of yelling or hitting her desk • COACH and MAPS provide a structured way to convey her emotions by pointing to of having discussions on ILP goals. ‘emotion faces’ on the board three out of five times. Mastery will be demonstrated by a decrease in yelling or hitting her Thoughts for Leaders desk and an increase in pointing to her • ILPs help school teams plan instruction and communication board. service delivery for students with special education needs. School leaders must be present at ILP meetings so they know what By employing the COACH method, the ILP resources may be needed and how their team learned what was important for Anna staff will accomplish goals. as she continues to develop emotionally and academically. By including a social goal related • ILP teams (multidisciplinary teams) may rush to her emotions, the team incorporated Anna’s to complete goals without considering the family’s concerns into the ILP process. hopes and partnership of students and their families. Using the COACH and MAPS techniques will ensure these perspectives are Conclusions considered. The ILP is one of the most important tools • ILPs are individualized; therefore, goals from that can be used to help children with special one student should not be simply copied for education needs to exercise their education- another student. al rights in inclusive schools. ILPs provide an example of a ‘best practice’ in education be- Reflection Questions cause a multidisciplinary team is present and • What is an ILP, and for whom is it required? provides ideas for goals for the individual child. • How can ILPs help therapists and teachers This team will always involve a parent. The plan how they interact with children with core feature of an ILP is that it focuses on goals special education needs? for the child. These goals should be stated in SMART format — specific, measurable, achiev- 96 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

• How can writing goals in SMART format help information, annual goals and space for to ensure students’ progress is accurately commentary from the multidisciplinary measured? team. Once signed, the team is legally • Why is it important to consider the perspec- bound to administering educational goals tives of students and families in the develop- as outlined in the plan. ment of ILPs? Individualized learning plan (ILP) — A written • How can COACH and MAPS help ILP teams statement that outlines the education- to include student and family perspectives in al plan of a child with special education the ILP process? needs in Armenia. This statement contains a narrative description of the student, assessment information, annual goals and Additional Resources space for commentary from the multidis- Center for Parent Information and Resources ciplinary team. Once signed, the team is (2017). The short-and-sweet IEP overview. required by national policy to administer http://www.parentcenterhub.org/iep-over- educational goals as outlined in the plan. view/ MAPS (making action plans) — A structured Heitin, R. (2018). Writing IEP goals. LD Online. process that can help multidisciplinary http://www.ldonline.org/article/42058/ teams — including parents and children — to look to the future and plan IEP or ILP goals to help reach the desired future Glossary (Vandercook, York, & Forest, 1989). Academic Goals — Any goal that relates to PPSSP (psycho-pedagogical services support learning of academic content in schools plan) — A written statement that outlines that is written into a student’s individual- the therapeutic needs of a child with ized learning plan. disability in Armenia. The PPSSP is agreed COACH — An acronym for choosing options upon by a multidisciplinary team but is and accommodations for children, devel- focused on the objectives of specific thera- oped by Giangreco, Cloninger, Dennis, and pies to support the development of chil- Edelman (1993) that provides a structured dren with disabilities. process for facilitating conversation with SMART goals — Goals that are specific, measur- multidisciplinary teams (including families) able, achievable, realistic and time bound. for individualized education plan meetings. The SMART acronym is used in Armenia Functional/life skills goals — Any goal on a to help individualized learning team mem- student’s individualized learning plan that bers develop goals that can easily be eval- focuses on helping the student to live, uated within a particular time period. Once communicate or take care of him or her- evaluated, goals can be updated. self and navigate independently. Function- Social goals — Any goal on a student’s individual goals may set the stage for future inde- alized learning plan that focuses on his or pendent living as adults. her ability to communicate effectively with Individualized education plan (IEP) — A written others. Social goals may include commu- statement that outlines the educational nication related to expressing emotions, plan of a child with a disability in the Unit- skills related to making friends or goals ed States. This statement contains a narra- related to being a contributing member of tive description of the student, assessment a classroom community. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 97

References Alabama Parent Center (2006). What is an ILP? Retrieved from http://www.alabamaparentcenter.com/resources/documents/IEPv3IEP.pdf Center for Educational Researches and Consulting (2013). An assessment of implementation of inclusive education in the Republic of Armenia. Yerevan: Open Society Foundations. Retrieved from http://www.osf.am/ wp-content/uploads/2013/11/Inclusive-education-report-ENG.NA_.FINAL_.pdf Everett, D. (2017). Helping new general education teachers think about special education and how to help their students in an inclusive class: The perspective of a secondary mathematics teacher. International Journal of Whole Schooling, 13(3). Giangreco, M. F., Cloninger, C. J., Dennis, R. E., & Edelman, S. W. (1993). National expert validation of COACH: Congruence with exemplary practice and suggestions for improvement. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 18(2), 109–120. Jung, L. A. (2007). Writing SMART objectives and strategies that fit the ROUTINE. Teaching Exceptional Children, 39(4), 54–58. Law of the Republic of Armenia on Education 14.04.1999. http://irtek.am/views/act.aspx- ?aid=150066&m=%27%27&sc=# Republic of Armenia (2016). Minister of Education and Science decree on confirmation of order of providing pedagogical-psychological support services for organization of education. Yerevan: Ministry of Education and Science. Svajyan, A. (2014). Inclusive education: Achievements and prospects, pedagogy and psychology issues. Inter- university Consortium Journal, 37–42. Svajyan, A. (2016). Difficulties of organization of inclusive education and support system of children with special educational needs. Journal of Special Pedagogy and Psychology, 104–112. Tadevosyan, S. (2016). Methodological manual for developing individual learning plan. Yerevan, Republic of Armenia: Ministry of Education and Science. Vandercook, T., York, J., & Forest, M. (1989). The McGill action planning system (MAPS): A strategy for building the vision. Journal of the Association of Persons with Severe Handicaps, 14, 205–215. Voskanyan, V., Katinyan, V., Muradyan, A., & Hovhanni- syan, H. (2010). Individual learning plan. Yerevan, Republic of Armenia: Ministry of Education and Science. 98 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

ILP Form Used in Armenia Sample Education Organization Pedagogical and Psychological Support Services

Source: ILP Form, Syunq Region

(Typical form)

Date of filling in MARS completion ____ / ______/ ______

Persons involved in the School, territorial ILP’s development Position Signature center Last name, first name

I. Child personal information

Last name, first name

Birth location

Birthday day, month, year

Gender o female o male

Citizenship

Residential address

Phone Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 99

Training: institution

Education-specific condition or need o has (if has, then note: type) o no

Disability o has o no

Age:

II. General cognitive information about the child

Child’s strengths

Child’s weaknesses

Current levels of functioning (sound and speech, hearing, visual, intellectual/cognitive, motor performance levels) according to assessment data

Current health condition

Additional data

III. Characteristics of the child according to second-level capacities and cause- and-effect relationships

100 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

IV. Annual goals, according to the areas of development and results according to the targeted skills

Annual goals by development: spheres Annual results by target skills

V. Short-term goals and objectives

Target and skills Current level of functioning Annual goal Interim results

VI. Intermediate factors that may have an impact on child performance

Impact Intermediate factor Positive Negative Physical environment (classroom, school and home)

Lesson organizing

Attitude (discipline, self, family members, teachers, friends, etc.)

Child’s character

Training: topics

Assist accessories

Social and family condition Other, note: Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 101

VII. Environmental adaptations6 in the class

At school

At home

VIII. Child support services

Schedule Time needed per Assured by Special pedagogical service Sessions per week of services week (person) delivery Speech therapist

Physical therapist

Sign language teacher

Special pedagogue

Schedule Time needed per Assured by Psychological service Sessions per week of services week (person) delivery Psychological service

Time needed per Assured by Social pedagogy service Sessions per week week (person) Social pedagogue

6 According to the negative factors 102 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

IX. Child’s individual support plan assessment Special pedagogical service Responsible professionals:

Semi-annual Annual reports Year-end Evaluation Final evaluation were discussed results method and evaluation results by Evaluators in the areas of according to timing criterion year-end development targeted skills standards

Goal 1 Target skills 1.1

Target skills 1.2

Target skills 1.3

Target skills 1.4

Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ] 103

Psychological service Responsible professionals:

Semi-annual Annual reports Year-end Final evaluation Evaluation were discussed results evaluation results by method and Evaluators in the areas of according to criterion year-end timing development targeted skills standards

Goal 1 Target skills 1.1

Target skills 1.2

Socialization Responsible professionals:

Target skills 1.2

104 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 7 ]

X. Biannual evaluation summary report

XI. Evaluation summary report

XI. Transition plan: recommendations for next year

Recommendation 1:

Recommendation 2:

Recommendation 3:

Signatures —

Name, surname, official signature

Director:

Child:

Parent:

Pedagogical and psychological support team Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 105

CHAPTER 8: Instructional Strategies for Inclusive Classrooms: PALS, Cooperative Learning, Direct Instruction and Play-based Strategies

Renáta Tichá, Brian H. Abery, & Kristen McMaster, University of Minnesota Armenuhi Avagyan, Siranush Karapetyan, & Zhanna Paylozyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

In order for a child to learn along with her or his peers, he or she needs to have access to the curriculum and materials being presented in the classroom. Instructional strategies, such as PALS or Play Based Strategies, make teaching content accessible to all students. 106 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • Is technology needed in order to implement new instructional strategies? • Is there a difference between a teaching strategy and a method? • Is there a difference between instructional strategies for general and inclusive classrooms? • What impact can instructional strategies have on student learning?

Introduction the needs of students with special educational While there are numerous pieces of legislation needs. in place to begin the process of inclusive edu- The process of education reform began in cation in Armenia, as described in the introduc- Armenia in 2004–2005, when many books were

tion to this book, there are still barriers at the translated into Armenian or written on differ- societal, school and classroom levels to making ent teaching and learning and strategies as well children feel included and successfully educat- as alternative strategies for the preparation of ed alongside their peers. In 2003, Armenian teachers. The Ministry of Education and Science education reforms were directed toward de- and universities in Armenia are at the forefront velopment of new approaches and the promo- of education reforms promoting new pedagog- tion of quality education, particularly through ical approaches and methods in their policies, changing classroom learning environments and courses and teaching (Astvatsatryan, Arnaudy- concentrating on student-centered approaches, an, Ohanova, Eremyan, Hovhannisyan, Terzyan, especially cooperative learning (Duda, 2011). & Lalayan, 2004).

One of the key issues still today is the lack of Reforms in Armenia reflect worldwide trends preparedness of general education teachers for in education. Worldwide, teachers encounter teaching students with disabilities in inclusive numerous aspects of diversity in the classroom

settings. Anapiosyan, Hayrapetyan, and Hov- that include children with different language sepyan (2014) reported that 90% of teachers skills, children with disabilities, gifted children

lacked teaching methodologies that would ef- and children from different social backgrounds. fectively include children with disabilities in the Many teachers are asking for new methodolo- class activities. This shortcoming often leads to gies and approaches to teach their students. In either poor quality inclusion or even exclusion. Armenia, teachers are expected to use the lat- Because of Armenia’s history as part of the So- est pedagogical methods of knowledge transfer viet bloc, there remain approaches and stereo- and child development to equip their students types in Armenia about the teaching process. with values to help them become exemplary Teacher-centered education is still the norm. and productive Armenian citizens (Duda, 2011). Due to the lack of technology infrastructure in However, teacher-centered approaches are still Armenian schools, not many new approaches widely used and target the ‘average’ student. have been adopted to date. Further, new teach- Such approaches do not work well with diverse ers are receiving some training in inclusive student learning needs (Subban, 2006). Little is education, but those already in schools may currently known about teachers’ experiences have little knowledge or skill related to meeting in creating inclusive classrooms in Armenia. To this end, the identification of children’s current Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 107 educational functioning is paramount to inclu- be able to differentiate instruction truly based sive education so that teachers can select the on student learning needs, educators become approaches, techniques and methods that are decision makers who make decisions in the most appropriate for children (Harutyunyan, following phases — 2017). 1. Planning instruction (the pre-assessment phase), The Importance of Differentiated 2. Guiding instruction (the ongoing or forma- Instruction for Diverse Students tive assessment phase) and Differentiated instruction is a necessary ap- 3. Evaluating instruction (the summative proach for teachers to use to address the assessment phase), as outlined by Moon needs of all students in an inclusive class- (2005). room. Differentiated instruction does not Assessment is clearly tied to differentiating require expensive technologies, but rather instruction in assisting educators in evaluating evidence-based low-tech teaching strategies. formatively and summatively whether their In theory, most educators believe that adapt- instruction promotes learning in all students. ing their instruction to students’ diverse needs Not all students learn at the same pace makes sense, but many of them do not dif- and in the same way. Historically, variability in ferentiate instruction in practice (Suprayogi, student learning due to differences in ability, Valcke, & Godwin, 2017). This can be for many race, gender, and linguistic and socioeconomic reasons, including being accustomed to a background has been used as justification to certain teaching style, not having the necessary segregate students into institutions, special preparation or attributing student failures to schools or separate classrooms. This approach student weaknesses rather than to ineffective has resulted in discriminating against certain teaching. students and preventing them from having Tomlinson (2005) defined differentiated an opportunity to learn along with their peers instruction as a philosophy of teaching that is (Gevorgianiene & Sumskiene, 2017; Noltemey- based on the premise that students learn best er, Mujic, & McLoughlin, 2012). This is a very when their teachers adjust their instruction problematic practice because it violates Article according to the differences in student readi- 24 of the Convention of the Rights of Persons ness levels, interests and learning profiles. The with Disabilities (CRPD). This Article proclaims main objective of differentiated instruction is to that inclusive education is a fundamental right maximize every student’s ability to learn (Tom- of all children, including children with disabil- linson, 2004, 2005). Tomlinson (2005) pointed ities. It stipulates not only that children with out that there are many ways of differentiating disabilities should not be discriminated against, instruction that can be adopted based on the but that they should be provided with an op- needs of students in the classroom. Thus, to portunity to receive high-quality education in differentiate instruction is not just a teaching the general education system along with their strategy, but a specific pedagogical approach to peers. teaching and learning. Differentiating instruc- Differentiated instruction provides an av- tion may mean teaching the same material enue for adapting instruction and teaching to all students using a variety of instructional materials to students’ learning needs, thus strategies, or it may require the teacher to providing students with the opportunities to deliver lessons at varying levels of difficulty learn in appropriate ways. Teaching in a tradi- based on the ability of each student. In order to 108 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

tional manner that suits the ‘average’ student achievement and self-confidence as well as is outdated and insufficient. Such a practice teachers’ better sense of self-efficacy. The promotes discrimination against students who research also demonstrated that more experi- require alternative pedagogical approaches to enced teachers were more likely to be open to succeed at school. Differentiated instruction is using differentiated instruction compared to no longer an option; it is a necessity. less experienced teachers. Differentiated instruction has been adopt- In their inventory of differentiated instruc- ed and practiced in the United States, Canada, tion dimensions, Suprayogi, Valcke, and Godwin Australia and Western Europe in response to (2017) synthesized the key aspects of differenti- the need to accommodate diverse learners ated instruction: coping with student diversity, (Suprayogi, Valcke, & Godwin, 2017). Other adopting specific teaching strategies, invoking countries, including those in Central and East- variety in learning activities, monitoring individ- ern Europe, are currently searching for ap- ual student needs and pursuing optimal learn- proaches to respond to the recent ratification ing outcomes. The purpose of this chapter is to of the Convention of the Rights of Persons with specifically focus on adopting specific teaching Disabilities (CRPD) and its impact on inclusive strategies, with the goal of pursuing optimal education. Part of this requires developing new learning outcomes for all students. strategies for inclusive classrooms. In Armenia, in recent years, emphasis has Three Teaching Strategies for also been placed on instructional differentiation to support the learning of all students. For Diverse Learners example, Arnaudyan, Gyulbudaghyan, Khacha- Different teaching strategies can be used at the tryan, Khrimyan, and Petrosyan (2004) wrote a classroom level to address the needs of di- manual for teachers on professional develop- verse learners. In the following paragraphs, we ment for different teaching methods and strat- highlight three approaches that may be useful egies to be able to make learning more inter- in Armenia. These approaches are based on active. In addition, Vardumyan, Harutyunyan, empirical evidence in other parts of the world, Jaghinyan, and Varella (2003) have written a but require future research in the Armenian manual on the approaches, theories, methods context. These strategies may allow for greater and assessment in current pedagogy. instructional flexibility and can be applied to The manuals are specifically designed to multiple subjects and at different grades. These assist teachers in the inclusion of students methods have not only been shown to produce with special educational needs in teaching and better student outcomes, but also make learn- learning. With the help of Step-by-Step and ing more interesting and engaging. Aspects of IREX, nonprofit organizations in Yerevan, many these approaches can also be used by special educational materials for teachers and par- educators, psychologists and speech thera- ents were translated to Armenian from other pists in their individualized work with students. languages to bring in more participatory and These strategies can be used for students with interactive approaches. different types of disabilities and related prob- Subban (2006) and Suprayogi, Valcke, and lems. Additional adaptations may be required Godwin (2017) reviewed the research support- for students with sensory impairments and for ing the effectiveness of differentiated instruc- students with more significant disabilities. The tion and found many positive outcomes, includ- strategies that will be described here in more ing increased student motivation, engagement, detail are — Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 109

1. Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS), duce frustration between partners or difficulty 2. Cooperative learning and in selecting appropriate reading materials. The teacher also considers students’ social and 3. Direct instruction. behavioral skills and adjusts pairs accordingly. Pairs work together for about four weeks, and Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) then the teacher reranks the class (again using Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) is a recent assessment information) and creates research-based instructional program with new pairs, allowing students the opportunity to evidence of effectiveness for classroom use. work with a variety of peers. See McMaster, Fuchs, and Fuchs (2006) for a Reciprocal peer tutoring. During PALS, part- review. The main purpose of PALS is to sup- ners take turns being Coach and Reader: One port the learning of all students through peer student provides encouragement and correc- (classmate) support. PALS was designed to tion to the other student (who is reading). The accommodate academic diversity in general teacher provides explicit training in these roles education classrooms (Fuchs, Fuchs, Mathes, and PALS procedures through brief script- & Simmons, 1997) and can include all students ed lessons and provides a set of structured in the classroom. Because students work with prompts and corrective feedback for the Coach peer partners during PALS, the teacher can to use while the Reader reads. In each PALS differentiate instructional materials, pacing and session, students take turns as both Coach and feedback to target individual students’ learn- Reader, allowing the weaker Reader to observe ing needs. While using this strategy, teachers a more fluent reading model and practice criti- carefully partner a student with a classmate. cal skills with immediate feedback, while pro- Partners then work together on various activ- viding the stronger Reader with the opportunity ities that address the academic needs of both to practice and refine critical reading skills. The students. Pairs are required to be changed over highly structured, consistent procedures allow time so that children can learn from a diverse students to conduct PALS independently, and set of peers. Below is a description of PALS they foster high engagement. components that allow for this differentiation Differentiated reading material. Because and specific PALS activities designed to foster students work in pairs during PALS, the teacher reading fluency and comprehension in Grades can select material that is appropriate for the 2–6 (ages 7–12). Tips for teachers are provided weaker Reader in each pair. Given the rela- at the end. tively small discrepancy between partners (as PALS partners. In PALS, higher-performing described above), the material should also be readers are paired with lower-performing read- appropriate for the stronger Reader. In Grades ers to practice critical reading skills. Typically, 2–6, PALS is conducted with classroom reading the teacher rank orders all the students in the material (e.g., trade books, leveled readers, classroom based on reading skill level, using basal readers or content-area texts). The teach- recent reading assessment data. Then, the er selects texts at the instructional level of the teacher splits the rank-ordered list in half and weaker Reader (i.e., the weaker Reader should pairs the top student from the top half with make no more than one error per 10 words the top student from the bottom half, and so read). Often, the teacher allows student choice on, until all students are paired. This way, each by providing an array of texts of different pair includes a stronger and a weaker reader, genres for pairs to select. Students read multi- but the differences are not so large as to intro- ple texts across the school year during PALS. 110 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

Teacher monitoring and positive reinforce- minutes. The stronger Reader reads for five ment. Because students work in pairs during minutes to provide a fluent model. Then, the PALS, the teacher is able to walk around the weaker Reader reads the same text for five classroom to ensure students are following minutes. The Coach (whoever is not reading) procedures, to determine that reading materi- follows along and provides corrective feedback. als are appropriate and to provide individual- If the Reader makes a word-reading error, the ized feedback as needed. Teachers can award Coach points to the word and says, “Check it.” points to pairs for engaging in specific reading The Reader can either self-correct or ask for behaviors (e.g., reading with expression) and help, in which case the Coach says, “That word social behaviors (e.g., providing help to the is ______. What word?” The Reader repeats Reader). PALS pairs also award themselves the word and then rereads the sentence. The points for completing each activity. Points are Coach marks one point for each correctly read recorded on a point sheet that is shared be- sentence. After the weaker Reader reads, the tween two partners. Each pair is placed on one stronger Reader prompts a Retell of the story of two teams. At the end of the week, pairs by asking, “What happened first, what hap- report their weekly point total, and points are pened next,” and so on, for 2–3 min. The pair added up for each team. Both teams are rec- marks up to 10 points for this Retell. ognized for their hard work. Planned positive Next, Paragraph Shrinking is implemented reinforcement is very effective in promoting for 10 minutes. The stronger Reader reads desirable change in student behavior. It teach- first. After each paragraph, the Coach prompts es students to take responsibility for their work the Reader: “Name the most important who and behavior. or what,” “Tell the most important thing about PALS activities. PALS for Grades 2–6 focuses the who or what” and “Say the main idea in 10 on fluency and comprehension skills and in- words or less.” The Reader earns one point for cludes four main components: Partner Reading each response. If the Reader is stuck, the Coach (students reading to each other out loud), Retell helps by asking the Reader to skim the para- (paraphrasing the meaning of a story to stu- graph, providing a hint, and providing an an- dent peer), Paragraph Shrinking (summarizing swer if needed. After five minutes, the weaker a story to a peer) and Prediction Relay (making Reader reads new text for five minutes, follow- predictions about the next steps in the story). ing the same procedures. The teacher introduces, models and provides Last, Prediction Relay is implemented for 10 practice in each activity across 12 lessons. Then minutes. The stronger Reader again reads first. PALS pairs implement the activities for approx- This time, the Coach asks the Reader, “What do imately 35 minutes per session, three times you predict will happen next?” and the Reader per week. We recommend that PALS is imple- makes a prediction. The Coach says, “Read half mented for a minimum of 15–18 weeks, which a page,” and the Reader reads. Then, the Coach is the typical duration of PALS implementation asks, “Did your prediction come true?” and the in research. Reader confirms or disconfirms the prediction. Teachers select texts that are at the weaker The Reader earns one point for each response. Reader’s instructional level (i.e., at the current The Reader earns points whether the predic- level of reading for the student — even if that tion is correct or incorrect. This process contin- current level is not grade level). Partners share ues for 5 minutes, and then the weaker Reader one copy of the text. During each PALS session, reads new text for 5 minutes, following the Partner Reading is first implemented for 10 same procedures. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 111

Cooperative Learning promotive interaction (students motivate and Cooperative learning is a strategy designed to help each other to learn), individual and group be implemented with an entire classroom of accountability (evaluation of individual and diverse learners across the curriculum. Coop- group contributions to ensure the group activ-

erative learning was developed by Roger T. ity benefits all), interpersonal and small-group Johnson and David W. Johnson at the University skills (building social skills to work well as a of Minnesota. During cooperative learning, stu- team) and group processing (providing group dents are organized and work together in small feedback). heterogeneous (mixed ability) groups to maximize their own and each other’s learning. After Inclusion receiving instructions from the teacher, the Cooperative learning was designed to pro- students work on an assignment until all group mote the inclusion of all students (Johnson & members successfully understand and com- Johnson, 1994). It is a tool that aids teachers plete it. Cooperative learning is based on the in engaging students with different levels and premise that students benefit from each oth- types of abilities in instruction. Cooperative er’s skills and knowledge, and they are working learning has also been shown to promote so- toward the same goal — to accomplish learning cial inclusion, in the form of increased student tasks. Cooperative learning facilitates active acceptance and liking, for all students, includ- engagement in a community of learners. By ing those with disabilities. The researchers facilitating learning in diverse groups, students found that when students without disabilities are being prepared for life in today’s society. collaborate with their peers with disabilities on Cooperative learning groups can be informal or instructional tasks, their sense of empathy and more structured. altruism as well as an ability to view situations from a variety of perspectives improves. Research evidence Johnson and Johnson and other researchers Strategies have conducted many studies to show the pos- In order for cooperative learning to produce itive impact of cooperative learning on student the best results, a cooperative school atmo- academic achievement and social development sphere needs to be established for all students (Fox, 2001). They found that some of the ben- and educators to feel included in the process. efits of cooperative learning include higher Criteria about ‘helping’ should also be outlined level reasoning, more frequent generation of for students to know both how to ask for help new ideas and solutions, greater transfer of and to ask if someone else needs help. In order what is learned within one situation to another, to successfully include students with different increased creativity and higher levels of self-es- types of disabilities, multimodal instruction teem (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). within the cooperative learning framework should be implemented. Students with more Components significant disabilities typically require a more In cooperative learning, small-group activities concrete presentation of content using visu- have several key components, according to al, manipulative and experiential opportuni- Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1993): pos- ties. When creating heterogeneous groups, itive interdependence (students depend on all aspects of diversity should be considered. one another’ skills and knowledge to succeed), Students can be provided with input when 112 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

forming the groups, but teachers need to utilize others. Students are placed into groups of their expertise about students’ strengths and three, and each is assigned a role: interviewer, challenges to best facilitate inclusion that goes interviewee and note-taker. The roles rotate af- beyond physical presence in the classroom or ter each interview. Students take turns sharing in a group. To facilitate active engagement of all the information they recorded when they were students, materials, roles and responsibilities taking notes (Cox, n.d.). need to be carefully planned and distributed among students (Sapon-Shevin, Ayres, & Dun- Implementation can, 1994). In more formal cooperative learning When incorporating cooperative learning in groups, students take on different roles: lead- your instruction, plan for necessary supports er, recorder, timekeeper, materials manager, of students with disabilities and struggling encourager, presenter, data collector or errand learners to assist them to be successfully en- monitor. gaged. For example, if students are reading any materials, make sure that the reading level is Types appropriate for the students. If a student has Cooperative learning can be implemented a hearing impairment or is nonverbal, ensure using different techniques, including student that they have an effective way to communicate teams achievement divisions (STAD), jigsaw pro- via sign language, pictograms or technology. cedure, team-accelerated instruction (TAI), and If the student has a physical disability and is other cooperative learning structures, such unable to use hands or fingers to write, have an as a three-step interview (Mehta & Kulshrestha, alternative strategy in place, such as an assis- 2014). In a student team achievement division tant note-taker or a speech-to-text device. For (STAD), students work as teams to ensure that students with disabilities, cooperative learning all members have mastered the objective. Each often works well when implemented together student takes an individual test on the material, with direct instruction to teach basic concepts and scores are averaged for each team. In a before students work together in groups (Meh- jigsaw procedure, each group member learns ta & Kulshrestha, 2014; Pedrotty Rivera, 1996). an essential part of the topic by working with an expert group and then returns to the home Collaborative Learning group where the members work together to The terms collaborative learning and cooperative combine the knowledge to complete the task learning are sometimes used interchangeably, (Jolliffe, 2005). Team-accelerated instruction even though there is a difference between the (TAI) is used in math, where it combines quality two concepts. Collaborative learning is a more interactive instruction with cooperative learn- general term that refers to students actively ing. Students receive instructions on the topic working together, while cooperative learning from the teacher in small homogeneous teach- uses more structured ways to support student ing groups. Students then practice the skills teamwork, as described in the previous section. learned in four- or five-member heterogeneous Collaborative learning stems from a construc- learning teams at their own pace, using mate- tivist approach to teachers and learning and rials appropriate to their specific needs (Lu- encourages students to interact and work ebbe, 1995). The three-step interview strategy together in flexible ways to elicit meaning. In focuses on developing students’ active listening cooperative learning, the teacher exercises her skills, helping to develop student note-taking skills and the ability to share information with Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 113

or his expertise to guide students in working in Apoyan (2014) emphasized that teaching can groups according to specific rules and roles. be a more productive process if students are Collaborative and cooperative learning are instructed to work in groups, and student team both taking place in Armenia. Mkrtchyan, the achievement is greater as it relates to the dif- deputy minister of education and a former ferent aspects of cooperative learning, e.g., the student of V. Dyachenko, has implemented and jigsaw technique. conducted research since 1984 (Mkrtchyan, 2012) on a collective approach to teaching. This Direct Instruction approach is based on the collaborative and The term direct instruction (DI) has been used cooperative learning approach. This collective in a generic manner for over 100 years to refer approach promotes collaboration in teams to any academic instruction led by the teacher. and is designed to improve both academic and More recently, however, the term has been social outcomes. The implementation of this used to refer to a specific pattern of instruction new approach and the transition from a more that has been identified as effective in empirical traditional approach to collaborative and coop- studies. Developed by Engelmann and Becker erative learning has been conducted in sever- (1977), the direct instruction model is based on al stages. Mkrtchyan enriched the collective the principles of explicit teaching, behavioral teaching approach with approximately a dozen psychology and classroom management re- up-to-date methodologies that are successfully search (Becker, Engelmann, & Thomas, 1975a; applied in a number of schools in Russia and 1975b). DI was originally focused on improving Armenia. Mkrtchyan’s research has demon- the academic achievement of economically strated positive results, not only in Armenia disadvantaged youth in the United States. but also in Russia and Kazakhstan. In addition, However, over the years, a substantial body the Collective Teaching Method scientific journal of research has developed that indicates that has been published in Armenia since 1995 to this approach can be extremely effective with promote the application and expansion of the students with a variety of disabilities and those collective approach in Russia, Armenia and at risk for falling behind academically. Kazakhstan. DI represents a highly structured approach Hovhannisyan, Harutyunyan, Khrimyan, to learning based upon behavioral principles, Khachatryan, Bayatyan, Aleksanyan, and Pu- with an emphasis on high levels of academically rukuru (2005) wrote a manual on cooperative engaged time, corrective feedback and learning learning strategies to spread international to mastery through the use of small-group in- experience to Armenian classrooms. The main struction. Although most often used at the kin- goal of the manual is to provide schools and dergarten through Grade 6 level to teach basic universities with strategies to prepare preser- skills in reading, writing and mathematics, the vice and in-service teachers for small-group dif- approach has also been found to be effective ferentiated instruction: specifically, cooperative in providing instruction in advanced academic learning. They argue that such new structured subjects as diverse as physics and philosophy. approaches are necessary for the Armenian Based upon a longitudinal study of young, eco- education system to become more aligned with nomically disadvantaged students, Becker and the latest international instructional approach- Engelmann (1978) also provided evidence that, es. when implemented with high fidelity, DI has a In addition, in her article titled ‘Cooperative positive impact on a wide variety of affective Teaching According to the Demand Curriculum,’ outcomes. 114 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

Over the years, the DI approach to pedagogy delivery are controlled by the teacher (or more has evolved and has led to the development accurately, by the curriculum). Maximizing of commercially available curricula in reading, teacher control is thought to minimize chances math and other academic areas developed of students misinterpreting the information be- through extensive research on the teaching ing taught and maximize the impact of instruc- process (e.g., the DISTAR, Corrective Reading tion. and Reading Mastery programs). Direct instruc- DI shares many features with task-analytic, tion approaches to classroom pedagogy, how- behavioral approaches used by special edu- ever, are often developed and implemented by cators. These include the use of structured teachers themselves, based upon the specific curricular materials, immediate correction of needs of the students they serve. These ‘home- incorrect responding, the importance of re- grown’ approaches to direct instruction, often inforcement of appropriate responding, the referred to using the lower-case acronym di, modeling and shaping of correct responses, the are based upon Engelmann and Becker’s (1977) use of task analysis and the continuous assess- model, but tend to not have the same level of ment of student performance. DI, however, research to support them. At the current time, goes beyond teaching of rote skills, incorporat- DI and di are used in thousands of schools in ing instruction with respect to problem-solving the United States as well as Canada, the UK and strategies, ongoing review of previously learned Australia (Binder & Watkins, 1990; Lockery & material and, at the group level, learning to Maggs, 1982; Maggs & Maggs, 1979). mastery (see Carnine, 2000; Traub, 1999). Principles underlying direct instruction. Marchand-Martella, Slocum, and Martella There are a number of basic principles under- (2004) described DI as having three primary lying Engelmann and Becker’s (1977) DI model. characteristics that are essential to high-fidelity Two of the most important are that all children delivery of the program. Program design in- can learn if they are taught using the proper volves a careful analysis of the content of what approaches and that all teachers can be suc- is taught so that skills are introduced in the cessful if provided with the proper training and order most easily learned and the probability of materials. The key, as Estrada (n.d.) suggested, generalization of learning is increased. Closely is “If students do not learn the way we teach… associated with this aspect of the program is we need to teach the way they learn.” The DI the careful sequencing of what is taught, tak- model therefore places responsibility for stu- ing into consideration what students are likely dent learning squarely on the shoulders of the to already understand and building upon it, teacher, eliminating failure being blamed on teaching easy to master skills before ones that the student. are more difficult, providing instruction with Because DI is intended to be used with respect to the prerequisites of a skill or strategy students who are struggling academically, before attempting to teach the skill or strategy Engelmann and Becker made the point that itself, and focusing first on instances consistent students with special needs must be taught at a with rules that are being taught, holding off on faster rate if they are to catch up to their high- instruction with respect to exceptions to the er-performing peers. DI sessions are therefore rule until the material being studied is better intensive, designed to support a student grasp- understood. ing critical concepts within a relatively short The organization of instruction involves period of time. In order to achieve this goal, all decisions that are made with respect to ‘how’ features of curriculum design and instructional instruction is delivered. When implementing Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 115 a DI program, students are taught in small uously engage students and carefully monitor groups of approximately 6–8 to ensure relative their progress through asking questions to the homogeneity with respect to current levels of small group, pairs of students and individual skill and functioning in the specific subject area students, based on their mastery of the materi- to be taught. Students may move from group al being taught. to group as their skills increase and based The DI process. Direct instruction lessons upon the content of learning. Student engage- typically follow a specific pattern or process ment during instruction is maximized by using (see Figure 1 on page 116) that teachers follow instructional approaches that keep students through the use of ‘scripts’ that ensure consis- actively engaged and keeping lessons relatively tency and minimize off-topic discussion. All les- short (15–20 minutes). Direct instruction also sons begin with a short statement of the goals entails a continuous approach to assessment of the lesson and a review of previous learning (formative assessment) so that student prog- related to the topic of interest. New material is ress and instructional effectiveness can be then presented in a series of small subtasks or closely monitored and this data can be used to steps. Each step is taught separately, with the support quality instructional decision-making. components combined into a whole process Curriculum-based measurement (Deno, 1988), only after the mastery of each step is demon- in the form of progress monitoring, is the ap- strated. Detailed instructions and explanations proach typically employed. are provided, with teachers frequently modeling The third set of characteristics that differ- and providing examples of the behavior they are entiate DI from other forms of instruction is its attempting to teach, often through the use of focus on well-developed and carefully planned ‘think aloud’ strategies. Instructors use prompts lessons that are designed around small learn- (e.g., cue cards) and ask a large number of ing increments and clearly defined and pre- questions to students, who respond in various scribed teaching tasks. Information is present- groupings (as a whole group through choral ed to students based upon available research responding, in pairs, and individually). This al- in the topical area of interest in a carefully lows for a continuous check on understanding designed, structured manner. Lessons provide (Carnine, 2000; Engelmann & Carnine, 1991). teachers with clear information, often in the Students are provided with adequate prac- form of scripts that provide instructors with de- tice opportunities and correction after each tailed instruction with respect to what to say to step that they are taught. During initial op- students, how to say it, when to ask questions portunities, they are guided to find the correct and how to correct incorrect responding via responses via systematic feedback, prompts, targeted feedback. The goal of this approach, and corrections. Independent practice does not which is based on the idea that all details of take place until all individuals in the group have instruction must be controlled, is to provide demonstrated adequate levels of understand- students with clear instruction, regardless of ing (80% correct) in order to avoid students who is teaching, with the goal of minimizing practicing incorrect responding. Progress is student misinterpretation. monitored continuously, even during indepen- Students who are recipients of DI-based dent seatwork, in an effort to diagnosis difficul- instruction experience a decidedly different ties and intervene early when they are present relationship with their teachers with respect to (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986). Each lesson is the frequency and types of interactions they closed with a review of what was learned and a experience. During DI lessons, teachers contin- group assessment of whether the goals of the 116 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

lesson were met. This review not only focuses Supporting evidence. Since its introduction on the specifics of what has been taught but in the 1970s, direct instruction has been the also upon their application in a variety of con- focus of a tremendous number of studies that texts. have attempted to determine both its effec- In order to be most effective, direct instruc- tiveness and its application for students who tion should be customized by targeting each are not only struggling academically but also particular student’s prior knowledge (Wittwer have disabilities. DI has been used in studies & Renkl, 2008). Teachers need to assess what of reading comprehension and summarization each student brings to the learning situation, (Berkowitz, 1986; Dermody, 1988; Grajia, 1988; taking into consideration what he or she is Lonberger, 1988; Palincsar & Brown, 1983, likely to already understand and building upon 1989), to teach students to combine sentences it. This information is critical if teachers are to (Hart, 1971), to develop ‘process skills’ (Deane, effectively break down the information they 1972), to develop test-taking strategies (Wood- are attempting to teach and present it at a level ley, 1975) and to engage in reflective thinking that all students in the small group will under- (Readence & Bean, 1977). The approach has stand. It relates to one of the core concepts un- been proven useful to teach basic literacy and derlying the DI approach: faultless communica- math skills to disadvantaged students from tion. This refers to the fact that what a student kindergarten (Gersten, Darch, & Gleason, 1988) learns is a function of the communication they through high school (Becker, 1977; Gersten, receive (i.e., instruction) and characteristics that 1985; Gersten & Carnine, 1984; Gersten & Keat- the student brings to the educational context. ing, 1987; Gurney, Gersten, Dimino, & Carnine, When instruction is provided in such a way that 1990; Rosenshine, 1979; Stebbins et al., 1977) it communicates a single intended interpretation as well as to enhance oral and written lan- to the learner (i.e., faultless instruction), then guage comprehension (Lloyd, Cullinan, Heins, the probability of successful learning in dramat- & Epstein, 1980). In all these studies, students ically increased (see Figure 1 below). who received direct instruction significantly outperformed students in the control group. Figure 1. The Direct Instruction Process Although initially assumed to be useful only in the development of basic academic skills, Khlar and Nigam (2004) have found it to have much more potential. Using DI and discovery learning approaches to instruction, they found that third and fourth grade science students exposed to a DI approach intended to help them develop procedures for designing and interpreting simple experiments and applying this skill to the evaluation of science fair posters did far better than their counterparts exposed to discovery learning. Over the past two decades, there has also been a growing realization that DI principles and concepts can be of use for students with special education needs and, with the advent of response to intervention, can be used to sup- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 117

port students to receive their instruction within rather than the average skill level present in the inclusive settings (Bateman & Carnine, 1977; class. Small-group learning is based on what is Bellamy, Horner, & Inman, 1979; Gersten & appropriate for specific students rather than Maggs, 1982; Reith, Polsgrove, & Semmel, 1982; grade-level expectations. The structure of DI is Stevens & Rosenshine, 1981). Numerous stud- based upon mastery of content. Skills are grad- ies have indicated that a DI approach is useful ually introduced, with only 10% of each lesson in supporting a wide variety of students with new material and with a significant amount of disabilities to achieve at higher levels in read- time devoted to review and application. All de- ing, math and a number of other content areas tails of instruction are controlled to minimize the (Binder & Watkins, 1990; Darch & Carnine, chance of students’ misinterpreting informa- 1986; Gersten, 1985; Gurney, Gersten, Dimino, tion and to maximize the reinforcing effect of & Carnine, 1990; White, 1988). instruction. Instruction is modified to accommo- In spite of the plethora of individual studies date each student’s rate of learning, with flexible that have been undertaken indicating the ef- grouping to ensure that each student advances fectiveness of DI, the most compelling evidence to the levels at which he or she is able to add of the effectiveness of this approach has come new skills to what is already possessed. Finally, from the series of research investigations that DI is research based, with programs field tested developed out of Project Follow Through. This and revised until available data indicate they educational research attempted to determine are effective in supporting student learning. the best way to teach at-risk children from kindergarten through Grade 3, and over the Play-Based Strategies to Enhance course of a number of years compared 22 different models of instruction. Evaluation of the Reading and Writing Skills project occurred in 1977, nine years after the The final strategy introduced in this chapter is project began. Results indicated that students play-based strategy. This strategy is based on who received direct instruction had significantly the fact that oral language is learned sponta- higher academic achievement in reading, arith- neously in childhood, mostly by imitation, but metic, spelling and language than students in that written language requires more specific any of the other programs. Contrary to expec- education. For teaching students who struggle tation, direct instruction improved students’ with written language, play-based strategies higher-order cognitive skills significantly com- may be effective. Play-based strategies compared to the control groups and also showed bine analytical and emotional learning by help- the highest improvement in student self-es- ing students to learn new skills while having fun teem scores (Becker, 1978; Becker & Carnine, in the classroom. When students participate in 1980; Becker & Engelmann, 1978; Becker & a play-based learning process, they tend to be Gersten, 1982; Coombs, 1998). more actively engaged than when teachers use Why does DI work? There are a number of more didactic strategies. This approach pro- reasons why teachers using the direct instruc- motes better acquisition of the learning materi- tion approach and their students have proven al and makes the process more interesting, ac- to be so successful. Unlike the typical general cessible and effective. Play can help overcome education classroom, students are assessed difficulties that students may experience when before instruction using curriculum-based mea- they learn to read and write. The play approach sures, and their skills levels are determined. is most applicable to younger students, but Students are then instructed at their skill level play components can be used for students of all ages and needs. 118 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

