AZri Yoor Monev er Your'lie • Mlci'OWCM¥ versus HOp& READERS WRITE BACK hanks to all of you who responded to our reader suNey earlier this year. Comments and questionnaires are still Ttrickling in, and those of you who haven't sent in a piece of your mind are still invited to do so. Most of those who responded have been reading SftP for less than three years-41 percent. But 22 percent have been with us for three to five years, and 20 percent have read the magazine for five to ten years. What surprised us was the relatively high ratio of double-digit readers: 16 percent have stuck with us for over ten years. Fifty-three percent are men, 44 percent are women, and the rest didn't tell us. Most are between 25 and 40 years old-56 percent­ and 27 percent are between 41 and 65. The 18-to-24-year-olds and over-65 respondents are evenly divided at eight percent each. Two­ thirds have graduate degrees, which surprised us too. Newsnotes and In Brief reviews and resources are most popular with our suNey respondents. More than half read those sections in every issue. Eighty-five percent often or always read SftP's feature stories. Longer reviews, letters, opinions, and grassroots reports are usually read by more than sixty percent. Our coverage of topics and mix of articles seems about right to most readers. More than half of the respondents are satisfied with SftP's reporting about the environment, agriculture, occupational health, high tech, biotechnology, science and the military, the Third World, nuclear power, and nuclear weapons. A third of the respondents recommended more coverage of the Third World and of medicine and health care, and 42 percent would like more articles on women and science. We didn't expect requests for more articles about the philosophy and history of science, though, which 54 percent asked for. We hope that the articles by David Dickson and Diane Paul, along with the forum of scientists' responses to new technologies in this issue, help to satisfy those desires. Should SftP orient itself more to academics and science professionals, or should it become more of a general-audience magazine? That's a question we hoped this reader suNey would help answer, but the responses were evenly divided. According to one reader, "SftP can either try to become more popular, albeit for a left audience, or more of a tool to organize left scientists to be more activist. I think it should do the latter." Another writes, "You are my only connection to the world of science. I become more and more interested as I read." We will continue to use our national organization, newsletter, and committees to work with scientists, and try to address both scientists and nonscientists more effectively through the magazine. More than three-quarters of the respondents agreed that SftP teaches them something about science and that they gain political insights from the magazine. Those are goals we're sure of, and it's good to hear that we're meeting them. September/October 1987 SCIENCE~ PEOPLE Volume 19, Number 5

CHOOSING TECHNOLOGY by David Dickson Access to scientific knowledge has become central to any debate over establishing public interest criteria for technology. Research and development programs are not chosen on the basis of equity or social need. Rather. they are justified as being necessary to meet economic and military security.

RESPONDING TO TECHNOLOGIES by Philip Bereano, Ruth Hubbard & Jonathan Beckwith The debate over choosing appropriate responses to new technologies continues. Philip Bereano examines technology and social relations. Ruth Hubbard maintains that debates over research priorities and new technologies are framed to purposefully exclude public participation. Jonathan Beckwith questions the rigid application of science-is-politics analyses and antitechnology attitudes in some progressive responses to new technologies.

AZT: YOUR MONEY OR YOUR LIFE by Tim Kingston Cornering the market on drug treatments for AIDS. the manufacturers of AZT are selling one of the costliest prescription drugs around for about $10,000 a year. The history of AZT is also a case study of the profit motive behind pharmaceutical research and development.

THE NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY by Diane B. Paul One of the most frequent claims in the lengthy history of the nature-nurture debate has been that it is over. But the corpse of this particular controversy will not stay buried. Recent reports of its demise are still premature.

MICROWAVES VERSUS HOPE by Joseph Regna At the U.S. Air Force Base in Greenham Common, England. cruise missiles have been deployed in "dispersal exercises" since 1984. Feminist opposition to these nuclear war preparations has been met with exposure to microwave radiation around the military base.

DEPARTMENTS

Newsnotes: Fake fat, responsible employment pledge, and more Grassroots: Astronomy's Anti-Star Warriors International: Environmental Action for Central America Report: Remembering Ben Linder In Brief: The Vanishing Forest and The Encroaching Desert TOXIC DISCRIMINATION f you arc black or Hispanic, you arc more likely than a white person to Ilive ncar a roxie waste dump. That is the conclusion of a report released in April by the lJnired Church of Christ's Commission on Racial jt1stice. The commission found that more than 15 million of the countrv's 26 million blacks live in communiri~s with at least one uncontrolled roxie waste sire. A similar situation exists for more than eight million of the nation's 15 million Hispanics. As the number of dumps in a commumrv mcrcascs to two or more, so docs the n{inoriry population. }\1oreover, three of the five biggest hazardous waste landfills in the lJ.S. arc located in communities that arc predominantly black or Hispanic. That the location of these sires is the result merclv of chance is "virtuallv impossible,'; according to the stud}· group. In many cases, they found that siring a hazardous waste facility was linked to promises of jobs and contracts to minorirv-owncd businesses. Civcn the Judging from the application submitted high rates ~f poverty and unemployment FAKE FAT bv Proctor & Gamble to the Food and in minorirv communities, the economic Drug Administration, however, monitor­ lure come~ as no surprise. Indeed, the magine being able to have your cake ing is likely to be left to the individual commission found that depressed economic and actuallv car it too. In a socicrv consumer. And dosages of this fake food conditions, a lack of education, and the Ivirtually obsessed with food and diet­ won't he low, either. The company has daily struggle for survival left minorities ing, such. a prospect should bring on asked the FDA for permission to marker particularly vulnerable to such high-risk absolute delirium. Aspartame and olesrra as a replacement for up' to 7 5 cntcrpnscs. saccharine have gone a long way toward percent of the oils used commercially in "These communities cannot afford the this end. Bur artificial sweeteners might shortening, deep-frying oil, and salted luxury of being primarily concerned soon pale in comparison to a new food snacks. Proctor & Gamble also wants to about the quality of their environment substitute developed by Proctor & replace 3 5 percent of the far in home when confronted hy a plethora of Gamble: fake far. cooking oil with its synthetic. Eventually, pressing problems related to their day-to­ Called olcstra, this svnthctic far is made olcstra may turn up in everything from day survival," said the Rev. Benjamin F. of ordinary table suga~ bonded to a string mavona1sc to 1cc cream. Chavis, Jr., Executive Director of the of fatty acids. Sounding more like a new ()hviously, people with serious commission. Bur the health risks posed wash-n-wear polyester than a dietary aid, cardiac, vascular, or metabolic problems hy these sires is a special concern to the olcsrra has some highly desirable (i.e., might benefit greatly from reduced commission, given recent evidence that marketable) properties. It tastes and dietary far and serum cholesterol. Too blacks and Hispanics are showing high smells like the real thing, and it has that much ·far probably made them sick in the rates of cancer, heart disease, and birth all-important buttery mouth appeal. Bur first place. While the medical significance defects. unlike real far, olcsrra has no calories. Nor of fake far has not gone unnoticed, many The commission charged that both the is it converted into artery-clogging doctors have reserved judgment about government and the environmental cholesterol. In fact, it passes through the olesrra, pending further trials. Still, movement have been unresponsive to body undigested. The molecule has even ending the American love affair with environmental issues affecting minorities. been found to reduce the hodv's deep-fried foods and greasy snacks Accordingly, the group urged that absorption of cholesterol from fatty would do more for good health than yet federal agencies be required to consider foods. another biotechnological fix. the impact of environmental policies on Few things in life come without Ironically, as some people vascillare racial and ethnic groups and that a special complications, however, and olcsrra is no between fitness and obesirv, an estimated office within the EPA he created to exception. Some people given the 20 million Americans- m~re than half of address minority concerns. Grassroots compound have experienced stomach them children--are suffering from organizing hy community groups and upset and diarrhea. Low dosages, hunger and malnutrition. Apparently, churches specifically around environmental according to one source, might alleviate feeding these people is nor as lucrative as issues is also advocated. the problem, assuming that consumption the market in low-caloric potato chips. Tracey Cohen is carefully monitored. --Tracey Cohen

