Homecoming: Axiom 5 – Strategies for Active Learning in Lecture-Based Direct Instruction

Change will not come if we wait for some other person or some other time. We are the ones we’ve been waiting for. We are the change that we seek. ~ Barak Obama

Faculty and students spend quite a lot of time together. The federal government defines a credit hour1 as requiring “one hour of classroom or direct faculty instruction and a minimum of two hours of out-of- class student work each week for approximately fifteen weeks” or “at least an equivalent amount of work . . . for other activities as established by an institution, including laboratory work, internships, practica, studio work, and other academic work.” The term “hour” usually refers to 50 minutes of instruction or 150 minutes per week for lecture classes.a Therefore, the question we’ll address in this axiom is: how can we best use those 150 minutes to maximize our students’ learning?

First, let’s take a moment to understand how our the human brain works during lectures. Current cognitive science tells us that adult learners can pay attention to a lecture for about 15 minutes, delimited by two factors: working memory and interference. Working memory is how the brain processes new concepts, attempting to link incoming data to existing knowledge. We actively pay attention as we receive and work with unfamiliar ideas and information. However, our capacity to take in new information decreases as input from the ongoing lecture continues to flow toward us, creating interference when we are still trying to make sense of the earlier information we received.2 It’s like the famous episode of I Love Lucy where Lucy and Ethel work in a candy factory– the candies keep rolling in faster than the friends can wrap them, so they stuff them in their mouths, hide them in their hats, and even put them inside their shirts. It’s hilarious with Lucy and Ethel, but not nearly as funny when you’re sitting in a lecture hall overwhelmed by information, struggling to take notes fast enough to keep up with the professor. We faculty believe we’re doing the right thing as educators by communicating as much course content as we can, but this method is counterproductive simply because of how students’ brains process incoming information. In other words, the longer we lecture, the more we create a Laboratory, studio,or practicum courses have differing class time requirements because students do more of their work in the presence of the instructor and less outside of scheduled class times than in lecture courses. We might also consider that these types of courses already utilize active learning such as artistic creation or performance, hands-on scientific processes, or the refinement of professional skills. cognitive impediments for our students, which is contrary to our goals. The solution is to interrupt the flow of our lectures with breaks for active learning.

Nevertheless, the thought of stepping away from lecturing can be uncomfortable. We faculty know how much content we must cover with our students. It can feel like our class sessions are already too short to convey all the information we want our students to know. If we can’t use every minute for lecture, how can we still be sure our students are going to learn? The solution lies in reframing the problem to consider instruction differently.

First, let’s assume you’ve created a PowerPoint presentation of the lecture you want to deliver. You know the presentation has taken up the entire class session when you’ve taught it in previous semesters. However, you’d like to try some active learning strategies even though you know it might mean you won’t cover all of your slides in class. What should you do about the unfinished part of the presentation? I’d like to offer three suggestions.

1. The easiest solution is to post the entire PowerPoint presentation to the class site on your institution’s LMS (Learning Management System) and tell students that part of their homework is to finish reading the rest of the slides online after class. 2. Many of us spent a great deal of time during emergency remote teaching creating video lectures for our courses. You could repurpose those lectures and try a flipped model of teaching. Post the videos to the LMS and assign students to view your recorded lectures BEFORE class. This strategy frees up your whole class session for discussion and active learning. 3. Reconsider your lecture thoughtfully to decide how you could shorten it. What are the most essential points that students must know for the exams in your course? What must they know before they enroll in subsequent courses in this major? What content could you omit? What ideas could you convey through a different channel like a reading assignment or video? When there’s not enough time to fit everything in, it’s time to focus on the essentials.

Incorporating active learning into your lecture class is about finding a new rhythm for instruction. Consider the following diagram showing a 75-minute lecture classb divided into alternating sections for lecture-based direct instruction and active learning (abbreviated as “AL” in the image). The professor teaching this class would lecture for ten minutes, then pause for a 5-minute active learning element,

b Institutions often schedule classes twice a week for 75-90 minutes, or three times a week for 50-60 minutes. This example presumes the course is held twice a week for 75 minutes each time. lecture for another ten minutes, then conduct another 5-minute active learning element, and so on, ending with a 5-minute wrap-up. This structure works with what we know about how people learn because breaking up the flow of words gives our brains time to digest the information they already received. It also gives students opportunities to interact with one another, which builds classroom community and strengthens the social aspects of learning.

