Direct Instruction Effective School Practices news SARA G. TARVER, Editor, University of Wisconsin, Madison

he presents statistics which justify What Is “Direct Instruction”? the growing concern over academic failure in this country and a wealth of empirical research which shows that This frequently asked question sounds for formal instruction (see the preface the widespread failure reflects flaws like a simple question that calls for a of this book in this issue of DI News; in instructional systems and the ways simple response. However, those who see Journal of Direct Instruction, they are implemented in our schools, know Direct Instruction well know Summer, 2004 for a review of the not flaws of the students. He that the answer is far from simple. book). Scholars and researchers who provides over 100 references to Numerous writers have attempted to seek to understand Direct Instruction support his position. define Direct Instruction in such a at the deepest levels will find no more way that practitioners, laypersons, and useful resources than these two books. A major flaw in the instructional scholars can grasp the essence of this Neither of the books is an easy read approaches that have prevailed in this country is their reliance on “discovery phenomenally successful approach to and neither fits the bill for a definition learning” rather than direct, explicit teaching. Unfortunately, most of Direct Instruction for the layperson attempts (including my own attempts) or the teacher in the classroom. For continued on page 3 have fallen short. It appears that those persons, layman definitions such Direct Instruction may be too as that written by Owen Engelmann multifaceted and too complex to be are likely to be more useful. SPRING 2005, Volume 5, Number 1 described adequately in a few short paragraphs, an article, a chapter in a Martin Kozloff’s article in this issue In this issue book, or perhaps even a book. can also help teachers and laypersons to understand what Direct Instruction 3 A View From Askance We may never write a single definition IS and what it IS NOT. He delineates that communicates clearly the essence myths that have prevailed to ADI News of Direct Instruction to laypersons, perpetuate misunderstandings of 5 teachers, politicians, researchers, and Direct Instruction and discusses data A Layman’s Description scholars, but we must continue to that refute those myths. 7 of Direct Instruction attempt to craft definitions that have Zig Engelmann’s Response About meaning for one or more of those Applications of Direct Instruction are 7 a Student Who Stutters groups of persons. Toward that goal, provided in this issue in Zig’s response Futures Filled With Hope we publish in this issue Owen to a question about what to do to help 8 Engelmann’s “Layman’s Definition of a student who stutters when reading, Improving Fluency to Achieve Direct Instruction.” We also invite our Roberta Wilson’s account of success 10 Automaticity in Decoding readers to submit their own definitions when using Reading Mastery with two so that we can publish some from time students at Humboldt Park School in 12 Martin’s Musings to time and discuss their relevance. Milwaukee, and Don Crawford’s article about how to improve fluency to 16 Who Is to Blame? The theoretical underpinnings of achieve automaticity in decoding. Direct Instruction were described by Instruction Versus Exploration Zig Engelmann and Doug Carnine in Steadfast rejection of the notion that 31 in Science Learning Theory of Instruction: Principles and student’s are to blame for their Applications (1991). In a more recent academic failure is a unique feature of Preface to Inferred Functions book, Inferred Functions of Performance Direct Instruction. Kerry 33 of Performance and Learning and Learning (2004), Engelmann and Hempenstall, in this issue, explores Introduction to Managing Don Steely analyze learning and the question “Who Is to Blame When 34 the Cycle of Acting-Out performance and discuss implications Children Fail to Learn?” In so doing, Behavior in the Classroom Direct Instruction News Editor Sara G. Tarver University of Wisconsin, Madison Contribute to DI News:

Editorial Board Kerry Hempenstall Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology DI News provides practitioners, ADI members, the DI community, and those new Victoria, Australia to DI, with stories of successful implementations of DI, reports of ADI awards, Martin Kozloff tips regarding the effective delivery of DI, articles focused on particular types of University of North Carolina, Wilmington instruction, reprints of articles on timely topics, and position papers that address Vicki Snider current issues. The News’ focus is to provide newsworthy events that help us University of Wisconsin, Eau Claire reach the goals of teaching children more effectively and efficiently and commu- ADI Board of Directors nicating that a powerful technology for teaching exists but is not being utilized Bob Dixon in most American schools. Readers are invited to contribute personal accounts of Classical Learning success as well as relevant topics deemed useful to the DI community. General Olympia, Washington areas of submission follow: Susan Hanner Co-Author From the field: Submit letters describing your thrills and frustrations, prob- Creswell, Oregon lems and successes, and so on. A number of experts are available who may be Gary Johnson able to offer helpful solutions and recommendations to persons seeking advice. Co-Author/Independent Consultant Portland, Oregon News: Report news of interest to ADI’s members.

Milly Schrader Success stories: Send your stories about successful instruction. These can be Elk Grove School District short, anecdotal pieces. Elk Grove, California Timothy Slocum Perspectives: Submit critiques and perspective essays about a theme of current Utah State University interest, such as: school restructuring, the ungraded classroom, cooperative Logan, Utah learning, site-based management, learning styles, heterogeneous grouping, Regu- Don Steely lar Ed Initiative and the law, and so on. Oregon Center for Applied Science Eugene, Oregon Book notes: Review a book of interest to members. Cathy Watkins California State University, Stanislaus New products: Descriptions of new products that are available are welcome. Turlock, California Send the description with a sample of the product or a research report validating its effectiveness. Space will be given only to products that have been field- The DI News is published semiannually by tested and empirically validated. the Association for Direct Instruction. The mission of the Association for Direct Tips for teachers: Practical, short products that a teacher can copy and use Instruction, as stated in the by-laws, is to immediately. This might be advice for solving a specific but pervasive problem, a promote the improvement of effective edu- cational methods. data-keeping form, a single format that would successfully teach something The Association for Direct Instruction was meaningful and impress teachers with the effectiveness and cleverness of Direct incorporated in 1981 in the state of Oregon Instruction. for educational purposes. ADI is a non- profit, tax-exempt corporation under Sec- Submission Format: Send an electronic copy with a hard copy of the manu- tion 501(c)3 of the Internal Revenue Code script. Indicate the name of the word-processing program you use. Save drawings and is a publicly supported organization as and figures in separate files. Include an address and email address for each defined in Sections 170(b)(1)(A)(ii) and 509(a)(1). Donations are tax-deductible. author. A copy or summary of the current financial Illustrations and Figures: Please send drawings or figures in a camera-ready statement, or annual report, and registra- form, even though you may also include them in electronic form. tion filed by ADI may be obtained by con- tacting: ADI, P.O. BOX 10252, Eugene, OR Completed manuscripts should be sent to: 97440 (541-485-1293). ADI is registered with the state of Oregon, Department of Amy Griffin Justice, #79-16751. Copyright © 2005 ADI Publications Association for Direct Instruction. P.O. Box 10252 ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION RATES: $25 U. S.; $30 (U. S. currency) Canada; $40 Eugene, OR 97440 Europe; $60 airmail to Europe. Acknowledgement of receipt of the manuscript will be sent by email. Articles are (ISSN 1540-0026). initially screened by the editors for placement in the correct ADI publication. If Managing Editor: Amy Griffin appropriate, the article will be sent out for review by peers in the field. These Publisher: The Association for Direct reviewers may recommend acceptance as is, revision without further review, revi- Instruction sion with a subsequent review, or rejection. The author is usually notified about http://www.adihome.org the status of the article within a 6- to 8-week period. If the article is published, Layout and Design: Beneda Design, Eugene, OR the author will receive five complimentary copies of the issue in which his or her article appears.

2 Spring 2005 Direct Instruction...continued from page 1 Versus Exploration in Science Learning,” by Geoff Colvin (Managing the Cycle of in which she explains that David Klahr’s Acting-Out Behavior in the Classroom, teaching. In the teaching of science, for controlled studies demonstrate that 2004). We realize fully that effective example, it has been assumed widely direct instruction works and generalizes instruction and management of that student’s discover scientific better (reprinted in this issue). classroom behaviors go hand in hand. principles by exploring on their own. Geoff’s book can help teachers manage That assumption is called into question In this issue, we also call to the behaviors and thereby maximize the by Rachel Adelson’s article, “Instruction attention of our readers a recent book effectiveness of their instruction.

BOB DIXON

drinking wine causes a reduction in heart disease.

Here is an example of when correlational studies can be vitally Blinding Me With Science important. According to my neighbor, an internal medicine specialist who (Or Lack Thereof) keeps up with dozens of journals the way many people follow reality TV, tells me that as yet, no one has done a study showing that smoking causes I’m making a substantial inference the latest studies reported in the New lung cancer, or any other disease, for here. I haven’t read standards for England Journal of Medicine. The that matter. A cause and effect study science the way I’ve read, for example, headlines often go like this: Scientists is an extremely difficult thing to pull reading and language arts and math have learned that drinking wine off in the biological sciences. We say in standards. I haven’t examined science reduces your chances of heart attack the vernacular that smoking causes texts and programs. I assume—but by 67%. Something like that. cancer, but the reality is that there is a don’t know for a fact—that the preponderance of correlational The scanty details that follow constructivists have done for science evidence that smoking causes cancer. about the same thing they’ve done for demonstrate that the study in When we can’t prove a cause and other content areas: ruined it. question reported a correlation between effect (which is more difficult in drinking wine and heart attacks. A psychological studies than biological), One could say that it is either bold or correlation. That’s all. I won’t say “just” we often have to settle for a just plain arrogant to infer much about a correlation because correlations can preponderance of evidence. science education with practically no be important. But one apparent hard information. One reason it isn’t so weakness of science education is that What does this have to do with outlandish to assume that science few people seem concerned about the science education? First, either the instruction isn’t very good under the difference between a correlation and a media knows that these studies are constructivists is that it wasn’t cause. The difference is enormous. You correlations, but they lie intentionally particularly good before them, and they could drive a Spruce Goose between to make money, or they simply don’t have a reputation for improving the two with plenty of room to spare believe that drinking wine causes a instruction. (As far as I can tell, the for a B-52 on either side. decrease in heart disease. Moreover, it constructivists—at least the radical appears that perhaps millions of ones—don’t believe in anything one I’m absolutely certain that no people change their behavior on the might think of as instruction.) legitimate medical scientist—such as basis of reports such as the wine and those whose studies are designed so heart disease report. What set me off on a critique of well that they make it in the New science education? The news. It seems England Journal of Medicine—is the least Skipping around and digressing, as I’m possible that a journalism major bit confused over cause and effect prone to do, how do you feel about doesn’t necessarily require any content versus correlation. A scientist who phosphorus? When I was in college, expertise in fields such as philosophy, discovers a correlation between you could add a little water to many science, mathematics, language, and so drinking wine and reducing heart detergents and make a paste. Then on. I’m thinking particularly of any of disease is one of the last people who you could put your hands, for example, the many news announcements about would conclude that, therefore, into the paste and make “invisible”

Direct Instruction News 3 hand prints on the walls. Under black behavior, then act is if the explanation plausible one occurs to him, he light, the hand prints would light up were in fact true. Someone is found accepts it as factual. bright green. Using this technique, unconscious in bed. There is an empty and with a little imagination and a lot bottle of tranquilizers next to the bed. Almost everything you and I do day- of strength, you could put footprints According to the label, the person had to-day is ambiguous. Five different all over the ceiling. But 35 years or so just recently purchased those people can easily develop five ago, some people were fighting to have tranquilizers. Ergo, an overdose of different but very plausible phosphorus removed from detergents, tranquilizers. That’s not just a explanations of one thing or another based on correlational data indicating plausible inference, but a very we do, and all five can be wrong. A that it might be causing problems in plausible one. well educated adult (at least in the ecosystems of lakes. science, classical rhetoric, and Turns out the person had transferred philosophy—including especially It took quite a long time to get the the new tranquilizers into an older logic) is a critical thinker when he or manufacturers of detergents to remove bottle that still had some pills in it. she holds plausible explanations the phosphorus, or reduce its levels to The person was unconscious because tentatively and as only plausible, and practically nothing. The makers of of a mild stroke. A really good ER then searches for other plausible dishwasher detergents lobbied hard doctor is going to look beyond one explanations. The explanation that and ended up with the largest plausible explanation before doing a best predicts future behavior is the amounts of phosphorus in their one that has the best chance of product, for the simple reason that being factual. dishwashing detergent couldn’t clean Therefore, the way we dishes without phosphorus. Young children obviously haven’t had explain things to young the opportunity to study John Stuart Skipping to the more recent past, I children (especially) Mill, to develop a facility with formal read an article about state biologists logic, to learn all one must know to be adding phosphorus—straight—to local has to be as unambiguous a genuine critical thinker. Therefore, lakes because of all the damage caused as possible. the way we explain things to young to their ecosystems when detergents children (especially) has to be as stopped using phosphorus. There is no unambiguous as possible. The child’s certainty that the recent problems natural tendency is to make a plausible were caused by low levels of stomach pump, which wouldn’t do inference. The responsibility of phosphorus, but reintroducing it has much to help the stroke victim, who instruction is to present information in reduced many of those problems, so as needs instead some powerful such a way that the student a practical matter, that practice anticoagulant drugs. Plausible (but immediately begins to formulate a continues. In the meantime, if your factually wrong) explanations can be plausible explanation that is, at the clothes are really dirty and you want downright dangerous. The plots of same time, the correct explanation. them to be really clean, add some more than a few murder mysteries dishwashing detergent to your laundry. revolve around the plausibility of A poor education in science and explanations that are factually wrong. scientific method and logic and Cause and effect versus correlation. classical rhetoric makes society at large Failing to make the distinction and to All this relates much more directly to susceptible to no end of poor decisions recognize the implications of both is DI in general than one might think at and scams. Besides scientists just one indicator of a possible first blush. The naive learner receives themselves, the group of people who weakness in science instruction. some sensory information—let’s say really need a strong education in these Another sign is treating plausibility as he sees some object. A teacher says areas are those who aspire to teach if it were fact. The moment we are something about that object. The children, whether directly without a able to come up with a plausible student comes up with a plausible textbook, or in connection with a book explanation is the moment when we idea about the label for the object: and other materials. In short, as much have a tendency to stop searching for plausible, and perhaps very plausible, as any other field, really, education other explanations and convert the based on what the teacher said, but needs a basis in science. The critical plausible to the factual. This happens wrong, nonetheless. The teacher thinking that many educators enjoy to everyone, all the time, in everyday tends to misjudge this student as one touting is impossible for them to life. I think. If someone says, “You did with a disability, while the student achieve themselves—never mind the that because …” you could be the wallows in frustration. Nothing children—without a strong background victim of a plausible explanation. We unusual is going on here. The child at least in the philosophy of science come up with some explanation for seeks an explanation, and when a and logic.

4 Spring 2005 BRYAN WICKMAN, Executive Director, Association for Direct Instruction Summer 2005 ADI News Direct Instruction Training This fall and winter have been very to them. Look to this column for Opportunities busy for the staff at the Association. announcements of what these new No sooner had the fall series of Peer services and directions will be. The Association for Direct Mentoring sessions been completed Instruction is pleased to than we launched into a survey of the Conference News announce the following intensive membership of the organization. The ADI has finalized plans for the DI training conferences. These purpose of the survey was to gather conferences this summer. Brochures events will provide comprehen- information to assist in developing are available for the Southeast sive training presented by some of some long-term plans for the Conference in Orlando (June 21–24), the most skilled trainers in educa- organization. Out of the 750 surveys Mountain States Conference in tion. Plan now to attend one of sent out, 264 responded by the Colorado Springs (July 11–13), the these professional development deadline. Thank you very much to National DI Conference in Eugene conferences. those timely souls. (July 24–28), the Midwest Conference in Chicago (August 3–5), and the Save these dates: The survey results were very Atlantic Coast Conference in interesting. We had assumed that most Baltimore (August 8–10). If you 8th Southeast Direct Instruction all ADI members are teachers. In fact, haven’t gotten a brochure for these Conference and Institutes from our sampling we found that while events go online to www.adihome.org June 21–24, 2005 48% identify themselves as teachers, and download one, or call the office Florida Mall Hotel 40% identify themselves as consultants and have one sent via mail, email, or Orlando, Florida or teacher trainers. Administrators fax. We have some great new sessions make up about 16% of the group, and at each of these events so new as well 4th Mountain States Direct 13% belong in the higher education as past attendees should be able to Instruction Conference category. Yes, I know the numbers add find something of interest. up to over 100%, as respondents were July 11–13, 2005 Antlers Hilton allowed to select all that apply. Looking to the Fall the Carmel Colorado Springs, Colorado Conference will run October 20 and We were pleased to see how strongly 21. We also will be offering a regional 31st National Direct Instruction or membership seems to value the DI training conference at Fairmont Hot Conference and Institutes News and Journal of Direct Instruction. Springs in Montana October 28 and 29. Eighty-seven percent of respondents July 24–28, 2005 either read the publications thoroughly Carolyn Schneider and Debbie Jackson Eugene Hilton and or at least skim each issue. Also the will be conducting three Peer Conference Center written comments pointed to the fact Mentoring sessions in October and Eugene, Oregon that the publications are of great use November. Dates and locations are not to those in the field. Specifically yet firm and will be posted on the 10th Midwest Direct Instruction valuable are research pieces, program website as soon as they are finalized. Conference and Institutes reviews, and teaching hints. As always, August 3–5, 2005 we rely on our membership to help As always, the staff of ADI is Holiday Inn Mart Plaza shape the contents of our publications interested in knowing how well we Chicago, Illinois and urge you to keep sending your serve you as well as how we can do stories and data for publication. more to make your work in the field 20th Atlantic Coast Direct more successful. Please know we are Instruction Conference and The rest of the information gathered available to help you help students. If Institutes shows that people find the organization you have any questions or comments August 8–10, 2005 for DI professionals useful, and that about any aspect of ADI, please drop Wyndham Baltimore Inner Harbor the membership has some great ideas me an email to [email protected]. Baltimore, Maryland for how we can be of even more service Thanks for your continued support.