2 Science for the People manner." Murray thinks the pledge "is a "This is part of a growing awareness STUDENTS PLEDGE reminder for us. It's not what the that our individual actions have an impact education is and what it can do for you­ on the world," claimed Bill Ihnc, a 1987 RESPONSIBILITY it's what vou can for society with that graduate and member of Student Citizens oday's young people arc often ac­ education_;, · for Social Responsibility at Humboldt. cused of being materialistic and Graduate Michele Van Hentenryck Ihnc, who plans to help spread the pledge Tself-centered. But many members of decided not to interview with San idea, said, "We want it to be a catalyst for the Class of 1987 at Humboldt State Francisco-based Bechtel Corporation other schools around the nation and the University in northern California have after considering the pledge and inquiring world." proved otherwise by signing a voluntary into Bechtel's activities. "I didn't like that For more information, write to pledge graduation pledge of social and environ­ they work with the weapons industry organizer Matt Nicodemus at 968 F St., mental responsibility in employment. and that they're not very open about their Arcata, CA 9 55 21. The pledge, one of the first of its kind, dealings. Maybe I'm just one person," is intended to help create an atmosphere she added, "but who knows? If everyone where social and environmental responsibility acts as role models, it could have an SCIENCE IN THE is openly discussed and plays a more effect.'' central role in life decisions. Students Organizers of the Humboldt pledge STREETS OF INDIA were handed copies of rhe pledge after drive included Student Citizens for Social he All-India Science Festival will receiving their diplomas at the May 16 Responsibility, Students for Progressive take science on the road to the vil­ Commencement ceremonies in Arcata, Action, members of the student govern­ Tlages of India this October. Spon­ California. The text reads: "I pledge to ment, and the local chapter of Physicians sored by 26 People's Science Organizations thoroughly investigate and take into for Social Responsibility. After a ballot and hundreds of scientists, the festival account the social and environmental initiative won student approval, the will proceed across more than 15, 000 consequences of any job I consider." pledge proposition won unanimous miles to bring science education to rural "The pledge statement is kind of what endorsement by the faculty senate and Indians. education is all about," said Mark support from university administrators. The festival will begin in five different Murray, former HSU student body Arcata's city council passed a resolution towns, with busloads of participants president. "We become educated men praising the pledge-signing option and scheduled to visit 500 locations. The and women so we can go on and act in a urging the university to make this a part People's Science Organizations plan to socially and environmentally responsible of future graduation activities. use a multimedia approach, bringing roadside theater, songs, films, quizzes, exhibits, and competitions to Indian communities. Organizers say that the are their fault; neighbors of roxie dumps festival seeks to "forge active grass-root arc told that elevated cancer rates arc linkages between scientists and the attributable solely to smoking and other people at large who are presently lifestyle factors. alienated from science." Since more'than But one Reagan administration official 80 percent of Indians live in rural villages went roo far when he suggested that the and do not see the impacts of modern way to stem a projected epidemic of skin science and technology, festival organizers cancer caused by depletion of the hope to reach millions of those people atmospheric ozone layer was not an with science news. international treaty to reduce emissions The festival march will end in Bhopal of chlorofluorocarbons-to slow down on ;\;ovember 7 with a day-long "science the destruction of the ozone-but a new Woodstock." One thousand scientists type of personal protective gear. and 5,000 teachers plan to join the In June, the U.S. Senate voted 80-2 to People's Science Organizations in reject Interior Secretary Donald Hodel's Bhopal, almost three years after the gas plan to urge people to wear sunglasses leak at Union Carbide's pesticide plant and straw hats to counter depletion of the there killed or injured thousands of ozone layer and protect themselves from Indian citizens. the sun's rays. This summer, President -information from Nature Reagan, recovering from an operation to remove cancerous skin tissue from his nose, advised Americans to keep out of MISSING the sun. But the Senate resolution rejected SOMETHING? "suggestions that simple changes in HATS OFF TO lifestyle can offset these adverse health everal readers ha vc contacted us to HODEL and environmental effects of ozone Scomplain of missing centerfold pages depletion." in their July /August issues. We apologize n recent years, there has been a trend Straw hat manufacturers expressed for this printing error, and have no idea toward blaming workers and those who disappointment with the Senate vote, and how many of our subscribers were Idare to go outdoors for their occupa­ Coppertone shelved plans for a Hodel affected by this problem. Please contact tional and environmental illnesses. line of sunscreens. us if you're missing pages and would like Workers are told that shop floor injuries -Stephanie Pollack a replacement copy of that issue.

September/October 1987 3 EFFECTS OF VDTs NOT IN THE NEWS he health effects of electromagnet­ ic radiation from video display Tterminals are in the news again--or at least thev should be. New cx~rimental results from Uppsala, Sweden have received even less press attention than a similar studv done last vear at the Karolinska I~stitutc in Stockholm. Both studies found that VDT-typc radiation can upset fetal development in mice. In the more recent studv, Professor Gunnar Walinder and his ~oworkcrs at the Swedish Cnivcrsity of Agriculture Sciences in U ppsala exposed pregnant mice to weak pulsed magnetic fields and compared the outcomes to controls. Thev found a significant increase in fetal deaths and fetal loss among the exposed mice. The offspring of the exposed animals also had a higher incidence of A GRAVE debris. Thev'rc also concerned about the malformations, although this finding was adverse cffccrs on astronomic observations not statistically significant. PROBLEM IN caused by "light pollution" from the The new studv adds credibility to SPACE space caskets. claims that VDT ~adiation presents~ risk If the scientists can't defeat Celestis's to pregnant women, according to lrf)T stronomers from the University proposal, the lawyers may. The state of Seu·s. These claims have been received of Illinois Urbana-Champaign arc Florida first tried- unsuccessfully-to skeptically in the U.S., however, and A fighting a Florida company's plans define the mausoleums as a ccmctary, have received almost no press attention. to turn outer space into a graveyard for which under Florida law would require The American Medical Association has more than just space debris. the company to have at least 15 acres of stated that there is no evidence of \'DT The scientists wrote Transportation land and a paved road, and to put $25,000 radiation risks for pregnant women. The Secretary Elizabeth Dole and expressed into a maintenance fund for each plot. Environmental Protection Agency is no their opposition to the Celestis Group's When that gambit failed, the state longer doing any research on nonionizing proposal to launch the cremated remains­ insurance commissioner notified the radiation. The Food and Drug Adminis­ called "cremains" -of up to 10,000 company that they may be charged with tration has only a small research program. people in orbiting mausoleums. The operating a funeral home without a No U.S. labs are attempting to repeat the astronomers complained about the license. Swedish mice experiments, largely due to hazards to spacecraft and astronauts Cclestis's plans are currently on hold. the dearth of research funds. posed by the growing amount of space - Stephanie Pollack -information from VDT Seu·s

SMOKERS FIGHT tries to persuade its readers that they can reason," this masochist goes out of her BACK have it all-play hard, smoke hard, and way to inhale other people's smoke, never be plagued by emphysema, lung begging smokers to blow it in her face. hilip Morris, Inc., producer of cmcer, or other smoking-related illnesses. "M v husband will never end his affair Marlboro cigarettes and other tox­ But the big issue for Philip Alorris is with cigarettes,'' she writes. "He's Pins, has a slick new magazine, "smokers' rights." In addition to the devoted to them as deeply and sincerely Philip Morris, which does its bit to battle tobacco lobby's tired claim that a link as he's committed to me. I don't mind." the Surgeon General's campaign for a between cigarettes and lung cancer is still As a committed smoker's antidote to smoke-free society by the year 2000. unproven, there is a new and similar the American Cancer Socictv's "Great Philip Morris features articles on sports, theme-secondhand smoke won't hurt American Smokeout" campa;gn to help food, and local color. What do maple you either! To that end, Philip Morris is people quit, Philip Morris offers a "Great syrup and the America's Cup have to do applauding the Department ofT ranspor­ American Smoker" kit to ward off those with cigarettes? These articles show tation's postponement of a ban on offensive nonsmokers. And because the sporty, rugged all-American smokers smoking during domestic airline flights. tobacco industry has so much money to having fun and keeping up with Freud would have had a good time burn, subscriptions to Philip iHorris are nonsmokers in the race toward health and with the author of the editorial "I'm too free and massively distributed. We saw happiness. It's a magazine full of false Understanding to l\·1ind." Although our first issue at the local public library. advertising for smoking. Philip Morris she'd quit smoking "for no particular -Ellen TVeinstock