Sample Model of Direct Instruction + Active Learning

Lecture AL Lecture AL Lecture AL Lecture AL Lecture Wrap-Up 10 min 5 min 10 min 5 min 10 min 5 min 10 min 5 min 10 min 5 min

This model is most definitely not required – it’s just one idea among many about how we could divide a class session into a new rhythm for learning.

Individual Engagement Strategies

Next, let’s consider some active learning strategies that students can do individually. We have both high-tech and low-tech options at our disposal.

If you were a student or faculty member in the 1990s or 2000s, you might be familiar student response systems, which required students to purchase a handheld remote (a clicker) to participate in classroom polling or answer multiple choice questions during lectures. Today’s version of this technology utilizes students’ ubiquitous mobile devices through online polling applications such as Doodle, PollEverywhere, Mentimeter, Slido, and more. Most of these apps have free versions available, although many also have a premium edition giving faculty access to more features by purchasing a service plan.

However, before we go deeper into the pros and cons of online polling, let’s talk for moment about access, inclusion, and technology. Just because the vast majority of our students seem to own a smartphone doesn’t mean that we won’t inadvertently exclude some students who don’t have a device like this. Inequitable resources were very evident during the pandemic, when many of our students struggled with remote learning because they lacked basic requirements like fast, reliable home wi-fi, webcams, or up-to-date computers capable of running the necessary software we expected them to use. Therefore, it would be wise to check-in with your students to see if they have the necessary technological tools and capacities, and plan how you could help those who lack these resources . For example, when Ohio State University transitioned from a standard clicker system to a smartphone- based app, the university created a plan that allowed students to purchase an inexpensive wi-fi enabled tablet for the same price as the clickers that had formerly been required university-wide.3 After you’ve verified that all your students can participate, the next step to using online polling is to research the apps available and select one that meets your needs. You’ll need to invest a little time in learning how to use the app, and you should also help your students access the app before you plan to employ it in class. Next, plan breaks in your lecture where you’ll pause and use the app to pose a multiple-choice question, practice problem, or survey item, embedding it into your presentation. Students respond to the question when prompted, and the app immediately directs their answers to you, showing how many students answered correctly and providing on-the-spot information about students’ learning.

Instant polling has several advantages. First, it puts students’ smartphones to good use by engaging their interest in your teaching. Next, it encourages every student to participate. Usually, only one or two students get a chance to answer when the professor asks a question in class, but with online polling, every student can respond. Likewise, online polling allows shy or anxious students to participate more actively while remaining safely anonymous. Third, using a projection system to show incoming responses gives students immediate feedback and lets them see how their answers compare to their classmates. Faculty can see whether students understand a concept and re-teach or review on the spot if misconceptions or errors are apparent. Last, polling apps provide a quick way to take attendance in large classes. Online polling also has a few drawbacks. In a very large class, having hundreds of students trying to use the wi-fi at the same time can create problems. Some students might not be able to use the app or might struggle with it. And, of course, faculty have to invest some time in preparing the questions they’ll ask through the app.

Exit slips represent another strategy to gather quick formative feedback and increase student engagement. Faculty can ask students to do an exit slip at any point in the class session – it doesn’t have to wait until the end of class. These short responses contain one or two questions that let faculty see if students understood the day’s instruction. You can post the exit slip on the LMS, print it on paper, or use an app like Padlet that allows text, images, or video responses.4 Exit slips are often graded pass/fail based on completion alone and used to track participation rather than being factored into the course grade. Faculty can also allow students to complete an exit slip with a partner, giving yet another opportunity to increase social engagement and build classroom community.