Direct Instruction News 5 The schools and organizations Dreamcatcher Direct Instruction Leavenworth Public Schools listed below are institutional mem- Centers Leavenworth, Kansas Boulder, Colorado bers of the Association for Direct Littleton Preparatory Charter Instruction. We appreciate their East Side Charter School School continued support of quality edu- Wilmington, Delaware Littleton, Colorado cation for students. Educational Resources Inc. Lost River Elementary Adamsville Elementary School Cape Coral, Florida Bowling Green, Kentucky Atlanta, Georgia Foundations for the Future Charter McDonnell Elementary AL HOPE Inc. Academy Huntsville, Alabama Columbus, Ohio Calgary, Alberta, Canada Montgomery Public Schools Montgomery, Mississippi Alpha System Frank Elementary School Des Moines, Iowa Kenosha, Wisconsin Morningside Academy Seattle, Washington American Samoa Department Franklin Academy of Education Wake Forest, North Carolina Mountain View Academy Pago Pago Tutuila, American Samoa Garden Homes School Greeley, Colorado Milwaukee, Wisconsin Arkansas School for the Blind Mt. Pleasant Cottage School Little Rock, Arkansas Gering Public Schools UFSD Gering, Nebraska Pleasantville, New York Baltimore Curriculum Project Inc. Baltimore, Maryland Hattiesburg School District Orange County PS/Educational Hattiesburg, Mississippi Leadership Center The Barclay School #54 Orlando, Florida Baltimore, Maryland Hawthorn School District 73 Vernon Hills, Illinois Otter Creek Institute Berks County Intermediate Unit Altoona, Wisconsin Heritage Academy Reading, Pennsylvania Peterson Elementary School North Augusta, South Carolina Big Lake Elementary Montgomery, Alabama Hinckley Finlayson School District Big Lake, Alaska Randolph Magnet Elementary Hinckley, Minnesota Burlington Area School District School Burlington, Wisconsin Hinsdale Community CSD 181 Chicago, Illinois Hinsdale, Illinois Riverside Academy Cache Valley Learning Center Cincinnati, Ohio Logan, Utah Humboldt Park School Milwaukee, Wisconsin Saint Anthony School Center Academy Imperial County Office of Milwaukee, Wisconsin Flint, Michigan Education School District of Colfax Cheyenne Mountain Charter El Centro, California Colfax, Wisconsin Academy The Institute for Effective Colorado Springs, Colorado SELPA, Monterey County Education Salinas, California Chief Leschi Schools San Diego, California Puyallup, Washington SETRC/ C/O BTC (910A) Jackson Elementary Buffalo, New York Chipman Middle School Medford, Oregon Shelby County Board of Alameda, California James Irwin Charter Schools Education/Special Services Chisago Lakes Area Schools ISD Colorado Springs, Colorado Center 2144 Kalamazoo Advantage Academy Alabaster, Alabama Lindstrom, Minnesota Kalamazoo, Michigan SRA McGraw-Hill Covington Independent Public Keaau Elementary School Moorestown, New Jersey Schools Keaau, Hawaii Sto-Rox School District Covington, Kentucky McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania Lancaster-Lebanon Intermediate Detroit Advantage Academy Unit 13 Sussex County Public Schools Detroit, Michigan Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Sussex, Virginia The Douglas Academy Laurel Nokomis School Village of Excellence Academy North York, Ontario, Canada Nokomis, Florida Tampa, Florida

6 Spring 2005 OWEN ENGELMANN, Project Director of Mathematics, National Institute for Direct Instruction

children will have mastered at any A Layman’s Description time during the year. If the teacher follows the program carefully, an of Direct Instruction average group will progress at the rate of one lesson per day. All chil- dren within the group will be at Direct Instruction programs are and work on these skills lesson after mastery, so there are no surprises. designed to control all the variables lesson, gradually integrating these No children fail to learn to read by skills into new higher-order skills. that make a difference in how the end of kindergarten, for students learn—how fast new material 2. Only about 10% of what occurs in a instance. These predictions cannot is introduced, the amount of practice lesson involves new concepts. The be made with traditional programs provided on applying concepts, the rest of the material involves review- because the design of these pro- feedback teachers provide students, ing and applying concepts that have grams permits a lot of children to the sequence of skills that are taught been introduced in preceding les- slip through the cracks. to teach a complex skill like reading. sons. This small-step design and The goal of Direct Instruction constant review guarantees that all 5. All Direct Instruction programs are programs is to teach everything the children will learn everything the extensively field tested and revised children need to master a particular program presents. on the basis of how children per- subject or skill and to teach it form. When published, the program 3. Direct Instruction programs are efficiently, but not to teach them will work. Note that such field test- scripted to assure that teachers give things they don’t need. ing is not done as part of the devel- adequate explanations, quickly and opment of other published efficiently. The Direct Instruction Direct Instruction programs differ programs specify the exact wording programs. That’s why they tend not from traditional ones in five principle and the examples the teacher is to to work well with the full range of ways. present for each exercise in the pro- students. 1. Direct Instruction lessons do not gram, which ensures that the pro- In summary, the Direct Instruction gram will communicate one and focus on a single topic (such as con- program presents the material the way only one possible interpretation of tractions or determining if some- an expert would present it. By the skill being taught. thing is a fact or an opinion). following the program specifications, Instead, Direct Instruction lessons 4. The structure of the program per- any teacher or parent becomes an work on five or more different skills mits predictions about the skills expert instructor.

response cost of the Corrective Reading Zig Engelmann’s Response format is very high for your boy. That means that your boy is trying to do About a Student Who Stutters something that IS very difficult for him. The harder he tries, the more he The following question was posted on ideas that could help him through his stutters. The problem is exaggerated if the DI listserv regarding stuttering. stuttering when he has to read orally, he is not completely firm on the words Zig Engelmann provided a response. whether it’s a word row, connected he’s trying to read. (For directions on how to join the DI sentences, or the timed readings. listserv, see page 38.) The idea of singing or chanting the Response: The following is based on words is good. But the biggest compo- Question: We currently have a sixth- the assumption that your boy stutters nent is that he must believe that it will grade boy in Corrective Reading Decoding at times other than when he reads make a difference. If chanting becomes Level B2. The teacher is looking for aloud. The problem is that the a challenge, it won’t be effective.

Direct Instruction News 7 So do this: Practice on word lists com- reading with only a few stutters or none. response cost so he doesn’t get tense posed of words you know he’s firm on. and try to talk faster. If he does make Have the same words (10–12) in dif- Have him chart his performance, indi- stuttering mistakes, assume that part ferent orders on several lists. Show cating the number of words that he of the problem is that he is not accu- him how you want him to do it. Model did without stuttering for each list. rate on the words. If he does not think saying the word slowly ala a Gregorian of reading in the same way he thinks chant. Point out (frequently) that if he When he seems to be pretty good with of talking fast, he’ll be able to does it that way, he’ll be able to read the chanting routine, tell him that he approach the words in a way that does the words with no stuttering. Rein- can probably start out chanting the not promote stuttering. Place him force the heck out of him when he first word or two and then say the makes good approximations. remaining words in a regular voice. where you’re sure that he’s able to Give him initial practice with material read the words accurately. Remind him Make it very clear that you don’t care that is easy for him to read. Praise suc- that his chanting strategy is magic and how long it takes him to read the cessful applications and improvement it will help him gain control. words. There is no hurry. on list reading. Within about 6 months of using this Practice the simple lists until he is For passage reading, go back in the program, you should see some pretty very reliable. Then intersperse some of program about 15 lessons, and give great differences in his performance. the words he has been having trouble him the same directions. Don’t hurry; with. Keep at least the first two words say the first word in a chant, and use a I’ve specified a lot of this stuff for you, in the list familiar ones that he has chant if you start to stutter. Chart non- because I don’t know the extent to practiced. “This list has some new stutter words. Tell him not to expect which the school program can accom- improvement every day, but point out words, but you can read them if you do modate the kind of practice he needs. the improvement he shows over time. it just like the other words.” With the It’s important, however, for the first words familiar, you’ll prompt the teacher to know what the program is right strategy. Let the classroom teacher know about this program so she can make adapta- and not to do things that conflict with When he can handle lists with about tions for him in the classroom. She it. Don’t hurry responses or act impa- 10 total, 6 of which are new, intro- should not do timings. She should not tient, implying that he should go duce some of the lists he has trouble hurry him or put any pressure on him faster. He’ll go faster when he can. with now, but start the list with one to read words in lists faster. When he’s of the familiar words on which he is comfortable, he can try to up the rate, If his problem is not severe, you perfectly firm. but he will always have a back-up should be able to abbreviate the pro- strategy (chanting a word or two) that gram considerably. Good luck. Remind him that these words are hard, will get him back in the right frame. but there is no hurry. Praise him for Remember, the idea is to reduce the Siegfried Engelmann

ROBERTA WILSON, Humboldt Park School, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

reading instruction. Success stories Futures Filled With Hope from Humboldt Park School (Grades K–8) demonstrate teachers’ commit- ment to reduce the number of stu- “Reading is the fundamental skill that sepa- and economically disadvantaged stu- dents performing below grade level on rates students who struggle from students dents, reading success is unlikely in outcome measures at each grade from who succeed.” the absence of a powerful instructional K–3 and thereby meet the ultimate goal of the Reading First initiative. intervention. The aim of the No Child These words of State Superintendent Left Behind (NCLB) Act, and the The instructional requirements out- Elizabeth Burmaster remind teachers Reading First initiative which is a part lined in Humboldt Park’s Reading that we play an important role in of NCLB, is to bring a future filled First grant stipulate a daily 90-minute preparing students for the rest of their with hope to these children by assur- uninterrupted core reading block in lives. For many, particularly minority ing that they receive highly effective which Reading Mastery is used in

8 Spring 2005 Grades K–3. An additional 30 minutes Darius entered Humboldt Park in Sep- alize the sounds and words taught in of enrichment reading includes exten- tember of 2004 as a second grader. He the DI lessons. In November, Darius sion activities from the SRA Learning had limited phonemic awareness, no was in Reading Mastery Fast Cycle I Les- Through Literature collection, Reading sight word knowledge, and low self- son 40. He read his first story from the Mastery Independent Reader kits, esteem. Darius placed in Reading Mas- SRA Independent Readers series. As Building Vocabulary Skills books, and the tery I Lesson 1. He was put into a Darius sounded out each word in the literature and activities across the cur- group with six first graders who were first two sentences of the story “Sit,” riculum projects in Reading Mastery Plus also new to Humboldt Park. Reading his finger moved effortlessly under III and IV. Students whose DIBELS Mastery I/II Fast Cycle was used with each sound until he said each word, and CBM scores indicate the need for the group. The six first graders in this “This is a rock. Sit on it.” After read- additional individualized instruction group were significantly below their ing the page, Darius looked up. His receive another 30 minutes daily of first-grade peers who were into Reading eyes beamed, his smile cut from ear to planned reading intervention that is Mastery II. Darius’s second-grade peers ear, and his confidence in himself told aligned with their core reading pro- were in Reading Mastery Plus III and me that our commitment to him had gram. Trained Reading First staff Horizons C–D. made a difference. members provide the interventions. On a bimonthly basis, progress is For 90 uninterrupted minutes every When Joey entered third grade in Sep- assessed and intervention plans are day, Darius smiled and actively partici- tember, he had only a smattering of changed as indicated by student data. pated in group instruction. Early in the sound and word knowledge. His place- The success stories of two struggling year, however, it became apparent that ment test indicated Reading Mastery II students who required additional Darius needed more. It was decided Lesson 25; however, his skill base was instruction—Darius and Joey—are that the Reading First intervention uneven and he needed to learn many reported here as examples of the many staff member would provide additional of the sounds presented earlier in successes that have resulted from the individual instruction for 30 minutes Reading Mastery I. It was decided to implementation of Direct Instruction each day. That additional instruction have Joey participate in a 90-minute at Humboldt Park. helped Darius to remember and gener- Reading Mastery II block with four

Now available from ADI Managing the Cycle of Acting-Out Behavior in the Classroom

Geoff Colvin

This text is based on Dr. Colvin’s 25 years of experience and research in working with the full range of problem behavior. He presents a model for describing acting-out behavior in terms of seven phases. A graph is used to illustrate these phases of escalating conflict. The information will enable the teacher or staff member to place the student in the acting-out sequence and respond appropriately. Well-tested, effective, and practical strategies are described in detail for managing student behavior during each phase of the cycle. The book also contains many helpful references as well as an extensive set of reproducible forms. Cost: $28.00 list To order, see page 42. $24.00 member price

Direct Instruction News 9 other students and also provide him that Joey had had trouble with kids intervention staff member, Joey’s with additional instruction from Read- at his other school, but not at Hum- Mom, and Joey soon paid off and Joey ing Mastery I. boldt Park. was able to join a Reading Mastery III group by the end of October. The joy Upon telling all the students that I In mid-October, Joey was retested to of watching Joey open his very own set guaranteed that they would leave the see if he could be placed in a more of chapter books was matched only by group as readers, Joey shyly raised his challenging reading group. However, his comment that “I’ve read five pages hand and asked, “Will I be able to he had not learned the final e and dou- read chapter books?” I am convinced ble consonant rules that he would of the first book already! Thank you, that his desire to read chapter books need to know before moving to a Mrs. Wilson!” drove him to work hard to reduce his higher group. In an attempt to close careless errors and improve his flu- those reading skill gaps, specific words Reading success really does bring a ency. His mother listened to him and checkout lessons were added to future filled with hope a bit closer to reread each day’s story and was very his Reading First intervention plan. all of our students, even those who pleased with his progress. She said Renewed effort by the Reading First struggle the most.

DON CRAWFORD, Otter Creek Institute

While a third or fourth group reading Improving Fluency to Achieve of the story might also help, the effec- tiveness of practice is directly related Automaticity in Decoding to the amount of time each student is actually reading, rather than listening to others read. (Note: Requiring stu- In a previous issue of Direct Instruction teacher has to either add reading time, dents to follow along or track with News (Fall, 2004, 4[2] pp. 20–22), we or restructure reading so that each their finger greatly increases the time discussed why “Automaticity in Decod- child has more opportunity to read they spend reading during group read- ing” is essential to improve reading aloud each day. ing exercises). comprehension. Students should increase the rate at which they can How can that best be done? If stu- A teacher who is not successful in read aloud by about 1.5 words per dents read in pairs, to each other, they requiring students to track with their minute each week and 50 words per spend half of their time actually read- fingers, or not successful in getting minute each school year until they can ing and so their practice time is maxi- them to read to each other for the Cor- read at or above 150 words per minute mally effective. This is why Corrective rective Reading checkouts, must work on with ease. What if students are master- Reading has, as part of each lesson, two classroom management skills. Such a ing the lessons of Reading Mastery or checkouts where students read aloud teacher won’t be able to institute the Corrective Reading, but are not making to each other. The first checkout has suggestion below until after obtaining these kinds of improvements in their students read part of the day’s lesson a much higher level of cooperation in reading rate? for accuracy. The second checkout is the classroom. This is a serious issue to read part of the previous lesson for because lack of teacher skill in this To increase their growth in reading fluency. Oddly enough, many teachers area of classroom management com- rate, students will, not surprisingly, skip these checkouts, because the promises achievement and really hurts need extra practice reading aloud. The children don’t stick to the task, or the children. National Reading Panel noted that because they are afraid the reading there is no evidence that silent read- partner won’t correctly report or fix What if a group is not making ade- ing will do the job—it has to be oral errors. What is essential in that activ- quate growth in reading fluency even reading. This is so fundamental, and it ity is reading aloud as correctly and though they are already following each so often remains unchanged, that it fluently as one can. The critical func- other’s reading with their fingers all bears repeating. For any student to tion of the peer monitoring is just to the time? The teacher needs to add in increase their reading fluency, and to ensure that the reader is doing his or additional reading aloud with a part- increase it faster than the current rate her best reading. So what if the peer ner, but structure it in such a way that of improvement, that child will have to misses an error or two? Done right, students stay on task and benefit from spend more time reading aloud. The this paired reading is terrific practice. the practice. Imagine they are in Read-