Play can intrinsically motivate children to An example of play strategy is provided (see learn through exploration of play materials Figure 2 below). David has a problem with visual such as blocks, a sand and water table, and processing of printed material (letters, words). props for dramatic play. Play may be used as a The play exercise is designed to develop his strategy for supporting literacy development. skills of combining letters into words. It can be For children with and without special edu- implemented using a smartboard or cutout cational needs (preliminary and elementary letters and shapes. First, the teacher prepares school level), play is crucial, as it is a way for different shapes to fit with different letters. students to socialize and make sense of the Each shape is assigned a letter. Then the teach- world (Stewart, 2009). er randomly arranges the shapes with letters. An important condition for play-based strat- Next, the teacher asks the student either to egies is the creation of a positive emotional en- assemble a specific word (e.g., door) or to make vironment for students. For example, Confucius up their own word. Teachers can start with said that the ideal learning condition is “when three-letter words and move toward longer student and teacher are growing together.” In words. The shapes are designed to assist the order to be effective, learning games must be student with understanding that a letter can interesting for the teacher, so that he or she create different words when in different po- can transfer the positive attitude and atmo- sitions or places (e.g., seal, sale; mile, lime). At sphere to the student. If the teacher is enthu- the end, the teacher and the student will count siastic, it is likely that the student will enjoy the the number of correct words, and the teacher learning process also. It is important to encour- will praise the student. The counting provides age students by providing positive reinforce- an informal assessment of student progress, ment to create an opportunity for success and while the game provides an opportunity for the for sustainable results. student to enjoy learning. Visual, auditory and tactile approaches; instruction in fine motor skills; visual spatial coordination and orientation; active attention; Figure 2. Example of a Letter/Word Play memory and other developed cognitive pro- Strategy cesses are necessary for successful learning of reading and writing. It is important for teachers to create opportunities for play situations by using as many of these approaches as possible. Every student has his or her own specific learning needs in reading and writing, so teachers must first assess and analyze student needs to create appropriate play situations using the different games and play exercises. Teachers also need to seize opportunities during the teaching process to incorporate play components to enhance student learning. Multiple studies conducted in Armenia demonstrate that play strategies promote independent learning (Pay- lozyan, 2007, 2017; Svajyan, 2007, 2012; Tade- vosyan, 2012, 2013, 2016). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 119

Conclusion • Adapt instruction to the backgrounds of One of the critical components of successful learners. Every student comes to a class- inclusion is the use of concrete instructional room with his or her own reserve of prior strategies in classrooms and adequate pro- knowledge on the subject at hand. It is crit- fessional development in the area. Without ical that teachers target this zone, so as to specific strategies and methodologies, it is very not overwhelm students. Providing too little difficult for teachers to embrace inclusion as a or too much explanation can actually inter- concept that can be realistically implemented fere with learning. in schools. The goal of this chapter is to present • Strike a balance between direct instruction readers with three widely used evidence-based and other forms of learning. The most ef- strategies that have been demonstrated to fective teachers strike a balance between di- facilitate inclusion in U.S. schools, and one that rective and nondirective instruction. Use the has been used widely in Armenia. Each of the former to teach students those skills that strategies was specifically selected to cover they need to fully master in order to process core instruction for the whole class (cooper- the curriculum. ative learning), enhanced reading instruction • When a student is experiencing a learning conducted in pairs of students (PALS) and problem, it is the teacher’s responsibility to small-group instruction for students who sig- use a play component or strategy to make nificantly lag behind their peers (DI) or who lack their learning more effective. motivation (play-based strategies). Thoughts for Leaders Tips for Teachers • Provide professional development and nec- • Assume that all students can learn: They just essary materials for educators to be able to need appropriate instruction designed to teach all students. address their specific needs. • The presented strategies can make the • Differentiated instruction takes more prepa- learning environment more active and noisy. ration time, but leads to students who are This just means that students are engaged engaged in learning and have better educa- in and enjoying the learning process. tional outcomes. • Research is needed to evaluate the effective- • Create both homogeneous and heteroge- ness of strategies for differentiated instruc- neous small groups to directly teach content tion in Armenia. and to provide students with opportunities • Teachers from different classes need to to learn from one another. work together so that one is free to under- • Implement all components of PALS with take small-group instruction while the other fidelity. PALS comes with a manual (http:// attends to the larger group of students. vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/pals/) that includes Otherwise, specialists with the training and scripted lessons to teach students how to flexibility to assist classroom teachers in this implement all the procedures and materials endeavor will need to be provided. to support each activity. • Reinforce positive reading and coaching behaviors. 120 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

Reflection Questions then practice the skills in small heteroge- • How would you adapt the three presented neous learning teams at their own pace strategies in your classroom? using materials appropriate to their specific needs; • What components of the presented strategies would you find the easiest, and the The three-step interview strategy — Helps to most difficult, to implement? develop student note-taking skills and the ability to share information with others. • What tips for educators would you add

based on your experience? Differentiated instruction — Classroom instruction responsive to student learning needs, • Which strategy presented in this chapter typically conducted in small groups. would you use in an inclusive classroom? Direct instruction — An explicit teaching method that uses behavioral psychology and Additional Resources classroom management research strate- Webinar on Peer Assisted Learning Strategies gies designed to address learning needs (PALS; 2018). Minneapolis, MN: University of students with disabilities and special of Minnesota, Institute on Community Inte- needs. gration. Homogeneous and heterogeneous groups — Learning module on Instructional Strategies Instructional groupings to place students (2018). Minneapolis, MN: University of with either similar or diverse learning Minnesota, Institute on Community Inte- needs together for teaching and learning. gration. Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) — A research-based teaching classroom strategy that engages all students to work together Glossary in pairs (weaker and stronger reader) to Collaborative learning — Students actively improve their reading skills. It includes — working together in groups to understand • Partner Reading: Students read togeth- a topic or concept. er in pairs based on their reading skills Cooperative learning — A learning strategy for five minutes each. Student who is where students work in small groups with not reading follows along and provides a specific set of procedures — feedback; Student team achievement division (STAD), • Retell: Students paraphrase what they where students work as teams to master read to each other for three minutes the objective and each student’s test score each; is averaged for the team; • Paragraph Shrinking: Students summa- In a jigsaw procedure, each group member rize what they have read to each other learns an essential part of the topic by for five minutes each; working with an expert group and then • Prediction Relay: Based on what they returns to the home group where the read, students predict what will happen members work together to combine the next for five minutes each. knowledge to complete the task; Team-accelerated instruction (TAI) is used in In all the activities, the student who is not math, where students receive instruction reading or retelling follows along and pro- on the topic from the teacher in small vides feedback to the other student. homogeneous teaching groups. Students Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ] 121

Play-based learning strategy — Teaching strate- Bock, G., Stebbins, L. B., & Proper, E. C. (1977). Education gy that combines analytical and emotional as experimentation: A planned variation model, Volume IV-B, effects of follow through models. Cambridge, learning by helping students learn new MA: Abt Associates. [Also issued by U.S. Office of skills, including reading and math, while Education as National Evaluation: Detailed Effects having fun in the classroom. Volume II-B of the Follow Through Planned Variation Experiment Series.] Carnine, D. W. (1981). High and low implementation of References direct instruction teaching techniques. Education and Treatment of Children, 4, 42–54. Adams, G. (1996). Project Follow Through and beyond. Ef- fective School Practices, 15(1), 43. Carnine, D. W., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E. J., & Tarver, S. G. (2010). Direct instruction reading, 5th ed. New York, Adams, G., & Engelmann, S. (1996). Research on Direct NY: Pearson Publishing. Instruction. Seattle, WA: Educational Achievement Systems. Cox, J. (n.d.). Teaching strategies: The three-step interview. Retrieved from http://www.teachhub.com/teach- Anapiosyan, A., Hayrapetyan, G., & Hovsepyan, S. (2014). ing-strategies-three-step-interview Approximation of inclusive education in Armenia to international standards and practices. Yerevan, Darch, C., & Carnine, D. (1986). Approaches to teaching Armenia: Open Society Foundations–Armenia Policy learning-disabled students literal comprehension Fellowship Initiative. during content area instruction. Exceptional Children, 53, 240–246. Apoyan, A. E. (2014). Cooperative teaching according to the demand curriculum. Teaching Methodology, 1, Duda, A. (2011). Study on teacher education for primary and 336-345. secondary education in six countries of the Eastern Partnership: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Georgia, Arnaudyan, A., Gyulbudaghyan, A., Khachatryan, S., Moldova and Ukraine. Final Report. Brussels: GHK. Khrimyan, S., & Petrosyan (2004). Teachers’ manual on professional development. Yerevan: Publishing Engelmann, S. (1968). Relating operant techniques to pro- House of the National Institute of Education. gramming and teaching. Journal of School Psychology, 6, 89–96. Astvatsatryan, M., Arnaudyan, A., Ohanova, I., Eremyan, L., Hovhannisyan, A., Terzyan, G., & Lalayan, K. Engelmann, S. (2007). Teaching needy kids in our backward (2004). New approaches to the process of teachers’ system. Eugene, OR: ADI Press. preparation: Alternative interpretation. Manual for Engelmann, S., Becker, W., Haner, S., & Johnson, G. (1979). preservice education. Yerevan: Noyan Tapan. Corrective reading. Chicago: Science Research Asso- Becker, W. C. (1978). The national evaluation of Follow ciates. Through: Behavior theory-based programs come Engelmann, S., & Carnine, D. (1981). Corrective mathemat- out on top. Education and Urban Society, 10, 431–458. ics. Chicago: Science Research Associates. Becker, W. C., & Carnine, D. W. (1980). Direct instruction: Engelmann, S., & Carnine, D. (1991). Connecting math con- An effective approach to educational intervention cepts. Chicago: Science Research Associates. with the disadvantaged and low performers. In B. B. Engelmann, S., & Osborn, J. (1976). Distar language. Chica- Lahey & A. E. Kazdin (Eds.), Advances in clinical child go: Science Research Associates. psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 429–473). New York: Plenum Fox, E. (2001). Introduction to cooperative learning. In R. T. Publishing Corporation. Johnson and D. W. Johnson, Eds., Methods for devel- Becker, W. C., & Engelmann, S. (1978). Analysis of achieve- oping cooperative learning on the web. http://courses. ment data on six cohorts of low-income children from cs.vt.edu/~cs4624/s01/docs/cooplearning.pdf 20 school districts in the University of Oregon Direct Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. G., & Simmons, D. C. Instruction Follow Through model. (Technical report (1997). Peer-assisted learning strategies: Making 78-1). Eugene: University of Oregon. classrooms more responsive to diversity. American Becker, W. C., & Gersten, R. (1982). A follow-up of Follow Educational Research Journal, 34(1), 174–206. Through: The later effects of the direct instruction Gersten, R. (1985). Direct instruction with special edu- model on children in fifth and sixth grades. American cation students: A review of evaluation research. Educational Research Journal, 19, 75–92. Journal of Special Education, 19, 41–58. Binder, C., & Watkins, C. L. (1990). Precision teaching and direct instruction: Measurably superior instructional technology in schools. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 3(4), 74–96. 122 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 8 ]

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CHAPTER 9: Transition to Adulthood for Youth with Disabilities

Erik W. Carter, Vanderbilt University, Tennessee Tereza Azatyan & Marianna Harutyunyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

Youth with disabilities need strong transition and educational services during adolescence. This chapter addresses the skills, instruction, experiences, supports, and relationships that can help them achieve their goals for adulthood. 126 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What does it mean to ‘transition’ to adulthood? • How is transition part of the educational process in the United States? • What is the importance of planning for transition? • In what ways can transition plans be individualized? • What are the academic and employment considerations for transition? How are these organized?

Introduction come to pass in the early years after leaving

The transition to adulthood is a period of secondary school. Fortunately, there are effec- change and opportunity for every young per- tive practices and partnerships that can be put son. As students enter adolescence and move in place to bridge both of these gaps for stu- into early adulthood, they encounter increasing dents with disabilities. expectations for independence, self-direction A primary purpose of transition planning and autonomy. These years are marked by and education is to equip young people with rapid physical, emotional, social and cognitive the skills, experiences, supports and rela- growth. And they are accompanied by a range tionships they need to pursue (and obtain) of new experiences, relationships and learn- their goals for life after high school. Within ing opportunities. Most of all, it is a time when the Armenian context, this planning has only young people begin to identify their own vision really happened when youth are no longer in

of a ‘good life’ in adulthood and take steps to school. Unfortunately, insufficient attention has move toward that vision. been paid to the future education and career Yet for far too many young adults with planning of these students. Moreover, the disabilities, their goals for life after high school challenges young people with developmental do not materialize. Studies carried out across disabilities face in the areas of career counsel- countries tend to highlight two persistent gaps. ing and career planning exist at practice-ethical,

The first gap is between the outcomes of stu- scientific and methodological levels. From this dents with disabilities and those of their peers perspective, many youths with disabilities and without disabilities. Across many areas of life — their families lack the knowledge, skills and employment, college completion, community information they need — as well as access to involvement, residential life and personal inde- professional trainings in their regions — to pre- pendence — students with disabilities tend to pare for future employment opportunities. fare much more poorly than their classmates in The research project Education Transition the early years after exiting school. The experi- for Children with Disabilities in Armenia con- ences and outcomes considered normative in a ducted by the Bridge of Hope in 2015 empha- particular community may end up out of reach sized that the issue of transition should be for students with disabilities. brought onto the agenda of policy makers and The second gap is between the aspirations should be a particular focus of attention for of students with disabilities and the outcomes implementers at all levels in the educational they attain. In other words, the dreams and system. If shared, these ideas could support goals students have for their own lives may not better service provision for children and youth with disabilities within the school as well as Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 127 after graduation. Lack of services and informa- with disabilities. Although the field of transition tion seems the primary obstacle for promoting is still relatively new in most countries, research best practice ideas on transition. carried out around the world is beginning to When secondary schools — in collaboration coalesce into a set of promising practices. In with families, disability agencies and communi- Armenia, transition is viewed as an issue that ty members — provide the right combination needs to be addressed with the participation of instruction, opportunities, assistance and of educational and social support sectors. But linkages over time, the trajectories of students presently, youth with disabilities who receive with disabilities can change in positive and services from the social sector are not receiving powerful ways (Carter, Austin, & Trainor, 2012; sufficient and individualized support that meets Mazzotti et al., 2016). In an increasing number their needs. The chapter presents an overview of countries, attention to transition is formal- of the following key areas for consideration: ized — whether nationally or locally — within transition planning, transition assessment, ac- the policies and practices of schools. In the ademic preparation, employment preparation, United States, transition is formally mandated community experiences, functional skills, peer and defined as a coordinated set of activities relationships and community partnerships. In that are — each area, discussion on why a particular area • Designed to be within a results-oriented warrants attention, strategies that align with process, focused on improving the academic best practices, and a description about who and functional achievement of the child with should have primary responsibility for the strat- a disability to facilitate the child’s movement egy will be provided (Carter, 2018a,b; Hughes & from school to post-school activities, includ- Carter, 2012; Wehmeyer & Webb, 2012). ing post-secondary education, vocational education, integrated employment (includ- Transition Planning ing supported employment), continuing and A well-crafted transition plan provides the adult education, adult services, independent foundation for effective transition services living, or community participation; and supports. In the United States, schools • Based on the individual child’s needs, taking are required to begin discussing the transition into account the child’s strengths, preferenc- needs of students no later than age 14 and to es, and interests and begin formal planning no later than age 16. A • Include instruction, related services, com- written transition plan identifies a student’s munity experiences, the development of post-school goals for life after high school and employment and other post-school adult is updated annually. All other aspects of the living objectives, and, when appropriate, transition plan are essentially aimed toward acquisition of daily living skills and functional these post-school goals. In addition, a strong vocational evaluation. (IDEA, 2004, § 602.34) transition plan identifies the specific skills, supports, services and linkages that will be Indeed, the extent to which focused and delivered throughout the student’s schooling sustained attention is directed toward the and that will put the student in the best posi- plans and pathways of students, the more likely tion to achieve his or her post-school goals. In students are to experience their own vision of a other words, the instruction and experiences ‘good life.’ students receive in the upcoming school year This chapter highlights best practices related should aim directly toward their post-gradua- to supporting successful transitions for youth tion plans. Although most of these transition 128 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

activities will be organized or delivered by al and special educators, school administrators, schools, other disability agencies can also be relevant related service providers (e.g., occupa- asked to assist in implementing aspects of the tional therapists, speech-language therapists), plan. For example, some employment assis- and other professionals from the communi- tance could be provided by an agency that will ty (e.g., vocational rehabilitation, residential later work with students after they graduate. providers) who collectively bring the expertise A strong transition plan should include and services students will need to identify and several key elements, according to the Nation- achieve their goals. Inviting representatives of al Technical Assistance Center on Transition agencies, organizations and programs from (2012) — the community that a student might access • Appropriate measurable postsecondary (before or after graduation) can help promote goals in relevant areas (e.g., employment, more seamless transitions. In addition to further education, community participation, these professionals, the active involvement of independent living skills); families is invaluable. Parents typically know their children better than anyone else and will • Evidence that the postsecondary goals are be an enduring source of support during the updated each year; transition process and throughout adulthood. • Evidence that the postsecondary goals are Encouraging their involvement in planning both informed by the findings of quality transition ensures their unique perspectives are heard assessments; and informs parents about available resources • Transition services — provided by the school for their children. Finally, students with disabil- or other agencies — that will reasonably en- ities should be an active part of the transition able students to meet their postsecondary planning process. In addition to being present goals; at their planning meeting, a growing number • A course of study (i.e., sequence of classes) of students are taking a more active role in that will reasonably enable students to meet leading aspects of this meeting (e.g., sharing their postsecondary goals; their personal goals for adulthood; talking • Annual goals that are related to the transi- about their interests, preferences, strengths tion services needs of students. and needs; asking for feedback on their progress; introducing team members). In the United It is widely recommended that transition States, students must be invited to transition planning begins early (typically by the start of planning meetings, and they are encouraged to high school), is revisited annually, and becomes be present for all aspects of the conversation more focused as students approach graduation that relate to their future goals. Such involve- and have a clearer sense of what they want to ment can help them learn valuable self-advoca- do after graduation. The post-school goals of cy and leadership skills for the future. students are likely to evolve over time as they gain new experiences, learn new skills, and meet new people. Therefore, it is important Transition Assessment that plans not be treated as static documents, It is important to emphasize the considerable but rather updated on a regular basis. diversity that exists among adolescents with A collaborative, interdisciplinary planning disabilities. Not only do students vary widely in team convened by the school will be essential the ways in which their disabilities impact their to developing and implementing an effective learning and living, but they also differ in the transition plan. This team should include gener- goals they have for adulthood, the supports Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 129

available in their homes and communities and strengths, a guidance counselor might provide the strengths and passions they possess. No insights into the student’s career interests, two students are quite alike, and a disability parents might provide information about their diagnosis alone does not provide sufficient child’s independent living skills and a vocational information to craft a strong transition plan. rehabilitation counselor might provide informa- In other words, every transition plan should tion about the student’s work skills. To gather be individualized for every student. Transition such information, planning teams can use a assessment provides a formal way for planning combination of informal and formal assess- teams to determine what instruction, experiment approaches. For example, standardized ences and supports will be most valuable for tests, curriculum-based assessments, situation- a particular student. It also enables teams to al or performance assessments, ecological in- gauge the progress a student is making each ventories or task analyses, direct observations, year. interest inventories or preference assessments, Transition assessment is defined as ‘col- checklists or rating scales, surveys or question- lecting information on the student’s strengths, naires, interviews, teacher-made assessments needs, preferences, and interests as they relate and person-centered planning processes can to the demands of current and future living, all be drawn upon by transition team mem- learning, and working environments’ (italics bers. The assessment findings can be shared added; Sitlington, Neubert, & Leconte, 1997, p. with the transition team verbally and in written 70). Each of these four areas of assessment is form, differences of opinion can be discussed, critical. Knowledge of one’s strengths can open and relevant information can be incorporated up doors to the workplace and other communi- into the written plan. Although assessments ty activities, identification of needs can lead to should be completed in advance of the transi- instruction or support, and awareness of one’s tion planning meeting, it is recommended that preferences and interests helps ensure goals the assessment process be ongoing and be are meaningful and motivating. Within this updated each year as needed. broad range of ‘living, learning and working’ In Armenia, some of the tools described domains, assessments can be used to explore above are incorporated into formal assessment areas such as community living, employment, systems. In addition, by the decision of the postsecondary education, community partici- Government of the Republic of Armenia on 9 pation, financial literacy, health, leisure/recre- January 2014, the concept of person’s compre- ation, quality of life, self-determination, social hensive evaluation based on the principles of skills, technology skills and transportation skills. the World Health Organization’s International In the United States, the suitability of post- Classification of Function (WHO ICF) for disabil- school goals is ensured by requiring the use of ity determination was approved (Harutyunyan, age-appropriate transition assessments. 2017). Presently, a new approach for disability Carefully obtaining assessment information determination based on the WHO ICF ranges across relevant areas gives planning teams the is being adopted in Armenia and implemented information they need to individually align the by the Agency of Medical and Social Expertise services and supports provided to a particular — the body that is responsible for identifying student. Different members of the team can disability status of persons in the country. The help gather assessment information. For ex- ICF includes the following areas for assess- ample, a general educator might provide infor- ment and evaluation: body structure, body mation about a student’s academic needs and function, activity and participation as well as 130 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

environmental factors. Assessment of activity tive of better employment and postsecondary and participation of youth with disability and education outcomes after leaving high school environmental factors will help to organize (Mazzotti et al., 2016). Unfortunately, in many the assessment process through collecting countries around the world, the involvement information on the student’s strengths, needs, of students with disabilities in inclusive class- preferences, and interests, and person-centered rooms tends to become more limited as they planning for organizing transition according to move through secondary school. the demands of current and future living, learn- The course of study a student follows should ing and working environments for youth with help lead them toward their post-school goals. disability. Although the ICF provides data on This course of study is developed at the transi- individuals’ strengths, needs, preferences and tion planning meeting, and a student’s sched- interests, support teams for students with dis- ule is set to match this sequence of classes. abilities will need to ensure that such data can For example, students with disabilities who are be specifically applied to transition planning. interested in continuing on to college may need Such planning further requires that students to obtain a particular type of diploma in order receive preparatory instruction in a variety of to gain admission. Likewise, students interest- domains related to academics, employment ed in entering a particular trade may need cer- and living in the community. Such preparation tain classes in order to obtain the foundational is described in the paragraphs below. skills and knowledge required for that profession. Decisions about course pathways are Academic Preparation driven in many ways by the expectations that educators, families and students themselves Adolescents with disabilities should have ac- hold. For example, views regarding a student’s cess to rigorous instruction in a sequence of career and college prospects will inevitably classes that will provide them with academic shape decisions about the coursework, aca- preparation for their future careers. Although demic supports and supplemental services the students with disabilities often enroll in both student will receive. Therefore, it is important inclusive and specialized courses, current re- that low expectations not lead planning teams search highlights the importance of supporting to choose courses of study that have few pros- students to access to the general curriculum pects of leading to good outcomes. alongside their peers. In other words, well-sup- In addition to reflecting on where students ported involvement in the same breadth of with disabilities should learn, it also is import- academic, elective and other courses available ant to consider how they will be supported to to any other student in a high school is con- access the instruction that takes place in their sidered the preferred option for students with classrooms. Research on inclusive schooling disabilities. Such courses typically are taught by suggests learning may be enhanced for stu- content experts (i.e., classrooms teachers with dents with disabilities in classrooms that — training in the area in which they are teaching), • Adopt principles of universal design for reflect higher expectations, lead to meaningful learning, completion options and provide opportunities for students to learn alongside and meet their • Involve strong collaborations between gen- same-age peers without similar disabilities. eral and special educators, Follow-up studies of students with disabilities • Provide students the accommodations and have found that spending more time in inclu- modifications they need, sive classrooms during high school is predic- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 131

• Incorporate collaborative learning and instruction and experiences that teach them peer-mediated supports, important occupational skills and values, ex- • Use positive and proactive behavioral sup- pose them to career possibilities, inform their ports and career decision-making and help them build strong resumes (Carter, Trainor, Cakiroglu, • Use high-quality instruction (Carter & Drap- Swedeen, & Owens, 2010). These experiences er, 2010). can be especially valuable for students with In addition, students can be taught academ- cognitive impairments, who may require more ic self-management strategies (e.g., choice mak- time and instruction to prepare for future ing, goal setting, self-management, self-eval- roles in the workforce. For example, students uation) that can increase their independence might build their career awareness by com- and self-determination in the classroom. For pleting career interest and aptitude assess- example, students should learn to keep track of ments, accessing career or job counseling or their assignments, set personal learning goals developing a written career plan. They might and speak up for their needs. As students learn explore different career pathways by taking more about the supports and strategies that tours of various businesses, participating in a enhance their learning, they are also identifying short-term job-shadowing experience, attend- strategies they can take with them into postsec- ing school-sponsored job fairs, visiting a local ondary education. career resource center, taking occupational courses or listening to guest speakers from Employment Preparation local businesses. Finally, they might gain hands- on work experiences by participating in an For most students with disabilities, the primary internship, apprenticeship, school-based en- aim of their education — whether immedi- terprise or after-school job. Although the most ately after high school or at the conclusion of important combination of experiences will vary college — is finding a meaningful job. In the from one student to the next, research sug- United States, this goal is named as one of the gests that having hands-on work experiences in primary purposes of special education — which the community can be especially powerful for is described in law as preparing students ‘for students with more severe disabilities. Indeed, further education, employment and indepen- students with disabilities who leave school with dent living.’ The right job offers much more at least one paid work experience are signifi- than a regular paycheck; it creates connections cantly more likely to report having a paid job to the community, places people with disabili- in the first few years after leaving high school ties in valued roles, enables them to contribute (Carter et al., 2012; Mazzotti et al., 2016). Some to the needs of others and brings a sense of students with disabilities could find their jobs personal satisfaction. Conversely, the absence through existing vocational programs at their of work can lead to poverty, social isolation school that serve students without disabilities; and a diminished quality of life. Although most others may need help from a special education students with disabilities have goals for obtain- teacher, an outside employment agency, or ing a job in the future, underemployment and their family. unemployment continue to mark the experi- This collection of work-related experiences ences of many young adults with disabilities in can provide students with multiple opportu- the early years after graduation. nities to learn and practice those skills and High school is a time when all students with attitudes considered attractive to future em- disabilities should participate in work-related 132 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

ployers. Several studies have sought to identify cafeteria, library or school store as a way of the types of skills valued most by employers learning these vocational skills without leaving (e.g., Carter & Wehby, 2003; Ju, Zhang, & Pacha, the campus. 2012). These tend to fall into four categories — 1. Task-related social behaviors, Community Experiences 2. Non-task-related social behaviors, When students graduate, their daily activities 3. Work performance behaviors and and social opportunities shift outside the walls 4. General work behaviors. of the school. Preparing students with disabilities to assume active roles in their community Task-related social behaviors (i.e., interac- is an important aspect of preparing them for tive behaviors that are directly related to the adulthood. Students should leave high school performance of job tasks) include following with a sense of the types of recreation, leisure, directions, accepting constructive criticism from civic and other community activities that are a supervisor, asking for explanations when available locally; preferences for how they instructions are unclear and requesting assis- would like to be involved in these activities; and tance when needed. the skills needed to participate in active and Non-task-related behaviors (i.e., interactive enjoyable ways. Participation in extracurricular behaviors not directly related to task perfor- clubs, school-sponsored groups, service learn- mance, but that may contribute to social inte- ing experiences and other volunteer activities gration and acceptance) include using social provides ways for students to gain this expo- amenities (e.g., please, thank you), using appro- sure and develop relevant skills. Involvement in priate conversational behaviors (e.g., making activities beyond the classroom gives students eye contact, appropriate volume), and respond- a way of discovering new interests and talents; ing appropriately to joking or humor. Work provides opportunities to meet new people performance behaviors (i.e., nonsocial behav- who share similar interests; connects them to iors related to employee productivity) include valued roles where they can contribute to the carrying out instructions that need immediate needs of others; and helps students learn rec- attention, working continuously without getting reational, social, self-determination and every- distracted and working at the expected speed. day life skills in more authentic environments. General work behaviors (i.e., generic behav- Aligning these out-of-classroom activities with iors with relevance across a wide variety of students’ personal interests can be one way entry-level jobs) include returning from break of building motivation and maximizing their or lunch on time, requesting days off work and engagement in learning. Planning for extracur- calling into work when sick or running late. One ricular involvement should be an explicit part explanation for high rates of job turnover or of the transition planning process. Likewise, it termination among some young people with will be important to address issues related to disabilities may be that they perform poor- transportation, supports and communication ly with those skills judged to be most critical with families so that students can participate to job success by their employers. Thus, it is meaningfully. advised that students receive multiple opportu- For some students with more severe disabil- nities to learn and practice employment skills at ities, receiving at least some of their instruction school and on the job (Gilson, Carter, & Biggs, in the community can be especially valuable 2017). For example, students could be given (Bouck & Carter, in press). In other words, opportunities to assist in the school’s office, schools provide some instruction off campus Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 133

in the community settings in which students Peer Relationships would be expected to ultimately use the skills Adolescence is an especially important period they are learning. For example, instead of of social development. Indeed, most memories teaching a student to use money or make about secondary school center on the relation- change in the classroom, they would be taught ships students have, the friendships they form to do so at an actual business when purchas- and the things they do with others. Through ing real items. For students who have difficulty their relationships with their peers, students generalizing what they learn in the classroom learn peer norms and values; develop a bet- to everyday life, regular opportunities (e.g., ter sense of who they are; exchange social, daily, weekly) to practice life skills in real-life emotional and other practical supports; learn settings can solidify learning. For example, stu- a wide range of social, academic, leisure and dents might be taught to use public transporta- self-determination skills and, most importantly,

tion, to shop at local stores, to find help when experience a sense of belonging. Yet forming they are lost, to handle their banking or to and maintaining these relationships can be- participate in recreational activities. When plan- come especially challenging for students with ning community-based instruction, teachers disabilities during adolescence. Peer group select a range of relevant community locations affiliations take on greater importance, social that represent the types of skills and routines interactions increasingly take place outside the students will need to perform to participate presence of adults, and the ways and contexts actively in their community. in which students connect with one another increase in complexity. Some students with Residential and Daily Living Skills disabilities struggle to develop these important In addition to an emphasis on academics and peer relationships; others struggle to relate to employment, the secondary school curriculum peers in positive and prosocial ways (Carter, should also address skills that will enable stu- 2018b). dents with disabilities to live in and enjoy their Peer-mediated interventions offer one way communities. Although many young people to create regular opportunities for students with disabilities will learn these everyday life with and without disabilities to interact with skills at home or elsewhere in their community, and learn alongside one another within the some students with more severe disabilities will classroom or elsewhere during the school day. benefit from explicit instruction and practice These interventions involve teaching one or opportunities related to skills not traditionally more peers to provide targeted social, behav- captured in their coursework. For example, ioral or academic assistance to students with instruction might focus on areas like cooking, disabilities with guidance and support from grooming, self-care, money management, teachers, paraprofessionals, counselors or oth- shopping, using a computer, leisure activities er school staff (Carter, Biggs, & Blustein, 2016). and functional academics (e.g., reading, math). Such approaches have been shown to substan- Classroom teachers can use systematic instruc- tially increase the learning of students with dis- tion to teach these skills at school, and fami- abilities, the interactions that take place among lies can be shown how to teach these skills at all participating students, and the relationships home. that subsequently develop. Peer support arrangements. These involve equipping one or more peers to provide ongoing academic and/or social support to their 134 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

classmate with a disability throughout the time together. Their common feature is the semester as they work together on activities structuring of regular interaction opportuni- designed for all students by the classroom ties for students under the guidance of special teacher (Carter, 2017). Peers are recruited from education staff. Peer partner programs are within the same classroom, participate in an most often implemented as a ‘reverse-main- initial training, provide individualized supports streaming’ approach delivered within special listed in a written plan and receive ongoing education classrooms. Peers participate in an feedback from paraprofessionals or teachers initial training, provide academic assistance or as they assist their classmate. Socially, peers social support to various students throughout increase opportunities to contribute to task- the semester and complete required assign- and social-related discussions in the classroom, ments and reflections on their experiences. model age-appropriate social and communica- Other schools establish more episodic groups tion skills and help diminish attitudinal barriers. that meet weekly or monthly for social- and/or Academically, working alongside peers increas- service-focused activities. es the amount of corrective feedback, individualized supports, and response opportunities Community Partnerships students with disabilities receive. The extent to which students, their families, Peer network meetings. These involve form- and schools develop strong relationships and ing a cohesive social group for a student with a partnerships with any outside agencies and disability that meets throughout the semester organizations that also serve people with or school year (Asmus et al., 2017). With input disabilities can help create more seamless from the student, teachers decide upon the connections between school services and adult focus and format of the network as well as services. Best practices in transition emphasize which peers to invite. A group of three to six the need for a coordinated set of services that peers — usually schoolmates who have com- bring together essential services from multiple mon interests or experiences — is invited to governmental and nongovernmental organiza- an initial orientation meeting. At first, an adult tions and agencies in the community (Noonan, leads the weekly network meetings in which Morningstar, & Erickson, 2008). Transition plans students participate in a shared activity (e.g., should describe the ways in which employ- eating lunch, playing a game), discuss times to ment programs, residential providers, mental connect with one another socially throughout health services, behavioral support programs, the week (e.g., between classes, before or after postsecondary educational programs and school, during breaks or lunch), and brainstorm other available community services can work ideas for involving the focus student with a together to support the movement of students disability more fully in the life of the school. to their desired post-school activities. Inviting Over time, the adult takes a background role representatives of these program to transition as peers take responsibility for organizing and meetings can be a helpful way of making sure running weekly network meetings. students and families know about the range of Peer partner programs. These involve reg- available services that might meet their needs ular, group-based social opportunities within — both now and in the future. A common con- specialized or self-contained school settings cern shared by parents is the difficulties they (Hughes & Carter, 2008). They differ in their have understanding and using a very complex focus on creating opportunities for groups of service system. students with and without disabilities to spend Access to formal programs designed specifically for people with disabilities is important, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 135 but schools should also encourage connections Challenges in Transition to supports that would be available to anyone Delivering high-quality transition services is in the community, whether or not they have a not without substantial challenges. First, good disability. For example, schools that establish transition services require strong collabora- relationships with local businesses and employ- tions that extend beyond the involvement of er networks; community organizations that ad- schools alone. Whether or not a student with a dress housing, employment, health, and other disability gains employment after high school needs; civic groups; community leaders; and is impacted by many factors. Schools must other organizations that serve a local commu- provide excellent instruction related to employ- nity end up having access to a much richer and ment, employers must be willing to hire people wider range of supports that could be helpful with disabilities, disability support agencies and to students with disabilities and their families. organizations must commit to providing any To increase knowledge about and access to needed on-the-job support, families must ex- the wide range of available formal and informal pect and support their child’s employment and supports, schools sometimes establish transi- transportation must be available to get to and tion teams. Such teams create a map of all the from work. At the local level, communities must available resources in a local community that find ways of working together to make sure stu- could be drawn upon by students with disabili- dents with disabilities have the opportunities ties and their families. They also meet to iden- and supports they need, as well as determine tify ways to better coordinate available services where gaps in opportunities and supports need and address gaps in needed resources. Another to be addressed. Second, transition is a rela- promising approach schools can use to identify tively new area of emphasis in most countries. new partners to address the transition needs of In the United States, transition services were students with disabilities is called a community not formally mandated until 1990. As a result, conversation (Carter & Bumble, 2018). These many educators may not feel prepared to ad- structured community events bring together a dress such a broad range of needs that extend cross-section of diverse community members beyond academics. Efforts should be made to (e.g., civic leaders, disability professionals, edu- provide preservice and in-service training so cators, employers, individuals with disabilities, that educators understand the importance of parents). Attendees participate in three rounds transition and are familiar with best practices. of small-group conversations during which they Third, it is important to develop strong laws identify resources, ideas and personal con- and policies related to transition. Foundation- nections that could be drawn upon to support al practices like transition planning, transition transitions for students with disabilities in the assessment, academic inclusion and employ- community. The event culminates with a whole- ment preparation should be formalized so that group discussion in which everyone shares and every student with a disability has access to prioritizes the most actionable and promising these research-based practices. In the midst strategies they heard. The ideas generated of a crowded secondary school curriculum, over the course of the event provide a menu of transition needs are unlikely to be addressed potential pathways and partners in the com- effectively unless clear mandates are communi- munity that can be drawn upon to assist transi- cated. Fourth, low expectations continue to be tion-age students with disabilities. a barrier to good outcomes for students with disabilities. High expectations for work, college enrollment and community participation 136 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

are important and should be reflected in laws, it may need to begin sooner in Armenia as chil- policies and practices. In addition, investments dren transition out of primary schooling into should be made to raise awareness about and secondary schools, vocational schools or work attitudes toward students with disabilities in experiences. schools and communities. Case Study: Ethan Summary Although he was 16 years old, Ethan still wasn’t Improving the outcomes that students with sure what he wanted to do after high school. disabilities experience during and after high As a student with a mild cognitive disability, school is the primary purpose of transition ed- he had been given few opportunities to learn ucation. The right combination of services and about jobs in his community, and his school supports can change the post-school pathways provided little instruction on how to find and of students in noticeable and lasting ways. As keep a job. A transition planning team com- educators and professionals, the expectations prised of several teachers, therapists, agency we hold, the practices we implement and the staff and his parents completed a series of partnerships we develop can ensure students transition assessments in order to learn about leave school with high aspirations, strong skills, Ethan’s vocational interests and preferences, as relevant experiences and needed relationships. well as to identify his career-related strengths Opportunities for a successful transition and needs in this area. By helping Ethan vis- should be available in every country, as youth it some local businesses, talk to employers, with disabilities need to develop their daily and try out different jobs over the school living, communication, relationship, academic year, Ethan discovered he loved working with and employment skills throughout their lives. In children. The team helped Ethan identify his Armenia, youth with disabilities have an individ- post-school goal as working in a preschool as ual rehabilitation plan, which is provided by the a teacher’s assistant, and they developed a Agency of Medical and Social Expertise, func- written plan for how the school could help pre- tioning within the framework of the Ministry pare him for this role. Over the next two years, of Labor and Social Affairs. A first step toward he volunteered at local childcare centers and transition planning in Armenia is an acceptance learned the different social and vocational skills of the rationale for such planning by govern- he would need to be successful at this type of ment agencies. Afterwards, there need to be job. These experiences helped him develop a eligible bodies and organizations that will be re- strong resume and gain more confidence in his sponsible for the provision of sufficient services abilities. During his final year of high school, in order to make the transition to adulthood a local employment agency helped him find a successful and reachable for youth with dis- paid job at a nearby preschool program, and abilities. All the reforms conducted in this field they provided on-the-job supports until Ethan regarding implementation of WHO ICF as a na- could do the job independently. tional standard can act as driving and enabling factors within the context of transition. For example, ICF information on things like strengths and preferences can be leveraged and applied to individual transition plans as students reach higher grades in school. Although transition planning begins at age 14 in the United States, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ] 137