Quick daily or weekly quizzes can hold students accountable for their learning in class and provide formative assessment to guide future instruction. A short (3 to 5 question) multiple-choice or true-false quiz is not especially labor-intensive for faculty or students. Using the LMS eases the grading burden on faculty, not to mention being more environmentally friendly than paper copies. You may want to consider setting the quiz to allow multiple attempts, which not only gives students a chance to improve their scores but sends them back to their notes or other course materials to shore up the gaps in their understanding revealed by an incorrect answer. You could also tell students that some of the questions on the midterm or final will be taken from the daily or weekly quizzes, which incentivizes their participation and provides a ready-made study guide.

If you’d like to gather a more open-ended student response, you might try asking students to keep a journal or respond to reflective questions during or after class. Similarly, you could assign a “minute paper,” asking students questions such as:

1. What were two of the most significant [useful, meaningful, surprising, disturbing, etc.] ideas you learned in today’s class session? 2. What questions do you still have about today’s instruction? 3. Is there anything you still don’t understand or want to know more about?

Using Google Forms or Microsoft Forms can simplify data collection. However, if you prefer paper- based responses, asking students to write even one sentence on a 3 x 5 card can hold students accountable and provide you with a formative assessment that can guide subsequent instruction.

Small Group Engagement Strategies

Many strategies for active learning involve collaboration between two or more students. The following ideas are adapted from Chapter 7, “Incorporating Engaged Learning,” in my book Higher Education by Design.5

Turn-and-Talk

No matter what our teachinging environment may be like, students turn around to talk to the people sitting around them. Why not put this habit to good use? Just as you’d create a break in your lecture to utilize an online poll, you can build on students’ natural propensity to talk to one another by asking them to answer a question together. For example, a political science professor lecturing about leadership might insert a slide into their presentation that says, “Turn and Talk: which characteristic do you feel is most important in a leader?” The length of time you allow will vary depending on the question you ask. Some instructors embed a video of a timer on the slide to show students how much time remains,6 others play some quiet instrumental music while they wait. End the turn-and-talk with an audio or visual cue to return students’ attention to the lecture: turn off the background music, use the embedded alarm in the online timer, ring a bell, flick the classroom lights on and off, etc. You may want to ask a few volunteers to share their responses with the whole group before returning to the lecture.

Think-Pair-Share / Write-Pair-Share

This strategy is especially good for discussions that don’t have clear-cut answers because it provides a greater depth of social interaction.

1. Ask students an open-ended question and tell them to think (or write) about the answer for a moment or two. 2. Then instruct students to share their ideas with someone sitting nearby. Pause for a few minutes to allow these conversations to take place. 3. Now tell the student pairs to join another student pair, making a group of four. Ask them to share their ideas with one another. 4. After the groups of four have had time to talk, ask each group to appoint a spokesperson to report their answer to the class. (It’s sometimes hard to get students to volunteer to be the spokesperson. You might assign the role of based on an arbitrary criterion such as having the first birthday in the year, whose middle name is first or last alphabetically, etc.) 5. Listen to the spokespersons’ reports as a whole class. With a very large class, you may only have a few spokespeople report, but it still enhances students’ learning.

Think-Pair-Share is more time-consuming than polling or turn-and-talks, but it encourages deeper interactions and helps students connect with the course content as they exchange ideas.

Jigsaw or Case Study

Most of the strategies we’ve looked at require only five or ten minutes, but the jigsaw and case study strategies require more than just a break in the flow of a lecture. In these cooperative activities, groups of 3 to 5 students are assigned a portion of the course content, such as a textbook chapter, one of a series of journal articles, or one in a set of similar case studies. Students work collaboratively to create a presentation about this content that they subsequently share with the whole class. Faculty should plan sufficient time for students to complete their work together, which will vary depending on the length and difficulty of the content they will present. A one-page article could be read, discussed, and presented in a single class session, whereas groups may need much more time inside or outside the classroom to prepare a thorough presentation about an entire book chapter. Class time must also be allotted for the presentations to occur. It’s also wise to hold students accountable for listening to one another’s presentations. For example, you might require each group to write a quiz question or two about their presentation and include these in your regular assessments, or you could require audience members to write a minute paper, or you could ask them to conduct a peer review or critique of their peers’ presentations. These strategies also provide you with information for assessment.