10 Spring 2005 ing Mastery and don’t have daily check- the growth of 1.5 words per minute again. The teacher takes the students’ outs designed for peer practicing. Cer- each week that they should? Or worse current rate of reading unrehearsed tainly a good start would be to do the yet, what if some students aren’t passages and then marks off passages same kind of checkouts, one for accu- meeting the checkouts? Teachers 40% longer than what they would read racy and one for fluency, as in Correc- should add more time for students to in 1 minute (multiply by 1.4). The tive Reading. practice reading aloud using the sug- reader’s goal would be, after rehears- gestion below. Teachers can keep track ing, to read that marked-off passage in For Reading Mastery, the accuracy read- of the effect of this additional practice 1 minute or less. If setting individual ing would work like this. The teacher goals and counting and marking indi- on the graph students are making each needs to count out and mark 1 vidual passages is impractical, the day from the fluency checkout. minute’s worth of words at the begin- teacher can find the average rate in ning of the current story. The first sto- the group and set the goal the same Repeat rereadings have been shown to ries on the “Take home” sheets in for everybody. be effective for improving reading rate. RMI would start with an expectation Over time, rehearsing the oral reading of 3 words per minute. RMII should Once passages are marked, students of a bunch of selected passages until start with an expectation of 50 words work in pairs for 5 to 7 minutes per per minute, while RMIII and above they are read much more fluently turn on the sentences in the marked- should start at 100 words per minute. off passage. With the help of their In all levels, the expectation should be partner, students correct and reread raised one word every three lessons. The reader reads and each sentence again and again until During the checkout the students read rereads each sentence until fluent. Error corrections should be just to each other with a goal of making the same as when the teacher is con- less than 5% errors (the teacher should the listener deems the ducting reading—give the word, figure the error limit ahead of time). sentence to have been read repeat the word, reread the sentence Those who can read the passage with smoothly and fluently before from the beginning. The reader reads less than the error limit get points, or and rereads each sentence until the gold stars, or other rewards. After the going on to the next sentence. listener deems the sentence to have first member of each pair reads, the been read smoothly and fluently students switch roles. before going on to the next sentence. seems to help unrehearsed (cold) First graders and below can’t seem to The fluency reading would work simi- reading of other passages. Because two make that determination and may larly. Readers should read aloud the thirds of all reading material consists need to simply practice each sentence marked out passage from the previous of the 300 most common words, just a set number of times. Requiring that lesson. The teacher times for 1 minute about anything students rehearse, the reader read each sentence aloud at while the student reads the passage until they read it fluently, will help least three times is a good starting and their peers listen and count errors. their reading of just about anything point for younger students. If the readers complete the marked else. There are commercially prepared out passage with less than the sets of materials for sale at ReadNatu- Readers keep reading and rereading required number of errors and in less rally.com to assist teachers with the the sentences in the passage until the than 1 minute—they meet the goal passages, goals, audiotapes, and every- teacher calls time. Start at about 5 and get a reward or points. Then stu- thing needed to run such a program. minutes per partner and gradually dents switch roles. As in Corrective However, DI materials that are exactly increase as students are able to stay on Reading, the students should record at the right level for the student and task longer. At the end of the practice the number of words read correctly on are readily available to the DI teacher time the readers all take a 1-minute a graph with an aimline of the work just as well. reading timed by the teacher. Those expected score. The students can who meet the goal of reading the keep track of their rate on the graph Once passages have been rehearsed marked-off passage in under a minute but the teacher should monitor it to they are no longer good for measuring get points or a star or something. To make sure that students are making students’ true rate and accuracy—so increase motivation students can the gains of about 1.5 words per week. use passages from at least three les- “earn” their way to a new passage by sons prior. And if possible avoid the only being allowed to move on to prac- What if a group is already tracking all passages that are used for the rate and ticing the next passage when the last the time they are reading and is doing accuracy checkouts—in case the stu- one is passed. Or students could be the daily checkouts and still not seeing dent is ever checked out on them moved on to the next passage each day

Direct Instruction News 11 regardless, and simply get fewer and errors that they achieved when (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pren- points if they don’t pass the one time they passed the passage, e.g., 114/4, tice-Hall, Inc. they practice. meaning 114 correct words per Chard, D., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective inter- minute with four errors. It would be ventions for building reading fluency After timing the first readers, switch even better to have students graph with elementary students with learning roles and have the new reader prac- their postpractice rates daily—but disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, tice their passage one sentence at a remember, these do not represent 36(5), 386–406. time for the same length of time. A their current “cold” reading rate. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., kitchen timer is needed to keep track Walz, L., & Germann, G. (1993). Forma- of the time so that both readers get If the growth in reading rate, as meas- tive evaluation of academic progress: the same amount of time and time ured on the unrehearsed daily check- How much growth can we expect? School Psychology Review, 22(1), 27–48. isn’t accidentally extended. Then the outs, does not improve up to 1.5 Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M., & Jenk- new readers are given a 1-minute tim- words per week, a second round ins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as ing. Points can be kept for team con- should be done, rather than extend- an indicator of reading competence: A tests, or for between class contests, or ing each turn beyond 7 minutes. This theoretical, empirical, and historical for grades or treats. is hard work and readers will need a analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5, break after 7 minutes. More than 239–256. To keep track of student progress, use likely, if the rest of the reading lesson National Reading Panel. (2004). Frequently the lesson numbers to number the is done to mastery, this additional Asked Questions #12. What did the Panel conclude about reading fluency? passages. Have students make a list practice should do the trick. Retrieved December 26, 2004, from to keep track of which passages have http://www.nationalreadingpanel.org/ been rehearsed and “passed.” It is a References FAQ/faq.htm#12 good idea to have students note the Carnine, D., Silbert, J., Kame’enui, E. J., & Read Naturally. (2004). Retrieved December number of correct words per minute Tarver, S. (2003). Direct instruction reading 26, 2004, from http://readnaturally.com/

MARTIN KOZLOFF, University of North Carolina, Wilmington

or equal”—even if we knew what that meant. These sorts of efforts to create a “new man” and to revolutionize society almost always yield disaster. (Think “Soviet Union.”) But by then “We Don’t Care About Data.” the reformers are long gone. Besides, their kids are in private schools. But don’t tell that to the reformers. They’ll get testy. After all, you’re taking away The huge gap in school achievement enables them to conjure up gaudy their stock in trade—the false promise and later quality of life between schemes (which elicit hormonal of edutopia—if we’d only give them minority and white students is usually secretions—the bigger the scheme the power, money, our kids, and all the explained by things that are largely more important they feel), to get long- time in the world. irrelevant—culture, “race,” family running grants and high prestige structure, the percentage of minority positions, hire friends, write articles, Reformers almost never consider the children in a school, socioeconomic and end up with nice retirement obvious. What is closest to student status, students’ self-perceptions, and annuities. learning is not race, social class, teachers’ expectations. I’d like to culture, school size, and all the other think that focusing on the wrong Let’s get serious about improving factors the reformers tout, but things is simple laziness—a person achievement. You aren’t going to communication with the teacher—organized looking for keys under a streetlamp; change anyone’s “race” or culture. No as instruction within a curriculum. it’s the easiest place. But now I think “program” is going to raise children’s The reason poor kids don’t learn much it’s more because “social reformers” self-esteem and children’s and in school is that they come to school are happiest dealing with vague teachers’ expectations—for very long. less prepared and because most schools abstractions—their “big picture” of And we aren’t going to “make the use curricula that are horrible (superficial how “society oppresses the poor.” This distribution of wealth more equitable coverage, illogical sequences, little

12 Spring 2005 built-in practice) and teaching were taught in the classroom using a reading, arithmetic, handwriting, and methods that miscommunicate Piagetian approach. spelling. Children received praise and information. And there are tons of good tokens for correct responses. Teachers data showing that well designed Tucson Early Education Model used programmed reading materials curricula and logically clear instruction (University of Arizona) that presented tasks in small steps. can override the effects of social class, TEEM used a language–experience minority group status, and family approach (much like whole language). Language Development (Bilingual) background. It was based on the notion that Model (Southwest Educational children have different learning styles. Developmental Laboratory) Follow Through This model used an eclectic approach Affective Skills Models based on language development. When In the mid-1960s, President Lyndon needed, material was presented first in Johnson’s administration created Head Bank Street College Model Spanish and then in English. Start—a large number of preschool (Bank Street College of Education) programs primarily for disadvantaged This model emphasized learning centers that gave children many Direct Instruction Model children. After a few years he also (University of Oregon) funded Follow Through to see which Developed by Siegfried Engelmann Head Start models (curricula) yielded and Wes Becker, this model used the the most beneficial change. Pretty Direct Instruction focuses DISTAR (Direct Instruction System rational. Find out what works best and on cognitive learning— for Teaching, Achievement, and promote it. Find out what fails and Remediation) reading, arithmetic, and dump it. That’s how they do it in concepts, propositions, language programs. The model medicine, engineering, and other cognitive strategies. assumes that the teacher is responsible serious professions. It is not rote learning. for what the children learn. That’s NOT how they do it in educa- Here are some of the main features of tion. Direct Instruction. options, such as counting blocks and Follow Through ran from 1967 to quiet areas for reading. Much of the 1. Direct Instruction focuses on cogni- 1995. It tested nine curricula—many teaching was incidental as the teacher tive learning—concepts, proposi- of which are still used. Follow Through tried to follow children’s lead. tions, cognitive strategies. It is not involved about 75,000 children per rote learning. year in about 180 schools. Each model Open Education Model school was compared with control (Education Development Center) 2. Brief (5 minute) placement tests schools. This model was derived from the are given to ensure that each child British Infant School model. Reading begins with lessons for which he or she is prepared. Here’s a summary description of the and writing were not taught directly, models. but through stimulating a desire to 3. Children are taught in small groups. communicate. Cognitive/Conceptual Skills 4. The children sit in front of the Models Responsive Education Model teacher—close enough that he or Cognitively-Oriented Curriculum (Far West Laboratory) she can see and hear each one. (High Scope Foundation) This eclectic model used learning 5. Lessons move at a brisk pace. This This program (STILL widely used) centers and students’ interests to sustains children’s attention and was based on Piaget’s theory of stages determine when and where each child results in a high rate of learning of cognitive development and his would be stationed. The development opportunities per minute. assertion that teachers should be more of self-esteem was considered essential like guides on the side rather than to the acquisition of academic skills. 6. Instruction is organized in a logi- communicators of information. cal–developmental sequence. All of Basic Skills Models the concepts, rules, and strategies Florida Parent Education Model Behavior Analysis Model that students need in any lesson (University of Florida) (University of Kansas) have already been taught. In addi- This program taught parents of Developed by Donald Bushell, this tion, what they learn in any lesson disadvantaged children to teach their model used a behavioral is used in later lessons. There is no children. At the same time, students (reinforcement) approach for teaching inert knowledge.

Direct Instruction News 13 7. Knowledge (e.g., how to solve beyond. Effective School Practices, 15[1], 3. Children taught with Direct 4 + X = 12, how to sound out 43–56.) Instruction developed higher self- words) is taught directly and explic- esteem and a stronger sense of con- itly. For example, the teacher ver- Findings. Which Curricula trol of their learning than did children receiving the other forms balizes her reasoning process while Did Good Things for Kids? demonstrating the strategy for solv- of instruction; this, despite the fact Which Curricula Made It ing an arithmetic problem. This that some of the other curricula enables students to internalize the Worse for Kids? focused on self-esteem. teacher’s knowledge and become A major source of data was scores on 4. Follow-up studies showed that chil- independent. the Metropolitan Achievement Test, dren (predominantly African Ameri- the Coopersmith Self-Esteem 8. Instruction is aimed at mastery. can or Hispanic) who had been The group and each child is always Inventory, and the Intellectual taught reading and math using “firm” before the teacher moves to Achievement Responsibility Scale. Direct Instruction in elementary school were, at the end of the ninth the next exercise. The main results were as follows. grade, still 1 year ahead of children 9. Teacher–student communication who had been in control (non- has a common format from lesson to Direct Instruction) schools in read- lesson. This means that students Children who were taught ing, and 7 months ahead of control need to attend only to the content reading, spelling, and math children in math. of the communication, and they do Also, in contrast to comparison groups not have to figure out how the with Direct Instruction of children who had not received teacher is communicating. The gen- were far superior in Direct Instruction in earlier years, eral format is Model, Lead, Test: achievement to children former Direct Instruction students had (a) Model: For example, the teacher higher rates of graduating high school says, “I can read this word the slow taught with any other on time, lower rates of dropping out, way. Listen. wh e n.” method in both basic and and higher rates of applying and being (b) Lead: This step is guided prac- higher-order conceptual accepted into college. tice; teacher and students work skills (e.g., problem solving). problems, sound out new words, or See the The Washington Times graph on read passages together. For example, page 15. the teacher says, “Read this word with me. 1. Children who were taught reading, Notice that DI and Behavior Analy- Get ready. wh e n.” spelling, and math with Direct sis—the two models that had clear Instruction were far superior in objectives, taught in a logically pro- (c) Test: Children now do the exercise achievement to children taught gressive sequence, involved teachers on their own. “Your turn to read this with any other method in both focusing on exactly what they wanted word the slow way. Get ready...” basic and higher-order conceptual kids to learn, communicated as clearly as possible, and provided practice to (More on this highly effective format skills (e.g., problem solving). Most the point of mastery—did the best in later.) of the other “innovative” models all areas—how much kids learned, how did far worse even than non-DI they felt about themselves, and how 10. Gradually, instruction moves from control schools. a teacher-guided to a more stu- much control they felt they had over dent-guided format. 2. Disadvantaged children taught with their learning. Direct Instruction moved from the 11. Direct Instruction would most Ironic. The MOST teacher-directed 20th percentile on nationally stan- likely be used at the beginning of approaches produced kids who felt dardized tests to the 50th per- some class periods. The rest of a that THEY were in control of their centile. In other words, Direct class period would be individual or learning. I suspect this is because they Instruction made them regular stu- small group work on generalizing learned SO MUCH and so easily! dents in achievement. However, the or adapting what was learned to new material or problems. standing of disadvantaged children So, you think schools, districts, and receiving some of the other (still states adopted Direct Instruction and (From Adams, G. L. [1995, Winter]. used) non-DI curricula decreased Behavior Analysis? WRONG. Instead, Project Follow Through: In-depth and relative to the rest of the country. the Ford Foundation hired another

14 Spring 2005 team of statisticians to analyze the They are all good. And don’t listen to erty. And THIS is why the past 100 data that HAD been analyzed by ABT the people who say DI was the best.” years in education is largely the history Associates in Cambridge, MA. Appar- of experimenting with kids. ently, the Ford Foundation, long a sup- Result? DI and Behavior Analysis were porter of so-called progressive causes shunned for decades. And the This has begun to change—as states and programs, was not happy that the eduquacks kept training new teachers have passed accountability legislation “progressive” ed programs (whole lan- to use the models that Follow Through making districts raise achievement or guage, child-directed, self-esteem first, data had shown were next to useless else. Also, No Child Left Behind and constructivist) not only were beaten and often destructive. Reading First put pressure on schools by their self-created enemy (Direct to use curricula and methods that are Instruction and Behavior Analysis) but You see, just as the grand social shown to work—which narrows the (as the graph shows) actually SUP- reformers presume that OUR society field to Direct Instruction and pro- PRESSED children’s growth. belongs to THEM (because they grams that share its design features. assume that they are much smarter The new statisticians made the than the rest of us) and is an object for But make no mistake, the progressive claim that no model did any better them to experiment with, so the eduquacks are alive and well. This is than the others. edureformers consider kids and their their “hudna.” They are doing what futures to be their “responsibility” (for they have always done. Waiting for a And THIS was the news sent through- they are SO much smarter than par- change in administration. Then they out Edland. “Do whatever you want. ents and teachers) and also their prop- will say, “WE’RE BAAAAACK!”

Comparison of Acheivement Outcomes Across Nine Follow Through Models

Direct Instruction News 15 KERRY HEMPENSTALL, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Victoria, Australia

What Evidence Is There Who Is to Blame? to Justify Concern?

It is not solely a perception by the public that there are serious problems Who is to blame when children fail to instruction (Engelmann, 1980) as the in the education system’s capacity to learn? Perhaps blame is too harsh and crucial component. meet community expectations. pejorative an expression, carrying with it Numerous surveys and reports have a sense of intention or at least reckless Is there cause for concern about disregard by the responsible party. school failure, or is it simply a case of reached similar conclusions. School learning is a primarily cognitive being critical for its own sake? There The U.S. Department of Education activity which requires adequate capac- is a current public perception that ity and intention on the part of the either educational outcomes for stu- reported in 1999 that across the learner and an environment enabling dents have continued this suggested nation 40% of fourth graders failed to successful interactions to occur. Thus decline or that the education system demonstrate even partial mastery of there are numerous possibilities to is now unable to meet rising commu- the literacy levels required for school account for failure to learn. Determina- nity and employer expectations. Only success, and among high-poverty tion of responsibility can be considered 36% of Americans in 1999 expressed schools that figure rose to 70%. Only from at least two perspectives. One con- either a great deal or quite a lot of confi- 1 of 10 students in high-poverty cerns who the various players believe dence in the public schools. In 1988, schools read at the Proficient level on has the responsibility for children’s the proportion was 49%, and in 1973 the National Assessment of Educa- learning. Who do policy makers, parents, it was 58% (Public Agenda, 2002). tional Progress (U.S. Department of and teachers consider responsible? The major concern across the nation Education, 1999). Similar results is education according to a national were presented in the Nation’s A more objective approach is to dis- survey (Zogby International, 2000) by Report Card: Fourth-Grade Reading cover, as precisely as possible, what Reuters/Zogby in 2000. The high 2000 (U.S. Department of Education, factors produce success in a child’s level of public concern can be gauged 2001a) in the finding that only 32% school learning career. The survey from the finding that the second- of students could be considered pro- information is first based on opinion ranked issue was economy/jobs/taxes. ficient. and second upon data. However, the In 1999, a Yankelovich education poll influences on success are likely to be (cited in Herring, 2001) queried par- Lyon (2001a) has observed that of many, entangled, and interacting. ents as to whether education had those who receive special assistance What features in common do success- improved over the past 20 years. It because of early reading problems, ful students have? Are there features had asked the same question in a poll only 2% will complete a 4-year col- in common among unsuccessful stu- in 1950. In 1950, 67% of respondents lege program. Further, more than dents? What is the role of intelligence, considered education had improved three quarters of the approximately socioeconomic status, early childhood over the previous 20 years; whereas, 15% of children who prematurely experiences, education systems, school in 1999 only 26% did so. In 1950, only leave school ascribe major signifi- organization, classroom practice, stu- 13% viewed education as less worth- cance to the difficulties experienced dent motivation? while than previously; whereas, 53% in learning to read. The extent of now perceived a decline. Perspectives vary, depending at least their basic skill deficit is evident in partly upon which feature is most Concerns about public education are the U.S. Department of Education strongly emphasized. For example, not new; however, their focus in recent (1999) finding that 60% of the unem- many argue that intelligence (the times has shifted. Concerns that have ployed lack the basic skills required inherited component) is the major arisen over the last 10 to 20 years to successfully be trained for high determinant of success (Herrnstein include apparent national and state tech positions. & Murray, 1994); whereas, others test score declines, unflattering inter- focus upon social class (Rothstein, national achievement comparisons, the It is not only literacy that is of con- 2004); early childhood experiences, failure of funding increases to produce cern. The Third International Mathe- especially language (Hart & Risley, discernible results, high school matics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003); a child’s motivation (Smith, dropout rates, and a perception that reported that U.S. students were per- 1992); the relationship with the schooling and work are insufficiently forming unsatisfactorily against many teacher (Smith, 1992); or classroom closely aligned (Levin, 1998). other countries.