Tips for Teachers Network on transitions to adulthood. Moving • When planning for transition, identify into adulthood for youth with disabilities. strengths, preferences and needs of stu- https://www.nhchc.org/wp-content/up- dents; loads/2011/10/youthdisabilities.pdf • Create opportunities for students with dis- Pandey, S., & Argarwal, S., Transition to adult- abilities to use their abilities while perform- hood for youth with disability . . . http://iosr- ing different work-related, academic and journals.org/iosr-jhss/papers/Vol17-issue3/ social tasks in schools; I01734145.pdf • Include specialists based on each student’s Simon Fraser Society for Community Living. individual needs in students’ transition Transition to adulthood. http://www.inclu- plans; sionbc.org/sites/default/files/Transition-to- Adulthood-handbk-May12.pdf • Collaborate with different organizations that may help the student transition to commu- Targett, P. et al. Promoting transition to adult- nity life; hood for youth with physical disabilities… http://www.worksupport.com/documents/ • Use strategies and select tools that facilitate a student’s engagement in a particular activi- JVR_Promoting_transition.pdf ty and enable effective collaboration. UNICEF (2014). Partnerships, Advocacy and Communication for Social Change, Webi- nar 7 and Companion Booklet 7. Series of Thoughts for Leaders 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Book- • Provide support for all governmental and lets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Swit- nongovernmental structures that focus on zerland: Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved transition. from https://www.ded4inclusion.com/in- • Create workplaces and collaborate with clusive-education-resources-free/unicef-in- employees to support youth with disabilities, clusive-education-booklets-and-webi- especially in relation to transition. nars-english-version • Suggest information sessions for families who have youth with disabilities, describing Glossary their possibilities and places that can sup- Interest — The feeling of wanting to know or port successful transition. learn about something or someone. Need — Something that is necessary for an Additional Resources organism to live a healthy life; it arouses Autistic Self-Advocacy Network. The transi- an organism to action toward a goal, giving tion to adulthood for youth with ID/DD. purpose and direction to behavior. http://autisticadvocacy.org/wp-content/ Preference — A greater liking for one alterna- uploads/2013/12/HealthCareTransition_ tive over another or others. ASAN_PolicyBrief_r2.pdf Strength — The quality or state of being strong: Federal Partners in Transition. What to know capacity for exertion or endurance. about youth transition services for students Transition — The process or period of changing and youth with disabilities. https://www2. from one state or condition to another. ed.gov/about/offices/list/osers/transition/ products/fpt-fact-sheet-transitionservices- swd-ywd-3-9-2016.pdf 138 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 9 ]

References Gilson, C. B., Carter, E. W., & Biggs, E. E. (2017). Systematic review of instructional methods to teach employ- Asmus, J., Carter, E. W., Moss, C. K., Biggs, E. E., Bolt, D… ment skills to secondary students with intellectual Wier, K. (2017). Efficacy and social validity of peer and developmental disabilities. Research and Practice network interventions for high school students with for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 42, 89–107. severe disabilities. American Journal on Intellectual Education transition for children with disabilities in Armenia. and Developmental Disabilities, 122, 118–137. (2015). Bridge of Hope NGO Research report. Yere- Bouck, E., & Carter, E. W. (in press). Community partici- van: Armenia. pation and natural supports. In L. S. Brusnahan, R. Harutyunyan, M. (2017). WHO International Classification Stodden, & S. Zucker (Eds.), Prism series on transition. of Function as a disability determination model in Arlington, VA: Council for Exceptional Children. Armenia, ISSN 2518-167X. International Academy Carter, E. W. (2017). The promise and practice of peer Journal Web of Scholar 5(14), August 2017, p. 54–57. support arrangements for students with intellectual Hughes, C., & Carter, E. W. (2008). Peer buddy programs for and developmental disabilities. International Review successful secondary school inclusion. Baltimore, MD: of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 52, 141–174. Paul H. Brookes. Carter, E. W. (2018a). Supporting the social lives of second- Hughes, C., & Carter, E. W. (2012). The new transition hand- ary students with severe disabilities: Critical ele- book: Strategies secondary school teachers use that ments for effective intervention. Journal of Emotional work. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. and Behavioral Disorders, 26, 52–61. Ju, S., Zhang, D., & Pacha, J. (2012). Employability skills Carter, E. W. (2018b). Supporting strong transitions for valued by employers as important for entry-level students with autism spectrum disorder. In Gelbar, employees with and without disabilities. Career De- N. (Ed.), Adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: velopment for Exceptional Individuals, 35, 29–38. A clinical handbook (pp. 171–195). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Mazzotti, V. L., Rowe, D. A., Sinclair, J., Poppen, M., Woods, W. E., & Shearer, M. L. (2016). Predictors of post- Carter, E. W., Austin, D., & Trainor, A. A. (2012). Predictors school success: A systematic review of NLTS2 sec- of postschool employment outcomes for young ondary analyses. Career Development and Transition adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Disability for Exceptional Individuals, 39, 196–215. Policy Studies, 23, 50–63. National Technical Assistance Center on Transition. (2012). Carter, E. W., Biggs, E. E., & Blustein, C. L. (2016). Relation- NSTTAC indicator 13 checklist form A. Charlotte, NC: ships matter: Addressing stigma among students Author. with intellectual disability and their peers. In K. Scior and S. Werner (Eds.), Intellectual disability and stigma: Noonan, P. M., Morningstar, M. E., & Erickson, A. G. (2008). Stepping out from the margins (pp. 149–164). London, Improving interagency collaboration: Effective UK: Palgrave McMillan. strategies used by high-performing local districts and communities. Career Development for Exceptional Carter, E. W., & Bumble, J. L. (2018). The promise and Individuals, 31, 132–143. possibilities of community conversations: Expanding employment opportunities for people with disabili- Sitlington, P., Neubert, D. A., & Leconte, P. J. (1997). Tran- ties. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 28, 195–202. sition assessment: The position of the division on career development and transition. Career Develop- Carter, E. W., & Draper, J. (2010). Making school matter: ment for Exceptional Individuals, 20, 69–79. Supporting meaningful secondary experiences for adolescents who use AAC. In D. McNaughton & D. R., Wehmeyer, M. L., & Webb, K. (2012). Handbook of adoles- Beukelman (Eds.), Transition strategies for adolescents cent transition education for youth with disabilities. and young adults who use augmentative and alter- New York, NY: Routledge. native communication (pp. 69–90). Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing. Carter, E. W., Trainor, A. A., Cakiroglu, O., Cole, O., Swe- deen, B. . . . Owens, L. (2009). Exploring school-business partnerships to expand career development and early work experiences for youth with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 32, 145–159. Carter, E. W., & Wehby, J. H. (2003). Job performance of transition-age youth with emotional and behavioral disorders. Exceptional Children, 69, 449–465. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 139

CHAPTER 10: The Role of Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) in Inclusive Education

Marietta N. Janecky, Holland Center, Minnesota Armenuhi Avagyan & Marine Marutyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

This chapter discusses the use of alternative and augmentative forms of communication for students with disabilities. Outlined is how to select a form of communication based on student profile and how to teach using effective teaching procedures. 140 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What is the profile of a student who would be an appropriate user of an alternative form of communication? • What are the difficulties associated with understanding the communication of a student who uses an alternative form of communication? • Will using an alternative communication methodology be an obstacle for verbal communication? • Will the native language of the student (i.e., grammatical structure, syntax) present an obstacle if alternative communication is used?

Introduction communication challenges, and a tendency to This chapter will touch upon the effective appli- engage in repetitive behaviors ranging from

cation of alternative communication methods significant cognitive and language impairments when working with children with speech and to superior cognitive and language abilities. In communication difficulties. We will focus specif- other words, the speech and language abilities ically on the application of alternative commu- of children with autism may run the gamut nication methods for children diagnosed with from virtually mute to highly verbal with good autism and children with visual impairments. morphosyntax. However, symptoms and their Worldwide, the number of children with severity vary widely across these three core autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is increasing areas. Taken together, these symptoms may (Christensen et al., 2016). According to the result in relatively mild challenges for someone World Health Organization, the epidemiology on the high-functioning end of the spectrum. of ASD worldwide is 1 in 160 children (Autism For others, symptoms may be more severe, as Spectrum Disorders: Fact Sheet, 2017). This sta- when repetitive behaviors and lack of spoken tistic is an average estimate of ASD prevalence, language interfere with everyday life. However,

as prevalence varies across studies. In addition, regardless of these differences, the common some well-controlled studies have reported characteristics and challenges associated with substantially higher rates via longitudinal re- ASD impact the development of critical social search studies. The prevalence of ASD in many communication skills. Bondy and Frost (2011) low- and middle-income countries is mostly reported that 80% of preschool children with unknown. autism entering a public school program over Children with a diagnosis of ASD exhibit a three-year period did not display functional persistent deficits in communication and social communication skills. interaction, as well as restricted and repetitive Over the years, specialists working with patterns of behavior. These characteristics children with autism have tried to work out

often result in significant impairments in social- different systems for developing the communi-

ization, adaptive behavior, speech and com- cation skills of these children, offering a variety munication development (American Psychiatric of methodologies. Some specialists still insist Association, 2013). that in the process of speech therapy with a Children with ASD present heterogeneous child diagnosed with ASD, one should rely on characteristics of social interaction difficulties, traditional methods such as the ability to form Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 141

and develop sound transmission to repeat learning via routines, the child with autism or words and phrases. Other specialists, however, who is blind is exposed to a predictable chain suggest not focusing on developing speech, of related events, providing increased order but rather developing communication when and organization to the day. Functional rou- working with these children, since children with tines can be incorporated easily into special ASD may have developed sound transmissions, education and regular education classrooms words or phrases that are nonfunctional and when designed and implemented through the do not serve a social purpose (Avagyan, 2017). collaborative efforts of all relevant personnel Vision serves as a primary stimulus for from the start. learning as well as an integrator of input from other sensory channels. Without vision as a Augmentative and Alternative central integrator, children who are blind often rely on the remaining senses of hearing, mo- Communication Systems tor-kinesthetic feedback and smell to help them Augmentative and alternative communication assign order and meaning to their world. Chil- (AAC) is any device, system or method that dren with visual impairments often miss infor- improves the communication abilities for an mation that is important for the development individual with a communication impairment. of the social aspects of communication and AAC may refer to any method of communica- the concepts or cognitive abilities that underlie tion used to supplement or replace speech for the development of language. When selecting individuals with impairments in the production augmentative devices and designing alternative or comprehension of language. communication systems, the effects of con- AAC can be divided into two broad catego- genital or acquired blindness or visual impair- ries — unaided and aided. Unaided forms of ment on the child’s language development AAC do not require an external tool. Unaided and language system must be considered. The forms require some degree of motor control child’s relationship to augmentative communi- and do not require technology or a power cation devices and tangible symbols may also source. Examples of unaided no-tech tools be affected by attitudes toward object explora- include gestures, manual signs, facial expres- tion. Children with visual impairments are at a sions, vocalizations, verbalizations and body clear disadvantage with respect to anticipating language (Augmentative and Alternative Com- transitions between activities. If they do not munication, 2018). Aided forms of AAC require understand the language of directions or fail some form of external support, either electron- to attend to them, they have no other clues to ic or non-electronic. Aided forms of AAC are rely upon regarding the transition from one categorized into low- or light-tech, mid-tech, or activity to the next. For this reason, calendar high-tech tools. box schedules representing the length of time Low-tech AAC devices are fairly simple in from the next step to the entire day of events design, low in cost, and in some instances do are very helpful. Visually impaired children not require a power source. Examples of low- may respond to an organized array of objects, tech AAC tools include pictures, objects, pho- pictures, Braille cards, auditory messages or a tographs, writing, and communication boards. combination of these (Goldware & Silver, 1998). High-tech AAC devices are often very powerful Augmentative and alternative communica- in terms of function, but are also at a higher tion (AAC) goals must be infused into all aspects cost. High-tech AAC devices typically require of the academic and social curricula. When a power source and some form of training to properly program and maintain the device. 142 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

Examples of high-tech AAC include speech-gen- response, with the only difference being the erating devices, single-message devices and stimulus that is pointed to (Michael, 1985). recordable/digitized devices, and software that Psycholinguistics does not generally distin- enables dynamic symbol/language representa- guish between these two types of verbal be- tion that is used with some form of technology havior; it is generally considered that they are hardware (e.g., computer, tablet, smartphone). conceptually equal, as they are both manifesta- These alternative forms of communication tions of the same underlying cognitive process. would be appropriate for three different pro- Because of this, psycholinguistics focuses on files of students who display the communi- the effect of the verbalization on the listener cation impairments typically associated with rather than on the role of the speaker. When ASD diagnoses. First, AAC can be utilized as analyzed from a behavioral perspective, there augmentative by supporting means of existing are several differences between these two communication when the vocabulary of the types of verbal behavior, and these differences child is poor and there are grammatical mis- should be considered when a form of commu- takes in the speech. Second, AAC can serve as a nication is being developed for an individual temporary means of communication until oral whose verbal repertoires are delayed (Sund- speech has been formed. Third, AAC can serve berg & Sundberg, 1990). as the primary means of communication that Some of the important differences between can be with the individual throughout his/her topography-based and selection-based verbal whole life. behavior include both practical and conceptual considerations (Sundberg & Sundberg, Topography-Based and Selection- 1990). One main practical consideration is that teachers and parents must learn at least some Based Verbal Behavior sign language in order for this form of topog- The form of the AAC system (e.g., low tech, raphy-based communication to be successful. high tech) should not be the only consideration Selection-based systems eliminate this problem when selecting an alternative response form because there is no special training required for a language-delayed individual. There are to be a listener. Sign language also requires important conceptual differences between the careful shaping of very complex motor skills, types of AAC systems available that should whereas pointing responses are often an easier be considered. Speaking, sign language, and response for many students. In addition, in se- writing are classified as topography-based lection-based systems, from a listener’s point of verbal behavior, whereas systems that require view, the verbal stimulus produced by the client the speaker to point or select are classified as is often clearer than it is for a signer. selection-based verbal behavior (Michael, 1985). There are, however, some practical prob- In topography-based verbal behavior, the form lems with these pointing systems that may of the response distinguishes one verbal re- interfere with the effectiveness of this form sponse from another (e.g., signing dog clearly of communication (Sundberg & Sundberg, involves different movements and positions of 1990). One obvious issue is the need to always the hands than signing cat). These topograph- have the device available and accessible to the ical differences also appear in speaking and speaker, which is not always possible, and the writing. In selection-based verbal behavior, the device may require frequent maintenance and response form consists of pointing, touching, need to be charged at all times. Also, many looking or indicating in some way. The form words are difficult to portray with a picture or of this response is the same for each verbal Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 143 symbol — for example, verbs, prepositions and 4. Provide prompts so that learning language pronouns; and it may be impossible to inter- is easy at first; fade prompts as the student pret the symbol without a word accompanying becomes more independent. it. An important feature of speech is that it does 5. Conduct language training in the student’s not require any form of environmental support, natural environment; communication nor does signing. should be functional. Research conducted by Sundberg and Sund- There are two common AAC forms used berg (1990) examined the difference between with individuals with language delays: picture these two systems with regard to speed of exchange communication system (PECS) and acquisition, accuracy of responding, generaliza- GoTalkNow. tion, maintenance, spontaneity and the formation of equivalence classes. The data indicated that more training trials are required for mas- Picture Exchange Communication tery of selection-based responses, and perfor- System (PECS) mance (i.e., correct responding) was lower with Over the last few years in Armenia, low-tech the selection-based system. They showed that AAC methods have been used in speech thera- it was more difficult to establish stimulus class- py, especially the picture exchange communica- es with selection-based systems, which does tion system (PECS). The PECS methodology was not support the traditional psycholinguistic founded in 1985 (Bondy & Frost, 2002). Initially, position that these types of verbal behavior are it was designed for the communication devel- equivalent. These findings also do not support opment of children with autism (Bondy & Frost, the tendency for speech pathologists to favor 2011). Subsequently, this methodology has selection-based communication methods over been used with people of different ages having topography-based communication methods for communicative difficulties of various etiologies nonvocal learners. (Baca et al., 1994; Garfinkle & Schwartz, 1994; Norris-Holt, 2001; Rueda & Stillman, 2012). Teaching Communication Using AAC Today, PECS is successfully used in Europe, When beginning language intervention with any the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, form of communication (i.e., topography-based, Armenia and other countries around the world selection-based), it is imperative that effec- (Avagyan, 2011a, 2011b; Baca et al., 1994; Bern- tive teaching procedures are implemented. stein, 1989). The primary goals of this method- Sundberg and Partington (1998) have outlined ology are functional communication skill devel- procedures to increase cooperation and ensure opment, initiation of speech, and spontaneous that language instruction is effective — speech formation. With the help of PECS, the student learns to express his wishes, thoughts 1. Establish rapport; pair the teacher so that and, over the course of time, emotions, using the teacher is associated with the delivery pictures. of reinforcing items and not the removal of This system’s primary goal is to teach the fun items. child functional communication. A secondary 2. Capture and contrive motivation; teach lan- goal is to teach the child to speak. This doesn’t guage when motivation for items is strong. mean, however, that speech is given up on. The 3. Begin teaching by requiring the student to goal is to teach the child to communicate in ask for his or her favorite things. some manner while continuing to address the development of speech. In fact, many research- 144 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

ers report that this systematically enhances GoTalk NOW speech development (Glennen,1992; Silverman, One type of AAC device that is based on selec- Kurtz, & Draper, 2013). tion-based communication is GoTalk. GoTalk is The PECS training protocol closely parallels part of a line of assistive technology products typical language development. The students that enables individuals with developmental

learn to communicate specific messages. disabilities or physical impairments to have Students using PECS learn to communicate their own voice (GoTalk NOW, 2012). GoTalk

first with single pictures, but later to combine software can be quickly personalized and offers pictures to learn a variety of grammatical single and multiple message options. One spe- structures, semantic relationships and commu- cific capability of GoTalk technologies is to turn nicative functions. When we look at the day of a personal iPad into a communication device our students, we see a series of activities. Each with the use of GoTalk NOW. of them should be arranged for communicative GoTalk NOW includes various features that opportunities by creating situations in which a make it a good option for communication if an student is likely to want something so that we AAC device is necessary (GoTalk NOW, 2012). can teach him how to communicate in order to GoTalk NOW uses images from your iPad get it. During this time, the children must have camera, photo library, or the built-in Internet their own communication book, because they search capability. These images can be mod- will be expected to take their book wherever ified by cropping, scaling and rotating them. they go. The book includes multiple pictures One major benefit to GoTalk NOW as an AAC and a sentence strip. device for users who do not use English as their The PECS methodology has six phases (Bon- primary language is that it is possible to record

dy & Frost, 2002, 2011). The first phase teaches one’s own speech. This allows for the voice a picture and item exchange. In phase two, output to be programmed specifically for for- the space between the child and the picture is eign languages, various dialects and differing increased. In phase three, the child is given a accents. GoTalk NOW also has text-to-speech choice between two or three pictures. In phase features and can play videos. Other features of four, the focus is on sentence structure. In GoTalk NOW include unlimited menu and com-

phase five, the child learns to express her or his munication pages with capabilities of anywhere wishes and answer the question, “What do you from one to 25 buttons per page. It is also

want?” In phase six, the final phase, the child possible to program up to four of your most answers questions such as, “What is it?”, “What important messages or symbols into the core do you see?”, “What do you like?”, “What don’t vocabulary feature, making it never more than you like?”, “What kind of weather is outside?” one tap away. and “What do you hear?” Taking into consideration the characteristics of grammar, syntax and flexibility of the Armenian language, PECS AAC in Inclusive Settings is modified with the creation of separate cards Alternative communication technologies have of auxiliary verbs, endings, conjunctions and so recently become necessary in the context of on (Avagyan, 2011). inclusive education. It is well known that in the modern world, any child who does not master the official language of the society is considered to have special education needs and in many countries is temporarily involved in inclu- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 145

sive education (Galimore & Tharp, 1990; Glen- odology, oral speech was prompted in 78% nen, 1992; Silverman, Kurtz, & Draper, 2013). of the children. In this case, alternative com- Inclusive education has been carried out in munication acted initially as a temporary tool, Armenia since the turn of the century. Before with the help of which speech was ‘produced.’ that, during the Soviet years, there was no Sometimes, parallel with speech, PECS remains inclusion. Children with visual, auditory, mental, the additional means for expressing wishes, speech and physical disorders were educated interests or state of being. In 9% of cases, alter- in special schools. In spite of Armenia’s efforts native communication remains the only tool for towards inclusive education, there are still communication that stays with the child for all children with disabilities, including those with of his or her life and is applied in various situa- complex speech and communication disorders, tions of life. In 13% of the cases, PECS was used who are sometimes left out from school-based for connected speech development, since the education. child did not have developed speech (Avagyan, According to the United Nations Internation- 2011a, 2011b). al Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF), in 2012, Our experience with PECS usage with chil- 63% of children with complex disorders, 48% of dren has shown that the work based on pic- children with mental disorders, 56% of children tures accelerates vocabulary enrichment. The with auditory impairments and 69% of children children learn grammatical constructions more with physical disorders attended school (It’s easily and express themselves more freely, About Inclusion, 2012). The inclusion in schools which may make them more self-confident. and preschool institutions is highly important Well-developed speech is considered one of for children with speech and communication the most important means of socialization, complex disorders. These not only give an op- dynamic activity and successful teaching in portunity to reveal the full potential of speech, modern society. At the same time, it should be physical, cognitive, emotional and social devel- mentioned that modern methods of communi- opment of children, but also provide courses cation, in particular alternative communication along with their peers without being left out approaches, are not widely applied by special- from the family care (Kozloff, 1994; Tuzzi, 2009). ists in Armenia. The reasons for this may be — There is a need to provide the Armenian • Not mastering the methods; school system with favorable conditions for • Relying on Soviet and Russian literature on children with disabilities, including children speech therapy; with speech and communication disorders, • Reluctance to participate in professional taking into consideration the school physical trainings as a result of absence of need for infrastructure. These changes require improve- licensing and specialized trainings; ment in the assessment of educational needs, individual educational planning and appropri- • The large amounts of time that are needed ate teaching methodology for these schools, for preparing necessary accessories (e.g., a as well as necessary professional intervention communication book) for alternative com- (Dunn & Dunn, 2007; Goosens, Crain, & Elder, munication; 1994; Newcomer & Hammill, 1997). • The parents’ fear that when alternative com- In a case study by Avagyan, PECS methodol- munication is used, the child will not speak, ogy was used in conjunction with speech thera- because he or she will not need speech. py with 44 children with autism, aged 2½–8. As a result of the speech therapy with PECS meth- 146 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

In order to solve the above-mentioned AAC for Children with Visual problems, we carry out informative work with Impairments parents and training courses for the specialists. When a child has a visual impairment or related disabilities, he or she may need to use alterna- AAC for Children with ASD tive methods to communicate. Individuals with M., 6 years old, has ASD, is nonverbal and severe communication disorders and blindness attends inclusive school. He has had practical rarely use speech-generating devices (SGDs) private therapies with the speech and language in their AAC system. Although SGD advance- pathologist during which he learned to commu- ments help enhance the communication of nicate via PECS. In the fourth phase of the PECS many sighted individuals, those who are non- intervention, M. mastered the skill of communi- verbal-blind or deaf-blind often do not benefit cating in sentences. from these technologies (Kovacs & Lightner, At school, the parents made the teacher 2007). aware that M. would communicate using pic- Children with visual impairments often miss tures from now on and showed the communi- information that is important for the develop- cation book to the teacher. At first, the teacher ment of the social aspects of communication was annoyed that she had to communicate and the concepts that underlie the develop- with the child with the help of pictures. She ment of language. A child will need different considered her work in the inclusive setting solutions depending on, for example, the size already challenging. But that very same day, of the symbols he or she can see on a device, when the parent went to fetch her son from where in the visual field the device needs to be school, the teacher informed her that she had positioned in order for it to be seen, or whether noticed something very interesting. Previously, the child understands Braille. every day at approximately 10:30–11:00 am, the Children who are blind often learn to read child exhibited problematic and maladaptive Braille as an alternative to print. These children behavior. For example, he would jump from must rely on tactual abilities and auditory skills. his seat, yell and bounce. So the staff had no It is important to note these skills do not de- option but to ask the psychologist to help the velop automatically in children who are blind, child to calm down. Surprisingly, on this day at and training from an early age is necessary to that hour, the child wrote on his sentence strip equip children with these skills. Activities that that he wanted to go to the restroom. He went will develop flexibility, dexterity and strength in to the toilet, and the problematic maladaptive their wrists and hands are essential. The devel- behavior did not take place. Accordingly, the opment of light finger touch, line-tracking skills teacher realized that the communication book and skills in tactual perception (e.g., discrim- and the alternative communication helped her inating textures and shapes) requires much to understand why the student was misbehav- training. While the general sequence of devel- ing and what the student really wanted. The opment of literacy in children who are blind teacher understood that the use of PECS can emerges from the same processes that shape be a useful communication tool in an inclusive literacy for their sighted peers, they will have classroom. had less opportunity to explore their environment and to learn through incidental learning and unplanned experiences. Activities designed to develop meaningful language based on concrete experiences are important. Braille Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 147 is based on a ‘cell’ of six raised dots arranged ate switch or button to tell you what he or like a six on a domino. Most children who write she wants; through Braille begin by using a mechanical • Keyboards. A child may type a message on Braille writer called a Perkins Brailler. Later, a keyboard, which then reads the message children may use electronic Braille writing de- aloud. The symbols on the keyboard might vices that have a tactile display and/or speech be letters, words or picture symbols; output. It’s important to remember that children Most of these machines can store informa- need multiple methods of expressing them- tion that can be translated into print. Braille selves; Ideally, the child should not have to rely users will usually be taught to touch-type using solely on one method of communication. Pro- a conventional QWERTY keyboard. Software viding an array of communication options that is available to enable children to record and he or she can use now and in the future will retrieve information using synthesized speech. help the child grow and develop and participate The following are some broad categories more fully in daily life. of devices used by some children with visual impairments — • Communication board. A communication Tactile representations board can be made out of cardboard, wood Tactile representations may include partial ob- or another solid material. Typically, it has jects, more abstract tactile symbols and Braille. a grid on it with two or more symbols. The This access method would utilize devices that symbols can be concrete, such as actual can support tactile symbols such as the GoTalk objects or parts of objects; pictorial, such as SuperTalker, which activates when pressed. photographs or drawings; alphabet symbols This does not typically include touchscreen in print or Braille; or words in print or Braille. devices. When using a communication board, a child Motor memory/tactile guide devices without can express herself by pointing to the sym- tactile symbols but with tactile guides such as bol, picture, letters or words that convey keyguards are paired with markers to guide the what she wants to share; user. Bluetooth Braille keyboards paired with • Recorded speech devices. With a recorded text-to-speech software may also be included speech device, someone (parent or teacher) in this category, as well as voice output devic- records messages for the child to use. The es and SGDs with keyguards and consistently child activates the message using a switch or placed language to support motor memory for other button. Systems with multiple switch- the location of vocabulary. es can store four, six, eight or more messages. There are very complex AAC systems Auditory prompts and auditory fishing that enable the user to convey a wide array Similar to the above, auditory fishing or au- of information. For example, if the child has ditory prompts with direct selection typically a device with four prerecorded message involve a keyguard. This method requires a slots, the teacher or parent might record device or app that allows for the use of audito- four messages for bedtime, such as, “I want ry prompts with direct selection. The auditory a blanket,” “Read me another story,” “I love prompts can be short and are typically played you,” “Good night” and “Sit with me and rub to the user at a lower volume as they explore my back.” The child can press the appropri- buttons to locate their desired target. By acti- 148 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

vating the button a second time, the target is parents when considering and implementing selected and spoken. alternative communication methodologies. • Provide opportunities for students to use Auditory scanning their AAC in a variety of environments and Devices and apps that support auditory scan- settings. ning include the ability to assign an auditory • Continually monitor the use of AAC to en- prompt (similar to auditory fishing) to each sure the correct use by the students and the button. The items can be stepped through correct teaching techniques of the instruc- using two-switch/step scanning or automatical- tors. ly played at regular intervals using automatic scanning. The user can select the target by Reflection Questions activating a switch after hearing the prompt for the desired message. • If you’ve ever worked with a student who used AAC, what were your instructional strategies, and would you do anything differ- Tips for Teachers ently with this information? • Don’t be afraid of having a child who uses • How would you handle a student who has AAC in your classroom; don’t let the chal- challenging behaviors in your class while lenge scare you as a teacher. using AAC? • Worry about the child asking for something • What ideas do you have to include pictures, and being told to go and use their AAC; how not only as a method of communication, to fade; and when to accept talking. but also for all the students in a universally • Try to include other children in the commu- designed classroom? nication process; encourage communication • What teaching techniques discussed in this between the students and not just the stu- chapter will be most useful for you in your dent and an adult in the classroom. classroom? • Create systems for children to be evaluated • Can you give an example of a time that you using their AAC devices; this is their way of successfully used AAC in your classroom? talking and also answering questions during classes, participating, being able to be actively engaged in the learning process. Glossary Aided AAC — Any form of AAC that requires Thoughts for Leaders some form of external support, either electronic or non-electronic. • If the classroom is noisy, it doesn’t mean Augmentative and alternative communication that something is going wrong. It means that — Any device, system, or method that the professionals are working on improving improves the communication abilities for the behaviors of the student. an individual with a communication im- • Encourage and support an advanced and pairment. modern way of thinking about and utilizing Selection-based verbal behavior — Verbal be- alternative communication methodologies. havior in which the response form consists • Organize and encourage collaboration of pointing, touching, looking or indicating between other teachers, specialists and the in some way. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ] 149

Topography-based verbal behavior — Verbal Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). PPVT-4: Peabody picture behavior in which the form of the re- vocabulary test. Minneapolis, MN: Pearson Assess- ments. sponse distinguishes one verbal response Galimore, R., & Tharp, R (1990). Teaching mind in society: from another. Teaching, schooling, and literate discourse. In L. C. Unaided AAC — Any form of AAC that does not Moll (Ed.), Vygotski and education: Instructional im- require an external tool. plications of sociohistorical psychology (pp.175–205). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Garfinkle, A. N., & Schwartz, I. S. (1994). PECS with peers: Increasing social interaction in an integrated pre- References school. Paper presented at the annual convention American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and for The Association for the Severely Handicapped, statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arling- San Francisco, CA. ton, VA: American Psychiatric Association. Glennen, S. (1992). Augmentative and alternative com- Augmentative and alternative communication. (2018). munication. In G. Church & S. Glennen (Eds.), The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. handbook of assistive technology (pp. 93–122). San https://www.asha.org/PRPSpecificTopic.aspx?folde- Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group. rid=8589942773§ion=Key_Issues GoTalk NOW. (2012). User’s guide. Retrieved from: https:// Autism spectrum disorders. (2017). Fact sheet. World Health www.attainmentcompany.com/downloads/dl/file/ Organization. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/fact- id/1306/product/494/gtn4_5_usersguide_0.pdf sheets/autism-spectrum-disorders/en/ Goldware, M., & Silver, M. (1998, March). AAC strategies for Avagyan, A. (2011a). Communication of children with young children with vision impairment and multiple autism. Proceedings of Regional Meeting of the World disabilities. Paper presented at the CSUN Confer- Psychiatric Association, 23–24. ence. Los Angeles, CA. Avagyan, A. (2011b). New method for correction of com- Goossens, C. A., Crain, S., & Elder, P. S. (1992). Communi- munication for children with autism. Abstract book cation displays for engineered preschool environments. of third international medical congress of Armenia. Ye- Solana Beach, CA: Mayer-Johnson. revan, p. 323. If this is a book, then APA standards Hagood, L. (1992). A standard tactile symbol system: Graphic wouldn’t require a page number since there wasn’t a language for individuals who are blind and unable to direct quote in the text above. read Braille. Austin: SeeHear. https://www.tsbvi.edu/ Baca, L., Escamilla, K., & Carjuzza, J. (1994). Language seehear/archive/tactile.html minority students: Literacy and educational reform. Hodges, L., & McLinden, M. (2004). Hands on–hands off. In N. J. Ellsworth, C. N. Hedley, & A. N. Baratta (Eds.), Exploring the role of touch in the learning experi- Literacy: A redefinition (pp. 61–76). Hillsdale, NJ: Law- ences of a child with severe learning difficulties and rence Erlbaum. visual impairment. SLD Experience, 38, 20–24. Bernstein, D. K. (1989). Assessing children with limited It’s about inclusion: Access to education, health, and social

English proficiency: Current perspectives. Topics in protection services for children with disabilities in Ar- Language Disorders, 9, 15–20. menia. (2012). http://www.un.am/up/library/Its%20 Best, A. (1992). Teaching children with visual impairments. about%20Inclusion_eng.pdf Philadelphia: Open University Press. Kozloff, M. A. (1994). Improving educational outcomes for Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2002). The picture exchange commu- children with disabilities: Principles of assessment, pro- nication system: Training manual. New Castle, DE: gram planning, and evaluation. Baltimore, MD: Paul Pyramid Educational Consultants. H. Brookes. Bondy, A., & Frost, L. (2011). A picture’s worth: PECS and McLinden, M., & McCall, S. (2002). Learning through touch. other visual communication strategies in autism. London: David Fulton. Bethesda, MD: Woodbine House. Michael, J. (1985). Two kinds of verbal behavior plus a pos- Christensen, D. L., Baio, J., Braun, K. V., et al. (2016). sible third. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 3, 1–4. Prevalence and characteristics of autism spectrum Newcomer, P. & Hammill, D.D. (1997). Test of language de- disorder among children aged 8 years. Autism and velopment-intermediate (3rd ed) (TOLD P: 3). Toronto, Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 11 ON: Psychological Corporation. Sites, United States. MMWR Surveillance Summaries, 65(3), 1-23. 150 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 10 ]

Norris-Holt, J. (2001). Motivation as a contributing factor in second language acquisition. The Internet TESL Journal 12(6). http://iteslj.org/Articles/Norris Motiva- tion.html Rueda, R., & Stillman, J. (2012). The 21st century teacher: A cultural perspective. Journal of Teacher Education, 63(4), 245–253. Schweigert, R. (1990). Tangible symbols: Symbolic communication for individuals with multisensory impairments. AAC, 5, 226–34. Silverman, J., Kurtz, S., & Draper J. (2013). Skills for Com- municating with Patients. 3rd Edition, P. 328 A specific page number from a book shouldn’t be listed unless directly quoted. Sundberg, C. T., & Sundberg, M. L. (1990). Comparing topography-based verbal behavior with stimulus selection-based verbal behavior. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 8, 31–41. Sundberg, M. L., & Partington, J.W. (1998). Teaching language to children with autism or other developmental disabilities. Danville, CA: Behavior Analysts, Inc. Tuzzi, A. (2009). Grammar and lexicon in individuals with autism: A quantitative analysis of a large Italian cor- pus. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disabili- ty, 47, 373–385. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 151

CHAPTER 11: Enhancing the Social and Psychological Inclusion of Students with Special Education Needs

Brian H. Abery, University of Minnesota Marianna Harutyunyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

Social aspects of inclusive education are as important and physical and academic inclusion. Not only is social inclusion and a sense of belonging important in and of itself, but this outcome is closely connected to engagement in the classroom, academic achievement, and later success in employment. 152 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What unique contribution does the social inclusion of students with special education needs make to their development? • What are the differences between physical, instructional and social-psychological inclusion? • What are some of the barriers to the social inclusion of students with special education needs, both in school and the community? • In what ways can schools support students with special education needs and their typically developing peers to establish and maintain positive social relationships?

Introduction mote, safeguard and secure the full and equal Developing and maintaining valued social enjoyment by persons with disabilities of their relationships with peers, having companions human rights and fundamental freedoms. Sup- with whom to engage in recreation and lei- port therefore must be extended to persons sure activities, and participating and having with disabilities from early childhood to ensure a presence in the school and community, are they are developing to their full potential and all critical aspects of inclusion. Unfortunately, being welcomed as equal members of society recent trends in the field of education in many (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Dis- countries have resulted in a situation in which abilities, 2006). the educational system and its staff view their In exploring factors related to the social and primary, if not sole, responsibility to be facili- psychological inclusion of children and youth tating the development of academic skills. As a with disabilities, it is important to consider that result, the social and psychological aspects of responsibility for success in this arena is not inclusion are all too often assumed to be the the sole or even the primary responsibility of responsibility of the family. Social inclusion or students with disabilities. School administrators experiencing ongoing, positive social interac- set the tone for an appreciation of diversity tions with peers of one’s choosing, and psycho- within the educational setting. Teachers and logical inclusion; feeling like a valued, accepted specialists can either create classroom condi- member of the group, are critical outcomes tions that enhance opportunities for positive toward which attention must be directed if one social interactions between students with and is to fulfill the mandates for educational inclu- without disabilities or serve as barriers to them. sion laid out in Article 24 of the United Nations Parents, both of children with and without Conference on the Rights of Persons with Dis- disabilities, can accept and support the devel- abilities (2006). Providing opportunities for the opment of these relationships, or, as a result

development and maintenance of valued social of unjustified fears and anxieties, over-pro- relationships with peers is also critical because tectiveness and stereotypes and prejudices, many of the most effective instructional ap- interfere with the development and mainte- proaches to inclusive education are contingent nance of positive social interactions. Finally, we on positive peer-to-peer interaction. Through must acknowledge that social relationships are its ratification of the Convention on the Rights dyadic in nature. The peers of students with of Persons with Disabilities, the Government disabilities, if they are to mature into members

of the Republic of Armenia undertook to pro- of society who are able to see the ‘person first’ Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 153

and disability as only one of many characteris- in which children are not only physically and tics of an individual’s identity, will need to re-ex- academically included, but also experience amine their attitudes toward having classmates inclusion in the social and psychological sense. with disabilities and behavior that all too often For Giangreco, social and psychological inclu- excludes, bullies and harasses their fellow stu- sion refer to the extent to which students with dents. disabilities experience a sense of belonging in and out of the classroom during the school What Are Social and Psychological day and beyond. It reflects a situation in which all students, including students with disabili- Inclusion? ties, are considered to be full members of the Social and psychological inclusion start with school community and entitled to equal access the conviction that all children and youth have to social and academic opportunities (Keys, the right to develop and maintain friendships McMahon, & Viola, 2014). Social and psycholog- and other valued social relationships with peers ical inclusion are closely tied to practices that of their own choosing, experience a sense of support students with disabilities in developing belonging, and fully participate and develop the personal capacities associated with the de- a presence in the community. True social and velopment and maintenance of positive social psychological inclusion is achieved when stu- relationships and the provision of opportuni- dents with disabilities develop and maintain ties to connect with peers without disabilities supportive circles of friends whom they have on the basis of mutual choice. Teachers and chosen for themselves; experience friendships multidisciplinary team members are responsi- and other social relationships that move from ble for providing a balanced approach to edu- the contexts in which they were initially made cation. This involves supporting the develop- to new ones; experience the levels of emotional ment of both the academic and social aspects closeness they desire with their friends; experi- of a child’s life, including their social inclusion, ence a sense of belonging and respect in their social status and quality of relationships. It also schools and communities; and are no longer entails ensuring that the attitudes and behav- harassed, viewed as ‘special,’ or pitied but rath- iors of both educational staff and peers are er are treated in a manner similar to their peers supportive of positive outcomes within each without disabilities. Cobigo et al. (2012) defined of these areas. Although education makes a social inclusion well, contending that children critical contribution to the development of all must — children, it has a special significance for those • Experience a sense of belonging in a social with disabilities. Schools have the opportunity network within which they receive and con- to provide environments in which social inter- tribute support, action with peers and adults helps children with • Experience valued social roles and disabilities acquire new skills and capacities, greater self-confidence, and a sense of equality. • Ge trusted to perform those roles in the Social inclusion and psychological inclusion community. are complex constructs (see Figure 1 on page Walker et al. (2011) extended this definition 155), especially when one attempts to apply by adding societal factors, including the accep- them to children, youth and adults, with a wide tance of people with disabilities within school, variety of abilities and challenges that range work and community settings. from mild to severe. It is simplistic to think As Giangreco (2003) suggested, true inclu- of this aspect of inclusion as comprising only sion reflects a balanced approach to education 154 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

social relationships and friendships; it encom- equating disability with defect or pathology; un- passes far more than that and is key to chil- derstanding that disability is only one of many dren and youth with disabilities being viewed characteristics of an individual and not their full by society as fully engaged members of their identity; accepting persons for who they are communities. Social inclusion has value for with all their gifts and challenges; and sup- children and youth with disabilities as both an porting students to not just be in their school outcome and a process. It is about ensuring community but of their school community. that in school, at home and in the community, all children have opportunities to actively par- Opportunities to experience challenges ticipate as valued, respected and contributing and contribute individuals. In the context of inclusive educa- In order to reach their fullest potential, all tion, supporting social inclusion requires much children, with and without disabilities, require more than merely providing opportunities for opportunities to challenge themselves. Man- students with and without disabilities to be aging risk (we all experience rejection in social educated together. Rather than entailing the situations at some point in our lives), rather removal of barriers and risks, it requires cre- than attempting to limit challenges for fear a ating an inclusive school community in which child or youth will be emotionally damaged, diversity in all its forms is not only accepted, provides students with the chance to stretch but embraced and celebrated. It requires in- themselves and learn from all the outcomes vestments and action to bring about changes they experience. in false stereotypes among peers, parents and educators; creation of the understanding that we are more alike than different; and offering Engagement ongoing opportunities for all students to con- Having the right and the necessary supports tribute their gifts and leadership capacities to to become involved in the activities that one the group. desires and about which one is most passion- There are a number of different dimensions ate has an impact not only on social inclusion, of social and psychological inclusion (Donnel- but academic development as well. It increases ly and Coakley, 2002), all of which need to be the likelihood that students will stay engaged effectively addressed if one is to create the con- in their communities after school, educating ditions for authentic inclusion. These dimen- themselves about community problems, be- sions need to be made accessible to children coming actively involved in attempts to address and youth with disabilities in their three most them, and becoming advocates for good caus- important and interconnected microsystems es. This does not entail all students being treat- (or the environments in which they lead their ed equally, but rather, equitably, so that each daily lives) — family, school and peer group. has the opportunity to participate.