4 Science for the People go on. President Ronald Reagan appeared on national television to emphasize that the accident would not be allowed to cast any doubt over the future of the space program, and that space remained a "new frontier" waiting to be conquered by a modern generation of adventure-seeking pioneers. Over the next few weeks, however, public confidence in NASA evaporated as it became clear that the agency's image of technical infallibilitv had been little more than a carefully c;afted public relations exercise. Journalists and congressional investigators revealed that behind this image lay a history of management ineptitude, technical misjudgment, and unnecessary risk-taking. High among the list of complaints were those of the shuttle astronauts who claimed that even they had been kept ignorant of the extent of the risks on earlier flights. The need to convince future commercial customers of the shuttle's reliability appeared to have taken precedence over safety in deciding to launch the Challenger. Indeed, it became clear that even the astronauts who died had been ruled out of full involvement in decisions that directly affected their lives. Chief astronaut John Young later suggested to the disaster inquiry committee that "there is only one BY DAVID DICKSON driving reason that such a potentially dangerous system would ever be allowed hen the space shuttle Chal­ to fly: launch schedule pressure." lenger exploded in flames It was a similar story a few months later shortly after takeoff on when the nuclear reactor exploded at January 28, 1986, the first Public Chernobyl in the Soviet Union. The first W reaction of the lJ.S. admin­ explanation offered by the Soviet government istration was to insist that the show must to Western nations, concerned about the impact of the accident on their own nuclear David Dickson is European correspondent for power programs, was that the accident was Science magazine and author of The Politics Interest ·the result of "human error" in switching of Alternative Technology. A portion of his off emergency cooling systems while the second book, The New Politics of Science, reactor was being put through some was excerpted in the july I August 1984 issue dangerous experiments. Subsequent! y, of Science for the People. The following article Criteria blame was passed to the designers of the was adapted from an address he delivered at the RBMK-type reactors for failing to build in Committee for Responsible Genetics conference, safety systems that would have predicted Creating a Public Agenda for Biotechnology, such mistakes and prevented them from on November 13, 1986. being made.

September/October 1987 5 Both explanations were welcome in the later discovered ro cause vaginal cancer in political implications and, conversely, West, which could argue that the heavy rhc daughters of those to whom ir had been almost every political issue has a technological automation of its own nuclear power prescribed. In others, typified by the dimension. In rhis new situation, ir is plants made a similar accident almost t<.-'Sting of genetically altered microorganisms increasingly difficult ro separate the impossible. Only later did it emerge that--­ in rhc environment, new technological technical from rhe political. just as in the Challenger accident-a key practices may be introduced before their A major research project, ranging from factor that had led those in charge of the full potential risks arc known. rhe Strategic Defense Initiative program to reactor to continue the fatal experiments, If there is a common theme running European cooperation in high energy even with all the danger signals flashing through these different examples, it is the physics, can be launched as much for violently in the control room, was pressure wav that a mask of technical certainty and political as scientific purposes. Conversely, to maintain a strict work schedule. If the co~fidence is used to deflect questioning, a new technology such as microelectronics experiments had not been carried out that particularly that which may become or biotechnology can immediately give night, they would have had to wait a year sufficient! v intense to throw doubts on rhc rise to polirical issues, such as rhe tension before they could be tried again, and those wav that. dectsions have been made. A between state and private control over the responsible for the delay inevitably would sca~1less web is thrown over technological results of research paid for out of public have been penalized. decisions to make them appear part of a funds. Y er rhere was no discussion in public grand design. As borh states and the private sector debates of the social factors thar contributed If we raise questions about the need for a have come to realize that scicnri fie to the accident. The main concern of the new space station, we arc merely told, in knowledge is now one of rhe key access International Atomic Energy Agency in the words of former ;\' ASA administrator routes to new technology, so they have Vienna, for example, has been to argue thar James Beggs, that it is the "next logical begun to extend their influence over what the accident should not be seen as an step" in the L1.S. space program. Little is supposed to be the unrestricted field of indictment of the principle of obtaining mention is made of the powerful aerospace basic science. Governments have begun ro electricity from nuclear power, which, in companies who have lobbied hard for the look closely ar the motivations of foreign the words of IAEA director general Hans space station in the face of skepticism from research workers attending scientific Blix, "has passed the point of no return." the industrial, military, and scientific conferences. Companies have sought to The implications of the Challenger and communities similar to that which greeted strengthen their links with university the Chernobyl disasters go far beyond the the first proposals for the shuttle as the research departments. And both have dangers of space exploration and nuclear cheap way into space. pursued extensions of the patent system power respectively. We live in a world If we question the continued desirability over areas of science-such as molecular where we are continually being told that of nuclear power, we are given statistics on biology-not merely because a patent has a high technology will provide not only for how much "cheaper" or "cleaner'' it is than commercial value, bur because it provides a all our material needs, but for manv of our coal, not on the military value of sustained legal handle on a new discovery rhar allows cultural (and even spiritual) ones a~ well. It nuclear power programs. If we criticize the the owner ro lay down the terms and may officially be acknowledged rhat hasty and frequently uncritical way that conditions under which it can be used. technology has its dangerous aspects, new production techniques have been A new politics of science has emerged as hence the existence of safety devices that introduced into traditional industries, we a direct product of broader political range from seatbelts in cars to detailed receive the short response rhat "you can't movements around advanced technology, regulations for the disposal of radioactive stop progress." and particularly around recent developments waste. Time and again we find a purely in microelectronics and biotechnology But we arc encouraged to leave decisions technological logic used to disguise the research. For since scientific khowledge about what is safe and what is dangerous in commercial and political interests that lie provides the key to these new technologies, the hands of technical experts, and the behind all technological decisions, even control over and access to this scientific control of our lives in the hands of the down to the level of research priorities. knowledge therefore becomes an important machines and regulations that they design. The very pervasiveness of this process is goal for any group which seeks the power Where there arc risks, we arc told, we can significant. The consequence of living in rhat these technologies can convey. It is be certain that they will be outweighed by an advanced industrialized society is rhar therefore not surprising that this question the benefits. technology touches all aspects of ~ur daily of access has been highly contested in So successful has the marketing of this lives. But it also means that technology in many recent debates about the social message been that a desire to stand in rhc some form is used ro further rhe interests of control of science and technology. Some of way of technological progress, indeed even virtually every social group, including, in the key questions which have come to to raise questions about the direction in particular, major industrial corporations dominate these debates include: which it is leading, has become the major and the military community. heresy of rhe late twentieth century. If we Decisions about the directions in which •Should the industrial sponsors of probe behind the facade of technological technology should develop therefore lie at universitv research be allowed to influence optimism and euphoria, however, a the intersection of the desires and the cond;tions under which the results of different picture emerges. The uncertainties motivations of a number of actors which rhe research are published, or given surrounding the risks of technological can have widely differing goals and exclusive rights to any patents that result? projects, as tragically demonstrated by the motivations. And in anv conflicts, the • Should the military be permitted to Challenger accident, arc often far greater views of rhe most powerful will, inevitably, prevent the publication of unclassified than they are portrayed. tend to dominate. research which it has paid for, or to choose T cchnical experts themsel vcs often Recent years have seen a growing which foreign nationals should be allowed disagree on the precise nature of specific number of problems arising from technologies to take part in the research? technology-related threats, such as the developed to meet commercial or military • Should government agencies be allowed health damage caused by low-level criteria alone. These make it increasingly to prevent foreign scientists from attending radiation, or the implications of a steady important to establish public interest scientific conferences? buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. criteria for the devleopmcnt of new • Should the patent system be revised so In some cases, new technologies can have technologies. that control of patents awarded for totally unexpected consequences, such as We have now reached a point in which publicly funded research is given to the the pregnancy drug Bendectin thar was virtually every technological decision has institutions which carried out the research,