16 Spring 2005 In mathematics a score at the than do their white counterparts. professional culture of teaching, it is 75th percentile in the United Numerous universities have found it commonly believed that if something States was below the 25th per- necessary to institute programs of is taught (which usually means centile in Singapore. The prob- teaching basic skills, literacy in partic- explained or demonstrated), it is auto- lems we must address affect not ular, to their newly enrolled students. matically learned. If it is not learned, only our average students, but then the problem lies in the inade- However, their attempts are not even those who are above aver- quacy of the student’s ability, motiva- expected to have a great impact. Partly age.…What we can see in the tion, or persistence, not in the because of these worrying issues in Third International Mathematics ineffectiveness of the instruction” (p. and Science Study is that school- higher education, and also because of 274). ing makes a difference. Specifi- the increasingly diverse population in cally, we can see that the schools, there has been an elevated Alessi (1988) surveyed 50 school psy- curriculum itself—what is chologists, proposing five possible fac- taught—makes a huge differ- tors that could explain lack of learning. ence. (Schmidt, Houang, & Partly because of these Cogan, 2002, pp. 2–3) worrying issues in higher They were: In a report to the Office of Educa- education, and also because 1. The curriculum tional Research and Improvement, of the increasingly diverse Snow (2002) noted that U.S. students 2. Ineffective teaching and/or behavior are falling behind students in other population in schools, there management practices comparable countries because under- has been an elevated 3. Ineffective school management developed basic skills limit their pressure on elementary and attainment in the challenging subject- practices specific demands of the secondary secondary schools to 4. Lack of home-based support by par- school curriculum. improve their instructional ents The basic attainment of many high effectiveness. 5. Physical and/or psychological prob- school graduates fall below community lems affecting the child. expectations. Most employers and col- lege professors say that high school pressure on elementary and secondary The school psychologists produced graduates generally display poor or only schools to improve their instructional 5,000 reports on children’s learning fair basic skills, such as written expres- effectiveness. problems in that school year. These sion, spelling, and math (Johnson & were later coded to determine to what Duffett, 2002). The American Manage- To What Does factors their reports assigned the stu- ment Association Survey on Workplace the Education Profession dents’ educational problems. Testing (American Management Asso- Attribute Responsibility? ciation, 2001) found that about one Wade and Moore (1993) asked teach- 1. Curriculum factors? None. third of assessed applicants lacked the ers the question, “Who is to blame for basic skills necessary to perform the students’ failure to learn?” That 65% 2. Inappropriate teaching and behavior jobs they sought, and 85% of the com- of teachers blamed child characteris- management practices? None. panies did not hire such applicants. tics, and 32% of teachers blamed the 3. School administrative factors? home situation would probably be a Even at the tertiary level, problems in None. the basic skill levels of entrants were surprise to those parents who view schools as the major influence on of concern, noted The Condition of 4. Parent and home factors? 10–20%. Education Report (U.S. Department learning. Only 3% of teachers blamed of Education, 2002a). Whilst the prob- teachers or the school system for learn- 5. Factors within the child? 100%. lems are not restricted to entrants ing problems. Prawat (1992) found a from minority groups, such candidates common belief among teachers that These two findings are surprising do tend to do less well than their “student interest and involvement given that schools are considered the peers. A report by the U.S. Depart- constitutes both a necessary and suffi- teaching arm of the community. There ment of Education (2002b) indicated cient condition for worthwhile learn- is no question that a great deal of that, on average, black tertiary stu- ing” (p. 389). Nuthall (2004) reported expectation rests on the school system. dents receive lower academic scores a similar finding—that “Within the However, it could be that the task of

Direct Instruction News 17 success for all appears to those within which decries teacher directed instruc- determine in which, if any, activities it as an impossible attainment for a tion as harmful or unproductive can be they would like to engage. Through school system, at least with the readily sourced to this romantic this freedom the child would naturally resources the community is prepared Rousseauian view of humans. “We can- make choices in the best interests of to devote to the task. Perhaps the not teach another person directly; we his development. “My view is that the responses above are simply an under- can only facilitate his learning” child is innately wise and realistic. If standably defensive response to a situ- (Rogers, 1961, p. 27). Through provid- left to himself without adult sugges- ation in which those in the education ing a range of stimulating activities in tion of any kind, he will develop as far system come to terms with their a nonthreatening atmosphere it is pre- as he is capable of developing” (Neill, inability to achieve all the commu- sumed that the child’s natural ten- 1974, p. 20). Contrary to this belief, a nity’s goals. Alternatively, it could be dency to learn will be elicited, and study by Lepola, Salonen, and Vauras that teachers have a different perspec- that learning will then occur. Emphasis (2000) noted that there were no moti- tive to that of the rest of the commu- is on creativity, imagination, and gen- vational differences between subse- nity regarding the process through eral problem solving rather than on quently successful and unsuccessful which learning occurs. prescribed skills and knowledge. This students prior to school entry. Strong motivation evolved out of reading suc- Naturally Unfolding cess, and weakened motivation fol- Development lowed a lack of such success. Strong motivation evolved Rousseau believed that children had out of reading success, and On a related concept, a whole industry an innate developmental script which weakened motivation has developed around the idea that a would lead them (though perhaps at student’s self-esteem must first be differing rates) to competence. Thus, followed a lack of such strong if learning is to take place. The unfettered maturation would allow the success. outcome of this belief is that time is child to develop knowledge unaided used in class attempting to elevate (Weir, 1990). His ideas gained scien- self-esteem as a prerequisite to atten- tific respectability in the 19th century dance towards academic issues. Again, when they were seemingly supported perspective has been widely promul- this belief has flourished for a long by a theory of evolutionary biology. gated through education faculties over time without empirical support. This long since discredited theory the past 20 years through the whole Results, now available from numerous asserted that the evolutionary journey language philosophy. Whole language large scale studies (Baumeister, Camp- from amoeba to human infant was has been the predominant education bell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2004), do not replayed in every pregnancy, and the model in schools over that period indicate that attempting to raise self- wisdom and knowledge of the parents (Hempenstall, 1997). esteem is helpful to students. In fact, (and of necessity, beyond) was present there are findings indicating that arti- in the brain of the new generation. In A problem with this view is that it is ficially elevating self-esteem may Rousseau’s view humans were noble by based upon belief rather than data. lower subsequent academic perform- nature; ignobility was evoked by socie- The assumption is that the approach is ance and possibly elicit narcissism. At tal interference. His argument that necessarily correct, so data supporting the very least, the activities waste pre- society should not interfere in the nat- the approach is unnecessary (Weaver cious time that may have been spent ural development of children generally et al., 1997). The dispute with those more productively in providing inten- was paralleled by his view of the role who focus upon instruction is not actu- sive instruction for struggling stu- of education. “Give your pupil no les- ally about technique; it is much more dents. As one effective teacher son in words, he must learn from his fundamental—about the nature of commented, “When a child is strug- experience” (Rousseau, 1964 cited in humans and how children learn. gling in my class, I don’t alter the way Weir, 1990, p. 28). I smile—I alter his curriculum.” When pressed, protagonists will argue In more recent times, analogous that since some children do appear to Weir (1990) was critical of the pro- expressions of the belief system thrive in such a setting, there must be gressive perspective because it allo- including developmentalism, develop- a cause other than the approach to cated the responsibility for inadequate mentally appropriate practice, and explain the phenomenon of student student achievement to the individual constructivism have been popular failure. The extreme example of this and the home. She believes that advo- (Stone, 1996). The whole language philosophy in practice was Summer- cates of this approach have a responsi- philosophy that assigns to the teacher hill, established by A. S. Neill in 1921. bility to provide evidence for naturally the role of concerned facilitator, and In this school, students were free to unfolding development to justify the

18 Spring 2005 use of such indirect process-oriented the Commission on Excellence in Spe- fact, the children of college-educated education. Delpit (1986; 1988) has cial Education (2002), about 50% of parents in California scored lowest written passionately about the prob- those in special education programs with respect to their national cohort. lems of black students in the educa- are identified as having a specific These data underscore the fact that tion system. She was especially learning disability, a category that has reading failure is a serious problem and concerned about the effects on minor- expanded by 300% since 1976. Of cannot simply be attributed to poverty, ity groups of Rousseau’s modern incar- those students, 80% are so classified immigration, or the learning of English nation—progressive education. Rather because they haven’t been effectively as a second language. than this perspective being supportive taught how to read. Further, few chil- of personal growth, she considers the dren placed in special education pro- In mathematics, the TIMSS study approach disempowering. “Adherents grams make adequate progress or close observed that even bright students of process approaches...create situa- the gap on their peers in literacy and were lagging in comparison with those in other countries. Interestingly, the tions in which students ultimately school attainment. find themselves held accountable for countries that did very well in math knowing a set of rules about which no and science had “a common, coherent, one has ever directly informed them” rigorous curriculum” (Schmidt et al., (Delpit, 1988, p. 287). These data underscore the 2002, p. 16). fact that reading failure is a Are the Students Who Do Not This is not to suggest that there aren’t Perform to Expectations serious problem and cannot students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabled? simply be attributed to However, Johnson (2003) underlines Lyon’s (as cited in Colvin & Helfand, According to the Office of Educational poverty, immigration, or the Research and Improvement (2001), 1999) perspective in pointing out that almost 40% of students nationally read learning of English as a the unrealistically elevated rates of below a basic level; that is, they strug- second language. diagnosis of learning disability make it gle to comprehend even the simplest unlikely that the level of intensive sys- of texts. For minority groups, these fig- tematic intervention they require can ures are even more alarming—63% of be delivered. Effective levels of inter- African American fourth graders, 60% The Commission (2000) further vention for this group are more likely of children in poverty, and 47% of chil- reported that the failure of students to be achieved if the quality of initial dren in urban schools fell into this cat- with disabilities to complete high instruction in literacy reduces the egory. In New York state in 2001, only school occurs at twice the rate of their number subsequently diagnosed with 30% of students passed the eighth- nondisabled peers, and enrollment learning disability. For example, Johns grade English test (Hartocollis, 2002), rates in higher education remain 50% (2001) reported that the number of and nearly 65% of students were lower than enrollment among the gen- pupils referred to special education unable to compute at grade level eral population. So, it appears that the programs in a Washington school was (Campanile, 2002). educationally disadvantaged include reduced by 30% after Reading First’s those in the minority groups that one introduction. Apart from the debate about whether a would anticipate—those in poverty, learning disability category really exists minority race groups, those with dis- The Impact of Research on or whether it serves a useful function ability, and those with English as a sec- Practice: A Long-Standing (U.S. Department of Education, ond language. Yet, the high figures Problem for Education 2001b), there is consensus that such a suggest that a proportion of struggling A common feature in the debate about category can account for the failure of students do not arise from those progressive education is that practices no more than about 5% of the popula- groups, but appear unexpectedly. remain impervious to the outcomes of tion (U.S. Department of Education, empirical research. The failure of 1995). In fact, there is concern that When the head of the reading programs research-based knowledge to have an the expanding learning disability cate- at the federal government’s National impact upon educational decision gory may serve to mask the major issue Institute of Child Health and Human makers has impeded growth in that in educational failure. “Learning dis- Development, G. Reid Lyon, testified profession for a long time (Carnine, abilities have become a sociological to the Senate Committee (Lyon, 1995b; Hempenstall, 1996; Marshall, sponge to wipe up the spills of general 1998), he pointed out that 50% of the 1993; Stone, 1996). More than 20 education. It’s where children go who children reading below the basic level years ago, Maggs and White (1982) weren’t taught well” (Lyon, as cited in in California were from the homes of wrote despairingly, “Few professionals Colvin & Helfand, 1999). According to parents who were college graduates. In are more steeped in mythology and

Direct Instruction News 19 less open to empirical findings than 4. Teachers do not need to (and/or cations (such as staff and personnel are teachers” (p. 131). cannot, should not) measure stu- costs) adequately, the viability of even dent performance. the very best intervention cannot be Lindsley (1992) was quite scathing in guaranteed. The methods of introduc- addressing the general question of why 5. Students must be internally moti- tion and staff training in innovative effective teaching tools aren’t widely vated to really learn. practices can have a marked bearing on adopted. He considered that teachers their adoption and continuation. have been seduced by the natural 6. Building students’ self-esteem is a learning approaches. teacher’s primary goal. Meyer (1991, as cited in Gable & War- ren, 1993) also blames the research 7. Teaching students with disabilities Most educators have bought the community for choosing restricted myth that academic learning requires unending patience. methodology (e.g., single subject design), and for being too remote from does not require discipline—that 8. Every child learns differently. the best learning is easy and fun. classrooms. She argued that greater They do not realize that it is flu- 9. Eclecticism is good. teacher interest will not eventuate ent performance that is fun. The until the credibility of research is process of learning, of changing improved. On the other hand, perhaps performance, is most often Gable and Warren (1993) it is the tendency of empiricists to stressful and painful. (p. 22) place caveats on their findings (as noted that the potentially opposed to the wondrous claims of Gable and Warren (1993) noted that valuable role of behavioral ideologues and faddists unconstrained by scientific ethics) that makes teach- the potentially valuable role of behav- science in education has been ioral science in education has been ers and decision makers wary of empir- largely ignored by decision makers and largely ignored by decision ical evidence. even by many practitioners. They makers and even by many Fister and Kemp (1993) argued that noted Carnine’s (1991) lament that practitioners. researchers often failed to meet their decision makers lack a scientific frame- own criterion by not incorporating work and are inclined to accept pro- research-validated staff-training proce- posals based on good intentions and 10. A good teacher is a creative dures and organizational analysis in unsupported opinions. Carnine teacher. (p. 7) their strategies for promoting program (1995a) also points to teachers’ lack of adoption. Their final criticism involved training and direction in seeking out Fister and Kemp (1993) considered the rarity of the establishment of and evaluating research. For example, several likely obstacles to research- model sites exemplifying excellent he estimates that fewer than 1 in 200 driven teaching, important among practice. When prospective adoptees teachers are experienced users of the them being the absence of an account- are able to see the reality rather than ERIC educational database. ability link between decision makers the rhetoric of a program they are and student achievement. Such a link more likely to take the (often uncom- Heward (2003) argues that the failure was unlikely until recently, when regu- fortable) steps towards adoption. In of the profession to attend to research lar mandated state or national test pro- addition, it is possible to discuss with has led to 10 misconceptions about gram results became associated with on-site teachers the realities of being teaching that have become entrenched funding. They also apportion some involved in the innovation. and that distract teachers from effec- responsibility to the research commu- tive approaches to teaching struggling nity for failing to appreciate the neces- Woodward (1993) pointed out that students. The misconceptions are: sity nexus between research and its there is often a culture gulf between adoption by the relevant target group. researchers and teachers. Researchers 1. Structured curricula impede true The specific criticisms included a fail- may view teachers as unnecessarily learning. ure to take responsibility for commu- conservative and resistant to change, nicating findings clearly, and with the whereas teachers may consider 2. Teaching discrete skills trivializes end-users in mind. Researchers have researchers as unrealistic in their education and ignores the whole often validated practices over too brief expectations and lacking in under- child. a time-frame, and in too limited a standing of the school system and cul- 3. Drill and practice limits students’ range of settings to excite general pro- ture. Teachers may also respond deep understanding and dulls their gram adoption across settings. Without defensively to calls for change because creativity. considering the organizational ramifi- of the implied criticism of their past