Valued recognition Access to inclusive environments Donnelly and Coakley (2002) use valued rec- In order to experience social inclusion, students ognition in reference to significant others in with disabilities need to have access to the children’s lives as well as other members of same environments as their typically develop- their community, conferring on them and the ing peers. This includes access to physical spac- group(s) to which they belong the recognition es such as playgrounds, where the principles of and respect they deserve. This includes not universal design for learning have been applied Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 155 and are accessible, as well as social spaces Why Support Social and where peers are most likely to congregate and Psychological Inclusion? socialize. Such access provides not only op- Social and psychological inclusion are just as portunities for social interactions but a chance critical outcomes to which to attend in edu- for children and youth to share their gifts and cation as including students with disabilities capacities with others. in an instructional or academic sense. The Figure 1. Components of Social and UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Psychological Inclusion Disabilities (2006) explicitly includes the social inclusion of persons with disabilities within the community as a fundamental right and responsibility of society (Quinn & Doyle, 2012). In addition, people of all ages with disabilities have themselves identified increased opportunities for friendship and community involvement as important goals (Abbott & McConkey, 2006; Kampert & Gorerczny, 2007). It is therefore the responsibility of our schools, youth organizations, community groups, and faith communities to take an active role in promoting the idea of social inclusion. However, students with disabilities continue to experience high rates of social isolation (Bigby, 2008; Chamber- lain, Kasari, & Rotheram-Fuller, 2007; Forrest- er-Jones et al., 2006; Milner & Kelly, 2009), with their social networks comprising mainly family members and professionals (Lippold & Burns, It is important to keep in mind that within 2009). each environment, there are simple things one The importance of supporting the social and can do to enhance the probability of social in- psychological inclusion of students with disabil- teraction and inclusion. One can arrange seat- ities extends beyond respecting an individual’s ing, activities and other aspects of the ecology basic rights as it is closely tied to the outcomes in a manner that encourages students to inter- experienced by children and youth both with act with each other or minimizes opportunities and without disability. Over the past several to socialize. Unfortunately, many educators decades, research has demonstrated that so- still arrange their classrooms with the latter in cial inclusion promotes happiness, self-esteem, mind, forgetting that much of the learning that self-confidence, and mental health (Forrest- occurs within school is based upon students er-Jones et al., 2006). Being socially included interacting with each other rather than with has been found to facilitate well-being in a vari- adults. Within the context of the school, howev- ety of ways (Johnson, Douglas, Bigby, & Iacono, er, educators have the opportunity to support 2012), as well as decision-making capacities positive social interaction between peers with (Johnson, Douglas, Bigby, & Iacono, 2009), with and without disabilities, their cooperation, and children attending inclusive schools developing the development within every single child a higher levels of personal and social responsibil- sense of belonging. ity than their segregated school peers (Hardi- 156 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

man, Guerin, & Fitzsimons, 2009). Experiencing skills and abilities of students who are actively a sense of social inclusion is a major influence engaged in inclusive activities. Social inclusion on successful adjustment to school (Buhs, also fulfills the aims of national and interna- Ladd, & Herald, 2006); ongoing participation tional public policies and mandates complying in peer groups (McElwain, Olson, & Volling, with the Convention on the Rights of Persons 2002), academic performance (Flook, Repetti, & with Disabilities and national policies (Cobigo et Ullman, 2005), the development of social skills al., 2012; Duggan & Linehan, 2013; Mahar et al., and social competence (Cole & Meyer, 1991; 2013; Martin & Cobigo, 2011; Overmars-Marx Fisher & Meyer, 2002; Fryxell & Kennedy, 1995; et al., 2014; Power, 2013; Quinn & Doyle, 2012). Hunt, Farron-Davis, Beckstead, Curtis, & Goetz, As many authors have argued, social inclusion 1994; Kennedy, Shukla, & Fryxell, 1997), and improves people’s lives — for people with and long-term social adjustment (Bagwell, Schmidt, without disabilities (Mahar, Cobigo, & Stuart, Newcomb, & Bukowski, 2001) in adulthood. 2013; Mansell, Elliott, Beadle-Brown, Ashman, & Research results indicate that individuals with Macdonald, 2002). disabilities who are socially included are, later in life, more likely to contribute to society Promoting Social and Psychological and be employed (Overmars-Marx et al., 2014; Power, 2013), as well as demonstrate an abili- Inclusion in Schools ty to overcome social exclusion when they do In Armenia and most other countries, today’s experience it (Mahar et al., 2013; McConkey teachers are responsible for the education & Collins, 2010a). They are less likely to live in of children without disabilities who possess poverty, be unemployed, and/or have poor a wide variety of learning styles and person- access to healthcare (Power, 2013). Higher lev- al capacities. The ratification of the UN CRPD els of social inclusion have also been found to (2006) by Armenia and the subsequent goals enhance community safety and protect individ- for inclusive education the country has set for uals with and without disabilities from abuse itself bring an additional group of children — (Power, 2013; Quinn & Doyle, 2012). Early social children with disabilities — into the education- acceptance by the peer group and accompany- al mix. Most general educators are currently ing social engagement with the peer group ap- ill prepared to include such children from an pears to be a facilitator of social competence. academic standpoint, with the result that social Conversely, early social rejection by peers and psychological outcomes of these students persists across the school years and is a strong often are given little thought or attention. As a predictor for poor outcomes in adulthood. result, teacher attitudes toward the inclusion Although most research in the area has fo- of students with disabilities have typically been cused on persons with disabilities, the benefits found to be less than fully supportive (Hastings of social and psychological inclusion also ex- & Oakford, 2003; Odom, 2000; Parsarum, 2006; tend to the nondisabled population. Research- Pivik, McComas, & LaFlanne, 2002). The re- ers have suggested that social inclusion can de- search results noted above, however, indicate crease negative attitudes, stereotypes, stigma that a balanced approach to the education of and discrimination against people with intel- children with and without disabilities needs to lectual and developmental disabilities (Johnson be taken if schools are to fulfill their obligations et al., 2009; Mahar et al., 2013; Power, 2013). to society. Within the school context, social inclusion has The outcomes associated with social inclu- also been found to increase the leadership sion are at least partially due to the fact that much of the learning that occurs in the lives Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 157 of each of us is not the result of the direct Vygotsky’s theories of learning are another teaching of educational personnel, but rather, reason to support the social and psychological from peers educating each other through the inclusion of students with special education powerful process of observational learning. needs within the school context. Adherents to First brought to the forefront in the early 1960s his conceptual framework place emphasis on through the work of Albert Bandura (1969) and the fact that many forms of instruction are best Walter Mischel (1972), 60 years of research pro- offered in mainstream social environments vides powerful evidence of the critical role that (e.g., the general education classroom). These modeling and observational learning plays in considerations do not disappear — rather, they the development of children’s social skills, em- are only amplified when children with signifi- pathy, altruistic behavior, intellectual develop- cant disabilities are involved (Gindis, 2003). Tak- ment and speech and language development. ing into account the potential impact of social The child with a disability who is educated in a relationships with peers, educational assistants homogeneous, segregated class or at a special and teachers on academic instruction, direct school is exposed to nowhere near the diversity attention needs to be paid to student-teacher in same-age role models as their counterpart and peer-to-peer social interactions, the man- who receives instruction within an inclusive ner in which seating and educational assistant classroom. One could argue, and the research arrangements often exclude students with dis- supports this point, that many stereotypical abilities from aspects of social interaction in the ‘disability’ behaviors are more a function of the classroom (Forman & McCormick, 1995), social segregated social contexts in which children positioning (Harrn & van Langenhove, 1999), and youth are educated than of the disability a and student-student power relationships. child experiences. In the effective inclusive classroom, all The general curriculum provides a natural students need to be highly engaged in ongo- context for peer-to-peer interaction as stu- ing conversations with teachers and peers if dents work together on shared learning tasks they are to learn effectively, and teachers must — providing a meaningful context for acquiring creatively employ a wide variety of participation social-related skills, accessing social supports, strategies that encourage active social inclusion meeting additional classmates and developing of all their students in order to maximize learn- new friendships. Improving the social relation- ing (Tharp, Estrada, Dalton, & Yamauchi, 2000). ships of students with disabilities has been an This has become especially true in countries ongoing concern of educators, parents and in which the traditional paradigm of teachers peers ever since the initial passage of legisla- lecturing students has been replaced by a more tion supporting a more inclusive approach to active set of activity-based learning strategies in education. However, students with special edu- which students collaborate with each other in cation needs, especially those with more signif- small groups, with a premium placed on par- icant disabilities, are among the most socially ticipation and contributing, as best as one can, isolated children and youth — an outcome that to group-based products. For students with a becomes more likely as they progress from el- variety of disabilities (e.g., intellectual disabili- ementary to secondary school (Carter, Hughes, ty; autism spectrum disorder; attention deficit Guth, & Copeland 2005; Marder, Wagner, & hyperactivity disorder), social skill instruction, Sumi, 2003). The social benefits of peer-mediat- including how to take turns, offer criticism and ed strategies are well documented (e.g., Carter provide support may need to be used to sup- & Hughes, 2005). port children and youth with disabilities actively 158 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

engaging and having the supports they need, family members and persons in the community whether these are of the natural variety from will be motivated and willing to work toward peers or from education professionals within this outcome. the classroom. Current trends, while placing greater re- Do not assume that physical presence sponsibility upon families to facilitate social will guarantee social and/or psychological inclusion, should not be viewed as making inclusion this goal impossible to reach. Determination, A physical presence in the general education creativity, and effective planning can support classroom is a necessary but not sufficient con- children and youth with disabilities to devel- dition for social and psychological inclusion op and maintain valued social relationships (Frea, Craig-Unkefer, Odom, & Johnson, 1999). with persons of their own choosing and to feel Schools and families need to work together psychologically included and accepted in their with students to create an atmosphere where schools and communities. It will, however, mutual understanding, respect and positive take a concerted effort on the part of teach- social interaction develop. ers, specialists, peers, parents, and students with disabilities themselves if this goal is to be achieved. Develop an action plan Given that social inclusion is a crucial devel- Taking the First Steps opmental outcome, it should be included in the ILP of every student with special education Although it can be a challenge to develop a needs. Starting early (e.g., the preschool years) classroom, school and community environment to plan for the creation of positive contexts in which all children with special education (e.g., play groups, after-school activities) for needs experience a sense of inclusion, such an positive social interactions and environments outcome can be achieved if teachers, special- in which a child’s disability is viewed as merely ists, school administrators and parents work one among his or her many characteristics is together to support students in achieving this critical. outcome. Over the course of the past 20–25 years, considerable knowledge has been accu- mulated on the part of educators who have at- Obtain administrative support tempted to foster this outcome. Careful consid- In order for social inclusion to take root, it must eration of this knowledge, a synopsis of which be supported at all levels of a school or com- is provided below, is a first step on the road to munity organization, starting with administra- enhanced social and psychological inclusion. tors. Begin by identifying administrators most likely to be supportive of promoting social and Believe that inclusion is possible psychological inclusion, and speak with them about how changing the culture of the school If enhancing the inclusion of students with to one that is more inclusive will benefit all stu- disabilities and other special education needs dents and the ways it ‘fits’ with the mission and is perceived as an impossible task, it is unlikely vision of the organization. that this goal will ever be reached. On the other hand, if inclusion is perceived as a ‘doable’ challenge, it is much more likely that all involved, including students with and without disabilities, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 159

Ensure the development of an inclusive an ongoing basis and greater opportunities school culture for meeting with and socially connecting with Schools in which students with special educa- others. tion needs experience social and psychological inclusion are characterized by an atmosphere Provide opportunities for choice and self- in which all aspects of diversity are not only determination accepted, but celebrated. Work with adminis- Students are much more likely to become trators, teachers and students will be necessary invested in activities and participate in them to change the cultures of schools that do not fit for extended periods if they have a choice in this description, with an emphasis placed not selecting the activities. This requires that they only on differences due to disability, but also be offered a variety of choices of inclusive activ- on those associated with other aspects of di- ities and allowed to select those in which they versity (e.g., socioeconomic status, ethnic/racial are most interested. All individuals also desire group membership; religious affiliation). to choose their own friends and to have others choose them. Respect the right of students to Make use of the resources you have choose their own friends, whether these are available, and create new ones when individuals with or without disabilities. necessary Making inclusion happen is hard work and Identify the strengths, gifts and capacities takes both effort and support. Give yourself of students the time to ensure that the necessary resourc- All too often it is assumed that students with es are available and that you can access them special education needs have few, if any, when needed. This will include developing strengths or gifts. Uncovering and letting others knowledge of existing resources in the school know the personal capacities of students with and community, including organizations and special education needs is critical to facilitating programs (both disability- and non-disability-fo- social and psychological inclusion. Such infor- cused), activities, and persons available in your mation has not only the potential to change school and community who can support work- peer attitudes, but can serve as one factor in ing toward this outcome. identifying potential activities designed to enhance inclusion. On an individual basis, identify activities for which students with disabilities have a Identify a champion or bridgebuilder passion A single individual has the capacity to enhance Friendships are most often developed between the degree to which a student with special individuals who share the same places and education needs is socially and psychologically have similar interests. One of the initial steps included. Identify such individuals among edu- in fostering enhanced social and psychological cational staff, peers and others, and inquire as inclusion is, therefore, to discover the passions to whether they might be interested in serving of the students with disabilities who you are in the role of a bridgebuilder. Such individuals working to include, and then finding students are often ‘social stars,’ serving as the hubs of without disabilities who are engaged in these extensive social networks, and can be a critical and similar activities. This approach ensures human resource. both motivation to take part in the activity on 160 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

Understand the perspectives and resourc- sphere/environment is critical because schools es available to families. An understanding of act as mirrors of the larger community. There the perspectives of parents about the social is a great opportunity to teach students with and psychological inclusion of their child with a different abilities early in their development as disability is critical if teachers are to effectively citizens — to help them to learn behavior that work with families to support the development will eventually help them to not only accept but of social relationships. Family support is need- cherish and celebrate a truly inclusive commu- ed to make social inclusion happen, but work- nity. Inclusive education is therefore both a phi- ing toward this goal comes with some risks losophy and a practice that allows each student that, if misunderstood by parents, can result in to feel respected, confident and safe, as well their failing to support efforts in this area. It is as develop to his own potential. This can only also critical to understand the capacity of fam- be accomplished when all students are socially ilies to provide at least some of the concrete and psychologically included. supports needed to make social and psycholog- In most countries, however, social inter- ical inclusion a reality, including program fees, actions between children with and without transportation and a willingness to allow their disabilities at an early age are quite limited. As family member with a disability to experience a result, by the time students enter school or some challenges. shortly thereafter, developing students have typically been found to have already begun Organization Inclusion: Creating an developing negative attitudes about their peers with disabilities. The attitudes of Irish (e.g., Inclusive School Culture Gash & Coffey, 1995), Dutch (Bakker, Denessen, Facilitating the acceptance of diversity at a Bosman, Krijger, & Bouts, 2007), Australian schoolwide level, including the development of (Thomas, Foreman, & Remenyi, 1985), Greek positive attitudes toward children with disabil- (Nikolaraizi, Kumar, Favazza, Sideridis, Koulou- ities, is critical in an era where national legis- siou, & Riall, 2005), Swedish (de Verdier, 2016), lation has moved schools toward educating Zambian (Nabuzoka & Rnning, 1997), and Unit- greater numbers of students with disabilities ed States (Lindsay & McPherson, 2012; Verdier, and special education needs within general 2016) children toward their peers with disabil- education settings. When children with and ities have all been studied, with similar find- without disabilities grow up together and have ings: Attitudes develop quite early in childhood a history of social interaction, diversity with (Innes & Diamond, 1999). They are shaped by respect to personal capacities tends to be ac- teachers’ and parents’ beliefs (Gollnick & Chinn, cepted. Peers demonstrate understanding for 2002) and tend to become progressively nega- individual differences. In their play and other tive over time (Ferguson, 1999; Swaim & Mor- interactions, these differences are taken into gan, 2001). Children between the ages of 3 and account, and young children are quite support- 12 already prefer being in proximity to typically ive of each other. developing peers over peers with disabilities A truly inclusive school starts from the (Nowicki & Sandieson, 2002). Students with premise that all students, staff and adminis- disabilities experience lower centrality, accep- trators experience a sense of belonging, are tance, companionship and reciprocity; greater supported to realize their potential, and are rejection; and significantly less intimacy in their able to contribute to the life of the school relationships than their typically developing community. Creating an inclusive school atmo- peers (Bakker, Denessen, Bosman, Krijger, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 161

& Bouts, 2007; Bossaert, Colpin, Pijl, & Petry; • Provision of opportunities for all students 2015; Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotheram-Fuller, to participate in events aimed at developing 2007; Kasari, Gulsrud, & Rotheram-Fuller, 2011; schoolwide community spirit (Carreiro King, Koster, Pijl, Nakken, & Van Houten, 2010; Ruijs 2003; Cornelius & Herrenkohl, 2004; Erwin & & Peetsma, 2009). Furthermore, there is evi- Guintini, 2000; Parsons, 2003). dence that proximity to peers who have dis- Work undertaken by the SWIFT (Schoolwide abilities (e.g., in inclusive school settings) does Integrated Framework for Transformation) not always result in positive attitudes (Bakker Education Center at the University of Kansas & Bosman, 2003; Gallagher et al., 2000; Ochs, in the United States (Sailor & McCart, 2014) Kremer-Sadlik, Solomon, & Gainer Sirota, 2001) underlines the critical role that school adminis- with a number of investigations suggesting that trators play in creating a culture that supports children will interact with peers who have dis- inclusion. Site leadership has been identified abilities only in structured settings where they by this group as laying a strong foundation to are encouraged explicitly to interact together transform school culture (Hoppey & McLeskey, (Frea, Craig- Unkefer, Odom, & Johnson, 1999). 2010; Shogren, McCart, Lyon, & Sailor, 2015). Based on these findings, it is critical that Strong and engaged school administrators and administrators, general and special educators, other leadership staff set a vision for the work teachers, parents and students work together that needs to be done to change school cul- to establish and maintain an inclusive school ture, and they both model and provide a visible culture. Referred to as organizational inclusion, commitment to ensuring a respect for diversity this means the extent to which inclusion is and the social inclusion of students with special explicitly incorporated into the mission and education needs. Working within a team-based values of the school and supported by school approach, such teams mobilize the resources leaders, staff and teachers through communi- necessary to create positive change within the cation, professional development and practice school, and they monitor progress, fidelity of (McMahon, Keys, Berardi, Crouch, & Coker, implementation and next steps for continuous 2016). Attributes of school culture underly- improvement (McCart, Sailor, Bezdek, & Satter, ing the social and psychological inclusion of 2014). Effective school administrators support disabilities and other special education needs the need for creating communities of learning include — focused on making a school truly inclusive, and • Celebrating diversity in all its forms; they engage teachers, families and students in • Valuing student voices; this process. Creating an inclusive school will • Providing opportunities for students and not be successful without embracing the diver- staff to share their abilities and capacities sity that each student brings to the school and with others; without including every student, educator and parent. Schools must ensure that all differenc- • Authority sharing; es are respected and provide students and staff • Accountability of students to each other; with opportunities for learning about diverse • An understanding of disability and disabili- perspectives, experiences and knowledge (Cre- ty-related issues as part of school prepara- ating an Inclusive School, 2011). tion for inclusive education; A second critical part of creating an inclu- • Participation in shared routines and activi- sive school culture entails efforts to create and ties; maintain effective educator support systems (McCart et al., 2014). These include — 162 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

• Teacher access to programs that support en- influenced to reflect greater acceptance (Lewis, hanced social and psychological inclusion; 1995). These are the results of studies focused • An understanding among staff, parents and on interventions implemented through a vari- students of the critical components under- ety of media, including video (e.g., Siperstein, lying an inclusive culture and its impact on Bak, & O’Keefe, 1988), information about the learning and disability (e.g., Swaim & Morgan, 2001), drama (e.g., Gash & Coffey, 1995), discussion (e.g., • Sufficient learning experiences for teachers, Gash, 1992), readalouds (e.g., Trepanier-Street parents and students that support the de- & Romatowski, 1996) and structured interac- velopment of a deep understanding of the tions (e.g., Favazza, Phillipsen, & Kumar, 2000). importance of accepting, valuing and cele- There are various ways to support student brating diversity as well as a view of disabili- attitudinal change. Children’s literature has ty as but one aspect of diversity. been used for some time to promote positive Through developing high-quality supports attitudes toward persons with disabilities. Hag- in these areas, educational administrators and ino (1980) was among the first to suggest that other leaders have the capacity to initiate real children’s literature that includes individuals change in their schools with respect to the with disabilities depicted in a positive but realis- manner in which staff and students respond tic manner might be woven into the curriculum to and value students with special education to promote acceptance of peers with disabili- needs. This type of change sets the ground- ties. Trepanier-Street and Romatowski (1996) work for the success of school-based programs as well as Nabuzoka & Rnning (1997) used designed to provide all students with the op- children’s literature in a classroom intervention portunity to develop valued social relationships that positively influenced students’ attitudes and experience a sense of belonging. In their toward peers with disabilities. study of the inclusion of students with disabil- Another approach for teaching students ities from urban schools in the United States, about diversity and disability that can be used McMahon et al. (2016) found that organization- along with children’s literature is guided dis- al inclusion was associated with greater stu- cussion. This approach attempts to link the dent satisfaction with their school and stronger literature in question to the everyday lives of feelings of school belonging. This result is con- students. Guided discussion can be used as an sistent with previous research that has found additive, or embedded, activity with students that an organizational focus on the profession- and teachers — al development of general education teachers • Discussing story content (facts), is likely to improve teacher attitudes toward • The roles (and their accuracy) of children inclusion and may therefore improve student with disabilities, outcomes indirectly (Mintz, 2007; Winter, 2006). • Relating the story to the past experiences of students, School-Based Programs Designed • Highlighting similarities between the charac- to Support Social and Psychological ter with disabilities and student readers, Inclusion • Discussing any supports received by the In spite of multiple research efforts document- characters with assistive technology and ing the bias of typically developing students their relevance to the concept of equity, and toward their peers with disabilities, the literature also shows that children’s attitudes can be Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 163

• Envisioning future experiences students been to support the enhanced social and might have with their peers with disabilities psychological inclusion of students with spe- (Favazza & Odom, 1997). cial education needs. Some of these are peer mediated. Others are educator led and, while A third approach that has been used quite having a social inclusion component, also focus frequently in the United States and Canada to on academic outcomes. support the development of positive attitudes toward peers with disabilities among younger children is puppet shows. Two widely used pup- Peer-mediated interventions (PMI) pet programs are the Kids on the Block puppet PMI is a strategy through which typically de- group (Aiello, 1988; Dunst, 2012, 2014) and veloping peers are trained to interact with the Count Me In puppet program (Goldberg et students with disabilities and support them in al., 1981; PACER Center, 2011). Both programs a wide variety of areas (Bass & Mulick, 2007; include the use of large puppets representing Chan et al., 2009). PMI may involve peers in children with a variety of disabilities as well as the instructional process (Peer-Assisted Learning other aspects of diversity. The programs pro- Strategies — PALS), behavioral interventions, vide scripts for each puppet designed to pro- and/or social inclusion (e.g., Circle of Friends - mote awareness of disabilities, correct miscon- Perske & Perske, 1988; Yes I Can Social Inclusion ceptions, provide accurate information about Program, Abery, Schoeller, Simunds, Gaylord, & each child’s abilities and disability and allow Fahnestock, 1997). for a question-and-answer period. Aiello (1988) reported that the Kids on the Block puppet show Circle of Friends was an effective method for achieving attitude The Circle of Friends (CoF) (Perske and Per- and knowledge change. In two different studies as well as a meta-analysis, Dunst (2012, 2014) ske, 1988) approach originated in Canada in found that Kids on the Block performances had the late 1980s and, while initially developed to a positive impact on knowledge and attitudes support the inclusion of adults with disabilities toward disability of second-, third- and fourth- in their local communities, has been used for grade students. Her meta-analysis (Dunst, years to enhance the inclusion of students with 2014) of twenty studies found these programs special educational needs in the general educa- to have a small to moderate impact on student tion context. CoF is a specific form of PMI with attitudes. the goal of facilitating the inclusion of students with special education needs through recruiting their peer group as a source of support (Kalyva Programmatic Approaches to & Avramidis, 2005). The goals of CoF are to — Fostering Social and Psychological • Provide the student with special education Inclusion needs with opportunities for social interac- Although social inclusion may vary as a function to facilitate social skills development, tion of the severity of a student’s disability, all • Identify challenges the student experiences students need to be provided with opportuni- socially and develop strategies to help over- ties to connect with their peers and develop come them and a sense of acceptance and belonging in their • Provide social-emotional and other sources schools, communities and classrooms. Over of support to the student with the goal of the past three decades, a number of programs have been developed, the goal of which has 164 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

helping the to experience a sense of belong- 2008; Newton, et al., 1996; Pearpoint & Forest, ing. 1992; Taylor, 1996) and analysis of participant perspectives and impressions (Taylor & Burden, The goal of CoF is to provide a pathway for stu- 2000; Whitaker, Barratt, Joy, Potter, & Thomas, dents with disabilities to enter into and become 1998) suggest that this approach holds much accepted into the school’s social networks promise. More formal research efforts related (Schleien, Green, & Stone, 2003). to the program indicate that it has a positive Perske and Perske (1988) and Taylor (1997) effect on the social acceptance of students with have outlined a four-phase process of forming disabilities and enhances their sense of self- a Circle of Friends — worth (Frederickson & Turner, 2003; Noah & 1. Setting the foundation. This phase of de- Turner, 2003). At a variety of education levels velopment focuses on recruiting supportive (elementary, middle and high school), the teachers, providing them with training and program has been found to support students committing 30 minutes of their time each with disabilities in developing more supportive week to meet with the Circle. social networks (Miller, Cooke, Test, & White, 2. Recruiting potential peer mentors. At this 2003). More recently, Schlieder, Maldonado, phase, supporting teachers meet with a and Baltes (2014) found that participation in group of typically developing peers they the CoF program facilitated peer acceptance believe might have an interest in serving and respect for classmates with disabilities and as mentors to discuss the focus child’s helped alleviate feelings of fear peers expe- strengths and challenges and the respon- rienced toward such students. Participants sibilities of serving in this role, and to invite reported an increase in peers’ understanding of peers to voluntarily participate in the Circle. classmates with disabilities as well as increased 3. Establishing the Circle. During this phase of empathy and understanding for the CoF target development, a group of six to eight typical- student. The CoF fostered true social and psy- ly developing peers who agree to take part chological inclusion, with enhanced peer accep- in the CoF collaborative problem-solving tance generalizing outside the school setting model and the target student with special and fostering long-term friendships. education needs is established. Yes I Can social inclusion program. In con- 4. Maintaining the Circle. Typically developing trast to the unstructured CoF program, the Yes peers, the focus student and an educator I Can Social Inclusion Program (YIC) is a year- who acts as a facilitator then meet on a long, structured program for secondary school once per week basis to review progress, students facilitated by one or two educators identify challenges and plan ways to solve that is intended to be embedded into general problems. Working with the group, the education classes or implemented as an af- target child is encouraged to envision what ter-school club. The goals of the program are he or she would like social experiences with to provide students with significant disabilities others to look and feel like. Goals are iden- with the supported needed to access social, tified and actions plans developed through recreational and leisure activities of interest group problem solving to support the at- and through these interests develop and main- tainment of goals. tain social relationships based upon mutual choice. Qualitative evaluations of the CoF program The YIC program is based on the concept using case-study methodologies (Calabrese, that typically developing students can be edu- Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, Hummel, & Nance, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 165 cated to serve as effective bridgebuilders for ties of interest, meet and develop relationships peers with disabilities if provided with appro- with peers who have similar interests and work priate education and supports. The multiphase to ensure that these relationships generalize program is implemented over the course of to settings outside of their original context. an entire school year, with students with and Bridgebuilders receive instruction both with without disabilities meeting on a weekly basis respect to how to facilitate relationships as to learn from and about each other; to iden- well as how to fade supports when they are no tify, plan for and actively take part in social longer necessary. activities both within and outside of the school The YIC program has been implemented context; and to facilitate the development of in over 235 schools in the United States and social relationships. During the initial phases of Canada at the middle and high school level. the program, students take part in a series of Extensive field testing (Abery & Schoeller, 1997; activities intended to facilitate their — Abery & Simunds, 1997) has shown that par- • Understanding of disability and disability-re- ticipation in the program increases acceptance lated issues: the commonalities that exist and an understanding of disability and disabili- between people with disabilities and those ty-related issues on the part of peers; increases who are currently able-bodied; the size, emotional closeness/intimacy and quality of relationships that form the social • The strengths, gifts and capacities they all networks of participating students with disabil- possess and strategies for identifying bar- ities; and enhances feelings of social connect- riers to the development of social relation- edness and belonging among students with ships and their removal or minimization; special education needs who have taken part • The concepts of universal design for learning in the program. Especially encouraging is that and participation; these results held both immediately following • Action planning; and nine months after students had completed • Their common interests and passions. participation in the program. Typically developing peers subsequently receive instruction as to how they can serve as Educator-Led Programmatic bridgebuilders for their partner with a disabil- Interventions ity, helping them access and actively take part The peer-mediated social inclusion programs in school- and community-based activities that highlighted in this chapter have been shown to have the potential to serve as contexts for the improve the social outcomes of students with development of social relationships. Although a wide range of special education needs, but bridgebuilders often become close friends with they have a number of shortcomings. First and their partner with disabilities, they are instruct- foremost is that these programs place students ed that their primary role is to remove barriers with disabilities in what might be referred to as to participation and support their partner in ac- ‘vertical’ relationships, as recipients of supports. cessing activities in which they have an interest In such relationships, there is the potential for in participating both parties to view the relationship as having Following training, one or more bridgebuild- a hierarchical structure, where students fail to ers are paired with a peer with a disability who view each other as equals. A second weakness has similar interests. Over the course of the of such programs is that they do little to change year, the student pairs work together to access the perceptions of the community in relation and actively take part in programs and activi- to students with special education needs, with 166 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

members of this group still viewed as recipients Figure 2. Characteristics of High-Quality of supports and users of resources rather than Inclusive Service Learning as members of the community who can contribute to it in a positive fashion. If social and psychological inclusion is to be realized, effective strategies are needed to alter the attitudes of administrators, teachers and peers toward students with disabilities and the overall school culture (Chamberlain, Kasari, & Rotheram-Full- er, 2007; Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007). Students with special education needs must be viewed as individuals who have talents, gifts and abilities as well as the capacity to give something back to their school and community. Inclusive service learning, a relatively new approach developed specifically as a support to inclusive education, has the potential to fill that Reflection and integrated learning need. A critical component of ISL is that service projects are linked directly to academic ob- Inclusive service learning (ISL) jectives in such a way that classroom learning Inclusive service learning is a method of bring- contributes to service, which in turn enhances ing together students with and without special classroom learning. A key instructional strategy education needs and providing instruction and that allows for this approach is the reflection other experiences in a manner that explicitly process, in which students are encouraged to connects classroom lessons with meaning- understand their experiences through a variety ful service to the community (CNCS, 2007). It of activities. Reflection can take the form of dis- promotes students developing academic skills cussion, journal writing, debate, letter writing while they serve their communities by address- or making informational videos. ing genuine needs. ISL includes reflection on both service activities and the skills and knowl- Problem-based learning focused on edge acquired or affirmed during them. Be- significant benefit and genuine need cause of the emphasis on active learning in re- A key feature of ISL is its focus on learning al-life settings, ISL has the potential to reach all through supporting students to address real learners, both because of its explicit academic community problems. This approach, drawn focus and the extent to which the philosophy from problem-based learning (PBL), involves of inclusion is integrated into the program. students working in teams and learning by High-quality ISL (see Figure 2 in the next column) solving real problems based upon community includes the following features — needs. Teachers function as guides — asking questions, raising issues and ensuring participation. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 167

Student voice Inclusion and belonging Student ‘voice,’ an essential element based on ISL places an emphasis on embracing diversity the premise that educational outcomes are by structuring the process to embrace all stu- optimized when students have the opportunity dents. By working together to address common to exercise self-determination (SD) over compo- problems, students learn about each other, dis- nents of the learning environment and engage covering the gifts, capacities and talents each in autonomous, self-regulated learning. possesses as well as their commonalities. The Together We Make a Difference: An Inclu- Collaboration sive Service Learning Curriculum, (Abery, Halpin, Iland, Braun, & Stenhjem, 2012; Vandercook & One of the hallmarks of effective SL is the use Montie, 2010) is a year-long ISL program that of collaborative, cooperative learning (CL) strat- closely follows ISL Standards for Quality Prac- egies. CL involves more than students work- tice (NYLC, 2008). The structure and sequence ing together on a project: It requires teachers of ISL program lessons are based on the char- to structure cooperative interdependence acteristics of high-quality SL (Kaye, 2004), and among students. Elements of CL include pos- the program is available in both elementary itive interdependence, equal participation, and secondary school editions. The program individual accountability and simultaneous has a structured format and is intended to be interaction. infused into the daily curriculum. Participants learn how to connect with their community; Civic engagement and responsibility conduct research via PBL; confirm their con- Students today are less likely than in the past clusions; and plan, implement and evaluate ISL to understand the responsibilities if citizenship projects. The program has three phases — (Flanagan & Levine, 2010). Civic engagement 1. Building community; is therefore a critical aspect of ISL and builds 2. Building capacity, planning and needed social capital (i.e., connections to one’s implementing and community). 3. Communicating and celebrating (see Figure 3 below). Figure 3. Phases of Service Learning

Build Community Phase I.

Reflect Reflect Build Capacity, Plan, & Implement Phase II.