6 Science for the People engineering, for example, is on the highly profitable crops of Western farmers, not on the much wider but less profitable needs of farmers in the Third World. Similarly, safety guidelines may be introduced for new chemicals, but their levels are established by the needs of international trade. Bodies such as the European Economic Commission in Brussels are urged to lay down Europe-wide standards in fields such as biotechnology, not primarily to protect the consumer but to preempt any one country from applying rules which arc stricter than in other countries. This is a move which, as in the case of the environmental release of microorganisms, may in fact be a legitimate reflection of the political pressures which exist in one country and not in another. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the public reaction against the side effects of the rapid technological growth of the previous two decades resulted in various moves to democratize the process of technological decision-making. This trend can be seen most clearly in the United States. It included legislation such as the Environmental Protection Act of 1972, which gave environmentalist groups, for the first time, the legal standing to oppose major technological developments as representatives of the public interest. This rather than the public which paid for it? can be done with high technology, then it response to public concern over technology's • Will European countries who participate should be done; and the "high-technology side effects was also represented in the in the construction of the planned space fix," which says that for every problem creation of the Office of Technology station be able to benefit from all the technology causes in the modern world, Assessment in the U.S. Congress, designed research that is involved, or only that "high technology" can guarantee to find to provide legislators with the technical which they have contributed? an appropriate solution. Together, these information needed to question decisions • Will those who carry out research two ideas create a mind-set that blindly made by the administration. projects for the Strategic Defense Initiative erects a revitalized banner of progress, the · Although the trends in Europe "\\'ere less be allowed to usc the results of that idee fixe of the new political discourse marked, the public inquiries into the research for their own projects? around science and technology. nuclear industry's plans at Britain's • U ndcr what conditions should Third The Enlightenment idea that rapid Windscale or West Germany's Gorleben World countries be given access to technological expansion was a guaranteed reactors, and the brief flourishing of the scientific results produced in key areas of route to social improvement received a alternative technology movement, demon­ strategic research? severe beating in the 1970s, when science strated that they pointed in the same and technology took much of the blame for direction. In each case, the questions of the terms the ills of the modern world, ranging from In practice, any development aimed at and conditions of access to scientific the horrors of the Vietnam War to the giving the public greater political control knowledge is one of the key points at issue. massive destruction of the natural over decision-making was heavily circum­ This question has therefore become central environment and the outbreak of new scribed. Traditional power groups were to any debate over establishing public work-related diseases. But the idea of allowed to write the rules under which the interest criteria" for technology. Indeed, we science-based progress has now crept back new power-sharing procedures were find that a new form of political discourse into fashion, and its camp followers, who supposed to operate. And this meant that has been erected around the way that include most of the scientific community as they were able to ensure that the impact of technological research priorities are well as leaders of the industrial and military challenges to their authority was kept to a identified, one that tends to exclude such communities, have done what they can to minimum. This can be seen clearly, for public interest criteria. Research and sustain and promote it. example, in the history of the National development programs are not decided or The social consequences of technology Institutes of Health's Recombinant DNA presented in terms of equity or social need. are not ignored in this new discourse. But Advisory Committee, given responsibility Rather, they arc justified as being they are subordinated to the broader for laying down safety guidelines for all necessary to meet two external threats: one imperative of economic and military publicly funded genetic engineering economic- -the threat of international competition. Technologies are tailored to research. competition -and the other military. meet social needs only to the extent that Nevertheless, there was still a significant Supporting this strategy arc two ideas these needs can be reflected in and are shift in the center of gravity of control over which have become articles of faith for compatible with demand expressed decision-making toward public institutions. both conservative and social democratic through the marketplace. And this shift was responsible for governments alike: the "high-technology The main focus of research into the incorporating a growing social agenda into imperative," which says that if anything agricultural applications of genetic debates about new technologies, determining

September/October 1987 7 not merely which should be accepted and economic dispantics between one region elites, but must, as in the developed world, which rejected, but also the principles and another. help to spread decision-making throughout (from a ban on disposable bottles to the • At the same time, the technology must the community. Thirdly, the technology safety requirements for nuclear power help to enhance regional identity, rather must help to reduce rather than accentuate stations) according to which future than destroy this identity by reducing it to the gap between the rich and the poor technologies should be designed. a single, national norm. countries, between the haves and the have­ The trends are now beginning to point nots, between the North and the South. in the opposite direction. The more the private sector realizes that its strategic I would be the first to agree that this list interests lie in keeping firm control of of criteria for new technologies and new technological developments, the more it technical systems is highly utopian---not in will work to exclude any dissemination of the sense of being unrealistic, but in this control. One tactic, for example, has representing a long-term goal to be aimed been to support international regulation­ for, rather than something which can be for example, over genetic engineering reached overnight. It is not intended to be techniques-precisely in order to remove any type of instant recipe, even though one decision-making on such issues from local can think of many technologies which communities. Another has been to alreadv fill several of these criteria. significantly reduce the opportunities for Th~ main point that I want to end with, public debate on new technological however, is that as public interest groups developments by arguing that these are develop their strategies for the late 1980s essential to meet economic or military and earlv 1990s. thcv must become aware competition from the outside. of the w·ay in which ~!most all of the public How docs all this relate to public interest interest criteria listed above arc being criteria for technology? I would like to broken in one way or another bv advanced suggest the following list of criteria that technologies cur~cntly being ·developed should be used in developing any new solely in the name of private profit or technological systems and technology military power. These technologies tend policies: to be job destroying, alienating to work with, and exploitative of the natural • The technology should be based on environment. They also tend to concentrate social need, and not be determined by power in the hands of the dominant classes either pressure for private profit or for the in society- including industrial and development of the technology for its own military elites-while removing it from sake. • In ecological terms -those in which the women, from minority groups of all kinds, •It should in principle be peace-oriented alternative technology movements of the and from any attempt at community-based rather than war-oriented. This is a more early 1970s first learned to express their decision-making. difficult criterion than it might appear, demands--the technology must encourage Furthermore, these technologies often embracing as it does the question of a harmonious relationship between actively encourage social divisions within whether a strategy of defensive technology humans and the natural environment, communities, within and between regions, can be considered aggressive (as in the case rather than require a relationship of and between nations. Finally, not only do of Star Wars) or nonaggrcssive (as in the exploitation. they drive the wedge in funh~r between case of several new ideas currently being • This means that the technology must be the rich and the poor nations of the world, developed in Europe). Nevertheless, the resource conserving, in the broadest sense, but they also increase the power of elites idea that a technology should not be rather than resource intensive. within these countries and disregard the primarily determined by the needs of the • In the same way, the technology or real, basic needs of large parts of the military remains central. technical systems must be energy conserving population. • The technology should be job-creating rather than energy intensive. This is not In developing a public interest agenda which frequently, although not necessarily, merely a question of energy resources. As for technology over the next few years, we means that it should be labor intensive­ the German Greens, among others, have must do what we can to ensure that the rather than job-destroying and capital been pointing out, the forms of energy various criteria I have described are intensive. required to meet the needs of an energy­ integrated into any strategy for technological • It should be a technology which is intensive technology (and I am thinking in development leading to real social satisfying and self-fulfilling to work with, particular of nuclear technology) also tend progress, whether at the community, rather than one which the individual finds to offend several of the other criteria regional, national, or international level. either personally alienating or socially already listed above. Bur we must also remain aware of the fragmenting. • The technology must not have a long­ powerful political interests that remain •The technology should be one which term destructive effect on the global opposed to any such stratcgv for a socially distributes decision-making power as ecosystem, a criterion which could be based technology, since this cuts directly widely as possible in the community, grouped with that requiring environmental across the economic and political goals of rather than concentrating it in the hands of harmony, but seen from a slightly different those representing those interests. What a narrow elite or powerful sectional pcrspecn ve. this means is that any strategy to interests. • Finally, three criteria which will help incorporate public interest criteria into • The technology must help to increase ensure that technology meets the needs of new technologies must be a political the power of women over their lives, rather the Third World. First, it must make strategy that is prepared to confront these than concentrate this power in the hands of maximum use of indigenous resources­ narrow interests and eventually supersede men. including capital and labor resources­ them. It will not be an casv task. But • In national terms, the technology must rather than import these resources from the ensuring the proper social ·control of be one which encourages regional equality, outside. The technology rriust not technology is essential for the future of rather than reproducing social and strengthen the political power of domestic humanity, if not for its very survival. 9