20 Spring 2005 practices, and the perceived devalua- 1998) or a prerequisite for funding as harm (Sackett, McRosenberg, Muir tion of the professionalism of teachers in the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act Gray, Haynes, & Richardson, 1996). (in that other professions are deter- (U.S. Department of Education, The intent of evidence-based medi- mining their teaching practices). 2002c). Whether this approach will be cine is to make available to practition- Leach (1987) argued strongly that col- successful in changing teachers’ prac- ers the complex information from a laboration between change-agents and tice remains to be seen. In any case, large number of individual studies. teachers is a necessary element in the there remains a need to address teach- Practitioners would not have the time acceptance of novel practice. In his ers’ and parents’ concerns regarding (and perhaps expertise) to enable the view, teachers need to be invited to classroom practice in a cooperative and drawing of appropriate conclusions make a contribution that extends constructive manner. Vilification, real about risk–benefit estimates. beyond solely the implementation of or perceived, is likely to produce iner- the ideas of others. There are some tia or outright resistance. Donald (2002) described four main positive signs that such a culture may steps. First, pose a structured question be in the early stages of development. Over the past 20 to 30 years there has about the target population, outcomes, Viadero (2002a) reports on a number developed a consensus among empiri- and the intervention of interest. Sec- of initiatives in which teachers have cal researchers about a number of ond, perform a literature search for the become reflective of their own work, issues crucial to education, and a great data relevant to the question. Third, employing both quantitative and qual- assess the data, based upon estab- itative tools. She also notes that the lished criteria for methodological rigor American Educational Research Asso- At the classroom level, and relevance to the question. Fourth, ciation has a subdivision devoted to describe and analyze the resulting data the practice. teachers are the focal point to answer the relevant question. of such innovations and Hence there are at least three groups The contrast with the manner in with whom researchers need to be able their competent and which a teacher is trained to address a to communicate if their innovations enthusiastic participation is student’s spelling problem is indeed are to be adopted. At the classroom stark. Unfortunately, in another paral- level, teachers are the focal point of required if success is to be lel with education, fewer than 10% of such innovations and their competent achieved. studies are usually able to be included and enthusiastic participation is because of the methodological failings required if success is to be achieved. of much of the medical research. At the school administration level, deal of attention is now directed at Despite the current imperfections, principals are being given increasing means by which these findings can there is strong support within the discretion as to how funds are to be find fruition in the classroom (Ger- medical profession for this direction, disbursed; therefore, time spent in sten, Chard, & Baker, 2000). Carnine because it offers a cooperative system discussing educational priorities and (2000) asks why it is that education that will be in a constant cycle of cost-effective means of achieving them has appeared impervious to effective improvement, thereby providing better may be time well-spent, bearing in practices, and examines what it would health outcomes for their patients. It mind Gersten and Guskey’s (1985) take to make education more like is further instructive to consider the comment on the importance of strong medicine—a profession now (though it profession’s preparedness to surrender instructional leadership. At the broader wasn’t always so) strongly wedded to their clinical creativity in the interests system level, decision makers presum- research as a powerful contributor to of their patients. ably require different information and practice. Perhaps it would be instruc- assurances about the viability of tive to consider how other professions, In a similar vein to the medical profes- change of practice (cost/benefit being like medicine, have addressed the sion, the American Psychological Asso- fundamental). issue of a research–practice synthesis. ciation (Chambless & Ollendick, 2001) introduced the term “empiri- Perhaps because of frustration at the The term “evidence-based medicine” cally supported treatments” (ESTs) to problems experienced in ensuring was popularised during the 1990s. The clinical psychology as a means of effective practices are employed across intention was to enable practitioners focussing attention on the issue of the nation, we are beginning to see a to gain access to knowledge of the effective psychotherapy. Through top-down approach, in which research- effectiveness and risks of different examination of research evidence, the based educational practices are either interventions before choosing whether Division 12 (Clinical Psychology) Task mandated as in Great Britain (Depart- or not to implement them, using as a Force on Psychological Interventions ment for Education and Employment, guide reliable estimates of benefit and arrived at three classes of interven-

Direct Instruction News 21 tions that could be applied to any ders. With a couple of exceptions, all Some of the objections raised have treatment for any particular psycholog- the well-established treatments were been that ESTs should be ignored ical problem. The criteria for a treat- behavioral or cognitive–behavioral. because this effort has been the work ment to be considered well established The exceptions were family education of a powerful lobby of biased individu- was efficacy through two controlled programs for schizophrenia and inter- als within the APA. Critics view quali- clinical outcomes studies, or a large personal therapy for bulimia and for tative rather than quantitative research series of controlled single case design depression. Similarly, all but one proba- as the appropriate approach to studies; the availability of treatment bly efficacious treatment were behav- research into psychotherapy. To be manuals to enhance treatment fidelity ioral, the exception being brief considered a well-established treatment and reliability; and the provision of psychodynamic therapy. requires a treatment manual, and their clearly specified client characteristics. use (it has been argued) leads to poor The EST emphasis on empiricism also A second level involved criteria for quality psychotherapy by diminishing has obvious implications for other probably efficacious treatments—criteria personal judgement. Another perspec- fields, such as education, in which requiring fewer studies, and/or a lesser tive rejects ESTs because every client standard of rigor. The third category decisions about the choice of approach has different needs, and the use of sin- comprised experimental treatments, have not previously been based upon gle treatments based upon problem those without sufficient evidence to any mutually agreed criteria. There are analysis cannot meet their needs. achieve probably efficacious status. interesting similarities between the Some have asserted that there is no response of some psychotherapists to discernible difference in efficacy Initially included as well-established the EST initiative and that of some treatments were 22 treatments for 21 educators to the “reliable replicable among the various forms of psy- different syndromes and seven probably research” criterion for federal funding chotherapy, thus ESTs are not rele- efficacious treatments for seven disor- in literacy programs in the USA. vant. Finally, some consider EST research as irrelevant to clinical prac- tice as it originates in controlled clini- cal settings, and does not translate Anatomy of Educational Decline well to the real world. The degree to which documented treatments can be implemented in settings outside of those from which they originated are now being assessed in large scale effec- tiveness studies under the auspices of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).

The criticisms emanating from some in the education community (Good- man, 1998; Weaver, 1988) to the drive towards research-based practice bear remarkable similarity. “It seems futile to try to demonstrate superiority of one teaching method over another by empirical research” (Weaver, 1988, p. 220). Clearly, the education profession has some distance to travel before reaching the stage of these other pro- fessions. Unless education faculties begin to change their philosophies of practice and provide teachers with the knowledge and attitudes consistent with empiricism, student-beneficial changes emanating from within the profession are unlikely (Lyon, 1999; Mather, Bos, & Babur, 2001).

22 Spring 2005 What Does Empirical Research good initial progress in learning to read ten expression, and even the motiva- Contribute to the find it increasingly difficult to ever tion to engage in subsequent language- Failure-To-Learn Discussion? master the process. Stanovich (1986, based learning. In their study, The problems with basic skills begin 1988b, 1993) outlined a model in Chapman, Tunmer, and Prochnow early but become entrenched. Con- which problems with early phonologi- (2000) reported a negative self-concept trary to the hope that initial slow cal skills lead to a downward spiral among struggling readers arising within progress is merely a maturational lag to where all other school skills and even the first two years of their schooling. be redressed by a developmental spurt higher cognitive skills are eventually at some later date, typically, even rela- affected by slow reading development. The decline for children without good tively minor delays tend to become This effect may not apply to all stu- phonological awareness is exacerbated increasingly major over time dents who struggle and should not be because they do not participate in (Stanovich, 1993). It appears that confused with a view that it is a stu- reading as much as do their peers. problems in basic educational skills, dent’s internal deficit that prevents Allington (1984), in a study of Grade commencing early in an individual’s their achievement of success. 1 students, noted vastly different life, can have snowballing negative reading-exposure ratios. In his study, effects, and the consequences are felt the number of words read per week over a lifetime and in numerous ranged from 16 in the less skilled domains of the individual’s life. By Arguably, the area of group to 1,933 in the upper group. what mechanism might this occur? literacy development, and in Exacerbating this problem of differen- particular, initial progress tial exposure is the finding that strug- Sequence of Events gling readers are often presented with Several studies, such as that by Farkas in reading, represents the reading materials that are too difficult and Beron (2001), have noted that stu- fulcrum upon which for them (Stanovich, 1986). Slow, halting, error-prone reading of difficult dents entering school with under- students’ educational developed vocabularies are highly material, unsurprisingly, militates likely to fail in their basic skill devel- progress balances. against comprehension and leads to opment, yet they also found the avoidance of reading activities and fur- effects could be countered by inten- ther disadvantage. sive early school-based assistance. Stanovich (1986) used the label Lyon (2001b) points out that such There is evidence that vocabulary Matthew Effect (after the Gospel vocabulary deficits are more likely development from about Year 3 is according to St. Matthew) to describe among disadvantaged children whose largely a function of volume of reading how, commencing at the initial stages parents may be unable to provide (Nagy, 1998; National Reading Panel, of reading, the rich tend to become them with the early literacy experi- 2000; Stanovich, 1988b). Nagy and richer and the poor become poorer. ences that provide many other stu- Anderson (1984) estimate that, in Children with a clear understanding of dents with a flying start. These school, struggling readers may read the sound structure of spoken words experiences include reading to chil- around 100,000 words per year; dren, but even earlier major differ- (phonological awareness) are well whereas, for keen mid-elementary stu- ences in language were noted by Hart placed to make sense of our alphabetic dents, the figure may be closer to and Risley (1995) in the amount and system. Their rapid development of 10,000,000, that is, a 100 fold differ- quality of conversation between par- spelling-to-sound correspondences ence. For out of school reading, Field- ents and children from professional, allows the development of independ- ing, Wilson, and Anderson (1986) working class, and welfare families. ent reading, high levels of practice, suggested a similar ratio—indicating and the subsequent fluency that is that children at the 10th percentile of Arguably, the area of literacy develop- critical for comprehension and enjoy- reading ability in their Year 5 sample ment, and in particular, initial progress ment of reading. read about 50,000 words per year out in reading, represents the fulcrum of school, while those at the 90th per- upon which students’ educational Moats (1996) also argued that it is centile read about 4,500,000 words progress balances. Of great concern is largely the initial insensitivity to word per year. not only the continuing struggles of structure that undermines students’ slow starters, but also the potentially capacity to learn the code of written Language skills such as vocabulary widening gap between slow starters English without focussed instruction. knowledge, general knowledge, syntac- and fast starters. There is ample evi- This fundamental deficit consequently tic skills, and possibly even memory, dence (America Reads, 2001; Ceci, inhibits the learning of word meanings, rely heavily on reading for their devel- 1991) that students who do not make reading comprehension, spelling, writ- opment. These skills impinge on most

Direct Instruction News 23 areas of the curriculum and hence chical multiple regression, they Binder (1996) describes as “cumula- what began as a narrow deficit demonstrated that the changes in IQ tive dysfluency” the gradual loss of becomes progressively larger, amplified between ages 7 and 13 were predicted contact with the curriculum that even- by the negative motivational conse- by changes in reading over that period. tuates when students whose basic skill quences of failure. A study by Juel Growth in reading ability between the deficits should have been evident to (1988) reported a probability that a ages of 7 and 13 accounted for a signif- astute observers in the early grades are poor reader in Year 1 would still be so icant proportion of the IQ score vari- left to their own devices, or enrolled in classified in Year 4 was 0.88, a finding ability even after attributing variability ineffectual programs. As complexity supported by the Jorm, Share, due to IQ and reading ability at age 7. increases in secondary curriculum sub- MacLean, and Matthews (1984) longi- jects such as science and history, some tudinal study. A performance differ- The Hoskyn and Swanson (2000) students reach a ceiling—the requisite ence in reading of 4 months in Year 1 meta-analysis also offers support for advanced abilities in comprehension had increased to 9 months in Year 2 in this perspective, noting the develop- and reasoning failing to develop in favour of the phonemically aware ment of generalised cognitive deficits concert with the demands. Lewis and group (who had been matched in in older children with a history of sig- Paik (2001) make a similar observation kindergarten on verbal IQ and sight that adequate development of basic word reading), over a low phonemic skills is essential if students are to find awareness group. success at whatever the grade and in Lewis and Paik (2001) any school subject. Dr. Grover White- Lyon (1998) provides a sobering make a similar observation hurst, Director of the Institute of Edu- reminder of the importance of identi- that adequate development cation Sciences, U.S. Department of fying and intervening early in a stu- Education (2003), noted, “Statistically, dent’s educational career. of basic skills is essential if more children suffer long-term life- students are to find success harm from problems in learning to read However, we have also learned at whatever the grade and than from parental abuse, accidents, that if we delay intervention and all other childhood diseases and until nine-years-of-age (the time in any school subject. disorders combined” (para 1). that most children with reading difficulties receive services), The implications of these findings are approximately 75% of the chil- both disturbing and instructive. That nificant reading problems. This dren will continue to have diffi- there is increasing agreement about a apparent cognitive decline is thought culties learning to read specific locus and sequence of much to be consequent upon the absence throughout high school. To be inadequate reading progress is of normal language stimulation (e.g., clear, while older children and encouraging. Early intervention has vocabulary) provided by facile and adults can be taught to read, the the potential to preclude failure with regular reading. time and expense of doing so is its attendant personal and social cost. enormous. (para 34) That an initially modular insensitivity There are also other psychological con- or inexperience rapidly broadens into sequences. Behavior problems in chil- The notion that even intellectual generalised language, intellectual, and dren with learning difficulties are development can be markedly influ- motivational deficits is worrying for about 3 times the average by the time enced by literacy attainment is not those attempting to alleviate the new, but empirical research is increas- they reach 8 years of age (Mash & reading problems of students in mid- ingly supportive (Ceci, 1991; Fletcher, Wolfe, 2002). Young boys, in particular, elementary school and beyond. In Francis, Rourke, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz, are at 3 times the risk of displaying these cases, the consequences of the 1993; Stanovich, 1993). Further sup- high levels of depressed mood than reading failure may remain even if the port from a longitudinal study in New the average (Maugban, 2003). By the cause of the reading problem has Zealand is provided by Share, McGee, time they reach high school, struggling been successfully addressed. For and Silva (1989), and Share and Silva readers report neither the confidence teachers trying to provide effective (1987). They matched reading dis- nor (in many cases) the desire to remedial literacy assistance to such abled and nondisabled groups on their engage in reading. Their capacity to pupils, the Matthew effect helps vocabulary scores attained at age 3. At cope with the curriculum is compro- explain (a) why progress is often age 11, marked differences were noted mised by poor literacy and a sense of painfully slow, (b) a lack of significant in vocabulary, listening comprehension, hopelessness, anxiety, and low motiva- change in general classroom perform- and general language skills in favour of tion (Peterson, Caverly, Nicholson, ance consequent upon improved read- the nondisabled group. Using a hierar- O’Neal, & Cusenbary, 2003). ing, (c) why only presenting a

24 Spring 2005 dedicated phonemic awareness pro- intention was to elicit a national enhance or inhibit student progress. gram with older children may not nec- impetus to begin systematically teach- Even the belief that education can essarily have a powerful impact. ing children important early learning influence a student’s life trajectory is skills, even before they are old enough often questioned (Jencks et al., 1972). Intervention Research to read. Such early intervention initia- The Coleman Report (Coleman et al., Many researchers (Adams, 1990; Ball, tives are crucial if the community 1966) and other studies deflated many 1993; Ball & Blachman, 1991; Blach- expectations are to be met. Without in the educational community when it man, 1994; Bradley & Bryant, 1983; such large-scale programs, the trajec- was reported that what occurred in Byrne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1989; tory for students with early disadvan- schools had little impact on student Catts, 1991; Cunningham, 1990; Fel- tage is sadly predictable. achievement. It was argued that the ton, 1993; Foorman, Francis, Novy, & effects on educational outcomes of Liberman, 1991; Hatcher, Hulme, & The value of empirical research since genetic inheritance, early childhood Ellis, 1994; Juel, 1993; Simmons, 1992; the beginning of Head Start has been experiences, and subsequent family Stanovich, 1986, 1988a, 1992, 1993; in narrowing the focus of early inter- environment vastly outweigh school Torgesen, 1998; Torgesen, Wagner, & vention for reading—from a broad effects. That being the case, there Rashotte, 1994) have noted the cost- would be little point in stressing a par- beneficial effects of early intervention ticular curriculum model over any and stressed the importance of primary Further, the evidence other since the effects would be negli- prevention for a variety of reasons— gible compared to other variables out- from pragmatism to social justice. indicates the value of side a school’s control. effective systematic Although early intervention has long From the whole language perspective, been regarded as logical—even pro- instruction as a means of student progress is largely self-deter- grams as intensive as Head Start for enhancing the learning of mined, and thus teachers should act disadvantaged children have not basic skills for all students, not as instructors, but as facilitators achieved the outcome success that was (Schickendanz, 1986; Smith, 1973; sought. The reasons may relate to the not only for those with Weaver, 1988). Within this model, varying quality of educational programs disadvantage. teachers are expected to react appro- offered, and to the difficulty in over- priately to student-initiated direction, coming very early language disadvan- rather than expect students to tage. More recent efforts may respond to a curriculum presented in range of “readiness” activities to a overcome some of the deficits of for- a preplanned manner. One response specific emphasis on (a) phonemic mer initiatives as they are informed by to such a belief is to seek the provi- awareness as a screening tool and a up-to-date research. sion of large sums of money to reduce possible intervention focus, and (b) class sizes so that teachers have more the critical role of systematic, explicit In the Condition of Education (U.S. time to devote to each student in this phonics in initial reading instruction Department of Education, 2002a) manner. However, an evaluation (National Reading Panel, 2000). Fur- report it was noted that there has (Jepsen & Rivkin, 2002) of a large been an increase in enrollment rates ther, the evidence indicates the value scale initiative in California (costing for 3- to 5-year-old children in child- of effective systematic instruction as a over $1 billion per year) indicated hood education programs, and there means of enhancing the learning of that a class reduction of 10 students has also been a recognition that these basic skills for all students, not only per grade increased the number of programs, when well designed, can for those with disadvantage. students exceeding national median help compensate children for a lan- tests score by only about 4 percentage guage disadvantage in early childhood Why Systematic Instruction points in mathematics and 3 percent- (Hart & Risley, 1995). This initiative Is Important age points in reading. These modest involves increasing the educational What lessons have we learned in gains disappeared when large num- elements in preschool programs that recent times about how to substan- bers of inexperienced teachers were have formerly been considered an tially improve education rather than employed to achieve the requisite inappropriate forum for such activi- simply engage in the process of fre- class-size reductions. ties. This emphasis shift has been quent change? Education has always endorsed by the wife of the incum- been at the mercy of new ideas, but In contrast to these perspectives is a bent President Bush in 2002 as she without broad-scale assessment and strong body of research exemplified in launched the first White House sum- scientific data analysis it was not easy the Sanders and Rivers (1996) finding mit on early childhood education. The to detect whether any changes that students who were in classes with