Reflect Reflect Communicate & Phase II. Celebrate 168 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

Phases are designed to introduce ISL and countries in which the traditional paradigm of prerequisite skills in an explicit manner and do teachers lecturing students has been replaced not assume that students already possess the by a more active approach that focuses on ability to undertake effective SL (Neiberger & problem-solving and activity-based learning Zurcher, 2012; Ragsdale & Saylor, 2012). An ad- through which students regularly collaborate ditional reason for the structure of the curric- with each other in small groups. For students ulum is to promote implementation with high with a variety of disabilities (e.g., intellectual fidelity such that it can be effectively delivered disability; autism spectrum disorder), such in- by any high-quality teacher. teractions may not, at first, come naturally, and Evidence with respect to the effectiveness supports will be needed. Fortunately, there are of the Together We Make a Difference pro- a number of strategies that teachers can use gram was generated in a quasi-experimental on a daily basis within the classroom that will study in 2008–09 with 14 schools in three U.S. increase the likelihood of social and psycholog- states (Minnesota, California and North Caro- ical inclusion. lina) with over 365 elementary and secondary Prepare the class. It is best if classroom students taking part (Abery & Halpin, 2009). teachers assume that their typically developing Results indicated significant pre- and post-test students have little understanding of disability differences between treatment and compari- and how it may impact social interaction. It is son groups with respect to self-determination, also likely that peers will have questions about social inclusion and civic responsibility. In addi- students with disabilities who are in their class- tion, although no significant differences in oral es. Having an honest discussion with students reading fluency were reported, both behavioral at the beginning of the school year about the observation and teacher reports indicated sig- specific disabilities of their classmates and de- nificantly higher student academic engagement bunking or challenging any myths and miscon- among members of the ISL groups, both during ceptions they hold will increase the likelihood ISL lessons as well as other academic subjects. of creating an inclusive classroom atmosphere. Additional research on SL has demonstrated If the general education teacher does not pos- that it can engage high-risk students; prevent sess sufficient knowledge of students’ disabili- dropout; and facilitate academic achievement, ties to engage in a discussion with the class, the civic engagement and social responsibility (Billig school counselor or psychologist can be helpful & Grimley, 2008; Dávila & Marie, 2007; Scales & in preparing the group and in discussing the Roehlkepartain, 2005). benefits of positive peer relationships. Set behavioral expectations. At the begin- Classroom Instructional Strategies ning of the school year and on a regular basis thereafter, it is it important to discuss behav- to Foster Social and Psychological ioral expectations with the class and encourage Inclusion respectful social interaction between students, In the effective inclusive classroom, all students with and without special education needs. need, on an ongoing basis, to be highly engaged in ongoing conversations with teachers Utilize cooperative learning strategies and peers, and teachers must creatively em- In courses taught in a traditional lecture for- ploy a wide variety of participation strategies mat, students with and without disabilities have that encourage active social and psychological little opportunity to interact and learn from inclusion. This has become especially true in each other. The use of cooperative learning Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 169 strategies and problem-solving-based learning for students with special education needs to approaches in which students are teamed for participate in these groups in a noncompetitive activities and must share ideas and materials fashion (without tryouts or auditions) in extra- and work together to develop project products curricular activities. provides an opportunity for all students to get to know each other. Such learning teams can Cultivate personal relationships with be structured such that individual goals are es- students tablished for each student and all participants Connecting informally with all students in the have the opportunity to contribute to the best class and providing brief, positive feedback (i.e., of their ability. In the classroom, avoid competi- reinforcement) for appropriate behavior (e.g., “I tion among students. really liked the way you handled that situation”) will support the establishment of positive rela- Use bridgebuilders tionships that increase the likelihood of both In every class, teachers can typically pick out students feeling safe and experiencing a sense two or three ‘social stars.’ These are students of belonging in the classroom. This also makes who have well-developed social skills and are it more likely that students will provide honest often at the hub of social networks. Request- feedback regarding their experience at school. ing that such students serve as bridgebuilders for their peers with special education needs Model respect, acceptance and an and support them, when necessary, in social appreciation of diversity, including situations increases the likelihood of positive disability peer-to-peer connections developing and being maintained. The support provided by bridge- As Kochhar, West and Taymans (2000) suggest-

builders not only enables students with disabil- ed, the most important influence on classroom ities to make a greater number of social con- relationships and social acceptance of diversity nections but supports their ability to effectively is the attitude and behavior of the teacher. The respond to social challenges; degree to which a teacher models acceptance of students with special education needs and treats them in a fair and equitable manner Utilize a lunchtime peer support system directly relates to the attitudes and behaviors The experience of social isolation on the part of students. of students with special education needs is often greatest during nonstructured periods, including lunch time. Establishing a voluntary, Summary rotating lunchtime buddy or support system In this chapter, readers are introduced to the (especially helpful for younger students) will concepts of social and psychological inclusion, help students avoid this negative experience. and the case is made for a balanced approach to education that focuses on both academic and social–psychological outcomes. Evidence Support participation in nonacademic is provided as to the importance of social–psy- school activities chological inclusion, and the point is made that Most schools today have a variety of nonac- students with special education needs often ademic activities (e.g., after-school organiza- fail to experience a sense of acceptance and tions; choirs and other musical groups in which belonging when they are included within gen- student can take part). Provide opportunities eral education classes. In the second half of the 170 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

chapter, a variety of approaches at different wish to be more among people and participate levels of the educational system are provided in different activities increased. As years went that have been found by research to enhance by, thanks to the attitude of our parents, peo- the experience inclusion. These include efforts ple learned not to pity and avoid us, but value to change the culture of schools and student us as human beings and see our abilities. Our attitudes related to disability so that they are community center, which operates based on more supportive of the social and psychological the principle that all children are able, played a inclusion of students with special education great role in our life. Using the services of the needs; programmatic approaches to support- center, we came to understand that although ing social–psychological inclusion, e.g. peer-me- education has a special significance for our diated (Circle of Friends and Yes I Can) and lives, we need the opportunity to interact with teacher-mediated (Together We Make a Differ- a variety of other people. As we participated in ence) programs; and strategies that individual center activities, our circle of friends and ac- teachers can employ in their classrooms on a quaintances started to grow; we started to see daily basis. ourselves in a new light, acquiring new skills Supporting the social and psychological and abilities. All of this inspired us with greater inclusion of students with special needs is a big self-confidence, and we started feeling that, responsibility for teachers and other education- while we are different, we are also equal to all. al staff. At times, this aspect of inclusive educa- Unfortunately, many children with disabil- tion tends to get forgotten, given all that must ities in Armenia and elsewhere in the world be done to include students with special needs have not had the same opportunities as us. from an instructional standpoint. Thirty years Many do not go to preschool or school, are of research, however, suggests that this aspect not engaged in sports and arts, do not have of inclusive education is just as critical for later friends, and do not even leave home. It is very student outcomes as its academic counterpart. painful for us that, because of their disabilities, General and special education teachers, school many children throughout the world are placed psychologists, social workers and other school in orphanages. Without the love and endless staff must therefore understand and have the warmth of our father and mother who, despite capacity to support this part of the inclusive all of the medical diagnoses and reports of education equation. poor prognoses, saw our potential and believed in us, we would be doomed to an isolated and Case Study inadequate life. Whereas now, we not only are finishing school, but intend to enter the uni- The sample is taken from ‘It’s about Inclusion’ versity and become skilled professionals. It is Access to Education, Health, and Social Protec- our wish that for all children with disabilities, tion Services for Children with Disabilities in the doors of all schools and other facilities are Armenia, UNICEF (2012). open, so that they, surrounded with warmth We are twin sisters Ruzanna and Suzanna and support from their family, friends and from Koghb village of Tavoush region. Despite acquaintances, are supported to confidently having many musculoskeletal problems, with search, find and ensure their place and role in the effort of our parents we started going to society. We want an accessible environment school. We felt different from other children and a society that is inclusive: academically, so- but were able to overcome the fear of not be- cially and psychologically. We want a world free ing understood and being isolated. Studying in of barriers and discrimination for all of us. a mainstream school, we felt confident, and the Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 171

Tips for Teachers • School leadership teams need to work to

• Hold daily classroom meetings each morn- ensure that faculty and support staff have

ing with students to help build a sense of access to resources needed to effectively community and provide opportunities for support the social and psychological in- conversation among students. Ask students clusion of students with special education to share something of interest they have ob- needs. This includes access to professional served or done with each other during these development activities as well as program- sessions. matic and curricular materials. • Provide at least some unstructured time each day when students can practice their Reflection Questions social skills with peers and experience feed- • What are the similarities and differences back. between the concepts of social and psycho- • Assign a peer advocate or bridge builder logical inclusion? to students with disabilities in your class. • Discuss some of the strategies that educa- Support these typically developing peers to tors can use to ensure that the culture of a acquire the skills necessary to support the school is supportive of the social and psy- social and psychological inclusion of stu- chological inclusion of students with special dents with special education needs. education needs. • Make sure that on an ongoing basis you • What are some of the approaches that re- observe and reinforce positive, respectful search has demonstrated are effective strat- behaviors and social interactions that take egies for changing the attitudes of typically place between students in your class, with developing students toward their peers with and without special education needs. special education needs? • Consider the different programmatic ap- Thoughts for Leaders proaches to supporting the social and psy- • School administrators have the potential to chological inclusion of students with special have an enormous influence with respect to education needs. Taking into consideration the extent that their schools develop an in- the characteristics of students with autism clusive culture. Modeling inclusive practices spectrum disorders, select one approach and decision-making for students and staff and provide a rationale for why you think is a critical aspect of this process. it would be supportive of the inclusion of a student with this disability. • Working within the context of a team-based approach, school administrators have the capacity to mobilize the resources necessary Additional Resources to create positive change within the school Acevedo, E.V. (2014). Maintaining an inclusive en- through developing inclusive leadership vironment for students with learning disabil- teams composed of teachers, parents and ities: Taking a look at social inclusion strate- students. These teams can take the initiative gies. Retrieved from https://tspace.library. in organizing events and suggesting practic- utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/66992/1/Acev- es that further the social and psychological edo_Erika_V_201406_MT_MTRP.pdf inclusion of students with disabilities. Cara, M. (2013). Academic and social outcomes of children with SEN in the gen- 172 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ]

eral education classroom. http:// inclusion of students with special educa- citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?- tion needs through recruiting their peer doi=10.1.1.912.3183&rep=rep1&type=pdf group as a source of support. Facilitating social inclusion. University of Virginia Engagement — The extent to which individu- College of Education faculty.virginia.edu/ als are involved in the activities that they ape/LectureNotes/Attitudes-SocialInclu- desire and about which they are most sion.ppt passionate. Engagement supports focus, Inclusion of students with special educational goal setting and the achievement of one’s needs: Post-primary guidelines. https:// goals. Supporting engagement does not www.education.ie/en/Publications/Inspec- entail all students being treated equally, tion-Reports-Publications/Evaluation-Re- but rather, equitably, so that each has the ports-Guidelines/insp_inclusion_students_ opportunity to participate. sp_ed_needs_pp_guidelines_pdf Inclusive service learning — A method of bring- Konza, D. (2008). Inclusion of students with ing together students with and without disabilities in new times: Responding to the special education needs and providing challenge. http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/view- instruction and other experiences in a content.cgi?article=1036&context=edupa- manner that explicitly connects classroom pers lessons with meaningful service to the community. Maintaining an inclusive environment for students with learning disabilities: Tak- Integrated learning — A critical component ing a look at social inclusion strategies. of inclusive service learning programs, https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/ in which the student community service bitstream/1807/66992/1/Acevedo_Eri- projects are linked directly to academic ka_V_201406_MT_MTRP.pdf objectives in a manner in which classroom learning contributes to service, which in Social inclusion. https://inclusiveschools.org/cat- turn enhances classroom learning. egory/resources/social-inclusion/ Observational learning — Observational learn- Wang, H. L. (2009). Should all students with spe- ing refers to learning that occurs through cial educational needs (SEN) be included in observing the behavior of others. It is a mainstream education provision? - A critical form of social learning and takes various analysis. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ forms, based on a variety of processes. EJ1065757.pdf Observational learning does not require Why social inclusion? NBACL. https://nbacl.nb. reinforcement to occur, but rather is con- ca/module-pages/why-social-inclusion/ tingent upon access to social networks, such as a parents, siblings, friends, class- Glossary mates or teachers within the environmental context. Bridge builder — A person with well-developed social skills at the hub of social networks Peer-mediated intervention — A strategy who serves to link and connect students through which typically developing peers with special education needs with peers are trained to interact with students with and activities. disabilities and support them in a wide variety of areas. Circle of Friends — A form of peer-mediated intervention with the goal of facilitating the Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 11 ] 173

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Walker, H. M., Calkins, C., Wehmeyer, M. L., Walker, L., Bacon, A., Palmer, S. B., & Abery, B. H. (2011). A social-ecological approach to promote self-determination. Exceptionality, 19(1), 6–18. Whitaker, P., Barratt, P., Joy, H., Potter, M., & Thomas, G. (1998). Children with autism and peer group support: using ‘circles of friends.’ British Journal of Special Education, 25(2), 60–64. Winter, E. C. (2006). Preparing new teachers for inclusive schools and classrooms. Support for Learning, 21(2), 85–91. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 179

CHAPTER 12: Supporting the Self-Determination of Students with Special Education Needs in the Inclusive Classroom

Brian H. Abery, University of Minnesota Lilit Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University

Self-determination is closely related to the quality of life of children and youth with disabilities and their success academically and later in work settings. Supporting self- determination begins in the family and needs to continue in the school context. 180 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What unique contribution does self-determination make to the development of students with special education needs? • What are the differences between personal control, autonomy and self-determination? • What are the common barriers to self-determination faced by students with special education needs in school and the family? • In what ways can schools support students with special education needs to develop those capacities that support self-determination?

Introduction of those competencies supportive of self-de- Self-determination is a key educational outcome termination at home and school. In addition, for all students, with and without disabilities. approaches designed to support the ecology of It increases the likelihood of high levels of self-determination via creating environments academic achievement while in school and of that provide opportunities and support for it individuals taking part in postsecondary educa- exercise are discussed. tion, succeeding in employment and becoming engaged in the community in adulthood. If Overview and Background they are to be successfully included educa- Self-determination, especially as it applies to tionally and within the community, children persons with disabilities, is a relatively new and youth, regardless of their abilities, must concept in Armenia. The construct, however, acquire the capacities that allow them to de- can trace its historical roots back to the English termine their own life courses. All too often, philosopher John Locke, who, in his Two Trea- however, children and youth with disabilities tises of Government (1690), suggested that the receive fewer opportunities to acquire critical basic rights of all human beings included their skills, knowledge, and attitudes and beliefs that freedom, equality and power to execute their support self-determined life outcomes as well will. When the construct was applied to per- as exercise control over their lives. Parents, sons with disabilities in the United States in the teachers — from preschool to postsecondary 1980s and 1990s, it was within the context of levels — and peers all have the potential to play the civil rights and disability rights movements a critical role supporting the self-determination as well as a major push for parent advocacy of children and youth with disabilities. They can and the self-advocacy of persons with disabil- also, however, serve as barriers to achieving ities. Within this historical context, self-deter- this outcome. In this chapter, we explore the mination, or the right of all persons, including concept of self-determination from a develop- those with disabilities, to control their own lives mental perspective, why it is important to all was quickly embraced as a key factor associat- individuals, and the myths, barriers and chal- ed with quality of life. Adoption of the concept lenges children and youth with disabilities face within Armenia and its contribution to the ed- in achieving this valued outcome. We share ucational and community inclusion of children, evidence-based strategies that educational youth and adults with disabilities may take a research has demonstrated have the potential bit longer. Because Armenia is a country with to support the development and refinement a decidedly different history and geography, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 181 it has been only in recent years that a concen- recent writings, Wehmeyer and his colleagues trated effort has been made there to protect (Shogren et al., 2015) have extended their the rights, including the right to an inclusive functional model to incorporate causal agency education and self-determination, of persons theory (FM-CAT), and they now define self-deter- with disabilities. With parent and self-advocacy mination as a “dispositional characteristic mani- movements still in their early stages, individuals fested as acting as the causal agent in one’s with disabilities in the country are just begin- life. Self-determined people (i.e., causal agents) ning to assert their rights to attend inclusive act in service to freely chosen goals. Self-deter- schools, have access to higher education, and mined actions function to enable a person to experience the advantages of full citizenship, be the causal agent in his or her life” (p. 258). including the right to self-determination. Given its focus on motivation, psycholog- Given this background, it could be expect- ical dispositions and personality psychology, ed that, at least at an individual level, it might the FM–CAT model has a central focus on the take a bit longer for Armenian society and its person. Resulting approaches to enhancing institutions to ensure that the right to self-de- outcomes in this area have therefore tended termination for persons with disabilities is to focus primarily on fostering learning with both respected and protected. The Armenian respect to the skills, knowledge, and attitudes people, however, have an extensive history and beliefs that have been conceptualized in the exercise of collective self-determination. to support self-determination. These include Because of the country’s strategic location, fostering the development of choice- and Armenians have needed to exercise their right decision-making; problem solving; goal setting to self-determination throughout their history and attainment; communication, self-advocacy; dating back to ancient times. Although only self-regulation skills; enhancing self-knowledge; time will tell if this national trait will continue an understanding of the service system and to be exercised, it clearly demonstrates that, in one’s rights; and supporting the development their hearts and minds, the Armenian people of an internal locus of control and sense of both understand and embrace the concept of self-efficacy (Thoma & Getzel, 2005; Wehmeyer self-determination. Applying the concept at an & Abery, 2013; Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1998). individual level and to persons in society who A somewhat different approach to self-de- have previously been marginalized (i.e., indi- termination has been taken by Abery and his viduals with disabilities) is the next step to be colleagues, who developed a tripartite ecological taken. theory of self-determination (Abery, 1994; Abery & Stancliffe, 1996, 2003). While acknowledging What Is Self-Determination? the importance of individual characteristics, this framework views self-determination as Since originally conceptualized, a number of exercised within the context of relationships different definitions of self-determination have with other individuals, groups of individuals, or been offered and evolved over time. With their systems and therefore stresses the importance functional model of self-determination, Wehmey- of the environment. The resulting operation- er and colleagues (1992) initially posited that al definition of the construct conceptualizes self-determination refers to “the attitudes and self-determination as “individuals exercising abilities required to act as the primary causal the degree of personal control they desire agent in one’s life and make choices regarding within the context of their relationships with one’s actions free from undue external influ- other individuals, groups, systems, or cultures, ence or interference” (p. 305). In their most 182 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

over those areas of life that are important to it is not a deficit, but rather a strength-based them” (Abery, Tichá, Smith, & Grad, 2017). The approach and does not require the assumption model views self-determination as driven by that a student with a disability needs to change the intrinsic motivation of all people to be the or develop additional personal capacities to ex- primary determiner of their thoughts, feelings ercise self-determination. Instead, those skills, and behavior. Self-determination is viewed as attitudes/beliefs and knowledge bases original- involving, but not synonymous with, indepen- ly conceptualized as ‘necessary’ for self-deter- dence and autonomy. Rather, it entails the mination are viewed as facilitators that facili- person determining in what contexts and to tate, but are not necessary for, its exercise if what extent they desire to exercise control over one has a supportive environment. various aspects of their lives and the degree to This approach to understanding self-deter- which they desire to make efforts to exercise mination embraces the idea that a key factor personal control. Self-determination, accord- in an individual being self-determined is their ingly, is the product of both the person and the ability to exercise the levels of control they environment — of the person using the skills, desire with persons and, at times, being willing knowledge and beliefs at his or her disposal to to voluntarily share or cede control to trusted act on the environment with the goal of obtain- others, either because control over the areas ing valued and desired outcomes including, but of concern is not important to them or involves not limited to, exercising personal control. areas of life in which they believe they would The tripartite ecological model is derived from profit from the support of others. Self-deter- Bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective (1979, mination therefore involves a ‘goodness-of-fit’ 1989), which views individuals as developing between the levels of personal control an indi- and leading their lives within an ecosystem vidual desires to exercise and those the individ- consisting of four levels: the microsystem — the ual actually does exercise in areas of life that immediate environments in which persons lead are personally considered to be of importance. their daily lives; the mesosystem — the linkag- This approach also allows for variation in the es that exist between different microsystems; manner in which the construct is conceptual- the exosystem — the impact of the larger social ized in various cultures and the possibility that system in which a person does not directly these differences may result in quite dramatic participate but whose structures and decisions variance in the absolute levels of control being have an impact on outcomes through interact- exercised by individuals who are members of ing with structures at the micro- and mesosys- different groups. tem levels (e.g., decisions school administrators In a manner similar to the functional–caus- make that impact the amount of time children al agency theory put forth by Wehmeyer and spend in school on a daily basis); and the his colleagues (see Shogren et al., 2017), the macrosystem — composed of cultural values, tripartite ecological framework for self-deter- customs and laws. At the macrosystem level of mination focuses on children and youth ac- environmental organization, one must consider quiring the personal capacities that facilitate the overall patterns of ideology and organiza- self-determination. These include a variety of tion that characterize a given society or social skills (goal setting, self-regulation, choice- and group (see Abery and Stancliffe, 2003 for addi- decision-making, problem-solving, self-advoca- tional details). cy, communication); knowledge (understanding As Walker et al. (2011) have noted, the one’s preferences; rights and responsibilities as strength of a social-ecological model is that Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 183

well as how the educational system functions); person with disabilities may indicate his or her and attitudes/beliefs (an internal locus of con- needs and preferences. trol, sense of self-efficacy, internal attributions A third myth is that supporting the self-de- for success) (Abery and Stancliffe, 1996, 2003; termination of persons with disabilities is Wehmeyer and Abery, 2013). A key difference mostly common sense, and there are no ‘best’ between the frameworks emerges here. The ways to support its development. Over the past functional–causal agency model views self-de- three decades, however, a significant number termination as dispositional and therefore of research studies have been undertaken to focuses on the direct teaching of skills, knowl- identify best practices in supporting the exer- edge and attitudes, and beliefs supportive of cise of self-determination among people with self-determination. The ecological approach, on all levels and types of disability. The most im- the other hand, while recognizing the impor- portant of these practices will be reviewed later tance of direct instruction, emphasizes what in this chapter. parents, teachers and others can do so that There is a misunderstanding that self-deter- these capacities naturally develop as a result of mination is primarily an issue of adolescence. a child’s interaction with a supportive environ- As a result, most efforts in the past at teaching ment. people with disabilities about self-determination have focused on youth and young adults Myths and Misconceptions as they transition from school to community living. We now understand that self-determina- Regarding Self-Determination tion is an important issue to consider at every The concept of self-determination, especially as life stage. Infants first attempt to gain control it relates to children and youth with disabilities, over their environment with their cries when is poorly understood by many professionals they are uncomfortable or need attention. At in disability-related fields, including educa- this phase of life, they are not able to change tion. There is a perception among some that their situation independently or even directly self-determination is synonymous with being communicate it to caregivers. However, during independent. This view implies that in order to the first few weeks after birth, mothers learn be self-determined, children and youth should to interpret those cries based on the frequency strive to have complete control over all aspects and pitch of vocalizations, whether they devel- of their lives and that support from others com- op slowly and build or arrive with full force and promises a person’s self-determination. Such a a variety of other characteristics, and effectively myth further implies that self-determination is use them as cues as to whether their infant possible only for people with mild disabilities. needs to be held, fed or have a diaper change. A related misconception is that building There are age-appropriate opportunities for strong communication and self-advocacy skills self-determination at every life stage, and each is the prerequisite to exercising self-determi- builds on the other. nation. Such a view disregards the role of the Current practice in supporting self-deter- environment in ensuring that people have mination has moved us beyond such limiting opportunities to exercise control over as many views. Research over the past decades has choices and decisions as possible given the shown that all people, regardless of disability communication skills they have, and the role status or support needs, are capable of and of support persons in becoming attentive to interested in exercising control over some all the ways, both verbal and nonverbal, that a aspects of their lives. It is easy to think that 184 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

children and youth with disabilities have more et al., 2005; Nota, Ferrari, Soresi, & Wehmey- control over their lives than they actually do. er, 2007; Shogren, Lopez, Wehmeyer, Little, & Parents and teachers may not realize that the Pressgrove, 2006); more positive recreation and help they provide may at times actually be leisure outcomes (McGuire & McDonnell, 2008) compromising the ability of children or young and greater stability in outcomes (Shogren et adults to have the control they desire in their al., 2015). day-to-day lives. Supporting self-determina- Within the school context, the teaching of tion is challenging work that requires careful self-determination capacities has been associ- monitoring. Current best practice asks parents ated with enhanced academic outcomes (Fowl- and teachers to offer children and youth many er, Konrad, Walker, Test, & Wood, 2007; Kon- opportunities to make choices and decisions rad, Fowler, Walker, Test, & Wood, 2007; Lee, about things they care about, and support Wehmeyer, Soukup, & Palmer, 2010; Shogren them, understanding that their preferences et al., 2012), greater success in achieving aca- matter. demic and transition goals (Agran, Blanchard, & Wehmeyer, 2000; McGlashing-Johnson, Outcomes Associated with Self- Agran, Sitlington, Cavin, & Wehmeyer, 2003), and access to the general education curriculum Determination within inclusive educational environments (Lee, Although some individuals view self-determina- Wehmeyer, Palmer, Soukup, & Little, 2008). Re- tion as an outcome in and of itself, we prefer to search has also demonstrated that individuals think of both self-determination and its out- of all ages with a wide range of disabilities can comes as processes that serve as a means to be taught the skills associated with self-deter- an end. More specifically, to what extent do stu- mination (Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, dents with disabilities who are self-determined & Wood, 2001; Cobb, Lehmann, Newman-Gon- experience positive life outcomes? char, & Alwell, 2009) and that supporting acqui- Over the past 30 years, a substantial number sition of these capacities creates opportunities of studies have been undertaken to document for the exercise of personal control (Algozzine, the impact of self-determination. Research Browder, Karvonen, Test, & Wood, 2001; Weh- findings indicate that self-determination pre- meyer et al., 2012). dicts employment and community access and On a less positive note, research has also in- participation (Shogren & Shaw, 2016; Shogren, dicated that the teaching of self-determination Wehmeyer, Palmer, Rifenbark, & Little, 2015; capacities and the provision of opportunities Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003); positive transition to exercise self-determination in most coun- outcomes, including higher levels of indepen- tries are infrequently included in the education dent living and the development of positive program of students with disabilities (Arnold & social relationships (Martorell, Gutierrez-Recha- Czamanske, 1991; Izzo & Lamb, 2002). In addi- cha, Pereda, & Ayuso-Mateos, 2008; Shogren tion, Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test, and & Shaw, 2016; Wehmeyer & Palmer, 2003; Wood (2001) found that interventions to teach Wehmeyer & Schwartz, 1997); greater access capacities associated with self-determination to inclusive residential opportunities (Shogren most often focused on students with learning & Shaw, 2016); increased community partici- disabilities (LD) in high school or postsecond- pation (McGuire & McDonnell, 2008); success ary settings, and such skills were inconsistently in postsecondary education (Anctil, Ishikawa, & taught to students with other disabilities. As Scott, 2008; Getzel & Thoma, 2008); increased a result, when many students with disabilities quality of life and life satisfaction (Lachapelle Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 185 leave the supportive environments of school, sion-making is shared to an even greater extent they do not understand their strengths, needs with adult authorities, if only because a child is and basic rights well enough to explain the spending increasingly larger amounts of time accommodations they need beyond school life with peers or in a large-group context. What (Izzo & Lamb, 2002). clothes to wear to school, what to eat for lunch, and in which play activities to engage all come The Need for a Developmental under the increasing influence of the developing child. Perspective By the time children reach late childhood Self-determination emerges across the lifes- and early adolescence, parents and their off- pan. Newborn infants make limited conscious spring are truly sharing decision-making au- choices or decisions and can change their thority. Parents increasingly find that they need environment only with the support of others. to ‘convince,’ ‘encourage’ and ‘motivate’ their At a relatively early point in life, however, they adolescents because they can simply no longer develop the ability to signal (i.e., the infant cry) force them to engage in specific behaviors due their caregivers that some change is required to differences in physical stature. Most short- in their status. As they acquire the capacity to term decisions are now made by youth with independently reach for objects, to grasp and input from parents. Although parents still have let go of them, infants show preferences and the final word in decision-making that entails make rudimentary choices as they direct their long-term outcomes, young adults are increas- attention toward specific toys and objects in ingly becoming partners in this endeavor, their environment. The ability to move about expressing preferences and providing input. independently dramatically increases oppor- This gradual transition of decision-making tunities for choice and decision-making, as the authority from parent to child, although oc- developing infant can now bring into its reach curring at somewhat different times in various objects that were not previously available cultures, is relatively universal regardless of for exploration. Shortly thereafter, as more ethnic or cultural background or country of advanced communication skills emerge, the origin. The eventual goal of almost all parents young child becomes capable of stating his or is the raising of a self-determined young adult, her preferences and, through oral communica- who at some time in early adulthood has the tion and other means, changing the behavior of capacity to make high-quality informed deci- caregivers, thus exercising direct control over sions, be economically independent and exer- the environment. cise self-determination. Due to the challenges During the first several years of life, a child’s faced by children and youth with disability, in self-determination is limited to those areas many cases families never have the opportu- in which parents provide opportunities for nity to experience the self-determined young choice. However, as the social worlds of young adult. This, however, does not need to be the children expand, more and more time is spent outcome experienced by children and youth outside of the family with peers and substitute with disabilities and their families. If appropri- caregivers (e.g., preschool teachers). In these ate steps are taken early in life and supports environments, moment-to-moment decisions provided along the way, all children have the fall under the control of the child, with adults capacity to become self-determined adults. primarily controlling more long-term, conse- quential decision-making. By the time most children enter kindergarten, control and deci- 186 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

Common Barriers to Self- and person with a disability have the potential Determination and Self-Advocacy to limit the ability of individuals to speak out for themselves and exercise desired levels of Given that high levels of self-determination personal control over important life outcomes. have been shown to be related to positive Attitudinal and belief systems can also serve to outcomes for children, youth and adults with limit outcomes in this area. An external locus disabilities, one might assume that practically of control, low sense of self-efficacy and inac- all persons with disabilities are supported to be curate attributions for success and failure can self-determined. Research, however, indicates all serve to place individuals at a disadvantage that this not the case. A substantial number of when attempting to assume personal control barriers exist to individuals with disabilities ac- over their lives (Abery & Stancliffe, 2003). quiring and refining the capacities that support self-determination, having opportunities to exercise these capacities on an ongoing basis, Ecological barriers and experiencing the degree of personal con- The ecological framework of self-determination trol they desire over those aspects of life most acknowledges the dynamic interplay of the important to them. person and their environment. Children and youth not only react to their environments, Individual barriers they also play a key role in creating them. Put simply, while the environment has an impact Ecological approaches to self-determination, on us, our personal capacities, our behaviors though focusing on the environment, acknowl- and the social capital (i.e., human resources) edge that an individual’s capacities, including we have available all contribute to the risks and functional limitations, have the potential to opportunities we experience at each level of limit a person’s exercising personal control. the ecosystem. Although we believe that the simple ability to There are numerous factors that have the effectively communicate ‘yes’ and ‘no’ makes it potential to limit self-determination at each possible for persons with even the most sig- level of the ecosystem. At the microsystem level, nificant disabilities to exercise self-determina- a family’s belief that it needs to protect its child tion over their lives if provided with adequate with disabilities all too often leads to the child supports, all too often such assistance is not experiencing few opportunities for self-de- available on a consistent basis. Personal capac- termination and being severely limited with ities, although not necessary for the exercise of respect to the challenges he or she is able to self-determination and self-advocacy, serve to experience in life. Parents and educators who support these processes when supports are focus on protection and removing rather than not available or barriers encountered. managing risk make it difficult for students with Common barriers to self-determination at disabilities to have opportunities to exercise the individual level include functional limita- self-determination, learn from their mistakes tions with respect to all the skills associated and grow in the process. The low expectations of with these processes. These include choice- and family members and teachers with respect to decision-making, problem solving, goal setting, the outcomes likely to be achieved by children, communication, self-advocacy, and self-regu- youth and adults with disabilities also presents lation skills. In addition, lack of self-knowledge a barrier to self-determination (Wehmeyer & as well as incomplete understanding of the Abery, 2013). Parents, teachers and other edu- service system and one’s rights as a citizen cation professionals all too often assume that Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 187 if students with disabilities have not currently a student’s self-determination, roadblocks are mastered a skill (e.g., making choices, self-regu- created. lating their behavior), then they do not have the There are numerous barriers to self-deter- ability to engage in that activity at a later time mination that exist at the exosystem level. This or within a different context. Opportunities for consists of larger social systems in which the the exercise of self-determination are thereby student does not directly function but where limited to what those serving in a support role decisions are made that have an impact on a think a person is able to do rather than what child’s microsystems (e.g., school or family) or the person might actually be able to do in the mesosystems (e.g., family linkages to school). future. The failure of school administrators to pro- Supporting the development of self-determi- vide funding for supports (e.g., educational nation capacities as well as providing opportu- assistants, teacher training) to facilitate the nities for its exercise requires positive linkages high-quality inclusion of students with disabil- and relationships across the different settings ities in general education classes is an issue in which children lead their lives. These meso- that serves to limit self-determination in both system level connections are critical if capacities Armenia and other countries (Caldwell, 2010). developed in one context are to be reinforced In addition, few school districts have made the and generalize to others. The teacher who commitment to offer instruction for students creates a classroom environment in which with disabilities that specifically focuses on self-determination is taught and supported, for the development of their self-determination example, needs to work with families to ensure capacities, in spite of research indicating the that these critical processes are supported importance of these capacities to later devel- at home to support generalization to other opmental outcomes (Algozzine et al., 2001; Izzo environments. Unfortunately, the linkages or & Lamb, 2002). A third barrier present in many relationships that exist for many children and schools today concerns the lack of access of youth with disabilities are either inadequate students with disabilities with limited communi- with respect to their quantity and quality, or cation skills to technology supports that would simply do not exist at all. An excellent example improve their speech and language capacities of this type of barrier is the lack of coordination (Braddock, Hoehl, Tanis, Ablowitz, & Haffer, that all too often exists between schools and 2013). For example, a recent UNICEF report families. School personnel on many occasions (2012) focusing on Armenia indicated that only voice the concern that parents of children a small percentage of school-age children in with disabilities do not follow through to sup- need of assistive devices receive them. port schoolwork students are asked to do at Many exosystem barriers to self-determi- home or attend meetings, especially when the nation for students with disabilities lie in the student in question is older. A second well- policies and procedures of agencies and institu- known example is the lack of communication tions that provide day-to-day supports, includ- and coordination that often exists because of ing the educational system itself. In some coun- the school’s limited contact with parents and tries, legislation still allows for the exclusion of families. When the supports found to be suc- students with disabilities, or permits placement cessful in one microsystem (e.g., the classroom) in segregated schools and institutions. In oth- are not carried over to another microsystem ers, existing legislation concerning educational (e.g., the family) or when teachers and par- rights of children with disabilities is not strictly ents do not agree on the best way to support enforced or not enforced at all. Despite ratifi- 188 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

cation of the UN CRPD in Armenia in 2010, in ableism extends beyond literal discriminato- many areas, public school administrators are ry acts to the way a culture views people with still refusing to admit students with more signif- disabilities as individuals who need to be fixed icant disabilities. In the absence of daily contact and who do not have the capacity to function with typically developing peers, the self-deter- as full members of society. Having a disability is mination of students with disabilities is stunted. therefore viewed not as a dimension of differ- The manner in which educational support and ence and diversity but as a defect. This ideology service planning is undertaken and services permeates all levels of the culture and has a provided to students with disabilities is also tremendous negative impact on a wide variety often a barrier to self-determination because of factors that serve to support the self-deter- it continues to be professional centered rath- mination of persons with disabilities. The lack er than child and parent centered. Rarely are of knowledge among most professionals and students and parents actively involved in set- parents regarding self-determination, limited ting short and long-term educational goals or funding available for school- and post-school encouraged to offer input into intervention self-advocacy groups for youth and adults with programs. Individualized educational plans, for disabilities, the restricted interest of education- all but students with mild disabilities, remain al systems in incorporating self-determination focused on functional skill development, with curricula into their programs, and the decreas- interventions most often taking place outside ing opportunities for self-determination stu- of the general education classroom. A final exo- dents face as they mature in our educational system-level barrier to self-determination is the system all limit the opportunities of children lack of family and disability representation in and youth with disabilities to develop personal those agencies and ministries that set the agen- capacities in this area. da for the provision of education and evaluation of the quality of supports students receive Recommendations and Practical (Caldwell, 2010; McDonald & Raymaker, 2013). The macrosystem refers to the values and Interventions to Support Self- ideology of a culture and the patterns of orga- Determination nization that characterize it. In many countries, Over the past several decades, a number of for- societal attitudes with respect to persons with mal programs have been developed and field disabilities remain ableist in their orientation. tested to support the exercise of self-determi- Ableism refers to ‘discrimination in favor of nation on the part of persons of all ages with able-bodied people.’ In reality, however, its im- IDD. It should be noted, however, that based on pact extends beyond literal discriminatory acts the existing research literature, a wide variety to the way a culture views people with disabil- of informal, nonprogrammatic recommenda- ities. Both practices and dominant attitudes in tions can also be made that have the potential society continue to devalue, marginalize and to support the development of those skills, limit the potential of persons with disabilities. knowledge bases and attitudes and beliefs that Many of these forms of discrimination are support self-determination in the family, school normalized and integrated into a culture’s very and community contexts. Regardless of wheth- understanding (or, more accurately, disregard) er programming is formal or supports are of an of the experiences of persons with disabilities. informal variety, current best practices can be Campbell (2009; 2008) and others (e.g., Dunn best summarized by the statement, ‘start early & Andrews, 2015; Hehir, 2005) suggest that and provide as many opportunities as possible.’ Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 189

Individuals and families lenge children while supporting them to assess During early infancy, children begin to engage the consequences of their choices, facilitates in intentional behavior and, in a rudimentary not only good choice-making but the devel- way, initiate the process of self-determina- opment of goal setting, self-regulation and tion. Infants quickly develop different types of problem-solving capacities. This can be accom- cries that vary in frequency, amplitude and the plished both by parents within the home and manner in which they are presented — build- within the preschool setting. At home, parents ing slowly or emerging very quickly. In a very can offer children choices of a limited number short time, mothers develop the capacity to of healthy foods from which to choose at meals differentiate one cry from another. Is the infant as well as clothing choices when they get a bit hungry, needing to have its diaper changed, or older (e.g., “Which of these three shirts do you just be held and provided with social stimula- want to wear?”). tion? Learning an infant’s cries and responding The preschool setting provides excellent to them quickly allows children, even at very opportunities for children to make choices with young ages, to understand that they can con- respect to the activities in which they most de- trol or cause specific outcomes through their sire to engage as well as the need to, at times, own actions (Donovan & Leavitt, 1989). compromise and acquiesce to the preferences Within the first year of life, infants begin ex- and choices of peers and the authority of the ploring their world. As they mature, the context teacher. This context also allows for teachers of this exploration becomes both wider and to begin to provide students with opportu- more varied. Families can facilitate the develop- nities to engage in group decision-making in ment of capacities associated with self-determi- which every child has an opportunity to state nation through supporting their child’s interest his or her preferences, but where consensus in exploring his or her environment and the ob- needs to eventually be achieved. As verbal skills jects within it (Odom & Wolery, 2003). This can develop, families and teachers can support the be accomplished by making the environment a self-determination of children with disabilities safe place in which to explore and populating via fostering their learning to articulate their it with a wide variety of ‘high interest’ objects. preferences, providing both the structure and This experience will naturally lead children support they need to express their likes and to develop preferences for specific activities, dislikes as well as, when needed, the accommo- games and toys over others, initiating a process dations necessary to enable those with emerg- through which they begin to understand their ing communication skills to develop alternative likes and dislikes, those things they prefer and ways of expressing preferences. those which are of less interest (Shogren & The ability to regulate one’s behavior to Turnbull, 2006). achieve personal goals is a critical part of A logical next step in the development self-determination. Whitman (1990) referred to self-determination capacities involves simple self-regulation as a capacity that supports per- choice-making with a limited number of alter- sons to take into consideration their situation, natives. As early as 12–18 months, children the goals they desire to achieve, and behaviors display a desire to control their environment, they have available to address the challeng- including the food, activities, toys and other es they are likely to face in working toward objects to which they have access. Providing these goals, and to develop plans about both simple choice-making opportunities consistent how to act and to evaluate the efficacy of their with personal capacities, but that also chal- efforts. Through supporting the acquisition of 190 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

language skills on the part of children, parents A typology parallel to that of Baumrind’s and teachers can facilitate the development of can be applied to teaching styles, with the external and internal speech, both of which are continuum ranging from educators who pro- critical to the development of self-regulation vide little opportunity for students to exercise capacities. Once children formally enter school, control during the school day (authoritarian), another opportunity exists for those who to those who have tenuous control over their support the child by encouraging goal setting. classes (permissive). An authoritative style of This can be accomplished both by encouraging teaching, in which structured opportunities for students to set a variety of short (i.e., daily), choice and control are embedded into the daily medium-range (i.e., weekly or monthly) and routine while the teacher retains veto power, long-term (3–6 month) goals for themselves provides the chance for children and youth to and then providing them with a way to monitor develop a sense of self-efficacy and self-confi- progress toward those personal goals, offering dence with respect to their self-determination necessary supports along the way. capacities. Asking a group of preschoolers with After studying many families, Baumrind which activities they would like to start the day, (1966) described three types of parenting providing the class or small group of students styles: authoritarian (high demand, low re- the opportunity to select which book from sponsiveness), permissive (low demand, high among an array of 3–5 they would prefer to responsiveness), and authoritative (balance read, supporting students to select the mode between demand and responsiveness). The of assessing their academic progress that they authoritative parenting style has consistently most prefer (multiple choice exam, essay exam, been found to predict greater self-reliance, paper), having the class rather than the teacher responsibility, independence, and autonomy decide on rules for behavioral decorum in the (Baumrind, 1972; Baumrind & Black, 1967) and classroom, and facilitating older students to to most effectively support the development develop action plans for the writing of a paper of capacities for self-determination in children or other assignment — these all serve to sup- and youth with disabilities (Abery & Zajac, port the development of skills that will facilitate 1996; Booth & Kelly, 2002). Including children self-determination. An important caveat at this in choice-making about what the family will juncture is to provide support only when need- eat for a meal through providing several alter- ed. natives of healthy food combinations, having As the child becomes an adolescent and older children conduct research on potential moves toward early adulthood, parents must places where the family might go on vacation not only provide opportunities for increased and encouraging them to take part in deci- decision- and choice-making authority via sion-making discussions, supporting children the use of authoritative parenting but, within and youth in decorating their own bedrooms reason, allow their son or daughter to make to reflect their preferences, and encourag- decisions in increasingly important areas of life ing them to both articulate their preferences and, on some occasions . . . to fail, to make bad and provide a rationale for their thinking with decisions and have the opportunity to learn respect to a variety of family decisions — these from them. Decisions that don’t necessarily are all simple ways that parents can support work out the way an individual intended pro- the acquisition of capacities associated with the vide the opportunity to learn more about one’s exercise of self-determination in adulthood. preferences, strengths and challenges and the need to consider long- as well as short-term Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 191

consequences when making decisions, setting riculum, demonstrate significant increases in goals and planning for the future. It is also opportunities for self-determination, and have critical at this phase of life to ensure that the teachers who developed higher perceptions opportunities for choice- and decision-making of student capacity. Palmer and Wehmeyer that individuals have available are age appro- (2003) adapted the SDLMI for K–3 students and priate and in areas of life that the individual have also found promising results with that age views as important (Wehmeyer & Abery, 2013) group. regardless of the persons’ support needs. During their childhood, youth, and young adult years, individuals with disabilities need System and program level supports access to experiences and opportunities that facilitate the continued development and re- Developing the capacity to exercise self-deter- finement of those individual capacities (skills, mination is a lifelong process. It begins shortly knowledge and attitudes/beliefs) supportive of after birth and continues throughout life. At self-determination. In most cases this means the programmatic level, a number of inter- the need to support ongoing opportunities for ventions have been developed to support the self-determination, with respect to both the ex- self-determination of students with disabilities ercise of desired levels of personal control on a of all ages. Program and system-level supports day-to-day and on a long-term basis (Wehmey- have aimed at both increasing opportunities er & Abery, 2013). Utilizing person-centered for self-determination and ensuring that indi- approaches to educational support planning viduals with disabilities develop the capacities (COACH; Giangreco, 1996; Giangreco, Clon- supportive of this outcome. inger, & Iverson, 2011; O’Brien & Mount, 2005; The self-determined learning model of in- Pearpoint, O’Brien, & Forest, 1993; Smull et al., struction (SDLMI) of Wehmeyer, Palmer, Agran, 2005) and delivering educational supports in Mithaug, and Martin (2000) is one of the most a person-centered manner are critical aspects widely researched models of instruction de- of facilitating self-determination. Providing the veloped to support the self-determination of opportunity for the student to determine who youth with disabilities. Through activities and attends his or her educational planning meet- learning designed to support students being and to voice preferences and desired life coming self-regulated learners, the program outcomes with respect and honor from others, facilitates young adults developing goal setting, and giving assurance that supports are directed choice- and decision-making, self-advocacy and not only at what is important for the student, other personal capacities supportive of self-de- but also focus on what is important to him or termination. In numerous field tests of the her, provides the opportunity for the direct SDLMI (e.g., Agran et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2008; exercise of self-determination as well as the Shogren, Palmer, Wehmeyer, Williams-Diehm, refinement of skills supportive of this process. & Little, 2012; Shogren, Plotner, Palmer, Paek, One of the most powerful opportunities for & Wehmeyer, 2014; Wehmeyer, Palmer et young adults to exercise self-determination in al., 2000), students with disabilities receiving the school context is to provide them with the SDLMI instruction were found to demonstrate chance to direct their own educational planning enhanced personal capacities supportive of meetings with supports as necessary. When self-determination, meet or exceed expecta- implemented in the intended manner, serving tions with respect to their academic and tran- in this leadership role enhances self-determina- sition goals and goal attainment, experience tion by promoting greater personal choice and greater access to the general education cur- 192 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