8 Science for the People RESPOND T 0 TECHNOLOGIES

TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIAL RELATIONS

The following forum continues the discussion society. Even before my views on this issue industrial leaders and military officials. of progressive scientists' responses to neu• had completely matured, I edited an At the other extreme, the total technologies. /on Beckwith started the debate anthology of writings on this question, oppositionist point of view (perhaps best with his opinion, "1\'ew Analysis for 1\'ew Technology as a Social and Political exemplified by its earliest exposition in Technologies," in the May/june 1986 issue. Phenomenon. Jacque Ellul's The Technological Society) That analysis elicited several letters to SftP In order to demystify the initiation and has proved itself ineffective and fairly and fohn Vandermeer's response in the development of technologies, we must see irrelevant to bringing about significant March/April 1987 issue. Help us keep the them as firmly anchored in the social and social change. True, less extreme variants debate rolling with your own analysis. political milieu in which they are called of this position -in particular, works by into being. Because of my commitment to Theodore Roszak and Ivan Illich, which BY PHILIP L. BEREANO democratic values, I believe that people have helped us to undcrsta'nd the must understand this close connection if reductionist danger in technological t has been seventeen years since I first they arc ever to be able to develop more activities-have produced a general began teaching about technology and authentic and autonomous lives. "greening" and an important renewed Isociety at the university level. The The Vietnam era certainly offered contemporary awareness of the role of science for the people movement, and this lessons which refute the technocratic spiritual, moral, aesthetic, and transcendental publication, are of comparable duration. In viewpoint. Social movements which have aspects in human activity and existence. this interim, both the popular and scholarly developed since that time incorporate The choice of which model is therefore literature exploring the social relations of important analyses which reject this once­ more "correct"- in the sense of helping us technology have increased enormously. dominant view that technology is neutral, to understand our situation and to create a The essays by Jon Beckwith and John value-free, and available to all. social theory which will enable us to bring Vandermeer have provided the field with a The antinuclear movement now understands about social change of the type we favor­ valuable service by setting out a topology that the basis for funding solar and other is between the use-abuse and technology­ of the various authors' viewpoints: alternative energy systems instead of is-politics models. Beckwith comes down technocratic, use-abuse model, technology nuclear power depends, for example, on in favor of the former, and Vandermeer the as a manifestation of class politics, and the whether Carter or Reagan is in the White latter. "greening" opposition to new technologies. House. The women's movement has To me, the flaw in the use-abuse model As an earlier article of mine, "Technology explored how "math anxiety" and other is its failure to focus sufficient attention on and Human Freedom," (SftP, November/ social stereotypes have contributed to the how new technological phenomena come into December 1984) should make clear, I am in continuing discmpowerment of women by beinf!,. It invites an analysis which asks, agreement with Vandermeer's opinion and perpetuating an extreme state of technological given a particular technology (which, by the contribution bv Ruth Hubbard in this illiteracy. And the movement to control the way, it tends to narrowly define in issue-technolog;cal endeavors usually nuclear armaments has come to realize that terms of hardware alone), what are the express existing power relationships in a the continued stockpiling of nuclear potential impacts? And what are the. weapons does not depend on any rational consequences of utilizing this technology Philip Bereano is an associate professor of analysis of "security" needs, but instead in whatever formats may be possible under engineering at the University of Washington. relates to vested economic interests and prevailing political and social norms? A longtime member of Science for the People, power relations on the part of certain Certainly, the raising of such questions is he serves on our editorial advisory board. corporations and a macho ideology held by an advance over the previously dominant

September/October 1987 9 ( R E s ,' p ,() ,'N D I N G T 0 TECHNOLOG E S

technocratic model, which served only to deletion of a gene from an otherwise ever more sophisticated technologies to pacify people by insisting that there were benign microorganism can never lead to provide infertile couples with biological very few, if any, variations possible in the any negative consequences. Such reductionism children, when we live in a society which formatting of technological hardware and ignores the interactions between any has a scandalous mortality rate among that the consequences had to be accepted. species and its environment, a more holistic infants who have already been born. And Historically, the use-abuse model grew view which enables us to understand that we witness this society relentlessly up in the 1960s, when the externalities the deletion of a gene and the proteins it pursuing the automation of work processes, associated with environmental pollution may produce could alter the ability of the despite the consequence of increasing work and some assaults on personal dignity and organism to survive in an ecological niche, degredation. leading to considerable environmental integrity became popular political issues. Who is making the decisions in these The use-abuse viewpoint has been perturbation. situations? Are hungry Third World espoused by the dominant corporate liberal But in a more practical sense, if we accept peasants pushing for more insecticides? ideology because it suggests that some the political model of technology rather Are bereaved families in city ghettos and improvements are possible through than the apolitical use-abuse viewpoint, we on Indian reservations urging us to perfect reforms---enacting pollution-control regula­ are better able to analyze and confront the in vitro fertilization? Are secretaries in tions, using tax subsidies or fiscal issues of resource allocation. The origina­ insurance companies the ones advocating incentives to get businesses and municipalities tion and development of technologies the development of computer work to run their wastes through treatment surely correlates with the availability of stations? plants, and so forth. And analyzing the resources for important research, field tests social impacts of a technological application, and trials, and other stages in the diffusion Progressives must realize that the use­ through a process such as technology of a technology. In other words, we need abuse approach is inadequate because it assessment, can be important for professionals to analyze on the macroeconomic level as largely accepts the definition of reality laid and community groups alike. well as the micro level in order to explore down by existing powers. Our politics However, technologies are not acts of technological alternatives. teaches us that we must refuse to accept God, Nature, or History. Technological If we only focus on the impacts which such imposed realities. Women must stop and social factors exist in a dialectical flow from a technological development, being defined by men, Jews by gentiles, relationship, affecting each other. The use­ we are less likely to be able to analyze blacks by whites, and gays by straights. If abuse model inherently deflects our successfully how the allocation of we look at the history of totalitarianism, artention away from the equally compelling resources affects the very existence of other we see that the most effective way to keep a question of how social, economic, and technological possibilities (or, indeed, people oppressed is to get them to political factors in a culture lead to the nontechnological means of dealing with internalize their own oppression. This is development of particular technological problems). As a result, we see the why the cry "Black is beautiful" was so hardware (see David Dickson's The Politics dominant forces in this society insist that profoundly threatening to the political of Alternative Technology). the solution to world hunger lies with yet establishment twenty years ago-and why Thus the use-abuse model perpetuates more biological and agricultural technologies, saying "technology is politics" is so our disempowerment by distracting our rather than land reform. We learn about threatening to them today. attentions and energies from what may be the most fruitful lines of inquiry and community activity. It leads us to examine only patchwork modifications when more thorough reexamination (that is, radical: "to the roots") may be required. For LEFT OUT OF THE example, the problems of nuclear power plants cannot be cured by assuring better evacuation plans for adjacent citizens; NEW TECHNOLOGY reactors are inherent manifestations of a nondemocratic concentration of decision­ making authority and economic power. If we are concerned that democratic DEBATE values be present in all aspects of our lives, then we must understand that the generation of electricity from nuclear BY RUTH HUBBARD the May /june 1986 issue, which he power is incompatible with a democracy published to invite discussion. Beckwith (whether it be in the United States or in hile I basically agree with John argues that by voicing concern, "Science Cuba) because it requires, in fact, both a V andermecr' s opinion piece in the for the People made an important centralized economy and hierarchical W March/ April 1987 issue, I want contribution to the (early) debate over politics. The writings of Murray Bookchin to comment further on Jon Beckwith's biotechnology," but events have shown (for example, Toward an Ecological Society "New Analysis for New Technology" in that we were wrong to urge caution now or Post-Scarcity Anarchism) make this point that "biotechnology has become a major with telling force. Ruth Hubbard teaches biology and women's technology in the world, with significant By being thus nonholistic, the use-abuse studies at Harvard University. She is a potenti~,l for improving the welfare of model reinforces the dangerous intellectual member of Science for the People and its people. limitations of reductionism. In the field of editorial advisory board, and serves on the He cites two examples: the (as yet biotechnology, which Beckwith refers to, Executive Council of the Committee for unrealized) attempt to develop vaccines it has led to the regulatory position that the Responsible Genetics. that could be useful against parasitic