Direct Instruction News 25 effective teachers for 3 years in a row dents. These were features noted ferent segments of a society. A gener- achieved 50% more learning than those among teachers who achieved results ally accepted social value is that such in classes with poor teachers over the above those of their peers. However, groups should be assigned sufficient same period. A related finding was they did not indicate the proportion of assistance to enable their full partici- that children in 1st-year classes in the variance in student achievement pation in the economic and social which teachers lacked strong classroom attributable to instruction compared riches of the nation. This goal has management skills were at far greater with that of other variables such as resisted attainment over a long period, risk of subsequent aggressive behavior. socioeconomic status. though in recent times there has been a concerted multilevel attack on Hanushek (1992) found that a very Through further research and powerful inequality at the school and preschool high quality teacher will achieve for statistical methods such as multilevel levels. Such initiatives have been students a learning gain of 1.5 grade structural equation modelling, it has partly driven and informed by the fail- level equivalents; whereas, a poor become apparent that teacher input ure to make much headway with the teacher may produce a gain of only 0.5 including the financial aspects of teaching models most prevalent during grade level equivalents. Thus, varia- teaching, for example, salaries, special the 1990s. tion in the quality of teachers may produce a difference of up to a full In fact, the achievement levels of year’s learning growth. In Australia, The major school minority and low-income students Hill and Rowe (1996) observed that declined during the 1990s in compari- differences among classrooms within influence on student son with those of other students (Hay- schools were greater than differences achievement is now, clearly, cock, 2001; Office of Educational among schools. They pointed out that Research and Improvement, 2001). these differences between classrooms classroom practice. The reading performance of the are important foci in improving school nation’s fourth graders may appear to performance. What individual teachers have remained relatively stable across do in those classes is pivotal for stu- tax incentives, and higher degrees, the last decade. However, whilst the dent learning. have not been shown to strongly influ- 2000 national average reading scale ence student achievement (Wenglin- score was similar to that of 1992, the Thus, a range of studies should direct sky, 2000). The major school influence reading of higher performing students our attention to classroom instruc- on student achievement is now, clearly, improved and that of the lower per- tional processes as a major variable classroom practice. Wenglinsky (2003) forming students declined, thereby impinging on student achievement. reported a total standardized effect for increasing the gulf between them This position is not new. During the teacher variables as 0.70, larger than 1970s Engelmann (1980) and Skill- the total standard effect of background (Office of Educational Research and man, Garcia, and Witcher (1977) measures (0.56). Based upon his analy- Improvement, 2001). argued that a student’s failure to learn sis of empirical findings available since Adding to the early disadvantage suf- is a consequence of a failure to teach the 1970s, Jencks has altered his ear- fered by low-income and minority effectively. Rosenshine (1979) used lier view, and now argues for the the expression direct instruction to potential of education to significantly children is the finding that they are describe a set of instructional variables reduce inequality in student achieve- far more likely to be saddled with relating teacher behavior and class- ment (Jencks & Phillips, 1998). lower quality teachers (Wayne, 2002). room organization to high levels of aca- Despite the evidence for this link, a This is especially unfortunate, as such demic performance for elementary great deal of policy continues to be children are more vulnerable to teach- school students. High levels of devoted to issues outside of the class- ing differences than are students from achievement were related to a number room (Lyon & Fletcher, 2001; higher socioeconomic status (Cole- of variables—among them being the Wenglinsky, 2000). man, 1990; Goldhaber & Anthony, amount of content covered and mas- 2004). That is, minority children are tered, the amount of student academic A major concern with educational more severely affected by poor teach- engaged time, an academic focus attainment is the gap between the ing than are other children. In fact, rather than an affective emphasis, affluent and the middle class, com- they are significantly more influenced teacher-centered rather than student- pared with those less advantaged— by a range of educational factors than centered classrooms, low cognitive those from low-income and minority are their more advantaged peers. level questions, a high success rate groups. Social objectives of equality These include smaller class size and (above 80%), and immediate and aca- cannot be achieved whilst there are the presence of full day programs (Yan demically oriented feedback to stu- glaring gaps in the attainments of dif- & Lin, 2004).

26 Spring 2005 Despite this depressing outcome, When Thaddeus Lott became princi- The evidence of subsequently there are pockets of hope, emanating pal of Wesley Elementary, a school in improved outcomes for students in from schools and districts that address an area of extreme disadvantage, only general, and for the disadvantaged in the issue of teaching effectiveness. A 18% of third graders were at or above particular, may lead to a greatly year long study in Boston noted that grade level in reading comprehension increased attractiveness to both the best 30% of teachers evoked in on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. prospective teachers and budding their students 6 times the learning Within 5 years that proportion had researchers, thereby enhancing the growth as did the lowest 30% of teach- increased to 85%. In 1996, 100% of the quality of the education profession. Is ers (Boston Public Schools, 1998). third graders passed the Texas Assess- all this an optimist’s pipe dream? Let’s Similar research in Tennessee and ment of Academic Skills in reading hope not. Texas highlighted the cumulative (Palmaffy, 1998). nature of these effects and their pres- References ence regardless of student background In poverty-ridden City Springs Ele- Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking or attainment levels (Sanders & mentary School, literacy levels have and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: Rivers, 1996). improved from among the district’s MIT Press. Alessi, G. (1988). Diagnosis diagnosed: A sys- temic reaction. Professional School Psychol- Of course, there were also other ogy, 3, 145–151. Retrieved February 12, important elements in the comprehen- 2003, from www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/ sive reform of schools serving disad- A recognition that many assessment/ed_problems.html vantaged students. According to the Allington, R. L. (1984). Content coverage and teachers have had little contextual reading in reading groups. Jour- Report of the Education Trust (1999), training in effective teaching nal of Reading Behavior, 16, 85–96. successful schools ensured increased America Reads. (2001). Starting out right: A time was devoted to reading and math. practice ensured that funds guide to promoting children’s reading success. This direction parallels that of Marks, were made available to Retrieved December 12, 2002, from McMillan, and Ainley (2004) who http://www.ed.gov/inits/americareads/ enable carefully focused educators_early.html noted that while the effect of socioe- American Management Association. (2001). conomic background on important professional development. AMA Survey on workplace testing: Basic skills, educational outcomes is often strongly job skills, psychological measurement—Summary emphasised, its influence is consider- of key findings. New York: Author. Ball, E. W. (1993). Phonological awareness. ably smaller than produced by early lowest to its fifth highest (Viadero, What’s important and to whom? Reading achievement in basic skills—literacy in and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 5, 2002b). In some of the most disadvan- particular. A recognition that many 141–159. teachers have had little training in taged schools in Houston, Direct Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does effective teaching practice ensured Instruction reading with pupils in phoneme awareness training in kinder- kindergarten, first, and second grade, garten make a difference in early word that funds were made available to recognition and developmental spelling. under the auspices of the Rodeo Insti- enable carefully focused professional Reading Research Quarterly, 25, 49–66. development. In order for school and tute for Teacher Excellence, have pro- Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, D., Krueger, J. I., district accountability, comprehensive duced consistent and strongly & Vohs, K. D. (2004, December 20). Exploding the self-esteem myth. Scientific monitoring of student progress and accelerated growth throughout the program duration (Viadero, 2002b). American. Retrieved January 1, 2005, from consequences for inadequate teaching http://www.sciam.com/print_version.cfm? were incorporated. The provision of articleID=000CB565-F330-11BE- additional school and home-based stu- This decade could be the beginning of AD0683414B7F0000 dent support helps ensure that stu- one of the most exciting periods in Binder, C. (1996). Behavioral fluency: Evolu- education history, as the sleeping giant tion of a new paradigm. The Behavior Ana- dents at risk do not remain unassisted. lyst, 19, 163–197. These elements of effective school of educational knowledge, ignored for Blachman, B. A. (1994). What we have reform have their most powerful effect so long, begins to influence education learned from longitudinal studies of in ensuring effective practices are systems around the world. These phonological processing and reading, and some unanswered questions: A response employed in the classroom. effects may become evident at both a to Torgesen, Wagner, & Rashotte. Journal macro/policy level and at a micro/class- of Learning Disabilities, 27, 287–291. An increasing number of schools (par- room level (these two have not always Boston Public Schools. (1998). High school ticularly those attempting to redress been attuned). There may develop restructuring. Boston: Author. disadvantage) are taking advantage of increased funding and demand for Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read—A causal the research into effective teaching higher quality research—more longitu- connection. 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(1999). Dis- Leach, D. J. (1987). Increasing the use and Mash, E. J., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002). Abnormal pelling the myth: High poverty schools maintenance of behaviour-based practices child psychology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth exceeding expectations. Washington, DC: in schools: An example of a general prob- Thomson Learning. Education Trust. Retrieved May 1, 2003, lem for applied psychologists? Australian Mather, N., Bos, C., & Babur, N. (2001). Per- from http://www.edtrust.org/main/ Psychologist, 22, 323–332. ceptions and knowledge of preservice and documents/dispell.pdf Lepola, J., Salonen, P., & Vauras, M. (2000). inservice teachers about early literacy Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person. The development of motivational orienta- instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, Boston: Houghton Mifflin. tions as a function of divergent reading 34, 472–482. Rosenshine, B. V. (1979). Content, time, and careers from pre-school to the second Maugban, B. (2003). 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Direct Instruction News 29 nomic Policy Institute and Teachers Col- Share, D. L., & Silva, P. A. (1987). Language Stanovich, K. E. (1988b). The right and lege Press. Retrieved January 1, 2005, deficits and specific reading retardation: wrong places to look for the cognitive from http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/ Cause or effect? British Journal of Disorders locus of reading disability. Annals of books_class_and_schools of Communication, 22, 219–226. Dyslexia, 38, 154–157. Sackett, D., McRosenberg, W., Muir Gray, J. Simmons, D. C. (1992). Perspectives on Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Speculation on the A., Haynes, R. B., & Richardson, W. S. dyslexia: Commentary on educational con- causes and consequences of individual dif- (1996). Evidence-based medicine: What it cerns. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 25, ferences in early reading acquisition. In P. is and what it isn’t. British Medical Journal, 66–70. Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), 312, 71–72. Retrieved May 2, 2002, from Skillman, L., Garcia, L., & Witcher, C. (1977). Reading acquisition (pp. 307–342). Mahwah, http://cebm.jr2.ox.ac.uk/ebmisisnt.html# Direct Instruction model implementation manual NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. coredef II. Guidebook for supervisors. Eugene: Follow Stanovich, K. E. (1993). Does reading make Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. (1996). Cumulative Through Project, Division of Teacher Edu- you smarter? Literacy and the develop- ment of verbal intelligence. Advances in and residual effects of teachers on future student cation, University of Oregon. Child Development and Behavior, 24, 133–180. academic achievement. Knoxville: University Smith, F. (1973). Psychology and reading. New Stone, J. E. (1996). Developmentalism: An of Tennessee Value-Added Research and York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. obscure but pervasive restriction on edu- Assessment Center. Smith, F. (1992). Learning to read: The cational improvement. Education Policy Schickendanz, J. A. (1986). More than the never-ending debate. Phi Delta Kappan, 74, Analysis Archives, 4. Retrieved May 1, 2003, ABC’s: The early stages of reading and writing. 432–441. from http://olam.ed.asu.edu/epaa/v4n8. Washington, DC: NAEYC. Snow, C. E. (2002). Reading for understanding: html Schmidt, W., Houang, R., & Cogan, L. (2002, Toward an R&D program in reading compre- Torgesen, J. K. (1998, Spring/Summer). Catch Summer). A coherent curriculum: The hension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. them before they fall: Identification and case of mathematics. American Educator. Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in assessment to prevent reading failure in Retrieved December 12, 2002, from reading: Some consequences of individual young children. American Educator. http://www.aft.org/american_educator/ differences in the acquisition of literacy. Retrieved February 12, 2003, from summer2002/curriculum.pdf Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–406. http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/ Share, D. L., McGee, R., & Silva, P. (1989). Stanovich, K. E. (1988a). Explaining the dif- reading/torgeson_catchthem.html IQ and reading progress: A test of the ferences between the dyslexic and the Torgesen, J. K., Wagner, R. J., & Rashotte, C. capacity notion of IQ. Journal of the Ameri- garden-variety poor reader: The phonolog- A. (1994). Longitudinal studies of phono- can Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, ical-core variable-difference model. Journal logical processing and reading. Journal of 28, 97–100. of Learning Disabilities, 21, 590–612. Learning Disabilities, 27, 276–286.

Now available from ADI Introduction to Direct Instruction

Nancy E. Marchand-Martella, Eastern Washington University Timothy A. Slocum, Utah State University Ronald C. Martella, Eastern Washington University

FEATURES • Includes coverage of all academic areas with formats of actual Direct Instruction programs. • Covers commercially available programs written by Siegfried Engelmann and colleagues. • Explores the curricular and instructional elements central to Direct Instruction, and explores ways that teachers can extend the principles of DI to new lessons and content information. • Discusses schoolwide strategies and techniques, explaining how to produce effective school implementation through coaching, supervision, and tutoring. Cost: • Provides direction on how to assess classroom and schoolwide $55.00 list application of Direct Instruction. $44.00 member price • Each chapter is written by an expert in the Direct Instruction field, To order, see page 42. putting this text on the cutting edge of DI information.

30 Spring 2005 U.S. Department of Education. (1995). Seven- institutions: 1999–2000, NCES 2002–168, L. Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters. teenth annual report to Congress on the imple- Horn, K. Peter, & K. Rooney. Washington, Princeton, NJ: Milken Foundation and mentation of the Individuals with Disabilities DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Educational Testing Service. Retrieved Education Act. Washington, DC: U.S. Gov- U.S. Department of Education (2002c, Janu- December 12, 2002, from www.ets.org/ ernment Printing Office. ary). No child left behind act, 2001. Retrieved research/pic/teamat.pdf U.S. Department of Education. (1999). The January 11, 2003, from http://www.ed.gov/ Wenglinsky, H. (2003, June 30). Using large- 1998 NAEP reading report card for the nation, offices/OESE/esea/ scale research to gauge the impact of instructional practices on student reading NCES 1999-459. In P. L. Donahue, K. E. Viadero, D. (2002a). Research: Holding up a comprehension: An exploratory study. Voelkl, J. R. Campbell, & J. Mazzeo mirror. Editorial Projects in Education, Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11(19). (Eds.). Washington, DC: Author. 21(40), 32–35. U.S. Department of Education. (2001a). The Retrieved July 4, 2003, from http://epaa. Viadero, D. (2002b). Studies cite learning asu.edu/epaa/v11n19/ nation’s report card: Fourth-Grade reading gains in Direct Instruction schools. Editor- 2000, NCES 2001-499. In P. L. Donahue, Whitehurst, G. (2003). Children of the code: A ial Projects in Education, 21(31), 15. social-education project and a PBS television R. J. Finnegan, A. D. Lutkus, N. L. Allen, Wade, B., & Moore, M. (1993). Experiencing documentary series. Retrieved January 11, & J. R. Campbell (Eds.). Washington, DC: special education. Buckingham: Open Univ. 2005, from www.childrenofthecode.org/ U.S. Government Printing Office. Press. cotcintro.htm U.S. Department of Education. (2001b). Wayne, A. (2002, June 13). Teacher inequal- Woodward, J. (1993). The technology of tech- OSEP, Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Mathes, P. ity: New evidence on disparities in teach- nology-based instruction: Comments on G., Lipsey, M. W., & Roberts, P. H. Is ers’ academic skills. Education Policy the research, development, and dissemi- “learning disabilities” just a fancy term for low Analysis Archives, 10(30). Retrieved June nation approach to innovation. Education & achievement?: A meta-analysis of reading differ- Treatment of Children, 16, 345–360. ences between low achievers with and without the 20, 2003, from http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/ v10n30/ Yan, W., & Lin, Q. (2004, February 24). The label. The Learning Disabilities Summit: effect of kindergarten program types and Weaver, C. (1988). Reading: Progress and prac- Building a Foundation for the Future. class size on early academic performance. tice. Portsmouth, NJ: Heinemann. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Print- Education Policy Analysis Archives, 12(7). ing Office. Weaver, C., Patterson, L., Ellis, L., Zinke, S., Retrieved November 11, 2004, from U.S. Department of Education. (2002a). The Eastman, P., & Moustafa, M. (1997). “Big http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v12n7/ Condition of Education 2002, NCES 2000- Brother” and reading instruction. Retrieved Zogby International. (2000). Gore in statistical 602. Washington, DC: U.S. Government May 1, 2001, from http://www.m4pe.org/ dead heat with Bush. New York: Zogby Inter- Printing Office. elsewhere.htm national. Retrieved January 11, 2005, from U.S. Department of Education. (2002b). Pro- Weir, R. (1990). Philosophy, cultural beliefs http://www.zogby.com/news/ReadNews. file of undergraduates in U.S. postsecondary and literacy. Interchange, 21(4), 24–33. dbm?ID=229

RACHEL ADELSON

makers, education, corporate and Instruction Versus Exploration foundation leaders, and teachers. in Science Learning For decades, early science education has emphasized “discovery learning,” Recent psychological research calls “discovery learning” in which children, given experimental into question. THIS PAGE NOT AVAILABLEmaterials such as springs and pulleys, Welcome to the fourth-grade science new evidence that “direct marbles and ramps, are expected to fair, with its baking-soda volcanoes,FORinstruction”—explicit WEB VIEWING. teaching about “discover” scientific principles on bread mold grown in drawers, proud how to design unconfounded their own. The approach is a legacy parents, and thoughtful judges. The experiments—most effectively helps from two intellectual giants: teachers can’t help but wonder if the elementary school students transfer developmental psychologist Jean young would-be scientists can tell their mastery of this important aspect Piaget and educational philosopher good science from bad. In science, how of the scientific method from one John Dewey. Piaget believed children is critical thinking best taught? experiment to another. locked in learning better when they learned on their own; Dewey sought This question may be answered by Their assertion is based on years of David Klahr, PhD, a psychology research, including a controlled study professor at Carnegie Mellon University, presented in March at the U.S. Adelson, R. (2004). Instruction versus explo- and Milena Nigam, a research associate Department of Education’s first-ever ration in science learning. Monitor on Psychology, 35(6), 34–36. Copyright (c) 2004 by the Ameri- at the University of Pittsburgh’s Center Secretary’s Summit on Science, can Psychological Association. Reprinted with for Biomedical Informatics. They have attended by several hundred policy- permission.