control, and supporting goal setting, self-advo- • Disability self-awareness and identity, cacy and problem-solving skill development. • Choice and decision-making, The families of most students with disabili- • Facilitating self-advocacy skills, ties, though supportive of their child or youth • Navigating the educational and service sys- exercising self-determination, have limited ex- tem, pertise in how to facilitate this outcome. Abery and colleagues at the University of Minnesota’s • Setting and working toward personal goals, Global Resource Center on Inclusive Educa- • Supporting self-regulation capacities, and tion have developed and field tested several • Understanding and planning for life transi- family-based educational programs designed tions. specifically to assist parents in acquiring the capacity to better support the self-determination of their child or youth with a disability. The Classroom and family supports family self-determination education program There is a wide variety of activities and sup- (Abery, Eggebeen, Smith, Rudrud, & Arndt, ports that teachers can provide within the 2000) is a 14-module program designed to sup- classroom and for parents at home that have port parents and families to better understand the potential to facilitate those personal capac- self-determination, advocacy and self-advocacy; ities that encourage self-determination. The learn to advocate for their child or young adult most important is to ensure that students have within the educational system; and incorpo- ongoing opportunities for both individual and rate ongoing opportunities for the exercise of group choice- and decision-making over the self-determination into the daily family routine. course of the day and are allowed to experi- The program, which has been extensively field ence, within reason, the consequences of the tested with families of youth with intellectual choices and decisions they make. Providing and physical disabilities, helps parents learn opportunities for choice and decision-making how to support the developing goal setting, can start with simple choices for young children problem-solving, choice/decision-making, and (e.g., which of two shirts to wear) and proceed self-advocacy skills of their children and youth. to more complex decision-making as students In an attempt to reach a greater number acquire the skills to make informed decisions in of parents, youth and young adults, especially various areas of life. Within the context of class- those in rural areas, the University of Minne- room and family-based choice- and decision-mak- sota’s Research and Training Center on Com- ing, adults in the child’s life can — munity Living has recently developed an online • Talk through the decision-making process self-determination education and support with children before a choice or decision is program for families of persons with intellec- made to ensure that all options have been tual and development disabilities. Delivery of explored and potential consequences con- instruction is based on a tele-health model in sidered. After a decision has been made, which 4–5 families link up via the Internet with students can be encouraged to reflect about a facilitator from the comfort and privacy of how they made their decision and how they their homes on a biweekly basis for six months. feel about it; The curriculum covers a variety of ways families • Provide advance notice to children of choic- can support the developing self-determination es that will become available in the near fu- of their member with a disability and includes ture. Asking children to think out loud about units focused on — their alternatives and, if they are limited, en- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 193

couraging them to develop others will help • Supporting children and youth to advocate students learn to turn limited choice-making not only with their peers but, when needed, opportunities into situations in which they with those in authority; are able make decisions that are of impor- • Working with students to facilitate their tance to them; developing effective advocacy plans. This • Teach children to identify choice and de- can involve talking through a plan on a step- cision-making opportunities themselves, by-step basis, e.g., formalizing an advocacy demonstrating the many choices available in goal, deciding with whom to advocate and various settings. developing an advocacy strategy. Supporting student goal setting is a sec- Students with and without disabilities need ond strategy that can be used to facilitate the to learn to regulate their own behavior and development of self-determination capacities. take responsibility for their actions. Self-regu- Educators and parents can support the devel- lation skills and accepting personal responsibility opment of skills in this area through — for one’s choices and decisions are therefore • Setting academic, social and behavioral capacities that all students need to develop. goals with, rather than for, children and hav- At home and in the classroom, teachers and ing students write down their goals; parents can help children learn to — • Supporting students to create step-by-step • Identifying the short- and long-term conse- plans of what they need to do to reach their quences of their behavior, both on self and goals, making sure they consider the re- others; sources that will be needed and those that • Developing step-by-step action plans that are available; will help them progress toward their goals, • Providing students with the opportunity to including — post their goals and track progress toward » Specifying short- and long-terms goals, them. These will serve as a reminder to » Assessing one’s current status in working students to continue to work on goals they toward those goals, have set for themselves. » Identifying existing and needed resources Most children and youth find themselves and behaviors to progress toward goals, in multiple situations with adults and peers in » Planning first steps and which they need to advocate for their choices, » Monitoring progress toward goals; decisions and viewpoints. Educators can sup- • Making corrections with respect to their port the development of self-advocacy skills behavior when current approaches are not through — assisting them in achieving the outcomes • Refraining from speaking for students and they desire. instead encouraging them to articulate their own thoughts, needs and desires; Self-determination is facilitated not only by the skills a child or youth possesses, • Providing a good role model for children but through a students’ self-awareness and through demonstrating effective and re- self-knowledge. Teachers and parents can help spectful advocacy with both adults and children learned themselves in a wide number students; of ways, including — • Talking with students about their disabilities in an honest, straightforward manner. The 194 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

focus should not be just on the challenges • Setting appropriate, but high, expectations they face, but the personal capacities they and standards for students with disabilities possess and how their strengths can be and holding them to those standards; used to overcome challenges; • Finding contexts in which students with • Teaching students about their basic human disabilities can use their personal skills, gifts rights and specific rights as students with and capacities; disabilities, in both the school and communi- • Avoiding sending messages to students that ty under the UN Convention for the Rights of will potentially lead them to attribute their Persons with Disabilities (2006) and addi- challenges and struggles to internal-stable tional national legislation; factors (i.e., their disability) and successes to • Encouraging children and youth to try dif- external-unstable factors. Messages that do ferent activities and search out additional exactly the opposite and focus on student experiences to challenge themselves. Stress success as a result of skills, gifts and person- to students that we often learn more about al capacities are much more likely to result ourselves when we face adversity and need in the development of attitudes and beliefs to problem-solve than when we experience supportive of self-determination. easy success. The attitudes and beliefs that support self-de- Hayk’s Story: A Case Study of Self- termination are grounded in students develop- Determination ing an internal locus of control and learning that When he was born, Hayk’s parents failed to it is their behavior that generally determines notice anything unusual about their son. Taking the outcomes they experience. Students with him home from the hospital, they had the same special education needs often experience less dreams as most parents for their son. However, success than their peers without disabilities, within weeks their world changed dramatical- have parents and teachers who set low expec- ly as their infant started to experience severe tations for them, and receive messages from seizures on an almost daily basis. After several significant others that they are ‘inferior’ or months of unsuccessful treatments, neurolo- ‘broken’ and need to be fixed. Such experiences gists were able to at least partially control the facilitate dependence and an external, passive seizures with medication. Hayk’s developing focus. The development of a set of attitudes brain, however, had been significantly injured. and beliefs supportive of self-determination is His parents were told by medical personnel facilitated by — that their son had an intellectual disability and • Providing feedback that is, overall, positive would experience limited language develop- in nature and takes into consideration not ment, probably never learn to read or write, only the success students achieve but the and need ongoing care and support. effort they make in developing a solution Hayk’s parents, Mher and Hranush, had a and their persistence; difficult time accepting their son’s prognosis. It • Offering corrective feedback that does not was clear he had a disability, but they were not solve a student’s problem for him or her but about to give up on him this early in his life and facilitates the child or youth arriving at their began working with specialists to support his own effective solutions; development. By the time Hayk entered school, his speech and language skills, though behind his peers, had developed quite well, and he had Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 195 acquired a number of prereading skills. Though By the time Hayk reached eighth grade, his the special pedagogues at his school pushed parents started thinking about what he would for a segregated program, Hayk’s parents con- do following school. Sitting down and speaking vinced them that, with support, he would do with their son, they asked him to think about well spending at least part of his day in a gener- what was most important to him in a job — al education classroom. This was accomplished what would make him happy and the types through Hranush reducing her job to a part- of tasks he thought he could do well. Over a time basis and serving as her son’s educational period of months, his parents took him to visit assistant while he was in mainstream classes. a variety of businesses in the city. During each It was not only academics, however, on which trip they took photos of what the workers were Hayk’s parents concentrated. They wanted him doing and of Hayk in the setting. At the end of to be independent, make his own choices and the year, the family reviewed the experienc- hopefully someday be able to live on his own. es their son had at each business and, after Mher and Hranush started with small things, looking through the photos together, asked such as responding immediately to Hayk when him to pick four potential jobs that they would he attempted to get their attention, always hav- further investigate. Hayk indicated that he liked ing toys and other interesting objects available to cook, be around people, and stay busy, and that he could explore and providing him, even that he much preferred a job in which he did when he was 2 years of age, with structured not have to arise early. Two of the potential choice-making opportunities. When he made jobs he had selected would have required him choices and decisions that didn’t reflect his to start work early, so these were quickly elim- preferences, they allowed him to experience inated. Of the other two possibilities, the one the consequences, and he quickly learned to that intrigued Hayk the most was becoming a make different choices the next time a similar chef. Luckily, his uncle owned a restaurant at situation arose. One of the things Hayk was which he had dined many times. After Hayk’s very opinionated about was the food he ate, parents spoke with his uncle, an agreement and his parents allowed him a good deal of was reached for him to work on weekends as decision-making authority in this area. By the a part-time salad assistant. He would be paid time he was 8 years old, however, they agreed based upon how much work he completed. As that along with his opportunity to make deci- he learned more about salad making at his job, sions, he needed to learn that when he did so, Hayk became more confident, not only about he must assume responsibility for them. As a his ability to make an excellent salad, but his result, when Hayk informed his parents that skills interacting with customers, taking on he did not like the food they were serving for a more complex tasks, and possibly living in the meal, he would need to learn to cook a healthy community. Two years after starting his job, alternative, at first with support, but eventually Hayk was so successful that he was promoted on his own. Hayk’s parents were surprised at to head salad chef. His current income allows the speed at which their son learned to cook. him, with some help from his parents, to share Though he had a difficult time reading reci- an apartment with a co-worker who befriended pes, after making a meal a few times, he knew him at his job. On a day-to-day basis, Hayk now exactly what ingredients he would need and makes almost all his own decisions. In some ar- how much to use. What he especially loved to eas, he exercises total control; in others (e.g., fi- make were salads of all types, from simple to nancial decisions), he asks for the support from complex. 196 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

those whom he trusts, and in a small number Tips for Teachers of areas he defers to his parents. Choice Making What did Hayk’s parents do right that led to • Use visuals such as pictures, icons or words the development of a self-determined young to help students make choices and deci- man who has made great progress in becoming sions. Visuals are an effective way to process independent and being responsible for himself? and understand information. Pair language Probably the most important thing they did with visuals, and students may find it easier was to begin to offer their son opportunities to to understand choices being offered. exercise control over his life, early and often. The choices they offered were based upon his • Limit the number of options made available skills at the moment, but also challenged him to children at one time. Provide two or three so that new skills were developed and refined. options when children are first learning to As Hayk developed, his parents offered him make choices. greater opportunities to exercise control over • Give students the chance to choose different his life, gradually moving from parent control, options other than those presented. As chil- to shared control, to their son making most of dren become more skilled at choice-making, the decisions in his life with support from trust- allow them to choose alternatives that you ed significant others. Along the way they also don’t initially provide as options. taught him that along with self-determination • Be supportive when students make deci- comes responsibility. In addition, Hayk’s par- sions, providing positive feedback or appro- ents made some other important decisions that priate incentives. Initially support all student supported his self-determination, including — attempts at decision-making • Not making assumptions about what their Goal Setting son’s eventual capacities would be early in • Support the student to provide input on his life, long-term goals. Involve students in the • Teaching him about his rights within the development of their individualized learning Armenian social service system and how to plans, especially in the goal-setting aspects. advocate for them and • Use visuals to help children see the progress • Ensuring that he had continued contact with they are making toward their goals. Use sim- peers without disabilities in inclusive envi- ple charts, graphs or other visual aids that ronments who could serve as role models. children can help complete. Hayk’s parents made sure their son had • Encourage students to set goals that are continued opportunities to observe his non- challenging but realistic for them to achieve disabled peers interacting in a self-determined within a reasonable time frame; fashion and avoided developing the expecta- • Create time schedules: Break larger projects tions many parents have for their children with down into their component parts and create disabilities. a schedule of when each step is due. Responsibility • Talk with your students about the importance of responsibility and how it relates to self-determination. Discuss with students Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 197

why it is important to be responsible for tive manner. Encourage students to clearly your actions, choices and decisions. express their wants, needs and feelings. • Use a calendar, chart or other aid to help • Reinforce all attempts at self-advocacy, children keep track of their responsibilities. even when students are not successful. This will enable them to understand upcom- Make sure students understand that often, ing responsibilities as well as those already first attempts at self-advocacy do not solve completed problems and that they need to stand by • Give your students classroom responsibili- their convictions and may need to advocate ties on a daily basis. Small tasks that can be multiple times with multiple people. completed in a short period of time on an Self-Regulation ongoing basis can significantly enhance a • Talk with students about how their person- child’s sense of responsibility. al actions will determine if they reach their Autonomy and Independence goals. Ask students to identify a specific goal, • Avoid being overprotective. Allow students generate potential plans for reaching it, and to challenge themselves . . . to sometimes then monitor their progress. fail, and learn from their mistakes. • Talk about how consequences can some- • Provide opportunities for students to exer- times be unintended, including their impact cise their independence in class and school. on others. When students desire to do something in- • Support students to think about how well dependently, provide them with the oppor- the behaviors in which they have engaged tunity to do so. When support is necessary, helped them reach their goal and what they provide only the minimal amount needed would do differently next time. after being requested to do so. Self-Awareness and Self-Knowledge • Work with students when creating sched- • Work together with students to develop a ules for the school day. Find our when, with list of their formal (protected by law) and in- whom and how students would prefer to do formal rights. Then ask them how much they things, and honor these preferences when- know about each of these rights. ever possible. • Have students develop a group resume. • Remember that a student’s capacity for Provide opportunities for students to write responsibility grows quickly. The level of re- down their own strengths and for class- sponsibility a student is able to assume can mates to add to this list, using a small-group change greatly over a short period of time. format. Ensure that for every strength a stu- Do not assume that just because a student dent lists for himself or herself, they list one did not act responsibly on one occasion that for each other member of the group. this will reoccur in the future. • Evaluate outcomes and personal goals. Self-Advocacy When students make decisions and choices, • Teach self-advocacy skills in a step-by-step ask them to evaluate how well their deci- fashion. Do not move on to a new step until sions helped them reach desired outcomes. students have mastered previous ones. • Encourage students to advocate for themselves and others. Emphasize the importance of speaking up for oneself in an asser- 198 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

Thoughts for Leaders Self-Advocacy Online (2012–present). http://sel- It is clear from the topics discussed in this chap- fadvocacyonline.org ter that we have come a long way in the past Self-determination and self-advocacy for people 25–30 years in both acknowledging the rights with intellectual and developmental disabili- of persons with disabilities to self-determined ties. (2016). Retrieved from https://rtc.umn. lives and providing them with the supports edu/nationalgoals/#self-determination-ad- to make this vision a reality. Looking to the vocacy future, however, it is clear that we still have a State of the science: Theories, concepts, and evi- long way to go, as societal and cultural barriers dence guiding policy and practice in commu- to self-determination still exist. Educational nity living and participation for people with leaders have the capacity to both work direct- intellectual disabilities. (2012). Retrieved ly with children with disabilities to support from https://rtc.umn.edu/sosc/ self-determination within the context of the UNICEF (2014). Partnerships, Advocacy and school day and with parents to ensure that it is Communication for Social Change, Webi- reinforced at home. School administrators set nar 7 and Companion Booklet 7. Series of the tone for what happens in their schools and 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Book- classrooms. Ensuring that teachers have the lets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Swit- training, capacity and support to teach in an zerland: Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved authoritative manner and providing students from https://www.ded4inclusion.com/in- with opportunities to be involved in both day- clusive-education-resources-free/unicef-in- to-day decision-making in the classroom and in clusive-education-booklets-and-webi- the development of their individualized plans nars-english-version will support the desired outcome of a self-de- What is self-determination and why is it import- termined young adult. ant? Retrieved from http://ngsd.org/news/ what-self-determination-and-why-it-im- Additional Resources portant What is self-determination? The Center for Self-Determination. http://www.centerfor- Glossary self-determination.com Ableism — Discrimination in favor of able-bod- Stories of advocacy, stories of change from ied people. people with disabilities, their families, and allies, 1988-2013. Feature issue of Causal agency — Being a causal agent in one’s Impact. https://ici.umn.edu/products/im- life, an individual makes choices regarding pact/271/271.pdf his or her actions free from undue external influence or interference Health care directives. Honoring Choices Min- nesota. http://www.honoringchoices.org/ Choice — Selecting an option from among one health-care-directives or more alternatives. National Gateway to Self-Determination. http:// Decision-making — A multistep process in

www.ngsd.org which a person first creates a set of alternatives based upon individual goals National Resource Center for Supported Deci- and then selects from among the options sion-Making. http://www.supporteddeci- developed. sionmaking.org Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ] 199

Ecology of human development — Ecological within the context of their relationships models include an evolving body of theory with other individuals, groups, systems or and research concerned with the environ- cultures, over those areas of life that are mental conditions that govern the lifelong important to them. course of human development with a fo- Self-efficacy — The belief that one can success- cus on interactions that occur between the fully carry out the behaviors necessary to individual and all levels of their ecosystem. reach a goal. A person’s sense of self-effi- Exosystem — The larger social systems in cacy ranges from low to high based upon which a person does not directly function, previous learning experiences. but where decisions are made that have Social capital — The human resources persons an impact on development through their have available to support them in reaching effect on microsystems (e.g., school or their goals. family) or mesosystems (e.g., family linkag- Systems change — Changes in organizational es to school). culture, policies and procedures within Internal locus of control — The belief that one’s or across organizations that enhance or personal actions generally determine the streamline access and reduce or eliminate outcomes they experience. barriers to services needed by a target Macrosystem — The values and ideology of a population. culture and the patterns of organization that characterize it. References Medical model — Emerging from the growing Abery, B. (1994) Self-determination: It’s not just for knowledge about the human body during adults. Impact, 6, 2. the Renaissance period, the medical model Abery, B., Rudrud, L., Arndt, K., Schauben, L., & Eggebeen, views disabilities as human weakness or A. (1995). Evaluating a multicomponent program ‘medical misfortune.’ Services were often for enhancing the self-determination of youth with disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 30(3), geared toward returning the person to 170–179. ‘health’ or making him or her more ‘nor- Abery, B. H., & Sharpe, M., (2001). Learning to lead…leading mal.’ to learn: Supporting the leadership development of Mesosystem — The linkages and relationships adolescents with intellectual and physical disabilities. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Institute that are developed by the individual and on Community Integration. their family across the different settings in Abery, B., & Stancliffe, R. (1996). The ecology of self-de- which students lead their lives. Both the termination. In D. J. Sands & M. L. Wehmeyer (Eds.), quality and quantity of these linkages have Self-determination across the life span: Independence and choice for people with disabilities (pp. 111–45). the potential to have an impact on devel- Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes. opmental outcomes. Abery, B. H., & Stancliffe, R. (2003). A tripartite ecological Microsystem — The immediate behavioral set- theory of self-determination. In M. Wehmeyer, B. H. tings in which development occurs, includ- Abery, D. Mithaug, & R. J. Stancliffe (Eds.), Theory in self-determination. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas. ing the family, school and peer group. Abery, B. H., Tichá, R., Smith, J. G., & Grad, L. (2017). Assess- Self-advocacy — Speaking up for oneself when ment of the self-determination of adults with disabili- needed to ensure that one is treated in an ties via behavioral observation: SD-CORES. Manuscript equitable manner. submitted for publication. Self-determination — Individuals exercising the degree of personal control they desire 200 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 12 ]

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CHAPTER 13: Inclusive Early Childhood Development Programs: Opportunities for Promoting Effective Transition to Schooling

Elizabeth Criswell, LeAnne Johnson, Sheila Williams Ridge, & Charissa O’Neill, University of Minnesota Araksia Svajyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University Alvard Poghosyan, UNICEF Armenia

The time between birth and age eight offers a critical opportunity for understanding needs and thoughtfully redesigning the physical, instructional, and social environments to maximize learning for young children. 206 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • What types of services and supports are available for young children who have a disability or developmental delays before they start primary school? • How is information gathered to determine what types of services and supports will be most beneficial to meeting the needs of an individual child? • Once a child’s needs are identified, what kinds of changes to the child’s environment should be considered to facilitate their learning and development? • What strategies exist to help ensure that effective services and supports implemented in early childhood will continue into primary school?

Introduction cies and programs for children from birth to This chapter focuses on early childhood de- eight years of age as well as their parents and velopment (ECD) as a crucial phase of an in- caregivers (UNICEF, 2014). ECD encompasses dividual’s growth and development because a number of distinct sub stages, each of which experiences during early childhood influence presents particular needs. It should be noted outcomes across the entire course of an indi- that from country to country, those sub stages

vidual’s life. For all children, early childhood and the definition of ECD may differ; however, provides an important window of opportunity in general, the following stages are important to prepare the foundation for life-long learning in terms of interventions — and participation, while preventing potential 1. Pregnancy and perinatal: prenatal care, at- delays in development and disabilities. For chil- tended births, registration, postnatal care; dren with disabilities or developmental delays, 2. 0 to 3: parent education, early stimulation it is a vital time to ensure access to interven- and nutrition interventions, home-based tions that can help them reach their full poten- care, nurseries; tial (WHO–UNICEF, 2012). Policies and practices 3. 3 to 6: parent education, preschool or kin- in ECD and transition to primary schooling for dergartens; children with disabilities in the United States 4. 6 to 8: transition to formal education, will be presented as well as some reflections improved early primary school. on the Armenian context. Each country has a unique approach, and each is at a very different In the United States, though federal laws stage in their work with young children with have required publicly funded schools to disabilities. provide educational services to children with In this chapter, the term early childhood disabilities for over 40 years, far less time than development is used to stress that a child’s that has elapsed since those same laws applied development happens in a variety of settings to children younger than school age (Odom, (community-based centers, home, educational Buysse, & Soukakou, 2011). When the federal and health facilities) and involves a wide range laws extended to younger children, new oppor- of activities and service providers that need to tunities emerged to create systems for support- work together for ensuring the physical, cogni- ing families, caregivers and educators. Today, tive, linguistic and socioemotional development there is a system of care for young children of a child. Based on the UNICEF definition, ECD with disabilities and their families that refers to a comprehensive approach to poli- includes — Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 207

• A federal mandate for Child Find (IDEA, 42.5% in 2012 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004), a program that prioritizes localized 2016). Though attendance in an inclusive pro- efforts and procedures for finding children gram is an important start, promoting learning with disabilities and offers supports, for children with disabilities within those en- • A means for families and caregivers to iden- vironments involves educators in thoughtfully tify and seek support when they suspect a selecting and implementing practices that child might have a developmental delay or augment an existing high-quality program. A disability, such as the Help Me Grow Nation- number of evidence-based classroom and in- al Center (https://helpmegrownational.org) teraction practices are available to support the learning and development of children with dis- • Federal rules for identifying and providing abilities within inclusive environments (Barton early intervention services in homes for & Smith, 2015). infants and toddlers (ages 0–2) or in struc- Since 1991, the Government of Armenia tured early childhood programs for pre- has made various legislative efforts to revital- schoolers (ages 3–5). ize forms of early childhood education (ECE), Given findings that early intervention may initially with a focus on kindergartens, which provide a positive impact (Richter et al., 2017), traditionally were the key modality for ECD in the observed increase in the number of chil- Armenia during the Soviet era. Specifically, the dren receiving early intervention services (U.S. kindergarten organizational provisions en- Department of Education, 2016) is a valued sured comprehensive services in early learning, outcome of the system of care created by the health, nutrition and protection of young chil- federal laws. dren. Three key ministries regulate provision of Though increasing the number of children services to young children, including children receiving early intervention services is import- with disabilities: Ministry of Education and ant, it is not sufficient for ensuring improved Science (MOES) is responsible for early learn- outcomes for children and families. In an effort ing, Ministry of Health (MOH) is responsible for to improve the short- and long-term outcomes health, nutrition and development programs; for young children, the U.S. Department of and Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MOL- Health and Human Services (HHS) and the U.S. SA) for child protection and care. Children who Department of Education (USDE) jointly draft- are ages 0–7, including those with disabilities, ed a policy statement calling for increased, are eligible for the following state funded ser- meaningful high-quality inclusion opportunities vices — for children (HHS & USDE, 2015). This policy • Access to kindergartens and psychologi- statement explicitly calls for early childhood cal-pedagogical support. programs to include children by “intentional- • Health care services and rehabilitation for ly promoting participation in all learning and children up to seven years of age, children social activities” (HHS & USDE, 2015, p. 3). As with disabilities above the age of seven and educators enact this policy, they are changing children in orphanages and state-funded service delivery models to set the context for residential care institutions; participation in meaningful learning in inclusive environments. Reports from the Office of Spe- • Rehabilitation devices, prostheses and cial Education Programs (OSEP, 2016) showed orthopedic accessories are provided free of that approximately 66% of preschoolers now charge to children with disabilities. These received some special education services in include such things as hearing devices, voice regular early childhood programs, up from 208 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

creation devices, eye prostheses, wheel- ty of resources, inconsistencies in regulatory chairs, corsets, etc.; frameworks and simply absence of meaningful • Day care and rehabilitation services through services, especially for children with disabilities. state partnership programs implemented by The revision of the Law on Preschool Education various NGOs and state-funded centers; was initiated in 2017 with the aim of including specific provisions for improvement of the • Medical-social examination for disability quality, affordability and availability of pre- determination and certification of the status school education services, with a focus on in- of ‘disabled child’; creased enrollment of the most disadvantaged • Monetary allowance for all who get the children: children living in poverty, in remote status of ‘disabled child.’ The Government of rural areas and children with disabilities. Since Armenia approves the amount of allowance 2000, international organizations and local every year; nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) imple- Based on a report from the World Bank mented several pilot projects targeting access (SABER, WB 2012), Armenia has an emerging to kindergarten of children with disabilities environment with strong national laws and reg- and provision of rehabilitation services in child ulations guaranteeing the provision of essential development centers. However, due to financial ECD services and a framework for multisector and regulatory gaps, currently only a few kin- collaboration. As mentioned above, programs dergartens officially offer inclusive education. are established in all essential sectors with high The remainder of this chapter will describe levels of coverage in the health and nutrition an early childhood program in the United sector. Universal coverage and equitable ac- States and the experiences of those leaders, cess for the eligible population in all essential teachers and families as they provide inclusive sectors, for example preschool education or learning experiences for young children. Where rehabilitation services, is yet to be achieved. relevant, the Armenian experience will be pre- In 2005, the government adopted the Law sented to help understand how policies influ- on Preschool Education, followed by the de- ence practice in different country settings. velopment and adoption of the 2008–2015 Strategic Program for Reforms in Preschool About the Shirley G. Moore Education. Both documents promote equal opportunities for all children upon entry to school Laboratory School Model and envisage that all children will have a strong At the Shirley G. Moore (SGM) Laboratory foundation for adaptability and development School at the University of Minnesota, the of their social and personal skills. According to curriculum reflects current best practices in the Law on Preschool Education (2005), chil- cognitive, social, emotional and physical devel- dren have the right to preprimary education opment. Children learn through experiences that may be provided by preschool institutions, that match their developmental stage in an both public and private, or organized in the environment where they have warm, nurturing family (SABER, WB 2012). However, preschool relationships. The Lab School aims to spark education is not mandatory in Armenia, and children’s sense of wonder, curiosity and de- the preschool enrollment rate was only 29% light in learning while helping each child build in 2017 (NSS, 2017). Accessibility to affordable knowledge and a framework for academic and quality preschool education for all 3 to concepts. 6-year-old children is an issue due to scarci- Each classroom is staffed by one lead teacher and two to three teaching assistants, who Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 209

are often university students working toward a an inclusive setting, all children have the op- teaching license. The lead teacher remains with portunity to develop deeper understandings of the children through the entire school year, each other and learn empathy and kindness, and the university students rotate every 15 as well as how to persevere through difficulties weeks. The adult-child ratio is generally 1:6. All and conflict. lead teachers have master’s degrees, are highly The success of the Lab School’s inclusive knowledgeable of child development, and are model relies on working collaboratively with experienced in working with young children in early childhood special education teachers who classroom settings. can offer specialized services to children while Each classroom emphasizes math, literacy, they attend the program. The administrative science and social studies lessons embedded team works each year to develop a contract in daily play activities at school. This includes for services with local school districts. These ample child-directed free play supported by contracts include a variety of services that teachers for about two thirds of the school day, are needed by individual children and allow including child-directed play indoors and out- school districts to secure spaces for enrolling doors. The other one third of the day is spent in children from their school district that they more teacher-directed activities, such as small believe would be best serviced in an inclusive group, large group, snack time and transitions. environment like the Lab School. Families are Teachers are given flexibility in their environ- given options for their child’s placement and ment and curriculum design to best meet the receive a tour of the school before deciding if it needs of the children in their class. Each class- is the right placement for their family. The Lab room space and curriculum may vary greatly School also welcomes private providers into based on the needs of the children enrolled. the classroom to provide a variety of services Each day, children are given access to every to help children succeed. These services are space and activity, including indoor and out- most often nursing and intensive supports for door spaces. children with more complex special needs but Inclusion is a prominent and important whose social-emotional goals can be met in an component of the program. The children with inclusive environment. delays or disabilities play and learn alongside In Armenia, support services for children their peers who are typically developing. Indi- with disabilities or developmental delays are vidualized education is an important facet of carried out spontaneously, without any plan- the approach, and by offering inclusive envi- ning and supervision. Almost no work is orga- ronments, the school maximizes the benefits of nized for children ages 0–3 with developmental seeing each person as a unique and complex delays and disabilities at preschool educational individual in the world. All children learn to institutions, as provision for this age group is take this perspective with them to school and limited or nonexistent. Health facilities continue beyond, such that they may become mem- to be the main source of service provision for bers of a society where citizens have a deeper this age group, with focus on early screening of understanding of the unique assets of each newborns to identify and address child disabili- individual. All families can benefit from inclu- ty, immunization, provision of free medical and sive programming as well. Many families ap- rehabilitation services for children with disabili- preciate that their children have opportunities ties and promoting public education to address to interact with their peers and learn about the malnutrition among children. differences and similarities between them. In 210 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

Interventions for children ages 3–6 hav- services that are provided to a young child with ing developmental delays and disabilities are a disability or developmental delay are often sometimes carried out, but inefficiently. The fragmented and irregular. By increasing oppor- reasons for these inefficiencies include — tunities for cooperation between institutions • Absence of multidisciplinary teams at pre- and support services, individual plans may be school educational institutions or absence of developed that maximize a child’s opportuni- community-based services; ties to learn and develop. • Limited access to preschool institutions and rehabilitation centers; Identifying Children’s Needs • Lack of training programs for general peda- The following vignettes are examples of how gogues to work efficiently with children who the needs of individual children may be identi- have developmental disorders and disabili- fied in different types of environments. The first ties; two, featuring Omar and Matthew, are from the • Insufficient guidebooks and tools necessary Lab School at the University of Minnesota, and for understanding how to work with children the third, featuring Mari, is from a program in who have developmental disorders and Armenia. These vignettes are examples of how disabilities. the school staff will take pertinent information about children as individuals and use that Due to the above-mentioned factors, pre- information to craft a variety of supports and school-age children with developmental delays interventions on a case-by-case basis. Omar’s and disabilities are often formally enrolled in vignette details how classroom staff often play preschool educational institutions that are not a role in identifying when children may ben- able to offer them meaningful participation efit from special services. Matthew’s shows (Svajyan, 2011). These problems are addressed how staff can gather and implement strategies by some child development centers and non- when an area of need has been determined governmental organizations that provide prior to enrollment. Mari’s reveals how the multidisciplinary services such as psychologists, careful identification of needs and appropriate speech therapists, special pedagogues, art ther- interventions to address communication and apists, physiotherapists and occupational ther- cooperation challenges were essential for her apists that can contribute to the development transition to school. of children. Great progress in the development and socialization of these children is observed when they have access to specialized services. Omar In addition, smooth transition of children to Omar started at the SGM Laboratory School mainstream preschool education institutions when he was two years old. His mother stated and primary schools afterwards is being doc- that it took him a long time to start making umented, in which children demonstrated sounds, but he did imitate sounds and only a higher level of preparedness for primary stopped if he became frustrated. This early in- schooling. tervention was key in getting his speech started Still, it should be mentioned that the ab- and helping his family understand and navigate sence of cooperation between preschool the special education services provided in Min- education institutions and support services nesota. hinders the socialization and inclusion of young Throughout Omar’s first year at the Lab children with disabilities. Currently, support School, his teacher built a relationship with Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 211 him and his family. Together they looked at Matthew his growth over the year. When evaluating his Matthew started at the SGM Lab School when expressive language skills in the middle of the he was three years old. However, he had been school year, his teacher noted that he used receiving special education services since in- gestures when communicating with peers and fancy. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome adults more often than he used verbal lan- (trisomy 21) at birth and immediately qualified guage. She also noted that he mumbled and for early intervention services in his home. his sounds ran together, making him difficult A home visiting team from his school district to understand. By the end of his first year, they visited once a week to provide developmental began a conversation with his family about hav- supports to Matthew and his family (including ing him further evaluated for additional speech speech, physical and occupational therapies). services. This is a common service delivery model in Omar was a friendly, outgoing child, and Minnesota for children under the age of three though he was speaking, he was experiencing who qualify. When Matthew reached the age challenges in being understood by his peers of three, his school district considered a variety and adults. When Omar returned for his sec- of possible early learning settings that would ond year, his family decided to have him as- be appropriate for Matthew’s needs, including sessed for special education services. Omar’s segregated classrooms, a combination of pull- evaluation concluded that he had difficulty out and regular classroom, and inclusive class- with certain sounds, especially blended letters room. After identifying inclusion as a possible such as sh or th, and that he stuttered, which fit for Matthew, his mother and father visited impacted his fluency. On the first evaluation, several different programs before identifying Omar could be understood about 37% of the the SGM Lab School as their preferred place- time. He was found to stutter on about 14% of ment for Matthew. his words, especially when speaking in conver- At the SGM Lab School, the education staff sation or phrases, but no stutter when naming does several things to ensure that the school items with a single word definition. The stutter- year begins successfully for all children. Home ing negatively impacted his classroom partic- visits are conducted so that the general educa- ipation. Therefore, he qualified for up to 10 tion teacher has the opportunity to meet with hours per week in an inclusive educational en- each student and family and observe meaning- vironment (the Lab School) and 45 minutes of ful aspects of their home life. Similarly, children speech and language services per week due to are given the opportunity to visit the classroom his articulation and fluency assessment. Omar and meet future classmates. This is a partic- continued to receive those services in the Lab ularly useful tool when learning about chil- School. To support his growth, the speech and dren’s unique developmental needs. Because language pathologist also provided 30 minutes Matthew’s strengths and needs were already of indirect services per month, which included identified, the general education teacher was time to collaborate with teachers and his family able to ask his family specific questions about to demonstrate communication strategies and what accommodations might be helpful as he help design a curriculum to aid him in commu- transitioned to a classroom at the Lab School. nicating with others. In addition to his individualized education plan (IEP), which outlined his targeted learning goals for the school year, the teacher was able to learn about Matthew’s individual interests, 212 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

personality traits and preferences to inform her vision therapists, feeding therapists, deaf and preparations for the school year. hard of hearing specialists, autism specialists). These specialists may visit the Lab School as of- Mari ten as once a week or as infrequently as once a year. They may work directly with children and Four-year-old Mari, a girl with autism, was provide guidance and assistive learning materi- attending a kindergarten. Mari didn’t respond als to the classroom staff to use when they are to her name, didn’t speak, didn’t obey instruc- not in the classroom. The specialists are also tions and liked rolling toys. She could roll them responsible for tracking children’s progress for hours, accompanied by unintelligible vo- according to the goals and objectives set out in calizations and excessive movement of hands. their individualized education plan (IEP). Occa- Mari did not participate in any classes, as she sionally, one-to-one supports are also provided was not interested in them, and the peda- by the school district when children require gogues could not raise her interest and ensure more intensive assistance to be successful in her participation or interaction with peers. In the inclusive environment. fact, during her time in the kindergarten, Mari The Lab School classroom staff work closely played alone in a corner, and the pedagogues with the public school district staff to support were unable to include her in any activity car- the learning objectives outlined in each IEP. ried out by the group. Some extra professional As they help individual children learn the skills work such as psychological support, speech identified in their IEP, they embed that learning therapy and special pedagogical services was within their support of children’s more global carried out with Mari at the Arev Development development. They also seek to understand Center in Yerevan, both in group and individ- and identify areas of strength, particular in- ually. The professional support promoted the terests and priorities of the child or family. To development of Mari’s cognitive interests and ensure that there is adequate support for the her communicative and cooperation skills. She Lab School staff and that individual children are began to respond to her name and obey sim- making progress on their learning objectives, ple instructions, and she became interested in the team of staff from both the public school other toys such as cubes, dolls and animals. district and the Lab School meet with the child’s This intervention created favorable conditions family at least twice per year to collaboratively for Mari’s smooth transition to, and meaningful make plans and coordinate everyone’s work. participation in, the kindergarten.