10 Science for the People RESPOND N G T 0 T E C N N 0 L 0 G I E S·

diseases and diseases of livestock "which debate, not because "we have left ourselves more than the earlier promises of curing are important for many developing out," but because our insistence on taking world hunger and cancer which Beckwith, countries," and new methods of genetic account of the political content and impact too, dismisses. screening being worked out in Argentina of science and technology rules us out. As for tracing children of the "disappeared", to make it possible to trace the children of "They," not "we," leave us out. I am appalled that this is supposed to be a people who have been "disappeared" by Take vaccines: New and more effective justification for developing a technology­ the military and unite them with their vaccines are wonderful in theory, but do screening for genetic markers-that many grandparents. little in the countries that need them most. of us fear will be yet another way to I disagree with Beckwith's description In those countries, the main reason people increase differences in power between of what happened with biotechnology and are ill and die from parasitic diseases and people and between nations, that further find his examples unconvincing. Beckwith other infections is not lack of vaccines, but the kinds of official brutalities of which confuses two levels at which decisions malnutrition, too little water, and· disappearances arc an example. (Will these about science and technology are being inadequate sewage disposal. Twenty-five technologies be used in Chile, El Salvador, made. One is the societal level, where years after the measles vaccine was and Guatemala?) organizations like Science for the People introduced in rich countries, measles Finally, I want to say something about and the Committee for Responsible continues to be a major killer in the poor prenatal screening and other reproductive Genetics can play an important part by ones, which is where parasites and diseases technologies whose benefits Beckwith testifying before legislative committees of livestock are the greatest problems. urges us not to ignore. I will confess at the and other policy-making organizations at Vaccines cannot attack the power outset that I believe the disproportionate local, state, and federal levels and by relationships under which parasitic interest in genetics stems not from the fact serving as resources for advocacy groups, diseases flourish; in fact, they can make that heredity and genes are much more journalists, and interested citizens. Here them worse. Since disease and death rates fascinating or important than other aspects the issues arc usually at least partly political in the poor countries of the so-called Third of living organisms, but from the and, in addition to supplying technical World are grounded in economic and opportunities genetics offers for social information, we can clarify priorities and technical dependence on the rich and control. From the start, these were clear to power relationships in order to help people capitalist countries, high-tech scientific the eugenicists in the U.S., Britain, evaluate potential effects of the technology developments are more likely to increase Scandinavia, and Germany, who helped on different individuals, interest groups, than decrease those rates. put genetics on the map. Recent historical and on society. That is why Cuba is trying to develop research shows that, although the Nazis Then there are the debates among its own resources for genetic technology, were able to utilize genetics more frankly scientists, funding agencies, and within so that it will not have to depend on other and decisively for purposes of social firms that are developing the technology. countries. And the technology may be of control, some of the most respected Here it is taken for granted that the science benefit there, as long as Cuba remains alert scientists, physicians, and politicians in and technology will go forward. The not to allow expensive technologies to other countries framed the issues surrounding questions asked are about the forms in erode their commitment to adequate genetics and social control in similar ways. which the new technology should be standards of nutrition, sanitation, and At present, in the democracies of the developed and how to market it. At this health care for evervone. So, I do not West, the new reproductive technologies level, our organizations arc not part of the accept the argument· about vaccines any are presented as increasing "choice" and

September/October 1987 ]] RESPONDING T 0 TECHNOLOGIES

especially the choice to have healthy efforts to enhance our own control over with disabilities make, despite the obstacles children. This is something all of us would our sexuality and participation in procrea­ they encounter. want if we could have it, but we cannot, tion and other social functions. "i"hesc arc among the issues we introduce since health is not something we can when our kinds of organizations participate in choose, before birth or later. These issues and more would need to be the debate over new technologies. We have Hidden behind this way of stating the included in a genuine debate about research been useful and consistent with our situation are the economic pressures to and applications of reproductive technologies. political and scientific commitments when relieve state and private agencies of the But as the debate has been framed by the we inform people and help them articulate, need to care for people with special needs, medical/technical establishment, of the and fight for, their needs and rights. But I along with social and political pressures issues I list, only the economic ones get believe that it is pointless to try to enter the that are oppressive to people whose needs brought up, and only to bewail the costs of debates that rake place within the or demands diverge from those of the caring for people with disabilities. This scientific/technical establishment. They majority, and ideological pressures to accounting usually neglects the fact that exclude or obscure the issues we consid~r believe in a wider range of individual many people with disabilities would like to most important, because their terms arc choice than exists. The argument that new be economically independent and productive, defined by the people who ha vc the most to reproductive technologies increase individual and could be if employers, transportation gain financially, professional! y, and choice also masks professional pressures to systems, and other institutions met their politically from developing the technologies continue medical and legal control over needs better. Also neglected arc the as unencumbered as possible by public childbearing, conflicting with women's economic and social contributions people discussion and interference. SCIENCE AND POLITICS ARE COMPLEX

BY JONATHAN BECKWITH is this automatic application of a rigid analysis that I oppose. And I fear that am pleased that my opinion in the May I underneath it all, this tendency stems from June 1986 issue has elicited controver­ an antitechnology position. I sy, but I am disappointed at many aspects John Vandermeer uses the .example of of the responses. In particular, it seems to me tomato harvesting to show th:'n science is that the reaction has been that if I criticize inherently political and that the consequences in any way the usc of the "science is in this society benefit the wealthy at the .... politics" approach, I must be on the other expense of workers and the poor. This is an ~· _; .. side-supporting the use-abuse model. excellent example. That is why I used it in

0 ·.=.::' Phil Bereano is most explicit in his my opinion to show that this type of .·. ,... :.··:.- characterization of my position, but other analysis is very important! However, one J'··.-; responses appear to rake the same tack. To ideal case study cannot be used to quote my original article, I suggested that generalize...... ,· : :.:·: the science-is-political perspective had There is little I disagree with in Phil been used "to a greater extent than Bereano's opinion, except his characteriza­ ·:··. warranted" to oppose development of new tion of my position. While he raises . _.,. technologies . concerns about areas such as biotechnology In fact, I agree with much of what is said that I share, he docs not conclude that the .....·· in these responses. I accept and constantly technology is inherently oppressive. • •• '1. usc the "science is politics" way of looking The concerns that caused me to write .... . at problems of science and technology . my original opinion are over the kinds of What I suggested was that the overcxtensions positions presented in Ruth Hubbard's of this approach have led to an opposition response. She argues that the current ... to nearly every new technology. It is interest in genetics stems from "the ~ ..· .-. important for us to examine and understand opportunities it offers for social control." I the social roots of new technologies. But have written and spoken extensively on the the temptation to put each one into the historical example of eugenics and agree, same neat analysis holds many dangers. It for the most part, with Hubbard on the social origins and purposes of eugenics and Jonathan Beckwith is a genetics professor and the role played by scientists and physicians. researcher at Harvard Medical School. He is (However, it should be noted that eugenics SjtP's outreach coordinator and active in the was also pushed in this country by Genetic Screening Study Croup. CONTINUED ON PAGE 31