Direct Instruction News 31 to motivate students with hands-on, run, but also damaging in the long and 54 fourth graders in four real-world problems. run. Piaget thought interfering with Pittsburgh-area schools. They discovery blocked complete under- randomly assigned children from both Still, science and similarly complex standing. More recent cognitive grades to a direct instruction or a subjects may well require a distinct research, says Klahr, shows that “this discovery learning condition. In direct teaching methodology, says Klahr. His is just plain wrong.” instruction, teachers controlled the controlled studies continueTHIS to PAGE NOT AVAILABLEgoals, materials, examples, demonstrate that, at least for many of Studying the Study of Science explanations, and pace of instruction. the multistep procedures used in FORIn the WEB late 1990s, Klahr; VIEWING. Zhe Chen, In discovery learning, teachers did not science, direct instruction works and PhD; and Anne Fay, PhD; first studied intervene beyond suggesting a generalizes better. teaching methods and the Control of learning objective. Variables Strategy (CVS), which allows The findings come at a critical junc- scientists to design unconfounded On day one, the researchers deter- ture, notes Klahr, because, in his words, experiments and draw valid conclusions mined the children’s baseline compe- “The United States produces propor- from experimental outcomes. tence in CVS; they then gave them tionately fewer scientists than many little wooden ramps and had the chil- other ‘competitor’ countries, so better dren design experiments to study how science teaching is certainly a national factors such as steepness and ramp priority if we are to maintain our scien- Beyond comparing length affected how far a ball rolls tific leadership. Early mastery of the instructional types, they have after it comes down the ramp. basics of the scientist’s toolkit can help tested a critical claim about kids to understand and appreciate sci- In direct instruction, the children ence. More generally, a critical under- the advantage of discovery watched as the instructor designed standing of the difference between learning over direct several experiments. Some controlled good and bad science is essential to all but one variable, directly compar- informed adult decisions in the mar- instruction—that it ing, for example, the effects of rubber ketplace and in the voting booth.” transfers to other tasks, a ball versus golf ball, short ramp versus cornerstone of real learning. long ramp, rough ramp versus smooth Direct Versus Discovery ramp, while holding everything else Klahr saw three main reasons to chal- the same. Others had confounds, such lenge discovery learning. First, most of as golf balls down rough ramps versus “This ‘process skill’ must be taught,” what students, teachers, and scientists rubber balls down smooth ramps. Each says Klahr. In short, it’s fun to collect know about science was taught, not time, researchers asked the children if bugs in the backyard—but to learn discovered, he says. Second, teacher- the design would let them “tell for how to design experiments to test centered methods (in which teachers sure” if the studied variable affected specific hypotheses about how bugs actively teach, as opposed to observe or the outcome. The instructor behave when hot or cold (i.e., under facilitate) for direct instruction have explained why each of the uncon- different conditions), children need been very effective for procedures that founded experiments singled out the explicit guidance. are typically harder for students to dis- critical factor (and vice-versa for the confounds). Meanwhile, in discovery cover on their own, such as algebra and That earlier research showed that most computer programming. Third, he elementary students could learn the learning, children were asked to adds, only vague theory backed the principles of CVS in less than 30 design the same number and type of predicted superiority of discovery minutes of direct instruction and retain experiments, but without any instruc- methods—and what there is clashes the skills 7 months later. Later this year, tion in CVS or feedback. with data on learning and memory. For Klahr and Nigam will share even more example, discovery learning can include promising data. Beyond comparing Experimenters then rated student mixed or missing feedback, encoding instructional types, they have tested a designs of two new experiments, one to errors, causal misattributions and more, critical claim about the advantage of measure the effects of an earlier factor which could actually cause frustration discovery learning over direct (run length) and one to measure the and set a learner back, says Klahr. instruction—that it transfers to other effect of a new factor (surface). The lat- tasks, a cornerstone of real learning. ter design revealed whether the chil- Yet discovery learning has persisted, dren could transfer their experimental he says, partly because of a lingering In the study, which will appear this strategy to something new. After direct notion that direct instruction would fall in Psychological Science, the instruction, 77% of the children were not only be ineffective in the short researchers studied 58 third graders able to design at least three out of four

32 Spring 2005 experiments without confounds. After Stigler, PhD, a professor of psychology “This study uses a strong research discovery learning, 23%—significantly at the University of California, Los design. I’d like to see a replication with fewer students—were able to do the Angeles and director of video studies [the more typical] guided discovery. same. About a week later, a different for the Third International Mathemat- Plus, the extent to which results would experimenter asked the children to ics and Science Study. He notes that travel to classrooms with varying evaluate two science-fair posters by sug- the study’s two teaching approaches teacher quality, opportunity to learn, et gesting how to make themTHIS “good PAGEexaggerated theirNOT real-world AVAILABLE counter- cetera, has yet to be found out.” enough to enter in a state-level science parts, limiting generalizability, but fair.” Both posters described deeplyFORthinks WEB the study does VIEWING. underscore that Leona Schauble, PhD, a cognitive labs work best when integrated with flawed experiments. Again, significantly development psychologist at Vander- explicit instruction in critical science more children exposed to direct instruc- bilt University, agrees. “Educators do concepts and methods. tion were able to critically evaluate not believe that children should stum- experiments. Discovery learning’s pur- Psychologist Rich Shavelson, PhD, pro- ble around and reinvent modern sci- ported advantage was not supported. fessor of education and (by courtesy) ence,” she says. She views the psychology at Stanford University, teaching of controlled experiments as The Debate Continues notes that totally unguided discovery one small piece of a science education Still, “No single study ever settles a of the type used in the study is rarely that includes many other conceptual debate once and for all,” says James used in the classroom. Still, he says, challenges.

SIEGFRIED ENGELMANN and DONALD STEELY

required if the organism is to perform Preface to Inferred Functions the observed behaviors. of Performance and Learning Part II (chaps. 5–9) presents a meta- blueprint for basic learning— antecedent learning and The objective of this book is to iden- it or any machine that performs it in response-strategy learning. The analy- tify what the intelligent system that the same manner the organisms do. sis frames the learning capabilities as produces responses must do to per- an extension of the basic performance form as it does. The analysis starts The book presents a series of meta- system. The analysis further identifies with the performance variables that blueprints, which do not specify nuts the kind of data and data transforma- must be in place for the organism that and bolts or circuits, but rather articu- tions the system needs to perform does not learn, and then overlays the late the steps, content or specific generalizations of what is learned. functions required for learning. At one information, and logical operations end of the performance-learning spec- required for the system to perform the specified tasks. In other words, by Part III (chaps. 10–13) presents a trum is the simplest performance designing specific machinery based on meta-blueprint for more complicated machine and the simplest organism the various meta-blueprints, it would learning, such as the learning of highly that is incapable of learning. At the be possible to design machines that unfamiliar content, secondary learning, other end is the human with its amaz- perform in the same way that organ- and learning sets of related discrimina- ing learning-performance capabilities. isms perform and learn in the same tions. This part specifies the functions The analysis applies to all organisms way they learn. for the ways learned material is classi- and machines within this spectrum. fied by the system. The classification The overriding rule for the analysis is The analysis is presented in four parts. requirements derive from the need of that the task requirements are the Part I (chaps. 1–4) considers the per- the system to perform multiple dis- same for any organism or machine that formance system that does not learn. performs the task. Therefore, any Part I also considers both the informa- organism or machine that does not tion and motivation functions needed meet all the requirements could not for organisms that perform operations Copyright 2004 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associ- possibly perform the task. Bipedal that are not learned. The product of ates, Inc. Reprinted by permission of the pub- lisher. Engelmann, S., & Steely, D. (2004). walking presents a set of basic require- Part I is a meta-blueprint that presents Inferred functions of performance and learning. Mah- ments for any organism that performs the various functions that are logically wah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Direct Instruction News 33 criminations involving a particular and language learning. This part also and performance requirements identi- topic or specific set of examples. considers implications of the analysis fied for living organisms.) of learning for teaching, particularly Part IV (chaps. 14–18) deals with teaching formal content, and it consid- This work should be of interest to var- human learning and how it is related ers selected theoretical issues (e.g., ious practitioners engaged in analyzing to that of other organisms. Part IV the legitimacy of inferring inner and creating behavior—ethologists, addresses issues of human volition, instructional designers, learning psy- extensive classification of information, processes from behavioral data and the and processes such as voluntary control implications of the analysis for con- chologists, physiologist-neurobiolo- over thought and language use. The structing artificial intelligence entities gists, and particularly designers of analysis addresses human development designed to meet functional learning intelligent machines.

GEOFF COLVIN

the seven phases in the acting-out Introduction to Managing the Cycle cycle. The strategies selected are taken from research and best practice of Acting-Out Behavior procedures reported in the literature and practiced in the field. Since each in the Classroom phase represents a link in the behav- ioral chain, staff’s effective manage- ment of the behaviors in the early Acting-out behavior manifests itself in for students displaying serious prob- phases of the behavior chain may pre- many different ways in classroom set- lem behavior, especially explosive empt the later phases where the more tings such as running away, physical and escalating behavior. Other serious behaviors occur. Emphasis is aggression, verbal abuse, serious con- descriptors for these students placed on teaching and prevention frontations and threats, sexual acting- include antisocial, behavior disor- techniques in the early phases. In the out, criminal behavior such as dered and troubled students. latter phases, the approach is to stress vandalism, defiance and non-compli- safety, crisis management, re-entry ance, tantrums and many different The book is divided into three sec- and follow-up procedures. forms of anger. While these behaviors tions. The purpose of the first section In the third and final section, the pro- may differ in their form, settings and is to describe the development and cedures for managing the cycle of act- outcomes, there are several common detail of a conceptual model for act- ing-out behavior are summarized factors. For example, some students ing-out behavior. An analysis of an act- followed by a case study. The case may be angry towards their parents or ing-out behavioral cycle is presented study is presented to illustrate the particular teachers and skip school, van- followed by a description of a model assessment features paired with dalize shops in the neighborhood or comprised of seven clearly defined strategies for each phase in the acting- become hostile towards their teachers phases. Common behavioral features out cycle. and get suspended from school. Clearly, are delineated for each phase in the each of these behaviors is different, but model which allows staff to develop a The reader is referred to an Appendix they are all motivated by anger towards specific behavior profile for a student section at the back of the book. This their parents or teachers. Other stu- with acting-out behavior problems. section contains all of the forms pre- dents may become depressed, lose their Once this profile, or assessment, has sented throughout the book. These confidence and become sexually active, been made staff is in a strong position forms may be reproduced or adapted stop eating or give up on their school- to develop a comprehensive behavior for personal use in the classroom. work. Again the responses are very dif- plan to interrupt the cycle of acting- ferent yet each student is attempting out behavior and to establish appropri- to deal with depression, albeit in ways ate behavior. that are essentially self-destructive and very counterproductive. The second section, which consti- Copyright 2004 by Behavior Associates. tutes the bulk of the book, is devoted Reprinted by permission of the author. Colvin, G. (2004). Managing the Cycle of Acting-Out Behav- In this book acting-out behavior will to an explanation and description of ior in the Classroom. Eugene, OR: Behavior be used along with other descriptors many strategies for managing each of Associates.

34 Spring 2005 “Providing the Programs Students Need and the Support Teachers Deserve” • Specialists in School-Wide Implementations (Request an Implementation Packet) • Program Enhancement Products (See our Catalog) • Training and Support for: Reading Mastery Classic Reading Mastery Plus Corrective Reading Horizons Spelling Mastery Connecting Math Concepts DIBELS Stepping Stones to Literacy Rewards Read Well

• Classroom Instructional Management Training • Administrative Leadership Training • Research and Evaluation Services

Contact ERI today for a catalog and training information! Marketing Office: 118 S.E. 15th Ave. Cape Coral, Florida 33804 • Phone: 239-458-2433

Direct Instruction News 35 Register With ADI as a Referenced Consultant —

There is a great deal of interest in Direct Instruction programs today, and along with that interest there is a high demand for qualified consultants. We are quite certain that there are many great DI trainers out there that we do no know about. To help gather and disseminate this information, ADI is establishing a database of Direct Instruction program consultants (trainers). This data will be distributed via an ADI-published directory, the ADI web site, and used for any telephone referrals calls that come to ADI.

In order to have some quality control, we have devised the following requirements to be listed as a Referenced DI Consultant:

1. You must have a current membership with ADI.

2. You must provide us with three letters of reference or recommendation. These letters can be from school personnel, SRA personnel, etc.

3. You must complete the survey below and on the next page.

4. Send ADI a $25.00 fee to cover the costs of building and maintaining the database.

If you have any questions about this program, please contact Bryan Wickman at 1-800-995-2464.

ADI Direct Instruction Consultant/Coach Information Survey

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Reading Mastery I–III (and Fast Cycle) ❑ Information Presentation (e.g., one-hour presentation to adoption committee) ❑ Coaching (do demonstration lessons in classrooms, watch teachers, and give feedback) ❑ Training (stand-up training groups of people to use programs) continued on next page

36 Spring 2005 Reading Mastery IV–VI Reasoning & Writing A–C Connecting Math Concepts ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Information Presentation D–F (and Bridge) ❑ Coaching ❑ Coaching ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Training ❑ Training ❑ Coaching ❑ Training Corrective Reading, Horizons A & B Comprehension A–C ❑ Information Presentation Expressive Writing I & II ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Coaching ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Coaching ❑ Training ❑ Coaching ❑ Training Connecting Math Concepts ❑ Training A–C Reasoning & Writing D–F DISTAR Language I & II ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Coaching ❑ Coaching ❑ Coaching ❑ Training ❑ Training ❑ Training Spelling Mastery A–F Corrective Reading, & Corrective Spelling Decoding A–C Through Morphographs ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Information Presentation ❑ Coaching ❑ Coaching ❑ Training ❑ Training

Please list the titles of any other Direct Instruction-related workshops or presentations you do, and attach brief descrip- tions of each (e.g., seatwork, a keynote-type of talk, supervision, training coaches, etc.).

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Direct Instruction News 37 Summer 2005 Everyone likes Direct Instruction Training getting mail… Opportunities

The Association for Direct ADI maintains a listserv discussion group called DI. This free Instruction is pleased to service allows you to send a message out to all subscribers to announce the following intensive DI training conferences. These the list just by sending one message. By subscribing to the DI events will provide comprehen- list, you will be able to participate in discussions of topics of sive training presented by some of the most skilled trainers in educa- interest to DI users around the world. There are currently tion. Plan now to attend one of 500+ subscribers. You will automatically receive in your email these professional development conferences. box all messages that are sent to the list. This is a great place to ask for technical assistance, opinions on curricula, and hear Save these dates: about successes and pitfalls related to DI. 8th Southeast Direct Instruction Conference and Institutes To subscribe to the list, send the following message June 21–24, 2005 Florida Mall Hotel from your email account: Orlando, Florida To: [email protected]

4th Mountain States Direct Instruction Conference In the message portion of the email simply type: July 11–13, 2005 Antlers Hilton subscribe di Colorado Springs, Colorado (Don’t add Please or any other words to your message. It will 31st National Direct Instruction Conference and Institutes only cause errors. majordomo is a computer, not a person. No July 24–28, 2005 one reads your subscription request.) Eugene Hilton and Conference Center Eugene, Oregon You send your news and views out to the list subscribers, like this: 10th Midwest Direct Instruction Conference and Institutes To: [email protected] August 3–5, 2005 Subject: Whatever describes your topic. Holiday Inn Mart Plaza Chicago, Illinois Message: Whatever you want to say.