Bringing Together a Team to Plan Arranging an Inclusive Environment Needed Supports That Supports All Children’s Learning The delivery of inclusive learning opportunities for young children at the SGM Lab School in- When creating early learning experiences to volves the participation of both the Lab School meet the needs of all young children, it is im- staff and the early childhood special education portant for teachers to thinks about the phys- staff of our local, publicly funded school district. ical, instructional and social environment of The specialists include early childhood special the classroom and school (Sandall & Schwartz, education (ECSE) teachers, speech-language 2009). When school leadership and classroom pathologists, occupational therapists, physical teachers consider these aspects of the learn- therapists and other specialists as needed (e.g., ing environment, they not only ensure that the Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 213 classroom is arranged in a supportive manner or more easily mastered. This creates a space for all children, but are also able to be inten- where children can seek out new activities but tional about supports that individual child may also avoid overstimulation and frustration. With need. A helpful approach for establishing a this type of foundation in place for the physical supportive environment is to view the space arrangement of the classroom environment, from the perspective of the children in the the teachers are then able to consider other classroom (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2017). Taking specific accommodations that may be helpful information from an IEP and initial meetings to individual children. can help a teacher think about what might be When discussing physical environment and confusing, frustrating or overstimulating. Con- accommodations in the kindergartens of Ar- versely, teachers can include things that may menia, it should be mentioned that there are feel welcoming, calming or engaging. The two a number of challenges in this area, including vignettes from the Lab School will be used to physical accessibility of the buildings for chil- provide examples of the opportunities to raise dren using a walker or wheelchair and a lack awareness and demonstrate cooperation with of resources for ensuring reasonable accom- assisting specialists. modations, such as fixtures for moving, for feeding, and the provision of visual and audi- Physical Aspects of the Environment tory aids. When discussing universal design for learning or access to information such as Teachers examine the physical arrangement of graphics, pictures or pictograms to promote the classroom to identify areas that can either the child’s perception of information, it should support or hinder learning (Sandall & Schwartz, be noted that in this sphere, there are many 2009). For example, teachers may need to opportunities. Simply put, it is very important space furniture out so that a child using a walk- to raise the pedagogues’ awareness and to en- er or wheelchair can move successfully without sure the cooperation with assisting specialists. interference. Similarly, a teacher might decide Two examples from the SGM Lab School are to include motor equipment in an open area of provided to help Armenian pedagogues consid- the classroom to support a child’s jumping and er new approaches. climbing needs. There are many ways that the physical environment may be arranged to maximize the success of all children while including Omar children with more specific needs. Organizing Once Omar’s skills had been evaluated, there the classroom space into areas in which chil- were very few physical adaptations to be made dren know the types of materials and activities in the environment to create new opportu- that will take place in that area provides pre- nities for him to practice needed skills. The dictable routines that facilitate children’s learn- Lab School classrooms have a wide variety of ing. Providing a wide array of learning materials learners, and many universal design for learn- within those areas helps to emphasize different ing guidelines (http://udlguidelines.cast.org/) domains of development, such as art materials, are regularly implemented. The teachers made sensory materials, dress-up clothes, building sure that there were a variety of different types blocks, books, puzzles and natural materials, of learning areas arranged in the room to cre- and it ensures that all children will be able to ate different options for Omar to practice his find engaging activities. It is important to offer verbal expression. This included having picture both materials that children may find chal- schedules, photos and labeled items around lenging as well as materials that are familiar the room that could be used for ‘talking prac- 214 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

tice.’ The teachers also ensured that there was make more choices about activities in socially a planned time for Omar to practice engaging appropriate ways and avoid frustration. with his peers and adjusted the schedule to allow him to have his one-on-one services before Instructional Aspects of the the school day began. Environment Instructional aspects of the learning environ- Matthew ment include temporal arrangements such as

Before Matthew’s first day of school, the teach- the length and sequencing of different activ- ers already had useful information from the ities, the routines and procedures that make team that enabled them to make decisions that the environment predictable and familiar to would best support Matthew’s success in the children while they engage in high-quality and classroom. For example, it was stated by Mat- developmentally appropriate activities, and the thew’s mother that he found transitions to the staffing plans that effectively facilitate activities, next activity particularly challenging. Matthew’s transitions and high-quality interactions with teacher understood that this is a common chal- children (Sandall & Schwartz, 2009). Example of lenge for many young children. To address this such rules that create a familiar environment need for Matthew as well as many of the other are illustrated below (see Figure 1). children, the teachers made sure that the areas around the classroom and materials within Figure 1. Classroom Circle Rules the different areas were organized and made available in predictable ways. To support this, they created a schedule for the daily classroom routines so that transition times would become more predictable for everyone. The schedule outlined the different components of the day using photographs of the actual school environment to create a concrete representation of the daily experience. This schedule was posted in several areas around the classroom and shown to all the children during the first days of school. One of the schedules was posted next to Matthew’s personal belongings cubby so that he could see it easily and even review it each In Armenia, this is an emerging area with day on arrival at school. Having the predictable limited capacities and training opportunities schedule and the variety of learning areas in available for preschool teachers and specialists the classroom were also important for accom- within donor-funded projects. The procedures modating Matthew’s high levels of fatigue and and methodologies for adjusting the instruc- frustration. The low muscle tone that accompa- tional aspect will be developed after adoption nied his trisomy 21 made many fine and gross of the revised Law on Preschool Education. motor activities tiring for Matthew. Similarly, Meanwhile, teachers are required to follow his days were often filled with private therapies child-centered pedagogical approaches that (physical, occupational and speech) before and foster differentiated instruction. It is very im- after school. Therefore, the predictable and or- portant for preschool pedagogues to develop ganized classroom environment allowed him to capacities to organize the educational process Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 215

of children having developmental disorders, creasing Omar’s opportunities to practice need- to plan and implement individual activities, ed skills was also facilitated through intentional to regularly monitor a child’s progress, and to staffing plans. The ratios of adults to children develop professional capacities. The country in the Lab School classroom allowed time and is moving to the introduction of assessment of space for teachers to check in regularly with educational need based on the International Omar to ask questions, assess his understand- Classification of Functioning, which definitely ing and facilitate interactions during play with will contribute to the enhancement of needs- his peers. These check-ins allowed Omar’s team based instructional support in kindergartens. to continually assess his progress towards his Two examples from the SGM Lab School are goals and plan ways to scaffold his learning. again provided to help Armenian pedagogues consider new approaches. Matthew The individualized paradigm of the SGM Lab Omar School approach helped his teachers make a The design of the classroom instructional number of decisions that immediately sup- routines allows for well over half of the day to ported Matthew’s success in the classroom. As be guided by the children’s own choices about previously outlined, the instructional environ- activities. For Omar, this allowed him to follow ment is designed to accommodate children’s his interests throughout much of the class- individual interests and ability to sustain at- room and outdoors. He was able to spend time tention in certain types of activities. Thus, as engaging with materials and peers in small Matthew navigated the classroom, he was able groups and in one-on-one interactions within to approach different materials and activities activities that were of his choosing. According that were meaningful and motivating for him, to Staskowski et al. (2012), “Inquiry based learn- such as the dramatic play area, which was one ing activities provide a low-threat environment of his favorites. This created a learning space where students can apply prior knowledge, that minimized frustrations and maximized his explore new concepts, and develop ideas about participation throughout the day. As the year the essential questions” (p. 116). As the team progressed, Matthew showed interest in ex- learned about Omar’s interests, his speech and panding his play into a variety of other areas or language pathologist was able to spend time joining in with more adult-structured learning in the classroom helping him to practice words experiences. He would try a new experience for and interactions that would help him more fully brief periods before returning to a preferred engage in learning activities and interactions activity in the classroom. with peers and adults throughout the day. Matthew’s teachers learned that they could As they understood his needs, the teachers intentionally sequence activities to ensure that allowed opportunities, especially during large a more challenging activity was followed by a and small group time, for Omar to engage in more preferred one (see Figure 2 on page 216). conversation. They took time to let him re- This sequencing of the activities helped moti- spond, which helped increase his occasions to vate Matthew to engage in activities that were practice and gain confidence. According to one important for his learning, while also provid- of his teachers, “He was successful because of ing a helpful break and rest period, given his the relationships he had with the teachers and developmental needs. To allow the sequencing others in the school. He was truly heard with- of activities to be more understandable and out being completely understood verbally.” In- predictable for Matthew, his team developed vi- 216 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

sual schedules for “first — then” and used brief environment. There is a high focus on promot- activities with a clear beginning and end (e.g., ing adult to child and child to child interactions putting together a puzzle or sorting a set of that support the social and emotional devel- colored beads) to help Matthew know what was opment of all the children. This leads to each needed to complete one activity before moving individual receiving instruction and support to on to a more preferred activity. Additionally, understand the many complicated aspects of this was a useful strategy for other children connecting with others and resolving conflicts. who were also acquiring new skills or practicing Teachers work to connect with all the children the integration of different areas of develop- in the classroom in meaningful ways. Their rela- ment (motor, cognitive, social and emotional). tionships with individual children are viewed as Balancing challenging tasks with more familiar the foundation upon which all developmental and/or strength-based ones helps all children progress is built. With that foundation, teachers stay actively engaged throughout the learning actively support emerging social relationships day. Further, enhancing the visual schedule through play experiences in the classroom and that illustrates the overall daily routine with outdoors. The teachers also view interpersonal other forms of visuals that support participa- conflicts as a means of learning new social skills tion within activities and transitions between and building deeper relationships. Taking time activities helps all children easily understand to get to know and fully understand each child and predict learning as it unfolds. is imperative for delivering the individualized care and instruction that helps children contin- Figure 2. Example of a Visual Schedule “First ue to learn and grow. – Then” When discussing social adaptations in the kindergartens of Armenia, it is clear that the achievements in this field are comparatively noticeable. Children attending kindergarten have opportunities to build social relations with their peers as well as with adults, many of which the pedagogues are able to promote. This, of course, contributes to the social and emotional development of children with developmental disorders and their smooth transition to primary school (Svajyan, 2014). In addition to the two examples from the SGM Lab School, Mari’s story from Armenia is also presented below Social Aspects of the Environment to highlight how current provisions for social aspects of the school environment may have a Social aspects of the learning environment positive impact. focus on supporting and promoting interactions involving children, teachers and families by considering the groupings of children, the Omar way activities are arranged, and how materi- Omar’s team made sure that all teachers were als are selected and made available (Sandall informed about the goals for his skill devel- & Schwartz, 2009). There are a number of opment and met regularly to plan tactics to ways the SGM Lab School provides universal scaffold his learning. Staskowski et al. (2012) supports for the social aspects of the learning noted, “What makes UDL different from some Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 217 other learning frameworks is the emphasis on perience on which the children could base their planning ahead, or front-loading the curriculum interactions. With supportive adult interactions, with assistive supports” (p. 115). The Lab School Matthew not only had more opportunities to director, who provided a check-in each day, develop his own skills, the rest of the children engaged Omar in conversation each morning. also had opportunities to develop empathy and This created a predictable learning and prac- appreciation of differences that may have oth- tice opportunity for Omar and included having erwise resulted in exclusionary play practices. Omar talk with the director and other teachers about things he was working on, which his Mari speech pathologist would remind him of and After a year of center based special education prepare him to talk about. This helped other services, Mari started attending an inclusive teachers to recognize opportunities to prac- kindergarten. The pedagogues spent time tice skills as they naturally occurred during the teaching Mari how to talk with her peers and, day. The teachers were also intentional about through repeated practice, how to follow the promoting interactions between children, but classroom routines. With that practice, Mari specifically between Omar and his peers. Ar- learned to participate in the group activities ranging buddy play that partnered children for without shouting or spontaneous voices. She brief play sessions and organizing small groups could sit with children in a circle, to do greet- with children who were good language models ings and answer to the peers’ questions with for turn-taking and sharing activities created the help of preschool teachers. She started to opportunities that were particularly helpful for understand feelings of other children and show Omar to practice skills and build confidence empathy towards them. Mari also joined chil- with his peers. dren during lunch and observed social rules of eating with a fork and spoon. She even replicat- Matthew ed those achievements in her community and A number of universal adaptations were useful family life. Mari could go to supermarket with for Matthew’s success in the social environ- her mother and follow the expected behav- ment. The staff ratios and positioning of staff iors while walking through the store, including around the environment were particularly choosing something she wanted her mother to beneficial to promoting interactions for Mat- buy and, with help, explaining why she wanted thew. Given that Matthew’s spoken language her mother to buy it. With adults teaching her was sometimes difficult to understand and that the skills and offering repeated practice, Mari he sometimes did not understand the symbol- also started to play with her brother at home ic or pretend play of his peers, adult supports and share toys with him. provided some communication interpretation for the peers, and prompting and modeling for Targeting Interventions to Support Matthew helped to improve his interactions with peers. Sometimes, teachers would also Specific Needs arrange for a small group of children to take As teachers grow to know children better a story they had read as a whole group and throughout the year, they often notice that use it to act out an event from the story in the some areas of the classroom might be better dramatic play area with Matthew. This not only structured to meet each individual’s needs in helped to reinforce the concepts and language a more targeted manner. Despite the thought- from the story but also created a common ex- fulness of the universal strategies, many chil- 218 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

dren will also benefit from more targeted and challenging for Matthew. When there were individualized supports that span the physical, several peers in the same space, Matthew was instructional, and social aspects of a class- frequently distracted, and it was difficult for room. These supports can often be employed him to complete the necessary task at hand. with smaller groups of children or woven into This became particularly noticeable when it was the typical learning experience for one indi- time for him to dress to go outdoors. In order vidual (Sandall & Schwartz, 2009). They are to facilitate this process so that Matthew was interventions targeted to meet specific needs, successful and able to become more inde- but they do not necessarily cause children to pendent with his dressing skills, the teachers be removed from the learning experience. As moved the area for his personal items from the Armenian pedagogues continue to strive for middle of the group to the end of the group. providing more differentiated interventions to This enabled him to move off to the periphery support the specific needs of certain children, of the group while dressing was occurring. a series of examples are presented below for Omar and Matthew of the SGM Lab School to Targeted Interventions with provide ideas about new ways to provide targeted and individualized supports to Armenian Instructional Aspects of the children. Classroom

Omar Targeted Interventions with During speech and language work, vocalization, Physical Aspects of the Classroom pronunciation and enunciation can be difficult to hear in a classroom with lots of background Omar noise. Small group interactions were an im- Some physical supports in the classroom envi- portant part of scaffolding Omar’s learning at ronment helped Omar stay engaged and fully the Lab School. He was able to gain confidence participate in the classroom experience. During with the same group of children over several group learning times, Omar was often seated weeks as they explored something of mutual next to one of the classroom teachers. This interest. As new vocabulary was introduced, he enabled him to have support in expressing his was supported by his teachers and speech and ideas and gave him quick reinforcement for his language pathologist to help him gain mastery. attempts as verbal expression. Other intentional adaptations of the environment, in addition Matthew to the UDL guidelines, included having songs that were repeated each day and consistent Several targeted instructional practices helped routines and materials that created opportuni- Matthew continue to develop and expand his ties for the teachers to provide repeated prac- skills. For example, his IEP listed turn-taking tice with certain words to aid in communication and following directions as goals for his learn- and understanding. ing throughout the school year. In order to provide focused time for him to expand upon these skills, the classroom teachers created Matthew games that included his favorite subjects: Some targeted interventions proved to be superheroes, monsters and animals. A teacher useful for Matthew during his preschool expe- would partner with Matthew twice a week to rience. For example, busier times of day were practice these skills in the context of the highly Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 219 motivating games. This activity also included Targeted Interventions with Social classmates, so that Matthew’s turn-taking skills Aspects of the Classroom were worked as naturally as possible into the usual classroom experiences. Omar The teachers also employed several instruc- The social environment in the mixed-age class- tional supports to help Matthew during the dif- es allowed Omar opportunities to interact with ficult transition experiences. One tool that was children over a variety of ages (3–5 years), and especially useful for Matthew was an individu- the inclusive setting provided opportunities for alized, interactive picture schedule (see Figure him to engage with children from a variety of 3 below). In addition to the universal schedule strengths and challenges. This environment al- of the daily routine posted for all the children, lowed him to engage in frequent conversations the teachers created individual schedules for and opportunities for sharing his thoughts. He Matthew that he could carry with him to differ- occasionally became frustrated, but by the end ent activities and that broke some of the larger of his second year had improved in his articu- tasks of the day into smaller, more manage- lation; he was able to use other words that he able, pieces. The teachers used Matthew’s in- knew were more easily understood and was terest in monsters to create different monster able to speak with confidence, even telling sto- visuals that Matthew could affix to the schedule ries to small groups of children. after each task was completed successfully. For example, he could stick a mummy next to the clean-up task after he had finished putting Matthew away five toys. This was a way to help Matthew One important aspect of the individualizing organize challenging parts of the day and still done at the SGM Lab School is its focus on feel motivated by his own interests. Addition- children’s assets as well as their challenges. Just ally, teachers would often structure routines as children’s specific interests can be motivat- so that Matthew would be the first person to ing for their learning, so too can their areas engage in them. By allowing Matthew to be the of strength. For Matthew, his strong interest first person to wash his hands or select a game in social connections with peers was a strong piece, they knew he would be able to focus on foundation upon which teachers were able to the task at hand without the added distractions build new learning. For example, as Matthew of peers around him. continued to struggle with the physical endurance needed to move through all parts of the Figure 3. Matthew’s Interactive Picture day, he was more motivated to run, jump, climb Schedule and crawl when connecting with his peers. When the teaching team noticed this, they found other ways to capitalize on Matthew’s social strengths in the classroom. For example, in addition to arranging the physical environment to support Matthew’s focus during dressing, teachers were able to partner him with a preferred peer during these dressing tasks. The peer modeled independent dressing tasks and provided Matthew with the social support as these skills emerged for him as well. Peers 220 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

were also an excellent motivator for working would be negatively impacted as he got older on specific speech and communication goals and neared school age. To intensify their inter- from Matthew’s IEP. The speech and language ventions, the team decided that a new, more pathologist who worked with Matthew saw that isolated learning environment was needed for working on articulation of sounds was more Omar’s focused practice so that there were successful when peer engagement was includ- minimal auditory distractions and so that the ed. Matthew had much more investment in speech therapist could hear and practice specif- making himself understood to his classmates ic sounds more easily. To accomplish this, once than he might have had working one on one per week, Omar arrived at school 45 minutes with an adult. before the other children and worked with a speech and language pathologist on articula- Intensifying Interventions to tion, fluency and a reduction in stuttering. In addition to this individual time, Omar’s Address Significant or Persistent team also arranged for the special education Needs teacher to organize a small group of two to four Occasionally children will require more in- children to join Omar for some focused practice tensive supports to be successful in learning during a play-based activity in a separate area important skills. Intensifying the interventions of the classroom or school. When intensifying children receive involves the team in consider- interventions in this way, selection of the activi- ing questions such as — ties may be based on interests or developmen- • Is the environment arranged so that there is tal needs of the child. Further, selection of the sufficient time and opportunity for the child group or children may also be based on inter- to practice and receive feedback? ests or the more advanced developmental skills of other children, allowing them to be good • Is the child spending enough time practic- models for the child. In Omar’s case, activities ing? usually involved dramatic play with a group of • Is there a different way of intervening that children who were strong communicators as might lead to the same goal? well as patient and supportive. In this small More intensive interventions are only em- group that was facilitated by an adult, Omar ployed when universal and targeted interven- practiced his skills for inviting other children tions have not been successful. With Armenian into play, expressing his feelings, and resolving pedagogues continuing to develop the skills frustration or conflict with peers. To extend this to effectively address significant or persistent small group practice, Omar received continued needs for certain children, examples are again modeling and coaching from his teachers and presented from the SGM Lab School to provide therapists during the naturally occurring social ideas about what intensive intervention might interactions in the classroom. This combination someday provide for children in Armenia. of intensive coaching and natural opportunities to practice the skills was important for his Intensifying Interventions for Omar growth overall and helped him form deeper relationships with his peers. Omar’s team decided that more intensive interventions were needed to help improve his articulation and social interaction skills. Not only was it taking longer than hoped to see him make the desired progress, but the team was worried that his social relationships with peers Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 221

Intensifying Interventions for Matthew a couch and look at copies of the books that Matthew’s team decided that more intensive were used during the whole-group activity. As interventions were needed to address his the year progressed and his endurance and endurance and participation in the wide array comfort with adult-directed activities increased, of activities that took place at the Lab School. Matthew began to participate in group experi- To be responsive to Matthew’s low muscle tone ences for longer periods and with more fre- and extensive therapy schedule, his teachers quency. In this instance, teaching Matthew to arranged the environment to reduce physi- request time away from the group allowed for cal demands, where appropriate, as well as his individual needs to be honored rather than to teach Matthew to appropriately request a forcing participation for which he was not yet break when needed. For example, the school’s ready. playground was quite large and located far from the classroom. The teachers found that Making Intentional and Effective Matthew enjoyed playing energetically with Transitions from Early Childhood peers outdoors, but often had little energy left Programs to Primary School when it was time to make the journey across the playground and back into the school to Settings participate in the next set of activities. The With more and more effort being given to teachers introduced a wagon that he could increasing access to high quality early learning use to move from the outdoors back inside. programs for young children with developmen- The wagon ride allowed Matthew to review his tal delays and disabilities, ensuring that knowl- visual schedule to know what was expected edge of what works for a child in one level of when they returned to the room and allowed education is shared with those in the next level for continued social engagement to occur as of education as the child grows older is essen- classmates took turns helping pull Matthew’s tial to promoting meaningful change. Across wagon. the life span, strategies to effectively support Whole-group instruction was an activity in transitions for children from home to pre-pri- which it was sometimes challenging for Mat- mary education, from pre-primary to primary, thew to fully participate. In the classroom, and on to further levels of education is get- whole-group instruction involved approximate- ting more attention in both the United States ly 20 minutes of shared singing, book reading, of America and Armenia. The issue has been puppets or facilitated group conversations. On analyzed by the experts of Enabling Education days when Matthew was too fatigued to ful- Network (EENET) in collaboration with Bridge ly participate, the teachers assisted Matthew of Hope (BoH) Armenian NGO. The report in asking to ‘take a break,’ which allowed him elaborates on the barriers and accelerators to rest on a sofa in the classroom. Teaching contributing to a smooth transition of children Matthew to request to take a break involved with disabilities, and it offers some recommen- the speech and language pathologist securing dation for transition planning within different a speech-generating device that she taught levels of the education system and transition to Matthew to use. She programmed key requests independent living (BoH, 2015). Building on the and phrases into it, including “take a break,” findings of this research, BoH, in collaboration with pictures that Matthew could select and with MoES and the University of Edinburg, a have the device ‘speak’ for him. When Matthew guide was developed for teachers on the orga- requested a break, the teachers let him sit on nization of a smooth transition from home to 222 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

preschool: http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/ family and the primary school where the docs/Armenia_transition_research_FINALd.pdf. child will go next so that they understand A similar guide is used for planning transitions the strategies and are able to continue to of children in the United States: Transition from support the child in meaningful ways. Preschool Special Education to Kindergarten • Try to see individuality in each child — to Checklist — http://ectacenter.org/~pdfs/decrp/ identify his or her strong and weak sides, to TR-3_Transition_to_Kindergarten_2017.pdf. plan needs-based interventions. Common across the guides describing effective • In work carried out with the child, try to also transitions between education levels and the include the family. provision of differentiated educational services within each education level is the need for intentional planning to develop shared under- Thoughts for Leaders standings, coordinate supports, and create • Take time to consider your program’s read- open communication that remains focused on iness to offer a high-quality inclusion pro- supporting individual children. gram and plan for the training, organization and leadership supports that will be needed Tips for Teachers to make it successful. • Foster value for identifying and meeting • It is essential to create opportunities for the needs of children with disabilities that teachers to meet as a team to discuss how is supported by a team of committed and things are going, make plans for addressing knowledgeable people. children’s needs and support each other. • Begin by developing a high-quality learning • Understand that, especially in early child- environment that considers how the phys- hood, families will be at different stages ical, instructional and social aspects of the of understanding and acceptance of their program and classroom promote learning child’s disability and will need everyone’s for all children. support to envision new possibilities. • Think systematically and creatively about • Create continuous conditions for additional targeted interventions that support the training for your employees in work with learning of a single child or small group of children having developmental disorders. If children within the everyday routines of the possible, organize supervisions. classroom. • You yourselves should be involved in the • Expect that some targeted interventions process of making individual curricula for may not be sufficient and that more intense children with developmental disorders and interventions are needed that reflect a carry out supervision to check the quality of comprehensive understanding of the child’s the work. current skills, the goals others have for the • Try to create conditions for cooperation child, and the environment in which you among professionals within different struc- would like to see the child achieve those tures for working with the child. This will goals. enable the acquisition of more information • Once you find practices and interventions about the child and the proper arrangement that are meaningfully helping a child partic- of the work carried out. ipate and learn in an inclusive early childhood classroom, partner with the child’s Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ] 223

Review Questions Glossary • What are the key aspects of an inclusive Early childhood development — A generic term preschool environment that supports the that refers to a child’s cognitive, social, learning of all children? emotional and physical development or • How you will organize targeted interventions programs. to support specific needs of children? What Individualized education plan (IEP) — A formal will be some of your strategies? document that describes an individual • When and how will you apply intensified child’s strengths and needs, prioritizes interventions? what the child needs to learn, and helps all the adults in a child’s life know their role in • What are the challenges of meeting the the plan. specific needs of individual children in early learning programs? Least restrictive environment — The environment that is believed to be the right fit to • How can you ensure the smooth transition meet the child’s needs and promote his or of young children from early childhood de- her learning. velopment programs to primary school? Meta-cognitive skills — The skills children need to plan their actions, problem solve, and Additional Resources understand how things work. Awareness of and resources for early identifica- Preschool education institution — Official term tion. https://helpmegrownational.org used in Armenia for putting different types Information about interventions, supports, and of early learning services in one frame. recommended practices for young chil- Very often the term kindergarten is used dren. http://www.dec-sped.org/ instead. More information about the Shirley G. Moore Lab School. http://lab-school.umn.edu/ References about-us/our-approach/ Barton, E., & Smith, B. J. (2015). Advancing high-qual- Resources for early childhood program lead- ity preschool inclusion: A discussion and ers. http://ectacenter.org/sysframe/ recommendations for the field. Topics in Ear- ly Childhood Special Education, 35(2), 69–78. Training and support for implementation of doi:10.1177/0271121415583048 inclusive practices with young children. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). (2004). https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/ 20 U.S.C. § 1400 Kaiser, B., & Rasminsky, J.S. (2017). Understanding, preventing, and responding positively (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Lewis, I, & Little, D. (2015). Education transition for children with disabilities in Armenia. Retrieved from http:// www.eenet.org.uk/resources/docs/Armenia_transi- tion_research_FINALd.pdf Odom, S. L., Buysse, V., & Soukakou, E. (2011). Inclusion for young children with disabilities: A quarter century of research perspectives. Journal of Early Interven- tion, 33, 344–356. doi:10.1177/1053815111430094 224 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 13 ]

Richter, L. M., Daelmans, B., Lombardi, J., Heymann, J., Boo, F. L., Behrman, J. R. . . . Bhutta, Z. A. (2017). Investing in the foundation of sustainable development: Pathways to scale up for early childhood development. The Lancet, 389, 103–118. SABER Country Report (2012). Armenia: Early Childhood De- velopment. The World Bank. Retreived from: http:// hdl.handle.net/10986/20165 Staskowski, M., Hardin, S., Klein, M., & Wozniak, C. (2012). Universal design for learning: Speech-language pathologists and teams making the common core curriculum accessible. Semin Speech Lang, 33, 111–129. Svajyan, A. H. (2011). Issues of organization of preschool education for children with special educational needs. Goris state University, II international scientific conference collection of papers, 101–107. Svajyan, A. H. (2014) Inclusive education achievements and prospects, problems of pedagogy and psychology. Scientific Journal of the Inter-University Consortium, 3, 37–42. UNICEF and WHO (2012). Discussion paper on early childhood development and disability. Geneva: World Health Organization. UNICEF (2014). Inclusive Pre-School Programmes, Webinar 9 and Companion Booklet 9. Series of 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive Educa- tion. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Retrieved from: Retrieved from https://www.ded4inclusion.com/ inclusive-education-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-education-booklets-and-webinars-english-version United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- zation. (2009). Embracing diversity: toolkit for creating inclusive, learning-friendly environments. Bangkok, Thailand: Author. http://www2.unescobkk.org/elib/ publications/032revised/ index.htm U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and U.S. Department of Education (USDE). (2015). Draft policy statement on inclusion of children with disabilities in early childhood programs. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/mem- osdcltrs/inclusion-policy-statement-draft-5-15-2015. pdf U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Educa- tion Programs. (2016). 38th Annual Report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabili- ties Education Act, 2016, Washington, DC: Author. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 225

CHAPTER 14: Leadership and Administrative Support of Inclusion

Michael Lovett, University of Minnesota Alvard Poghosyan, UNICEF Armenia Vergine Yesayan, Principal of Special School, Yerevan

This chapter describes the historical progression towards inclusive education in the U.S. and Armenia, and helps leaders understand and overcome barriers to inclusive education for all children. 226 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

Before reading this chapter, ask yourself the following — • How can administrative institutions be barriers to the change toward inclusive education and inclusion? • What can we learn from the history of special education that may help us make schools and society more inclusive? • How does the terminology that we use influence the way we view children with disabilities? • In what ways can administrative leadership facilitate successful inclusion in schools and school districts?

Introduction heart to learning. You remember a moment During the opening week of the school year, you witnessed a ‘miracle of learning.’ The prem- the principal watched some of the school’s ise of this book is that we want all children to youngest learners ‘discover’ school. In one experience miracles of learning. The premise of class, struggling five-year-olds received extra this chapter is that for this to happen, we must help in the late afternoon. On a card in front of individually make a commitment to creating each child, the teacher had neatly printed each the conditions for these miracles to occur. A big child’s name and worked with them individually order? Please continue reading. to help them see the connection between the Chapters in this book focus primarily on pencil lines on the card and the sound of their ‘practices of implementation’ that help teach- name. Consider that while some children begin ers understand the inclusive classroom and kindergarten knowing colors and letters and how classroom teachers, specialists, parents are even able to read, for other children, every- and students all have a role in designing and thing is new. supporting successful inclusive classrooms and The principal knelt down by a little girl who inclusive schools. looked puzzled by the task. The mystery of the These practical steps include skills and lines was a matter of intense interest. With the practices that teachers learn in preparation pencil held in her tiny hand, she experimented programs. Among these are assessment, how making small, careful lines randomly on the to work with multidisciplinary teams, how to clean paper. engage with families of students, understand- Imitating what he had seen the teacher do, the ing the concept and design of an individualized principal traced letters on her desk with his finger plan for each child, and learning about new . . . down, then up. The little girl watched, and then technologies that can be used to adapt instruc- did the same on paper with her pencil. Her mark- tional strategies to the unique needs of each ings began to form letters, or nearly so, until she child. finished and looked up. He looked at her master- But learning does not stop when we begin piece and read her name aloud. She beamed with our career as teachers; most learning comes a smile that lit the room. She knew she could write with practice. For example, teachers use pro- her name. fessional judgment and their own prior learning When you read this story, what memories to adapt instructional strategies for each child. come to mind? Most likely you recall a child Teachers also know the importance of being you helped in some way — to open a mind and Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 227 flexible and adaptable to try other strategies to Part 1: The Historical Evolution of see what will work best for each child. Inclusive Education Within the overall purpose of the book, this To understand the importance of inclusive ed- chapter focuses on leadership, the ‘why’ rather ucation and why it has taken so long to arrive than the ‘how’ of implementation. Each profes- at today’s priorities for inclusive schools, it is sional must understand the ‘why’ of inclusive helpful to examine how societies and cultures education, whether serving in a national or city have responded to children with disabilities ministry of education, as a school principal, or — or any conditions that create challenges for as a teacher or other clinical specialist. All have our preschools and elementary and secondary a part in welcoming all children into classes and schools. making schools safe havens for all children to This chapter will draw largely on the experi- thrive. ences of Minnesota, a northern midcontinent Thus, successful classrooms and successful state that joined the United States in 1858, schools are more than our cumulative under- more than 150 years ago. Minnesota’s stages of standing of ‘how’ inclusive classrooms and change will be generalized to similar stages that schools work. Rather, all educators need to many regions and countries have experienced. understand and live out the compelling reasons While the time and length of each step varies for inclusive education. The story at the begin- by country or jurisdiction, it is likely that the ning of this chapter is one of a ‘small miracle.’ stages in this evolution have much in common. What is your story? To support this statement and in the interest of School leaders need to understand the char- consistency with other chapters, we will touch acteristics and stages of an institutional change upon the historical evolution of inclusive edu- initiative of this magnitude. Ultimately, inclusive cation in the Soviet Union and the Republic of education is successful when all of us work to- Armenia. gether on behalf of schools, students and one another. Together we learn to anticipate challenges as an expected part of our professional United States, Stage 1: Exclusion of work — and weather these challenges wisely Children with Disabilities and graciously. During the mid-nineteenth century, as Amer- This chapter is intended to help all readers, ican public schools became accessible to chil- whatever their position, understand the histor- dren in both urban and rural areas, children ical evolution of inclusive education and why who had cognitive or physical limitations were these changes are so critical for all students. It routinely excluded from school. Teachers, will also help readers understand how large- school administrators and society considered scale institutional change works and critical les- these children unfit for school, unable to func- sons that will help leaders be more confident in tion in a school setting. Instead, children with navigating these changes. Our common goal is such conditions were confined to home or sent to redesign our schools and serve more stu- to a facility that would care for them. There was dents in a manner that is a gain for all students rarely any expectation that the children would and for society. be anything but a burden to their families. In some cases, society saw limiting or handicapping conditions as a reflection of the family or social conditions, further distancing most of society from any responsibility for the children. 228 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

United States, Stage 2: Training Children United States, Stage 3: Recognizing with Handicapping Conditions for Medical Reasons for Handicapping Employment Conditions and Providing Medical Late in the nineteenth century, reform move- Interventions and Support for Children ments began to recognize that among those with Limiting Conditions men and women living in state institutions Based on pioneering work by Thomas Hopkins were many who were able-bodied and would Gallaudet in Connecticut, an eastern U.S. state, be able to participate in society if provided with in Minnesota and elsewhere special schools for needed opportunities. Out of these reforms deaf and blind children were established. More grew efforts to train children and young adults broadly, the medical and health community be- who had previously been viewed as unfit for gan to see the link between disease and social school. Today we no longer use the word train. health conditions with specific resulting disabil- Rather, we refer to educating all children. ities or impairments, some of which responded In this era, beginning more than 100 years well to treatment, and others to specialized ago, training generally prepared girls and education and interventions. women in domestic skills such as sewing and Most treatment facilities and schools were cooking, and boys received manual or industri- located well out of the public eye. Even when al training (Deno & Hale, 2017). children with disabilities received an education, Since then, much has changed. Vocational it was in a separate facility and likely in an insti- rehabilitation programs were developed in tutional setting so that children were separated Minnesota and elsewhere that provide special- from their families. ists who assess the skills students possess and During the past 100 years, most such provide education and skills training. These schools have been closed, as law changes agencies then work with employers to design required children to be educated in the “least reasonable accommodations so that students restrictive environment.” This term is used in can move from school into the workforce and U. S. federal law to set the expectation that all live in the community successfully. In some children with handicapping conditions or dis- cases, job coaches are provided so students abilities will have a ‘free and appropriate public can gain both on-the-job skills and confidence education’ and, to the extent reasonable, be incrementally. educated with their peers who do not have a In some cases, employers receive financial disability. incentives from the state or federal govern- In Minnesota today, only one state school ment when they agree to work with a govern- site, the Minnesota State Academies (Minneso- ment program that specializes in employing ta State Academies, n.d.), still exists as a lega- individuals with a handicap or other limitation cy of this earlier time. How attitudes and the to job functioning. Most recently, both the law have changed is illustrated by the school’s federal and state governments have worked vision statement: “The Minnesota State Acad- with students coming out of high school and emies exist to provide an accessible, stan- with employers willing to provide internships dards-based education for students who are for students with the goal of preparing them blind and/or deaf, including those with addi- for regular jobs at competitive market wages — tional disabilities, for success in an ever-chang- rather than subsidized jobs. ing world.” The Academies’ mission is also instructive: “Our mission is to educate, create opportuni- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 229 ties and motivate students for an independent United States, Stage 5: Legal and future.” Legislative Steps to Dramatically Improve Thus, over the period of 150 years, children Educational Opportunities for All Children with disabilities were at first excluded; then During the second half of the twentieth centu- educated separately; and now, to the extent ry, advocacy efforts gradually convinced politi- possible, included in schools and classes with cal leaders that change was imperative, and in their peers who do not have disabilities but 1957 Minnesota passed a law requiring educa- with a high level of support from teachers and tion for handicapped children in Minnesota’s specialists. public schools — the first commitment of this level in the United States. United States, Stage 4: Advocating for During the 1960s at the national level, a time Humane and Respectful Education for All of significant national reform in education, a Children legislative commission reported that the na- Society gradually became more aware of chil- tion’s schools were educating only about one dren who in an earlier day would have been third of children with disabilities, while others excluded from schools. Tied in with these were either totally excluded or poorly served changes in attitudes were advances in medical (Deno & Hale, 2017). science. An example of an almost universally From the 1960s through the present, known story is that of Helen Keller, a child who through state and national legislation, court was both deaf-blind and nonverbal, and the cases, and public and private advocacy, schools groundbreaking work by her teacher, Anne in the United States have become gradually Sullivan. Helen Keller received a college degree more inclusive. In addition to the laws already and became an influential writer. cited from the last quarter of the twentieth cen- Her story is told in The Story of My Life (Keller, tury, during the past two decades, federal leg- 1903) and introduced to later generations with islation has significantly increased expectations the play, The Miracle Worker (Gibson, 1959) for schools to be accountable for the academic and a subsequent film by the same title. Other achievement of all students. stories of overcoming handicapping conditions Beginning in 2002, federal law (No Child Left were locally known and combined to fuel a Behind [NCLB], 2002) began requiring schools swelling chorus of advocacy for more educa- to report student progress to the public, with tional opportunities and respectful treatment segmented reporting so that data on groups of of all children. Based on changes in public atti- students were made public, including special tudes and advocacy, major legislation passed at education students. NCLB in effect set up ten- the federal level. Examples familiar to American sions between the practices of some schools educators include Section 504 of the Rehabil- that were satisfied with small increments of itation Act of 1973 (Section 504, n.d.) and Title progress for students with cognitive or physical II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 impairments, and a public accountability sys- (Title II, n.d.), which opened the doors for more tem that publicized the extent to which these inclusive education for students, and for chang- same students were proficient — or not profi- es in the world of employment and all public cient — in math and reading. places that help make transitions from home to The 2002 law changes were portions of a school to work more seamless and supportive. reauthorization of major education changes begun in the mid-1960s (Elementary and Second- ary Education Act [ESEA], 2016). The law was 230 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

again revised and reauthorized in 2016 (Every United States, Stage 7: Movement Toward Student Succeeds Act [ECSA], 2016). Tension Inclusive Schools and More Inclusive remains: For students with special education in- Community of Learners dividual education plans, how much academic Thus, over time, our schools and society have progress is enough? gradually changed in how we view children Improvements in inclusive education prac- with physical or cognitive disabilities or im- tice are underway. Some would claim that pairments. Today we might hear or read terms progress is uneven by state, region, and even like ‘differently abled’ and cheer our country’s among neighboring schools within the same Paralympians at the Paralympic games held city. Advocacy and efforts to improve practice in conjunction with the winter and summer continue. Olympics. Changes in terminology were gradual and United States, Stage 6: Rethinking and evolutionary: For example, today children who Redefining Labels and Descriptions are deaf or hard of hearing may have been Listen carefully to children playing, and you deemed in an earlier day as ‘deaf and dumb.’ In may begin to hear their use of nicknames, the 1950s, Minnesota law categorized children perhaps in fun; or to reflect imaginary or real with cognitive impairments into the categories characters they are acting out; or based on of severe or profound mental retardation, train- features or characteristics of each child. If you able mental retardation, and educable mental reflect on your own childhood or on your work retardation. The more currently used terms with children, you recognize that some of these intellectual and cognitive disabilities (mild, moder- names can be cruel. You might think, “we said ate, severe, profound) came later (Deno & Hale, that when I was young, but we would never use 2017). that term today!” We will now turn to the case of the Soviet Gradually over time, policies, laws and Union and the Republic of Armenia. The special educators have ceased to define a child by a education system in the Republic of Armenia disability; for example, instead of deaf-dumb or (RA) was formed during the Soviet period and deaf-mute, person-centered terms, such as chil- passed through the stages that were typical for dren who are deaf or hard of hearing began to Soviet education. Further in this chapter we will be used. Terms used a century ago to describe elaborate on special education system develop- children who experience cognitive impairments ment in the Soviet Union and the RA. or severe behavior problems are likewise not in use today. Rather, terms like intellectual disabil- Soviet Union, Stage 1: Move from Curative ity, mental health issues, or a reference to a spe- Pedagogy to Defectology cial medical condition would be more common Since its inception, the Soviet Union assumed and appropriate. This evolution reflects two full responsibility for the education of chil- important changes: first, respect for the child dren with disabilities. The special education and family; and second, a desire to describe system first followed Czarist Russia’s tradi- the medical condition or disease, but without tions of educating children with disabilities, labeling the child. This evolution in the use of which was based on the curative pedagogy terms is ongoing. approach. It evolved considerably afterwards under the influence of the theories of Vygotskii and his followers (e.g., Boskis, 1963; Lubovskii, Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 231

1956–1958; Meshcheriakov, 1956–1958; Sif, that the milder manifestation of a handicap 1956; Vlasova & Pevzner, 1971 as cited in did not imply that a child needed less assis- Csapo, 1984) as well as practices of Makaren- tance; rather, qualitatively different instruction ko. If Vygotskii and Makarenko were the most was needed” (p. 183). According to Malofeev, outstanding contributors to special education this shift resulted in further categorization of before the Second World War (1941–45), Luriia children with disabilities into groups requiring earns the same distinction during the postwar special educational approaches, adoption of period (Csapo, 1984). There were considerable new psychophysiological and electrophysiologi- obstacles and bottlenecks related to the lack of cal diagnostic tools, improvement of diagnostic professional expertise and economic hardships reliability, and facilitation of early recognition of during the first years of the Soviet Union. Thus, developmental delays and impairments. only in 1935, when the special state decree By the late 1970s, the structure of special about “organizing educational activity and education for children with disabilities re- regulations in primary, middle and secondary mained largely unchanged until the breakdown schools” (Malofeev, 1998, p. 181) obliged the of the Soviet Union. In the Soviet era, educa- Ministries of Education of the Soviet Republics tion policies were developed in Moscow, and to establish special schools with an appropriate Armenia, like the other Soviet republics, was curriculum for defective children in the larger engaged mainly in the implementation of such cities in the 1935–36 academic year, the special policies. education system became fully functional in the country (Malofeev, 1998). According to Csapo Soviet Union, Stage 2: Special Schools as (1984), “Since then, the trend has been to pro- Social Safety Nets vide education and vocational training through After the RA gained independence in 1991, a network of special schools where conditions education policy development became a prin- can be created to meet specific needs. Pre- cipal aim of the Government of Armenia (GoA). school, elementary, secondary, and adult edu- In 1992, the GoA signed the Convention of cation aim to prepare the handicapped person the Rights of the Child and other international for a positive contribution to society” (p. 12). treaties. The laws and normative regulations Those special schools were mainly residential, endorsed in Armenia between 1991–1999, placed in segregating settings and differenti- especially the RA Law on Children (1996) and ated by the type of disability of children who the RA Law on Education (1999), reflected the attended those schools. The special education commitment defined in CRC to acknowledge was formulated according the science of ‘defec- and realize the rights of children, including the tology;’ included elements of pedagogy, psy- rights of children with disabilities. Despite this chology and medicine; and provided instruction policy change between 1991–1999, Armenia for based on special curricula. the most part continued the Soviet trends in According to Malofeev (1998), 1950 was an- special education provision. There were eight other turning point in special education provi- types of special schools, mainly residential sion when a system for differentiated training institutions located in the capital city and other of children with blindness or partially sighted big towns. Even more, during the early years of children, as well as children with deafness and independence, the number of children in spe- hearing impairments, was introduced in the cial schools increased dramatically as children Soviet Union. “One of the underlying reasons from socially vulnerable families were enrolled for such differentiation was the recognition alongside children with disabilities. Due to 232 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

the economic hardships of the transition peri- Law, legalized the increased mainstreaming of od, parents decided to place their children in children with disabilities. The deinstitutional- residential institutions, where shelter and food ization of children with disabilities and special was ensured by the state. This was a serious education needs started in Armenia as it has violation of the rights of the child and became a been described in the previous chapters. major issue that international organizations led The number of special schools was reduced by UNICEF brought to the government’s atten- dramatically (see Table 1 below). Some of those tion. The international community proposed schools were transformed into ‘care centers’ different models of reorganization of special intended to organize care of children from schools and deinstitutionalization of children — vulnerable families, and others into regional first of all, those who came from socially vulner- support centers for mainstream schools that able families. practice inclusion. The reforms are planned to take place until 2025, by complete transition to Soviet Union, Stage 3: Rethinking Special fully inclusive general educational system. Education Table 1. Armenia, Number of Children in Since 1999, UNICEF Armenia, in collabora- Special Schools: MoES Annual Statistical tion with Mission East, World Vision and OSI Data Bulletin for 2010–2012 UNICEF, has supported MoES and local NGOs working in the special education field in their endeavors to reform the special education system and make those reforms compliant with international requirements for the protection of child rights and local policy frameworks. A number of educational pilot projects served as the basis for inclusive practices in preschools and secondary schools of Armenia. These projects provided access to general education for children with disabilities and children from vulnerable families to facilitate their early socialization and contribute to public awareness The current policy stresses the key role of on issues of disability, and they laid an import- the school principal and administration during ant foundation for later integration of piloting the reforms. Work efficiency is based on the experiences into policy making. teamwork principle. The school principal is In 2001, 51 public boarding institutions exist- a member of a multidisciplinary team and a ed in Armenia, 38 of which were intended for direct participant in the process of organization children with special educational needs, five of inclusive education. The school principal for children without parental care and children should be the ideological and team leader and from vulnerable families, and eight to support not just a manager in order for the process to education of gifted children. In total, 12,244 be efficient. children were included in these boarding insti- Why do these changes seem so natural in tutions (Avagyan, 2015). one school or town, and in another there is In 2005, adoption of the Law on Education resistance and awkwardness? What are the of Persons with Special Educational Needs, and characteristics of a community of scholars and in 2014, amendments to the General Education learners where everyone belongs? Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 233