12 September/October 1987 YOUR MONEY OR

officially sanctioned and available anti­ YOUR viral agent to retard AIDS exists. There is a catch. AZT is one of the costliest prescription drugs around, some say unnecessarily so, at around $10,000 LIFE per annum. Burroughs Wellcome faces a growing chorus of voices demanding they publicly justify the cost. The company has refused to release that information, citing The High commercial secrecy. As suspicions mount, people are not only questioning the price of the drug, but also why Burroughs Cost of Well come got a federal sanction for sales that no one else with promising drugs in development received. Is the company Living a trying to corner the market in AIDS research? How much are they making? Who is going to pay for AZT once it is Little Bit widely available? AZT is a very expensive way to stay alive, and it keeps on getting costlier. Longer Burroughs Wellcome originally estimated that AZT would cost about $5,000 a year for a prescription, but the price currently On AZT ranges from $10,000to $15,000. That's an increase of between 200 and 300 percent in just over a year. Burroughs Wellcome says the price is BY TIM KINGSTON justified by the high cost of research, development and production of the drug. hen Burroughs Wellcomean­ The company claims to have sunk some $80 nounced the discovery that million over and above normal investment AZT inhibited the ability into the product. of Acquired Immune Defi­ Burroughs Wellcome' s investment is not W ciency Syndrome (AIDS) without incentive. The ARC (AIDS­ virus to reproduce, people breathed an Related Complex) and AIDS drug market almost palpable sigh of relief. At last, a could be worth some $1 billion by 1990, licensed drug that can stave off the worst and competition is already stiff. At least 50 episodes of opportunistic infection, and other companies are working on treatments lengthen and dramatically improve the for the virus that causes AIDS, called quality of life for some people with AIDS. human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), in AZT is not perfect, Burroughs Wellcome the hope of breaking into what could be the acknowledges. Thirty to 50 percent of the most lucrative market in the history of people using the drug experience bone medicine. marrow suppression, require major blood In July 1985 Burroughs Wellcome got a transfusions, and endure lethargy and significant jump on the competition when headaches. So far, AZT can only be used the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) against pneumocystis, a fatal opportunistic granted AZT "orphan drug" status, a infection of the lungs. But it does work. designation normally restricted to pharma­ After six long years of the epidemic, an, ceuticals with a limited market. Orphan drug status gives the company exclusive Tim Kingston is a staff reporter for Coming marketing privileges for seven years, tax Up! newspaper in San Francisco, where a incentives, and, best of all, no restrictions longer version of this article first appeared. on price. It should therefore come as no

Science for the People 13 surpnse that the British-based parent of against the AIDS virus in the test tube. He observer called a "perverse advance." On Burroughs Wellcome-Wellcome P.L.C.­ turned to Burroughs Wellcome and began the one hand, the unprecedented move has seen its shares quadruple on the an urgent research program to test and makes it legally possible for anyone with London Stock Exchange over the past develop the drug. Burroughs Wellcome AIDS to apply to the drug company for a year. was granted orphan drug status and AZT prescriptions--it is the first time that an "I think it's really important that we not was approved for clinical testing in July experimental drug has been officially made put up with the pricing of AZT," says I 985. a vail able to the affected population, Martin Delaney, one of the co-founders of In September I 986, placebo trials were something cancer patients have been Project Inform, an information clearing halted, because AZT was noticeably fighting to get for decades. On the other house in San Francisco dealing specifically reducing mortality rates in the group hand, individuals wanting the drug have to with AIDS medication and treatment. "It receiving the drug. Only one out of I 45 of figure out some way to pay for it. That sends a message to drug companies that the individuals in the AZT group died, includes some 4,500 people with AIDS says, 'OK, this is acceptable,' and if they while nineteen of I 3 7 in the placebo group who had been receiving the drug free in an get away with this, the next one who died. It was deemed unethical to continue FDA-approved IND program, in exchange comes along competing may only drop placebo trials. Burroughs Well come then for taking an experimental drug not fully their price to nine-tenths of AZT. We want began distributing the experimental drug tested by the FDA. them to know the gay community cannot free to 4, 500 patients through an Many of those individuals thought that be exploited like this." Investigatory New Drug (IND) procedure. once on the program they would be AZT was approved by the FDA in only provided with the drug free for the rest of THE HIDDEN SUBSIDY four days. "That has never happened their lives. They were wrong. Delaney OR, WHO'S THAT ROLLING OUT before," says Martin Delaney. "I don't says, "We should have suspected something THE RED CARPET? begrudge it at all, but the same red carpet was wrong then (when the AZT rests treatment should apply to all the drugs started), because normally when people AZT and its nearest commercial rival, being tested for AIDS." take part in a clinical trial, the company DOC, are both known as "government says it will supply the drug and will drugs." They were created in a government THE BITE continue to supply the drug, but the laboratory where the basic research and company made it clear they were under no development was performed. When a On March 20 of this year, AZT was obligation to provide it free of charge." specific use is found for the compound, or a licensed for sale by the FDA in what one Once a pharmaceutical sales license was profitable application realized, the data on granted, Burroughs Wellcome gave participants in the !NO program a month's the dru~ is turned over to a private corporation. supply of AZT, after which they would It is a traditional pattern in the U.S. for "The price· is not have to pay for the drug themselves. Kathy the state to pay for basic research and Bartlett, public affairs officer for the infrastructure, and for drug companies to based on people's company, points out that $10 million use the assistance as a springboard for worth of the drug had been provided free profits. In recent years the process has needs, but on the of charge while the !NO test was in accelerated, with direct corporate sponsor­ operation. ship of universities and research institutes basis of patent In San Francisco, AZT costs $193.64 as the state cuts back on all nonmilitary for I 00 tablets, which lasts about a month, spending. monopoly. There at the Walgreens Pharmacy OPI I 8th and Medicine as we know it could not exist Castro. At I 2 doses a day, 365 days a year, without federal funding. Doctors get is nothing about that works out to $8,48 I a year, and that's long-term loans to go to medical school that one of the lowest prices in the country for are often not repaid, medical institutions the production the drug. get federal grants, the NIH gives out The British business magazine The billions of dollars in research and costs that should Economist commented in its April I I, I 987 development, and Burroughs Well come edition: "The price clearly has more to do gets AZT. hold them back with the temporary monopoly which "This is a totally specious argument for Burroughs W ellcome enjoys than with them to behave as if this is a free market, from making research costs." and they came along and invented the Robbi Wong, an Assistant Clinical medication," states Bill Paul of Mobilization more of it/' Professor of Pharmaceuticals at San against AIDS. "Burroughs Wellcome may Francisco General Hospital's Ward 86, have put money into a specific drug, but points out that the first drug in a new class this idea that they have total rights to is always extremely expensive. The new medical knowledge is urrerly wrongheaded. drug invariably has both a substantial You can bet that over the years Burroughs market share advantage and a high price; Well come has benefited from an immense Wong cited a new class of drugs used social contribution." against ulcers whose price was prohibitive AZT was discovered in I 964 by Dr. until a competitor entered the market. Jerome Horowitz at a National Cancer Then the price dropped sharply. Institute lab in Detroit. Horowitz was At the University of California at hoping to use AZT as an anticancer agent, Berkeley, Andrew Barlow, Associate but the drug proved too toxic for use, and Professor of Sociology, calls the cost of the patent fell into the public domain. AZT one of the grossest examples of In I 984, Dr. Samuel Broder of the monopoly pricing he has ever seen. "The National Cancer Institute in Washington price is not based on people's needs, but on discovered AZT had promising results the basis of patent monopoly. There is