20th Atlantic Coast Direct The list is retro-moderated, which means that some messages Instruction Conference and Institutes may not be posted if they are inappropriate. For the most part August 8–10, 2005 inappropriate messages are ones that contain offensive lan- Wyndham Baltimore Inner Harbor Baltimore, Maryland guage or are off-topic solicitations.

38 Spring 2005 Videotapes on the Direct Instruction Model

ADI has an extensive collection of videos on Direct Instruction. These videos are categorized as informational, training, or motivational in nature. The informational tapes are either of historical interest or were produced to describe Direct Instruc- tion. The training tapes have been designed to be either stand-alone training or used to supplement and reinforce live train- ing. The motivational tapes are keynote presentations from past years of the National Direct Instruction Conference.

Informational Tapes

Where It All Started—45 minutes. Zig teaching kindergarten children for the Engelmann-Bereiter pre-school in the 60s. These minority children demonstrate mathematical understanding far beyond normal developmental expectations. This acceleration came through expert teaching from the man who is now regarded as the “Father of Direct Instruction,” Zig Engelmann. Price: $10.00 (includes copying costs only).

Challenge of the 90s: Higher-Order thinking—45 minutes, 1990. Overview and rationale for Direct Instruction strate- gies. Includes home-video footage and Follow Through. Price: $10.00 (includes copying costs only).

Follow Through: A Bridge to the Future—22 minutes, 1992. Direct Instruction Dissemination Center, Wesley Elemen- tary School in Houston, Texas, demonstrates approach. Principal, Thaddeus Lott, and teachers are interviewed and class- room footage is shown. Created by Houston Independent School District in collaborative partnership with Project Follow Through. Price: $10.00 (includes copying costs only).

Direct Instruction—black and white, 1 hour, 1978. Overview and rationale for Direct Instruction compiled by Haddox for University of Oregon College of Education from footage of Project Follow Through and Eugene Classrooms. Price: $10.00 (includes copying costs only).

Training Tapes

The Elements of Effective Coaching—3 hours, 1998. Content in The Elements of Effective Coaching was developed by Ed Schae- fer and Molly Blakely. The video includes scenarios showing 27 common teaching problems, with demonstrations of coach- ing interventions for each problem. A common intervention format is utilized in all scenarios. Print material that details each teaching problem and the rationale for correcting the problem is provided. This product should be to used to supplement live DI coaching training and is ideal for Coaches, Teachers, Trainers. Price…$395.00 Member Price…$316.00

DITV—Reading Mastery 1, 2, 3 and Fast-Cycle Preservice and Inservice Training—The first tapes of the Level I and Level II series present intensive preservice training on basic Direct Instruction teaching techniques and classroom man- agement strategies used in Reading Mastery and the equivalent lesson in Fast-Cycle. Rationale is explained. Critical techniques are presented and demonstrated. Participants are led through practical exercises. Classroom teaching demonstrations with students are shown. The remaining tapes are designed to be used during the school year as inservice training. The tapes are divided into segments, which present teaching techniques for a set of of upcoming lessons. Level III training is presented on one videotape with the same features as described above. Each level of video training includes a print manual.

Reading Mastery I (10 Videotapes) $150.00 Reading Mastery II (5 Videotapes) $75.00 Reading Mastery III (1 Videotape) $25.00 Combined package (Reading Mastery I–III) $229.00

Corrective Reading: Decoding B1, B2, C—(2-tape set) 4 hours, 38 minutes + practice time. Pilot video training tape that includes an overview of the Corrective series, placement procedures, training and practice on each part of a decod- ing lesson, information on classroom management/reinforcement, and demonstration of lessons (off-camera responses). Price $25.00.

Direct Instruction News 39 Conference Keynotes These videos are keynotes from the National Direct Instruction Conference in Eugene. These videos are professional qual- ity, two-camera productions suitable for use in meetings and trainings.

Keynotes From the 2004 National DI Conference, July 2004, Eugene, Oregon Conference attendees rated the keynotes from the 30th National Direct Instruction Conference and Institutes as one of the best features of the 2004 conference. Chris Doherty, Director of Reading First from the U.S. Office of Elemen- tary and Secondary Education in Washington, DC, delivered a humorous, informative, and motivating presentation. Chris has been an advocate of Direct Instruction for many years. In his capacity with the federal government he has pushed for rules that insist on states following through with the mandate to use programs with a proven track record. The way he relates his role as a spouse and parent to his professional life would make this an ideal video for those both new to DI as well as veteran users. In the second opening keynote, Zig Engelmann outlines common misconceptions that teachers have about teaching and learning. Once made aware of common pitfalls, it is easier to avoid them, thereby increasing teacher effectiveness and student performance. Price: $30.00

To the Top of the Mountain—Giving Kids the Education Successful Schools…How We Do It—35 minutes. Eric Mah- They Deserve—75 minutes. Milt Thompson, Principal of 21st moud, Co-founder and CEO of Seed Academy/Harvest Prepara- Century Preparatory School in Racine, Wisconsin gives a very tory School in Minneapolis, Minnesota presented the lead motivational presentation of his quest to dramatically change keynote for the 1998 National Direct Instruction Conference. the lives of all children and give them the education they His talk was rated as one of the best features of the conference. Eric focused on the challenges of educating our inner city youth deserve. Starting with a clear vision of his goal, Thompson and the high expectations we must communicate to our chil- describes his journey that turned the lowest performing school dren and teachers if we are to succeed in raising student per- in Kenosha, Wisconsin into a model of excellence. In his formance in our schools. Also included on this video is a keynote, Senior Direct Instruction developer Zig Engelmann welcome by Siegfried Engelmann, Senior Author and Developer focuses on the four things you have to do to have an effective of Direct Instruction Programs. Price: $15.00 Direct Instruction implementation. These are: work hard, pay attention to detail, treat problems as information, and recognize Commitment to Children—Commitment to Excellence and How Did We Get Here…Where are We Going?—95 min- that it takes time. He provides concrete examples of the ingre- utes. These keynotes bring two of the biggest names in Direct dients that go into Direct Instruction implementations as well Instruction together. The first presentation is by Thaddeus as an interesting historical perspective. Price: $30.00 Lott, Senior. Dr. Lott was principal at Wesley Elementary in Houston, Texas from 1974 until 1995. During that time he No Excuses in Portland Elementary, The Right Choice Isn’t turned the school into one of the best in the nation, despite Always the Easiest, and Where Does the Buck Stop? 2 demographics that would predict failure. He is an inspiration to tapes, 1 hour, 30 minutes total. Ernest Smith is Principal of thousands across the country. The second presentation by Portland Elementary in Portland, Arkansas. The February 2002 Siegfried Engelmann continues on the theme that we know all issue of Reader’s Digest featured Portland Elementary in an arti- we need to know about how to teach—we just need to get out cle about schools that outperformed expectations. Smith gives there and do it. This tape also includes Engelmann’s closing huge credit to the implementation of DI as the key to his stu- remarks. Price: $30.00. dent’s and teacher’s success. In his opening remarks, Zig State of the Art & Science of Teaching and Higher Profile, Engelmann gives a summary of the Project Follow Through Greater Risks—50 minutes. This tape is the opening results and how these results translate into current educational addresses from the 1999 National Direct Instruction Confer- practices. Also included are Zig’s closing remarks. Price: $30.00 ence at Eugene. In the first talk Steve Kukic, former Director of Special Education for the state of Utah, reflects on the trend Lesson Learned…The Story of City Springs, Reaching for towards using research based educational methods and research Effective Teaching, and Which Path to Success? 2 tapes, 2 validated materials. In the second presentation, Higher Pro- hours total. In the fall of 2000 a documentary was aired on PBS file, Greater Risks, Siegfried Engelmann reflects on the past showing the journey of City Springs Elementary in Baltimore of Direct Instruction and what has to be done to ensure suc- from a place of hopelessness to a place of hope. The principal of cessful implementation of DI. Price: $30.00 City Springs, Bernice Whelchel, addressed the 2001 National Fads, Fashions, & Follies—Linking Research to Practice—25 DI Conference with an update on her school and delivered a minutes. Dr. Kevin Feldman, Director of Reading and Early truly inspiring keynote. She describes the determination of her Intervention for the Sonoma County Office of Education in staff and students to reach the excellence she knew they were Santa Rosa, California presents on the need to apply research capable of. Through this hard work City Springs went from findings to educational practices. He supplies a definition of being one of the 20 lowest schools in the Baltimore City Schools what research is and is not, with examples of each. His style is system to one of the top 20 schools. This keynote also includes very entertaining and holds interest quite well. Price: $15.00 a 10-minute video updating viewers on the progress at City Aren’t You Special—25 minutes. Motivational talk by Linda Gib- Springs in the 2000–2001 school year. In the second keynote son, Principal at a school in Columbus, Ohio, successful with Zig Engelmann elaborates on the features of successful imple- DI, in spite of minimal support. Keynote from 1997 National DI mentations such as City Springs. Also included are Zig’s closing Conference. Price: $15.00 remarks. Price: $30.00 continued on next page

40 Spring 2005 Videotapes on the Direct Instruction Model...continued

Effective Teaching: It’s in the Nature of the Task—25 min- Keynotes from 22nd National DI Conference—2 hours. Ed utes. Bob Stevens, expert in cooperative learning from Penn Schaefer speaks on “DI—What It Is and Why It Works,” an State University, describes how the type of task to be taught excellent introductory talk on the efficiency of DI and the sen- impacts the instructional delivery method. Keynote from 1997 sibility of research based programs. Doug Carnine’s talk “Get it National DI Conference. Price: $15.00 Straight, Do it Right, and Keep it Straight” is a call for people to do what they already know works, and not to abandon sensi- Moving from Better to the Best—20 minutes. Closing keynote ble approaches in favor of “innovations” that are recycled fads. from the National DI Conference. Classic Zig Engelmann doing one of the many things he does well…motivating teaching pro- Siegfried Engelmann delivers the closing “Words vs. Deeds” in fessionals to go out into the field and work with kids in a sensi- his usual inspirational manner, with a plea to teachers not to get ble and sensitive manner, paying attention to the details of worn down by the weight of a system that at times does not instruction, making sure that excellence instead of “pretty reward excellence as it should. Price: $25.00 good” is the standard we strive for and other topics that have Keynotes from the 1995 Conference—2 hours. Titles and been the constant theme of his work over the years. Price speakers include: Anita Archer, Professor Emeritus, San Diego $15.00 State University, speaking on “The Time Is Now” (An overview One More Time—20 minutes. Closing from 1997 National DI of key features of DI); Rob Horner, Professor, University of Ore- Conference. One of Engelmann’s best motivational talks. Good gon, speaking on “Effective Instruction for All Learners”; Zig for those already using DI, this is sure to make them know what Engelmann, Professor, University of Oregon, speaking on they are doing is the right choice for teachers, students, and our “Truth or Consequences.” Price: $25.00 future. Price: $15.00 Keynote Presentations from the 1994 20th Anniversary An Evening of Tribute to Siegfried Engelmann—2.5 hours. Conference—2 hours. Titles and speakers include: Jean On July 26, 1995, 400 of Zig Engelmann’s friends, admirers, col- Osborn, Associate Director for the Center for the Study of leagues, and protégés assembled to pay tribute to the “Father of Reading, University of Illinois, speaking on “Direct Instruction: Direct Instruction.” The Tribute tape features Carl Bereiter, Past, Present & Future”; Sara Tarver, Professor, University of Wes Becker, Barbara Bateman, Cookie Bruner, Doug Carnine, Wisconsin, Madison, speaking on “I Have a Dream That Some- and Jean Osborn—the pioneers of Direct Instruction—and day We Will Teach All Children”; Zig Engelmann, Professor, many other program authors, paying tribute to Zig. Price: University of Oregon, speaking on “So Who Needs Standards?” $25.00 Price: $25.00

Order Form: ADI Videos Use this chart to figure your shipping and handling charges. Send form with Purchase order, check or charge card number to: If your order is: Postage & Handling is: ADI, PO Box 10252, Eugene, OR 97440 You may also phone or fax your order. $0.00 to $5.00 $3.85 Phone 1.800.995.2464 Fax 541.868.1397 $5.01 to $10.00 $4.50 $10.01 to $15.00 $5.85 Qty. Item Each Total $15.01 to $20.99 $7.85 $21.00 to $40.99 $8.50 $41.00 to $60.99 $9.85 $61.00 to $80.99 $10.85 $81.00 or more 10% of Subtotal Outside the continental U.S., add $8 more Shipping Total

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Direct Instruction News 41 Books Price List

The Association for Direct Instruction distributes the following Direct Instruction materials. Members of ADI receive a 20% discount on these materials. To join ADI and take advantage of this discount, simply fill out the form and include your annual dues with your order.

Title & Author Member Price List Price Quantity Total Preventing Failure in the Primary Grades (1969 & 1997) $19.95 $24.95 Siegfried Engelmann Theory of Instruction (1991) $32.00 $40.00 Siegfried Engelmann & Douglas Carnine Teach Your Child to Read in 100 Easy Lessons (1983) $16.00 $20.00 Siegfried Engelmann, Phyllis Haddox, & Elaine Bruner Structuring Classrooms for Academic Success (1983) $11.00 $14.00 S. Paine, J. Radicchi, L. Rosellini, L. Deutchman, & C. Darch War Against the Schools’ Academic Child Abuse (1992) $14.95 $17.95 Siegfried Engelmann Research on Direct Instruction (1996) $24.95 $29.95 Gary Adams & Siegfried Engelmann Introduction to Direct Instruction $44.00 $55.00 N. E. Marchand-Martella, T. A. Slocum, & R. C. Martella Managing the Cycle of Acting-Out Behavior in the Classroom $24.00 $28.00 Geoff Colvin

Corrective Reading Sounds Tape $10.00

Use this chart to figure your shipping and handling charges. Subtotal If your order is: Postage & Handling is: $0.00 to $5.00 $3.85 Postage & Handling $5.01 to $10.00 $4.50 $10.01 to $15.00 $5.85 $15.01 to $20.99 $7.85 ADI Membership Dues $21.00 to $40.99 $8.50 $41.00 to $60.99 $9.85 Total (U.S. Funds) $61.00 to $80.99 $10.85 $81.00 or more 10% of Subtotal Make payment or purchase orders payable to Outside the continental U.S., add $8 more the Association for Direct Instruction.

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What is ADI, the Association for Direct Instruction? ADI is a nonprofit organization dedicated primarily to providing support for teachers and other educators who use Direct Instruction programs. That support includes conferences on how to use Direct Instruction programs, publication of The Jour- nal of Direct Instruction (JODI), Direct Instruction News (DI News), and the sale of various products of interest to our members.

Who Should Belong to ADI? Most of our members use Direct Instruction programs, or have a strong interest in using those programs. Many people who do not use Direct Instruction programs have joined ADI due to their interest in receiving our semiannual publications, The Journal of Direct Instruction and Direct Instruction News. JODI is a peer-reviewed professional publication containing new and reprinted research related to effective instruction. Direct Instruction News focuses on success stories, news and reviews of new programs and materials and information on using DI more effectively.

Membership Options $40.00 Regular Membership (includes one year subscription to ADI publications, a 20% discount on ADI sponsored events and on materials sold by ADI). $30.00 Student Membership (includes one year subscription to ADI publications, and a 40% discount on ADI sponsored events and a 20% discount on materials sold by ADI). $75.00 Sustaining Membership (includes Regular membership privileges and recognition of your support in Direct Instruction News). $150.00 Institutional Membership (includes 5 subscriptions to ADI publications and regular membership privileges for 5 staff people). ✔ Canadian addresses add $5.00 US to above prices. ✔ For surface delivery overseas, add $10.00 US; for airmail delivery overseas, add $30.00 US to the above prices. ✔ Contributions and dues to ADI are tax deductible to the fullest extent of the law. ✔ Please make checks payable to ADI.

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Thank you to our Sustaining Members

The ADI Board of Directors acknowledges the financial contribution made by the following individuals. Their generosity helps our organization continue to promote the use of effective, research-based methods and materials in our schools.

Anayezuka Ahidiana Mary Eisele Amy McGovern Geoff St. John Jason Aronoff Babette Engel Greg Nunn Linda Stewart Roberta Bender Jo Farrimond Kip Orloff Sara G. Tarver Muriel Berkeley Margaret Flores Jean Osborn Mary Taylor Susan Best Jane Fordham David Parr Mary Frances Bruce Barbara Forte K. Gale Phillips Vicci Tucci Janet Burdick David Giguere Johanna Preston Scott Van Zuiden William Bursuck Jane-Rose Gregoire Gerry Heller Raines Michael Vandemark Dawn Anna Rose Butler Mary P. Gudgel Joan Rutschow Maria Vanoni Janice Byers Tracey Hall Tara Saar Douglas Carnine Lee Hemenway Randi Saulter Tricia Walsh Coughlan Linda Carnine Diane Hill Sherry Scarborough- Rose Wanken Corene Casselle Meralee Hoffelt Beaulieu Ann Watanabe Lisa Cohen Debbie & Ken Jackson Carolyn Schneider Paul Weisberg Maria Collins Shirley R. Johnson Martha Sinkula Brenda Moss Williams Don Crawford Wendy Kozma Pam Smith Donna Dressman Royce Ledbetter Frank Smith Gayle Wood Tara Ebey John W. Lloyd Karen Sorrentino Leslie Zoref