This next section offers insights into orga- The following principles of change man- nizational change. Finally, we offer practices, agement are based on the experiences of the skills and understandings especially important author, whose school administrative career has to successfully lead inclusive education and spanned more than four decades in Minnesota. schools. This section will focus on six general principles of effective change leadership, and the third Part 2: Understanding Large-Scale and final section will summarize three lessons for inclusion leadership. Institutional Change Every year a leader visited faculty meetings at Principle 1: Leaders Must Clearly each school for which he was responsible. Be- Communicate the Change and the fore he arrived for the meetings, he talked to the Compelling Reason for the Change principals in advance about questions or concerns teachers and other staff might have. Then, at the Remember that leaders may view a change as meeting, he would briefly present an update on ‘evolutionary,’ to be phased in over a period strategic priorities of the school system and take of months or years. However, at the school questions from faculty. or classroom level, these same changes can At one elementary school, a first-grade teacher feel ‘revolutionary,’ upsetting the school and asked, “Do the administrators who work for you classroom culture. It is important for leaders to ever talk to one another?” Her question came regularly explain the compelling ‘why’ for the out more directly than she had intended; she change. blushed and continued, “I mean, we understand the importance of the strategic priorities you have Principle 2: Change Will Be More Effective described, and we genuinely appreciate the lead- and Successful If Employees Understand ers who help us with professional development. How the Proposed Change Is Consistent But each of them tries to help us with the priority with Their Own Values he or she knows most about, and as teachers, it is Consider that employees are motivated by both really difficult to coordinate and put all the differ- intrinsic and extrinsic factors. To inform teach- ent ideas into practice. Could they talk with one ers that they must change in accord with a new another and coordinate their presentations?” law or policy will likely gain general compliance. Could this question have come from a teach- But this is an example of extrinsic motivation: er in your school or schools? “I will do what I am told to do because I don’t Teachers almost everywhere describe ‘ini- want to get into trouble.” tiative fatigue.’ Teachers explain how so many In contrast, if teachers learn how the pro- new initiatives and priorities come ‘from above’ posed changes fit into their own values and and how difficult it is to complete their own are consistent with the reasons they became a priority — work with children. And sometimes, teacher, leaders are tapping into intrinsic moti- they add, new initiatives seem to conflict with vation: “I want to be part of this change and am previous directions and expectations. Such committed to making the transition a smooth challenges are common to any initiative; for a one for my students.” large-scale change like the transition to inclusion schools and classrooms, the challenge is especially significant. 234 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

Principle 3: Honor Work Staff Are Already Which teachers, grade levels or schools would Doing and Give Them an Opportunity be good places to begin? to Help Design Strategies to Implement Remember that your ‘pioneers’– as eager as Changes they are to participate — will face additional pressure and scrutiny from their peers, as well In other words, be consistent in communicating as the uncertainty that comes when any of us the purpose of the changes and flexible in the are part of an innovation. choice of strategies to implement the goals. Leaders can articulate purpose and goals and design an overall structure to carry out a Principle 6. Recognize and Affirm Progress change (for example, levels of responsibilities It is important that leaders recognize staff for and metrics for evaluation). Next, they can give their part in a change effort. Just as important, principals and teachers an opportunity to de- learn how those who are participating in any velop implementation strategies. This two-step change prefer to be affirmed. process gives ownership and generally results For one, it might be words of praise. For in changes that are more likely to be sustained. another, the most important form of affirma- tion is a visit to a classroom to see a teacher in Principle 4: Provide Resources and action, or a team working together, or a visit Support to Staff to Help Implement the to a school where the principal has results to Change show. For others, more public recognition may be important. One challenge of allocating resources is that Finally, keep to the message — why the until strategies are designed, it is difficult to change is important and compelling. And also know where and how to allocate resources. remember, as the question from the first- One important point: If staff view changes as grade teacher reminded us in the beginning of an ‘add-on’ that can only be accomplished with this section, make sure that those under your additional resources, the change process is supervision are ‘talking with one another’ to likely to be difficult and may stall. understand and coordinate efforts. In contrast, if staff are engaged in actively helping to design new ways of teaching and learning to replace old practices, system re- Part 3: Leadership Insights and sources may be more easily reallocated from Skills old practices and programs to new and more For an initiative on inclusion to be successful in innovative strategies. In other words, teachers one school, city, region, province or country, it will be committed enough to the new strate- must become more than a matter of the ‘head’ gies that they will be advocates for reallocating — that is, more than changes in law and policy resources. and administrative directives. Rather, it must become a matter of the ‘heart’ as well. That Principle 5. Begin the Change with Those is, the experience of inclusion will bring out Who Are Most Ready remarkable stories of compassion, of children Major changes are generally made up of many and adults overcoming obstacles, and remark- small incremental changes, well aligned and able successes, all of which reach the heart as with a compelling long-range goal. Look for well as the head. places where initial success is more likely. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 235

This section draws important lessons that go Story 2: “This Is the Job I Have Always beyond basic compliance and are reflections of Dreamed About!” staff and leader commitment to inclusion. For as long as her elementary classmates could remember, she hobbled around on crutches. Then Story 1: “We Are on the Same Team!” she would be gone for a while at the hospital, and As a primary school student, this cheerful boy was their teacher would organize classmates to write everyone’s friend. His optimistic, outgoing person- notes of encouragement, many adorned with trees ality made it difficult to ignore him. He was not and birds and flowers, and some with trucks and afraid of anything and enjoyed playing games with scary monsters. She liked them all. They remem- his classmates. The other children liked him, even bered her. though he could be annoying, and they under- By middle school, she was more frequently in stood why it was important that he felt welcome. a wheelchair, especially after surgeries and long Middle school was difficult for this boy. His hospital stays. As middle school became more friends from elementary school often seemed too difficult — she wanted to keep up with rigorous busy to include him. Their sports teams became classes, but her long absences made science labs competitive, and he was not tall enough or quick and interacting with other children more difficult. enough to participate. Unlike elementary school, Nevertheless, she persevered, and did reasonably where the children were all in class together, in well academically. But not yet confident about middle school he was for the most part in classes going to college, she wanted first to gain more with children who, like him, could not succeed at independence and have a work experience. She the pace of the more rigorous math, science and wanted real work — something that would chal- literature classes. A highlight of his day was choir, lenge her and that she could continue while begin- where everyone was together. ning college part time. But gradually, another activity became an op- Through an innovative partnership between tion. The boy had participated in Special Olympics city businesses, government and the schools, she for years, and a few friends would come to watch was among those recent high school graduates him. But then the school and community began invited to tour a pilot program at the region’s spe- something they called ‘unified teams.’ Rather than cialist children’s hospital. Paid internships were just teams of children with physical or cognitive available for a full year, with job coaching and disabilities, these teams were combined to include mentorships — and would lead to market-compet- children with — and without — limiting disabili- itive wages. ties. At first, it was just older brothers and sisters At the end of the tour, she beamed. “This is who joined, wanting this ‘unified’ experience for where I would like to start my career,” she told her their own siblings. But then others joined, includ- teacher and parents. “After all, I know the hospital ing student leaders. well — I have been coming here for surgery for as Now, as a high school student, the boy wears long as I can remember!” his radiant simile everywhere — because wherever As you reflect on these stories and those of he goes, he sees his teammates. And they see him your own of children who have succeeded as a as their friend and teammate — not the ‘boy with result of inclusion, consider these three lessons Down syndrome.’ for leaders — 236 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

Lesson 1: Model What You Want Others to Assume good intentions. Keep to the goals of Follow inclusion, but be flexible in strategies to achieve Change is difficult in an educational setting. the goals. Most educators — whether presently in teaching or leadership roles — began as teachers or Lesson 3: Your Commitment Makes a in another specialist role working with children. Difference They work hard and sacrifice a great deal for This chapter began with a story. Recall — their students. They come to believe passion- Imitating what he had seen the teacher do, the ately in what they are doing. When a new principal traced letters on her desk with his finger initiative or an approach — like inclusion — . . . down, then up. The little girl watched, and then comes along, many educators will worry about did the same on paper with her pencil. Her mark- how the changes can occur without somehow ings began to form letters, or nearly so, until she reducing their services and support to the chil- finished and looked up. He looked at her master- dren they have been serving. piece and read her name aloud. She beamed with Thus, as a leader, it is important for you to a smile that lit the room. She knew she could write ‘model’ the changes you want to see imple- her name. mented. This may mean that you join principals Each of us can form an image in our mind or teachers in visits to model inclusive schools of a child learning to write his or her name. or classrooms. As teachers and leaders, we have personally And it may mean that others must see you experienced the exhilaration and joy that come genuinely helping children, parents and teach- when we see a child succeed. ers work through challenging circumstances. There is more to this child’s story. In the Others will judge you by what they see — and following months, the principal learned more whether what they see is consistent with what about her. He could see that she had some you say. physical challenges that she needed to overcome. But he also learned about her earlier life Lesson 2: Be Present at Successes and and impediments she had already overcome. Challenges As with all children, some impediments, chal- Given the United States experience with in- lenges or limitations are visible and others not. clusion over the past forty years, one lesson The principal watched year by year. He saw learned is that leaders must anticipate unin- the concern of her parents, the commitment tended consequences when changes are made. of her teachers and the anxiety the child felt For example, a change that makes sense in one when it was time to go on to middle school. He school may not work well in another. If you told this story to the middle school teachers the are a principal or other administrator, listen to week before the child was scheduled to begin teachers and other specialists. Hear their ideas middle school. Of course, none knew who the for improving practice. Be present in class- child was. But all of them knew they could be rooms. If you have responsibility over many the one who had the power to make her first schools, learn what experiences your principals day one of joy and encouragement. have with changes. In summary, the premise of this book is that Celebrate successes. But ‘go to the hurt’ — we want all children to experience miracles of that is, when inclusion is not working well, visit learning. The premise of this chapter is that schools and classrooms with an open mind. for this to happen, we individually must make a commitment to creating the conditions for Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ] 237 these miracles to occur. We hope that in some Reflection Questions small way, these words and stories give you • What stages has the field of inclusive educa- insights and confidence to continue to grow to tion gone through in the United States? Do be such a leader. these stages resemble those in Armenia? • How would you compare the development Tips for Teachers of disability-related terminology in the Unit- • Keep in mind the long evolution of inclusion ed States and in Armenia? and inclusive education and the work that • What is the role of school leadership in suc- has been done by your colleagues who pre- cessful implementation of inclusive educa- ceded you. tion? • Use your position as an educator not only to teach, but to also be an advocate for your Additional Resources students’ rights and futures in an inclusive society. UNICEF (2014). Legislation and Policies for Inclusive Education, Webinar 3 and Com- • Get to know your leaders and their ap- panion Booklet 3. Series of 14 Webinars and proach to change so that you can contribute Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive to the movement toward inclusion on a daily Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. basis. Retrieved from: Retrieved from https:// www.ded4inclusion.com/inclusive-educa- Thoughts for Leaders tion-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-edu- • Clearly communicate the change and the cation-booklets-and-webinars-english-ver- reason for the change to your staff. sion • Align the changes you are proposing with the opinions and values of your staff. Glossary • Acknowledge the work staff are already Vocational rehabilitation programs — Federally doing and give them an opportunity to help and state-funded programs providing ser- design strategies to implement changes. vices to assist individuals with disabilities • Provide resources and support to staff to to enter or return to employment in inte- help implement the change. grated settings. • Begin the change with those who are most Reasonable accommodations — Adjustments ready. or modifications that enable people with • Recognize and affirm progress. disabilities to perform the essential functions of a job efficiently and productively. • Model what you want other to follow. Initiative fatigue — When staff are reluctant to • Be present at successes and challenges. implement any new initiatives or programs • Understand that your commitment makes a because there have been too many pro- difference. posed for implementation in the recent past without their input. Evolutionary change — Organizational change that is done gradually and collaboratively. 238 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 14 ]

Revolutionary change — Organizational change that is done abruptly by top leadership.

References Avagyan, A. (2015). The development perspectives of inclusive education as part of reforms carried out in ASPU. Journal of international scientific practical conference “Inclusive education: current issues and challenges”, Yerevan, Armenia. Csapo, M. (1984). Special education in the USSR: Trends and accomplishments. Remedial and Special Educa- tion, 5(2), 5–15. Deno, E. D., & Hale, N. A. (2017). Dogged determination: An anthology of the 1957 law requiring education for handicapped children in Minnesota’s public schools — a first in the nation. Maitland, FL: Mill City Press, Inc. Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. H. R. 2362, 89th Cong., 1st Sess., Public Law 89-10. Reports, bills, debate and act. (Washington, DC: U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 2016). Every Student Succeeds Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-95, § 114, Stat. 1177 (2016). Gibson, W. (1959). The miracle worker. New York, NY: Play- house Theatre. Keller, H. (1903). The story of my life. New York, NY: Double- day, Page and Company. Malofeev, N. N. (1998). Special education in Russia: His- torical aspects 1998. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(2), 181. The Republic of Armenia Law on Education (1999). Re- trieved from http://www.anqa.am/en/about-us/legal-field/laws/law-of-the-republic-of-armenia-on-education/ Law on Education of Persons with Special Educational Needs (2005), Retrieved from https://www.arlis.am/ Amendments to the Law of the Republic of Armenia on General Education (2015). Retrieved from https:// www.arlis.am/ Minnesota State Academies (n.d.). [website]. http://www. msa.state.mn.us No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. Pub. L. No. 107-110, 20 U.S.C., § 6319 (2002). Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended. 29 U.S.C. 794 (n.d.). Retrieved from https://dredf. org/legal-advocacy/laws/section-504-of-the-rehabilitation-act-of-1973/ Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA), 42 U.S.C., § 12131, et seq (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.ada.gov/regs2010/titleII_2010/title_ii_ reg_update.pdf Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ] 239

CHAPTER 15: Conclusion: Inclusive Education or a Sum Bigger than its Parts

Paula Frederica Hunt, Disability, Education & Development, Lda., Portugal

Inclusive education is not a place or a destination. There is no prescription. The intended end result of inclusive education — social inclusion — is much larger than the sum of the essential parts that create it. 240 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ]

Inclusive education is not a place. Inclusive edu- years and, together with NGOs and Disabled cation is not a destination. Persons Organizations, lead to the Ministry of Likewise, there is no prescription for inclu- Education introducing new legislation. sive education because it cannot be reduced to An exercise to evaluate progress as com- the sum of a few pieces. Rather, the intended pared to the 2009 recommendations complet- end result of inclusive education — social inclu- ed in 2016 found that, “great progress has been sion — is much larger than the sum of its parts. accomplished, particularly in the legislative do- Inclusive education encompasses a phil- main, since 2009. However, it should be noted osophical stance and a set of practices, both that the Amendment of the Law on Mainstream aimed at ensuring the “progressive realization” Education of 2014 still falls short of what a truly of the right of all children to full participation inclusive education legislation should look like in education (Hunt, 2009). And while this book (UNICEF, 2014). The Law currently allows a par- details many of the moving parts that enact in- allel system of education (regular and special), clusive education, how these combine to trans- giving preferential treatment to students who form the Armenian education system will likely are gifted and talented, and confining the right be exclusive to Armenia, and require a constant to provide education in a second language to process of trial-and-error. a few schools throughout the country. Further, the Law emphasizes the process of identifica- Inclusive Education in Armenia and tion of children with special needs and, within this process, continues to privilege pedagogues Across the Globe over regular education teachers, effectively Armenia has long traveled the path towards perpetuating the dual system” (Hunt, 2016). As inclusive education. However, like many other indicated in the report, the education system countries in the region, inclusive education in not only maintains traditions that give prefer- Armenia has been conceptualized as a par- ence to children who are considered to have allel system of education. Despite efforts to above-average abilities, but it also limits the ensure legislation is responsive to children ability of schools to provide early education to with disabilities, an evaluation of the general minority children in their mother tongue to a education system in 2009 found that many small number of schools in some areas of the governing bodies still maintain and endorse country. In addition, at the time of the report, special schools. When inclusive education has dialogue about inclusive education and school been introduced as an alternative to special reform was confined to special education and and mainstream education systems, the rel- professionals engaged in the education of evance of these programs is often compro- children with disabilities. Regular education mised. Inclusive schools are not widely avail- teachers were left out of much of the dialogue able, and scaling plans do not encompass all and often made to feel unwelcome in the few marzes (regions), which will likely contribute to instances where they demonstrated willingness the perception that inclusive schools are only to engage in discussions. for a certain segment of the school population. As evidenced above, progress towards inclu- Even where inclusive schools are available, they sive education in Armenia has been slow, but are not accessible to all students, because of steady. Critics of inclusive education in Armenia inadequate infrastructure, resources, or ser- and elsewhere often ask for country examples vices (Hunt, 2009). That 2009 evaluation guided and evidence that inclusive education works. much of the work of UNICEF and the Govern- However, lessons learned and the reasons why ment of Armenia on education for the next five Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ] 241

“progressive realization” is further along in ogy is present — and usually accessible — to some places than others is seldom examined. most children with disabilities who need it. Conversely, some of the countries where inclusive education works are those that monitor, The Role of Teacher Education in examine, and modify their practices to respond to their own issues — or what works for them: Promoting an Inclusive Education Finland’s standards are related to school suc- System cess for the bottom performing 1% of their All six countries mentioned above are at very students; New Zealand’s standards are related different places in their trajectory towards to tertiary enrollment and graduation of their inclusive education because the sum of the indigenous populations; Portugal’s standards parts of each of their specific systems is not yet are related to the latest United Nations’ evalua- bigger than the parts themselves. But this dif- tions and upholding democratic principles. ference in trajectory also illustrates the premise What about countries where inclusive ed- implicit in this publication: the combination of ucation does not work? Or, more accurately, the principles and pedagogies in this book do where there has been slower progress towards not amount to inclusive education in them- inclusive education? In Germany, the educa- selves. The principles and pedagogies in this tion system starts tracking children as early as book and accompanying materials (webinars primary school and segregation is endemic. and learning modules) must be enacted within In South Africa, the education system mirrors a transformative framework that includes many social tendencies and is unable to sustain other aspects of the education system and go progress for long periods of time. In the USA, beyond teacher preparation (and beyond the implementation of education depends heavily system) in order to advance inclusive educa- on State legislation, creating a patchwork of tion. Armenian teachers must find the most practices across the country, some more inclu- suitable combinations of approaches that allow sive than others. these principles and pedagogies to work to- However, all these countries — where it gether and in each of their contexts, and work works, and where it does not work — have in deliberately to ensure their students participate common teacher practice based on the princi- fully in inclusive education settings. ples and pedagogies presented in this book in, The absence of these principles and ped- at least, some schools and to some extent. The agogies will likely hinder inclusive education set of variables that seem critical to inclusive because — individually and collectively — they education is unlikely to be the tipping point are needed to tailor instruction and uphold to developing inclusive education because in the rights of children and youth. But, again, all six countries, teacher education is of high their effectiveness may be limited. Most of the quality and a government priority. In all six principles and pedagogies presented in this countries, policies related to children with book were developed and are still (rightfully) disabilities require parental involvement, early used by special education professionals in identification and intervention, individualized segregated special/regular education systems, education plans, transition to adult life, and particularly outside of the USA. This restricted so on. In all six countries, Universal Design for use of individualized and responsive principles Learning (UDL) is more or less established as and pedagogies has created a systemic barrier the basis for accessibility, and assistive technol- to inclusion in many countries. To promote and develop an inclusive education system, these 242 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ]

principles and pedagogies need to be taught to 4. Continuing personal and professional devel- ALL teachers, and promoted as principles and opment — teaching is a learning activity and pedagogies for ALL students. If good teaching is teachers take responsibility for their own not the purview of a small cadre of profession- lifelong learning als, then good teaching — inclusive education • Teachers as reflective practitioners; — has to be the norm for ALL teachers and • Initial teacher education as a foundation ALL teacher education: a shared vision and a for ongoing professional learning and shared responsibility. development. In 2012, the European Agency of Special Needs and Inclusive Education published the Thus, it is easy to see how developing inclu- Teacher Education for Inclusion Profile (TE4I), a sive teachers relates to this book. comprehensive study focused on providing concrete and explicit guidance to countries How to Prepare Inclusive Teachers aiming to design and implement initial teacher in Armenia education programs. The study answers the ALL inclusive teachers must understand the question “how all teachers are prepared via their main principles of Universal Design for Learn- initial education to be ‘inclusive’” (p. 8), and its ing (UDL) if they intend to plan and teach ALL findings are relevant and applicable across cul- students in their classrooms. This requires a tural and geographic borders. strong pedagogical foundation and a good According to the TE4I Profile, teacher educa- understanding of what a teacher must do tion programs that focus on inclusive education to ensure child-centered learning. UDL and should be based on four core values, each with child-centered learning acknowledge that a set of corresponding competencies — learning is a lifelong process that begins at 1. Valuing learner diversity birth. However, since 85% of the human brain • Learner differences are considered a re- develops in the first five years of life, it is im- source and an asset to education; portant that ALL teachers also understand the • Conceptions of inclusive education; importance of Early Childhood Development • The teacher’s view of learner differences. for ALL students, and grasp the advantages/dis- advantages some children have already been 2. Supporting all learners exposed to upon entering school. • Teachers have high expectations for all ALL inclusive teachers must understand the learners’ achievements; role of families in education and promote their • Promoting the academic, practical, social, involvement in pro-active and constructive and emotional learning of all learners; ways. Families, and family dynamics, influence • Effective teaching approaches in hetero- the daily lives of children regardless of their geneous classes. individual characteristics, and families are 3. Working with others intrinsically connected to the day-to-day relationships between schools and students. Thus, • Collaboration and teamwork are essential decision-making that ignores families’ points of approaches for all teachers; view is doomed to fail. Multi-disciplinary teams, • Working with parents and families; assessment, and multi-tiers of support must • Working with a range of other education- include families, to ensure a holistic view of the al professionals. child and that interventions continue at home. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ] 243

ALL inclusive teachers must understand their important to change the rhetoric around spe- role in pro-actively individualizing instruction cial/general education to ensure new ways of and being accountable for student support. talking about transformative practice, merely Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) are not changing the language without changing the developed for students, but rather developed practice undermines education reform, and with students, with the aim of ensuring all ac- only serves to mask and perpetuate deep in- tions in the school environment lead students equity. In Armenia, as elsewhere in the region, to fully participating in their education. Instruc- “inclusive” language (e.g., “inclusive school”, tional strategies, access to environment and “inclusive child”, “funding for an inclusive child”) information, and assessment are all intrinsically is being used to depict circumstances that have connected and must be responsive to each little to do with Inclusive Education. Therefore, student. However, they are not exclusive to stu- all those who read and use this book and the dents with learning difficulties, but rather open associated materials must question not only to all students, in response to each student’s the language used daily in schools but also the learning style. practices behind the language and engage in Likewise, ALL students need (in varying productive dialogue to incentivize the “progres- degrees of intensity) social and psychological sive realization” of Inclusive Education in Arme- support to navigate emotional and physical nia. growth, opportunities to practice self-determination, to learn their rights and responsibilities References as developing citizens, and support in finding Hunt, P. F. (2009). Evaluation of Inclusive Education poli- educational/employment outcomes that align cies and programmes in Armenia. UNICEF: Yerevan, with their aspirations. Armenia. In Armenia and elsewhere, the process to- Hunt, P. F. (2016). Inclusive Education in Armenia: Stock-tak- wards Inclusive Education must demystify spe- ing exercise. UNICEF: Yerevan, Armenia. cial education, deconstructing what has been European Agency for Development in Special Needs Edu- cation. (2012). Profile of Inclusive Teachers. Odense, seen as “special” teaching, and normalizing a Denmark: Author. “specialty” or “expertise” that only some teach- UNICEF (2014). Legislation and Policies for Inclusive Edu- ers have and only some students (can) receive. cation: Webinar 3 and Companion Booklet 3. Series Special education is a necessary support sys- of 14 Webinars and Companion Technical Booklets on Inclusive Education. Geneva, Switzerland: Author. Re- tem for families, schools and teachers, and will trieved from https://www.ded4inclusion.com/inclu- likely remain in systems where it already exists. sive-education-resources-free/unicef-inclusive-edu- But the role of special education professionals cation-booklets-and-webinars-english-version will change over time, and this change may be a barrier or an opportunity for the further development of Inclusive Education. In Armenia, many special education professionals are already drivers of change and pro- moters of Inclusive Education, but more needs to be done to ensure knowledges and skills thus far seen as their own specialty — such as the principles and pedagogies in this book — are shared widely and enacted by as wide a group of professionals as possible. While it is 244 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ CHAPTER 15 ] Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ] 245

APPENDIX 246 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ]

fessionals in their pursuit of board certifica- Author Bios in tion as behavior analysts. LeAnne Johnson, PhD, is an Associate Profes- Alphabetical Order sor for Special Education Programs in the Department of Educational Psychology at the University of Minnesota. She is the Director United States of America of the Early Childhood Special Education Brian H. Abery, Ph.D. is the Co-Director of the Teacher Licensure and Master’s programs. Global Resource Center on Inclusive Educa- Dr. Johnson’s research focuses on develop- tion and the Research and Training Center ing innovative ways to enhance the skill sets on HCBS Outcome Measurement at the and mindsets needed by practitioners to University of Minnesota’s Institute on Com- effectively address the social, emotional, and munity Integration. His research focuses on behavioral needs of young children. response to intervention, formative assess- Christopher Johnstone, PhD, is an Assistant ment, self-determination, and social inclu- Professor of Comparative and International sion. Dr. Abery’s international work centers Development Education at the University of on the implementation on inclusive educa- Minnesota where he coordinates the Leader- tion practices in post-Soviet and Southeast ship in International and Intercultural Edu- Asian countries. cation doctoral program. Dr. Johnstone has Erik W. Carter, PhD, is Cornelius Vanderbilt published widely on topics of inclusive edu- Professor of Special Education at Vander- cation and international higher education. bilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. His His current projects include a global evalua- research and writing focus on promoting tion of UNICEF inclusive education policy, a inclusion and valued roles in school, work, book project on inclusive development, and a community, and congregational settings for research grant focused on inclusive develop- children and adults with intellectual disabili- ment in Bhutan. ty, autism, and multiple disabilities. Michael J. Lovett, PhD, was superintendent Elizabeth Criswell, MEd, is an Early Childhood of schools for the White Bear Lake Area Curriculum Coordinator and an Instructor at Schools in Minnesota from 2008-2017. Prior the Institute of Child Development at the Uni- to becoming superintendent he was an adversity of Minnesota. She also serves as spe- ministrator at the school, district, and state cial education liaison in the Shirley G. Moore department levels. He is currently an adjunct Lab School. She teaches courses in social and instructor at both the University of Minneso- emotional development, infant development, ta and the University of St. Thomas in orga- and theories and philosophies of education. nizational leadership, and serves on several Marietta N. Janecky, MEd, BCBA is a Board nonprofit boards. Certified Behavior Analyst working with chil- Kristen L. McMaster, PhD, is a Professor of dren with autism and other developmental Special Education in the Department of Edu- disabilities. She oversees the daily treatment cational Psychology, University of Minnesota. of over 30 children with autism in a day treat- Her research interests include creating condi- ment program in Minnesota and provides tions for successful response to intervention consultation to families, schools, and centers of students at risk for and with disabilities. world-wide. Ms. Janecky also supervises pro- Her research focuses on promoting teachers’ use of data-based decision making and Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ] 247

evidence-based instruction, and developing The Republic of Armenia intensive, individualized interventions for Armenuhi Avagyan, PhD, is a speech thera-

students for whom generally effective in- pist and a faculty member at Armenian State

struction is not sufficient. Pedagogical University. Dr. Avagyan is the Susan O’Connor, PhD, is an Associate Pro- Founder and Director of the Education and fessor of Education and coordinator of the Research Foundation that has been carrying special education program at Augsburg Uni- out research focusing on inclusive educa- versity. Her background is in disability stud- tion. Currently, she is a Fulbright scholar ies and inclusive education, especially for at Appalachian State University conducting students labeled with significant disabilities. post-doctoral research on Peer-Mediated Her research interests include: supporting Augmentative and Alternative Communica- families, systems change related to including tion Intervention for Non/Minimally Verbal of the voice of people with disabilities in the Preschoolers. politics of change, and issues of disability and Tereza Azatyan, PhD, is the Chair and As- disproportionality. sociate Professor of Special Pedagogy and Renáta Tichá, PhD, is a Research Director and Psychology at Armenian State Pedagogical a Co-Director of the Global Resource Center University. She is a researcher at the univer- on Inclusive Education at the University of sity’s Reserach Centre on Inclusive Commu- Minnesota’s Institute on Community Inte- nity and Disability. She teaches courses on gration. She has extensive experience in the special pedagogy, psycho-pedagogical sup- development, implementation and evalua- port to children with multiple disorders, and tion of assessments and interventions for inclusive education. Her academic interests children and adults with different types of include spatial orientation of children with disabilities. Dr. Tichá’s international work has learning disabilities as well as special and focused on the challenges and opportunities inclusive education. of people with disabilities in post-Soviet and Marianna Harutyunyan, PhD, is the Head of Southeast Asian countries. International Cooperation Unit and Associate Sheila Williams Ridge, MA, is the Director of Professor in the Faculty of Special and Inclu- the Shirley G. Moore Laboratory School at sive Education at Armenian State Pedagog- the University of Minnesota. She has exten- ical University. She is also the Director and sive experience in inclusive early childhood research of the university’s Research Centre education. Ms. Williams Ridge is passionate on Inclusive Community and Disability. She about encouraging nature-based play and is a doctoral candidate and researcher at the the lasting developmental benefits of a rela- Faculty of Education at the University of Oulu tionship between all children and nature. in Finland. Her research focuses on various aspects of inclusive education comparative education and special education, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Lilit Karapetyan, MA, is a Psychologist and a Lecturer at the Department of Special Ped- agogy and Psychology at Armenian State Pedagogical University. She is an alumna of Educational Leadership Program at Perkins 248 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ]

International and the Americans with Dis- Zhanna Paylozya, PhD, is an Associate Profes- ability Act 25 Anniversary Inclusive Educa- sor at the Faculty of Speech and Rehabilita- tion Fellowship Program. Her professional tive Therapy at Armenian State Pedagogical interests include supports and strategies of University and a speech/language patholo- children with multiple disabilities, behavioral gist. Dr. Paylozyan supervises speech therapy problems. services of “Shirakatsy Lyceum” international Siranush Karapetyan, PhD, is the Dean of the Scientific-Educational Complex. Dr. Pay- Faculty of Special and Inclusive education at lozyan’s areas of expertise include learning Armenian State Pedagogical University. She disabilities and aphasia. is also a speech therapist at Yerevan State Alvard Poghosyan, MA, works in UNICEF Medical University. She teaches subjects Armenia leading the Education Program including: Speech disorders, Special Psychol- on addressing multi-faceted deprivation of ogy, Examination and diagnosis of speech children through cross-sectoral policies and disorders, Speech therapy in educational interventions in early childhood development and medical institutions. Her specific field of and education. Previously Ms. Poghosyan led interest is special pedagogy and psycholin- an Education Program in UNICEF Kyrgyzstan. guistics. Her background is in educational leadership Marine Marutyan, PhD, is an Associate Pro- and early childhood education. fessor at the Faculty of Special Pedagogy Araksia Svajyan, PhD, is an Associate Profes- and Psychology at Armenian State Pedagog- sor at the Faculty of Special and Inclusive ical University. She is a speech therapist in education at Armenian State Pedagogical a Rehabilitation Center of N 9 Polyclinic of University. She is also the Director of Arev Yerevan and a teacher trainer. Her research Child Development Foundation. Dr. Svajyan interests are: theory and practice of inclusive works as an expert and trainer in interna- and special education and education and tional and local organizations (e.g. World psycho-pedagogical support of children with Vision Armenia) in different programs (e.g., visual impairments. Early Child Development). She has published Mher Melik-Bakhshyan, MA, is a Vice-Chan- numerous scientific and methodological ar- cellor and the Head of Department of Aca- ticles on the difficulties and achievements of demic-Methodological Affairs at Armenian inclusive education. State Pedagogical University. Previously he Vergine Yesayan, MA, is a Principal of a Spe- led the division of Higher Education Policy cial School for children with physical disabili- Development and Management in the Minis- ties in Yerevan. Previously, she worked in the try of Education and Science in Armenia. For Medical-Psychological-Pedagogical Assess- his work, he has been awarded the Diploma ment Center and as a lecturer at the Faculty of the Ministry of Education and Science, of Special Pedagogy and Psychology of Arme- “Glorious Warrior” medal of Patriotic Union nian State Pedagogical University in inclu- of the Republic of Armenia, medal of Kiev sive education. Ms. Yesayan has extensive Dragamanov National Pedagogical Universi- experience in school and preschool teacher ty, as well as the medal of Armenian Philo- training on assessments and ILP design and sophical Academy “Davit the Invincible”. implementation. Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ] 249

Portugal Paula F. Hunt, PhD, is the owner and princi- Collaborating pal researcher of Disability, Education and Development (DED), Lda. She has been an Institutions expert consultant on inclusive education with various international organizations (UNICEF, University of Minnesota IDA, II, P4EC) focusing on capacity development related to the inclusion of children The University of Minnesota is a land-grant with disabilities in various countries. She has institution focused on education, scholarly supported governments and civil societies in and creative activities, research, and service. policy development and data collection. Dr. Enrolling approximately 55,000 students, the Hunt is an experienced teacher and a lec- Twin Cities campus is one of the largest univer- turer on students with exceptional learning sities in the U.S. and ranks among the top ten needs. in receipt of federal grants for research and development in the country. Recent national surveys rank many of the University’s programs among the country’s top ten, and its Gradu- ate School was ranked among the nine best American public universities. There is a strong international presence at the University which has numerous international alumni including Okyu Kwon, deputy prime minister and minister of finance of the Republic of Korea and Luis Carranza Ugarte, Peru’s minister of finance. The University regularly hosts international visitors, coordinates international research presentations through its International Con- nections program, and has a variety of doctoral programs that target professionals in international settings. Faculty and staff are engaged in international grants with USAID, UNICEF, CARE, USDOS, and a variety of private foundations.

Website: https://twin-cities.umn.edu

Institute on Community Integration The Institute on Community Integration (ICI) is a University Center for Excellence in Disabilities (UCED). Along with its allied centers, including the Global Resource Center on Inclusive Edu- cation (GRC), Research and Training Centers on Community Living and Home and Communi- ty-Based Services Outcome Measurement, and the National Center on Educational Outcomes – 250 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ]

ICI is part of a national federally-supported net- cation and Science. The university is the only work of University Centers on Disabilities and institution of higher education in Armenia that other federally funded disability research and has a Faculty of Special and Inclusive Education, training efforts at universities across the Unit- founded 2011. The mission of the Faculty of ed States. The Institute’s mission is to improve Special and Inclusive Education is the prepara- the quality of life and community inclusion of tion of specialists for working with persons with persons with disabilities as well as the profes- special education needs and ensuring acces- sional services and social supports available to sible environment and supports for students individuals with disabilities and their families. and employees with disabilities. The Faculty The Institute is currently implementing over includes the following specializations: Speech thirty research, training, and technical assis- Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Art Therapy, tance projects funded by the federal and state Special Psychology, Special Pedagogy, etc. government, and private foundations. The Research Center on Inclusive Community project topics include self-determination, social and Disability Issues of Armenian State Peda- inclusion, and academic success of students gogical University was founded as a result of a with disabilities, facilitating their transition into cooperation between Armenian State Pedagog- adulthood; enabling access to high-quality ser- ical University and the University of Minnesota. vices and supports, and promoting living within The Center’s aim is to invest in inclusive society inclusive communities. ICI not only serves, but and disability issues in Armenia and in the re- employs individuals from numerous ethnic and gion. Established at the end of 2018, the Center disability backgrounds. ICI staff have collaborat- has a mission to generate new knowledge and ed on projects not only locally and nationally, promote its effective use to increase participa- but also across the globe, including in Russia, tion of people with disabilities in community life the Czech Republic, India, Costa Rica, Bhutan, by improving their skills and opportunities. A Ukraine, Armenia, Kazakhstan, Zambia, Liberia, related goal of the Center is to expand society’s Kenya, Micronesia, and New Zealand. awareness and capacity to provide full accessibility to education, community living and em- Website: https://ici.umn.edu ployment for people with disabilities in Arme- nia. Starting from the date of its establishment, the Center is cooperating with different organi- Khachatur Abovyan Armenian State zations and conducting two research projects Pedagogical University on inclusive education financed by Austrian Khachatur Abovyan Armenian State Pedagogi- Caritas Organization in four different regions in cal University was founded in 1922 and in 1948 Armenia (Tavush, Lori, Syunik, Shirak). it was named after great Armenian Enlightener and Educator Khachatur Abovyan. The universi- Website: https://aspu.am/en/ ty prepares students in over 60 specializations in the field of education at BA and MA levels and is the only state pedagogical university in Armenia. All university activities are regulated by legislative documents, rector’s orders, and by the Board. The Board is formed from representatives of the faculty, students, the Armenian Government, and Ministry of Edu- Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ] 251

UNICEF and UNICEF in Armenia Active in more than 190 countries and territo- Stay connected: ries, UNICEF is the world’s leading advocate for Facebook.com/UNICEF Armenia children. We promote the rights of every child, everywhere, in everything we do. By ‘every Twitter.com/UNICEF Armenia child,’ UNICEF means infants and adolescents, Instagram.com/UNICEF Armenia boys and girls alike. The UNICEF mandate cov- YouTube.com/UNICEF Armenian ers all children below the age of 18, as per the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). www.unicef.am UNICEF has worked in Armenia since 1994. As a reliable partner and a strong, independent voice for children’s rights, UNICEF promotes the inclusion of the most underserved children in national policies, convening partners around a child rights-based agenda, and providing high-level international technical expertise. In the past two decades, UNICEF has supported Armenia to cut under-5 child mortality by half, protect children from preventable diseases through 90% immunization, eliminate measles, mother to child HIV transmission, and achieve polio-free status. We have also worked to expand access to preschool education and advance inclusive education for children with and without disabilities. With the support of UNICEF, Armenia has achieved a 75 percent decrease in the number of children in residential care and correctional facilities. UNICEF works to ensure that children, aged 0-6, have access to quality and inclusive health care and nutrition services, that children with disabilities are included in the society and can exercise their right to quality education and rehabilitation, and that the judicial system safeguards the best interests of the child. This agenda is built to contribute to the Govern- ment of Armenia national strategies, as well as a range of sectorial programs on human rights, child rights protection, education, health, nutrition, and disaster risk reduction. 252 Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook [ APPENDIX ]