Discussion Groups

We can take collaborative strategies for active learning a step further by requiring students to participate in study groups or discussion groups that meet either inside or outside of class.

Discussion groups allow students to interact with course content in a smaller setting that encourages them to share their ideas more freely, ask questions, and receive help from their peers. This strategy also helps build peer-to-peer relationships, which facilitates classroom community and increases student engagement. Discussion groups frequently meet during a portion of the class session, sometimes facilitated by a graduate assistant or peer mentor who helps guide the conversation.

The discussion group strategy can also be used to allow students to work collaboratively on skills practice. For example, a math class might set aside the last 15-20 minutes of class for students to meet with their groups and complete a set of practice problems together. Allowing class time for groups to work together also lets students ask the professor for help or clarification.

Nevertheless, space is a perennial problem for group work, especially in lecture halls that lack flexible seating. You may need to direct students to find a place to meet elsewhere on campus, even though this isn’t ideal. Meeting via online conferencing technologies (Zoom, Microsoft Teams, Blackboard Collaborate, etc.) is another option with which we’re all quite familiar from our pandemic teaching. It’s more convenient than trying to find a physical place to meet, and many platforms allow participants to share their screen or use other tools like an electronic whiteboard as they discuss their ideas.

Suggestions

Incorporating active learning into lecture-based direct instruction may seem like it takes time away from teaching, but the effect is just the opposite. Your students will be more engaged in their learning, assimilate course content more effectively, and be more satisfied with the course.7 If you’re new to active learning, I recommend you start with small steps. • Insert an online poll or turn-and-talk question after every 10-15 minutes of lecture. • Use an exit slip or minute paper at the end of classes where you’ve introduced students to the most essential ideas in the course. • Plan a think-pair-share activity when you introduce a provocative topic or essential idea that will spark discussion. • Find one point in the semester where you could incorporate a jigsaw or case study activity.

None of these strategies is especially time-consuming to plan or implement. You don’t have to rewrite the whole course, cut out enormous sections of your lectures, or change your teaching style. You don’t need to invest in special materials or equipment. Beginning to improve direct instruction in your classroom only requires being willing to try something new. Every step you take is worthwhile.

Axiom 5: Active learning strategies can be combined with lecture-based direct instruction simply and effectively.

1 Electronic Code of Federal Regulations (2021). Title 34, Subtitle B, Chapter VI, Part 600, Subpart A-600.2. https://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?rgn=div8&node=34:3.1.3.1.1.1.23.2 See also: Nebraska State College System Policy 4141 Credit Hour Definition and Assignment to Course Modalities. https://www.nscs.edu/_resources/e30d:q221nf-1qq/files/76595348z16a18931/_fn/Policy_4141.pdf 2 Cooper, A., Richards, J. (2016). Lectures for Adult Learners: Breaking Old Habits in Graduate Medical Education. Alliance for Academic Internal Medicine, American Journal of Medicine 130:3, 376-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.11.009. See also . Jeffries WB. Teaching large groups. In: Jeffries WB, Huggett KN, eds. An Introduction to Medical Teaching. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Netherlands; 2014:11-26. Nelson C. What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? Prog Brain Res. 2008;169:323-338. 13. Knowles M. The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. Houston, TX: Gulf; 1988. Taylor DM, Hossam H. Adult learning theories: Implications for learning and teaching in medical education: AMEE Guide No. 82. Med Teach. 2013;35:e1561-e1572. 3 Roll, N. (2017). Communications Crossroads. Inside Higher Ed. https://www.insidehighered.com/digital- learning/article/2017/08/02/mobile-apps-gaining-ground-handheld-clickers 4 https://padlet.com/ 5 Mackh, B. (2018). Higher Education by Design: Best practices for curricular planning and instruction. Routledge. 6 https://www.online-stopwatch.com/eggtimer-countdown/full-screen/ 7 Cooper (2016)