14 Science for the People nothing about the production costs that Speaking before the House Subcommittee involved in the actual production of the should hold them back from making more on Health and the Environment in early drug, which involves at least six separate of it. I'm outraged. It should he stopped. March, Hagler acknowledged the high chemical reactions. The FDA has the right of reviewing price of the drug, but said the company had According to Hagler, Burroughs pricing---<:vcn in this country it is recogniz­ looked at all the normal factors involved in Wcllcome disrupted normal production ed that people have a certain rir.·!n to health pricing, including development, production, schedules and committed the majority of care. Under the Reagan administration the marketing, the high cost of research, what their research effort to the production of FDA docs nothing." he called "the uncertainty of the market," AZT once the drug was found effective in Dr. George Stanley of the FDA's and "profit margins customarily generated checking the AIDS virus. orphan drug program in Washington by new medicines" to determine the price Burroughs Wellcome officials have also denies that the FDA has the power to of AZT. included the cost of new equipment and review drug prices once a pharmaceutical The main ingredient in AZT is factory space in the development costs of license is granted. But even he agrees: "It's thymidine, a very rare and costly item the drug, saying the company has to the price you pay for living in a capitalist derived from herring sperm. In 1985, recover its capital costs. When questioned society. Once the drug is out in the world production of thymidine came to if the company was trying_ to pay for its marketplace, the company controls the only 25 pounds. Burroughs Wellcome investment before other competitors got pricing." purchased the lot. In discussions with a into the act, Bartlett admitted, "That is a In New York, AIDS activist Larrv senior Burroughs Wellcome sales representa­ possibility," explaining, "The price is Kramer accuses Burroughs Wcllcomc ~f tive, Dr. Bill Owen of Bay Area Physicians related to uncertainties in the future. We charging AIDS patients for the cost of for Human Rights says he was told, don't know how many people this drug prior research involving AZT not directly "Wcllcomc would pay any price to get the will be appropriate for, and we do not related ro AIDS. "They took a tax loss and thymidine as fast as possible," and "would know the status of other therapies." asked us to foot the bill. All this is legal in a be willing to pay top dollar." Despite the drug company's protestations, capitalist society, but it's shocking that Burroughs is now in the process of a number of individuals view the company they are doing this on the bodies of dying purchasing the world's only suppliers of in a distinctly dubious light. As Martin men." synthetic thymidine and has engaged Delaney puts it, "Burroughs has refused to Pfizer corporation to produce it. give out any figures on this to anybody, so PRICE FIXING Kathy Bartlett complains that critics are pardon me for being suspicious." Delaney unwilling to take into account the expense adds, "I think Burroughs Wellcome has The biggest difficulty in trying to been dishonest in how they have described determine how the price was arrived at is the costs that have gone into it .... They getting cost estimates and data. The only probably realize that a year from now people who have that information are ~\They·.. took.CI'ti~;: AZT will not be the industry standard. I Burroughs Wellcome, and they ain't think they are very interested in getting all talking. When Kathy Bartlett, public loss ond aske((; their money back as soon as possible while affairs officer for Burroughs Well come, the sun shines on them, because the sun was questioned about sales figures, the us to foot the won't shine forever." profitability of AZT, and a breakdown of exactly how the corporation arrived at the bilL All this DRUG WARS $7,000 to $10,000 price range for the drug, she stated, "That information is is legal in a AZT has been very good bu§iness for normally considered proprietary information Burroughs W ellcome. The British parent not given out by the company. It's capitalist company's shares have jumped from price-sensitive information that can have around $2.45 before the announcement competitive value. I am not at liberty to society, but it's that AZT could be used against AIDS, to a discuss any breakdown in costs." high poinr of between $6.7 5 and $8.50 a Even Congress has been stymied in its shocking that share this year. Well come P.L.C. only efforts to determine just how much went public in 1985 on the London Stock Burroughs Well come spent on creating the they are doing Exchange. The stock is valued at roughly drug, and what a fair price for the substance 30 times the company's anticipated 1987 is. On March 10, after several hours of thison'the bodies earnings. Burroughs Wellcomc U.S.A. questioning, Representative Henry Waxman already accounts for 70 percent of the (D-LA) was no closer to finding out how of dying men.'' parent company's earnings. Revenue from Burroughs Wellcome had arrived at the AZT will probably push the proportion AZT price tag than when he started. In still higher. exasperation, Waxman finally asked The search for the "magic bullet" Burroughs Wellcome president Ted against AIDS is clearly big business, but Hagler, "Why don't you just charge Delaney says, "What is at stake is not so $1 00,000 for the drug and call it a much the AIDS market, but the LA V and reasonable price?" ARC markets, worth literally billions and Burroughs Wellcome has its own billions of dollars. We are talking upwards explanation of why the drug is so of two million people. There is tremendous expensive. Wellcome says it has sunk $80 battling as to who gets the lead. Burroughs million into research and development Well come has the lead in the AIDS market, costs, over and above normal capital costs but financially the action is going to be in for a new drug. The company argues that preventing the progression to AIDS." both the raw materials used to make the Burroughs W ellcome is in the enviable drug and the process synthesizing the position of completely controlling the compound are extremely expensive. distribution and pricing of a unique

September/October 1987 15 has just been given preliminary orphan drug status, but is months away from full trials. DOC operates against HIV in a similar fashion to AZT, but is much more specific, and thus can be prescribed in smaller, less roxie doses.

PURSE STRINGS

Finally, who is going to pay for the drug? What happens to all those people who either don't have medical insurance or whose insurance carrier doesn't cover the cost of pharmaceuticals? Burroughs W ellcome didn't sound too happy when faced with the question, and commodity, because AZT is the only drug Kathy Bartlett sidled away from a direct that currently has any officially recognized answer, saying, "That's a question that effect on the AIDS virus. In effect, AZT needs to be addressed bv the entire health has become the industry standard against care system--employers,· insurance compa­ which all other drugs are judged and tested. nies, states, and the federal government." That means that Burroughs W ellcome The Reagan administration didn't do makes the decisions about which drug tests much better. When Rep. Waxman questioned are conducted, not the U.S. government or William Roper on who should pay for scientists around the country investigating AIDS drug treatment, Roper said that it is the disease. "society's" responsibility. "Under our On April 12, the New York Times blew system, it is the state's prerogative to set up the whistle on an attempt by Burroughs Medicaid as they want." Nor very Wellcome to maintain a stranglehold on the encouraging when some states' Medicaid AIDS and ARC markets. The Times said programs pay as little as 20 percent or less last year that researchers from the of the cost of medical expenses. Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center "It's been pulling teeth to get money out in New York proposed co-testing AZT of this administration for AIDS research," with a Hoffman-LaRoche version of complains one congressional aide. Waxman interferon alpha which had some effect in is trying to shove $30 million in suppressing the AIDS virus and stimulating emergency appropriations through the the immune system. Burroughs W ellcome House of Representatives for the rest of balked. Instead, the company insisted that fiscal year 1987. The money would be irs own version of interferon alpha be used used to purchase bulk supplies of AZT to in a test at another medical center. be distributed directly or in cash disburse­ After several months of stalemate, ments in proportion to each Stfite's AIDS Burroughs Wellcome finally released the caseload. Waxman is also working on AZT on condition that both interferon getting $60 million for drugs to treat AIDS rew, ,;o ahead, doubling the size of the test. in fiscal1988. He wants to make outpatient Larry Kramer says Burroughs Wellcome "Let them scream· prescription drugs for life-threatening only relented because the National illnesses a mandatory provision for states Institutes of Health (NIH) threatened to socialized medicine. to receive Medicaid. Waxman's office said go public with the whole dispute. both proposals are generically worded so The Times also said Burroughs has yet One thing we as not to favor AZT. to grant permission to begin testing with Delaney argues that anybody but the another immunity booster, interlukin-2. should have patients should pay for treatment. "I have Burroughs also declined until recently to long believed that profit must be separated test severely debilitated ARC patients, or learned from the from our medical system. I won't go so far AIDS patients with few symptoms. as to call for socialized medicine, but profit Two other possible AIDS treatments AIDS health is not a legitimate method (of operation) have also gone nowhere. DNCB is an when we are talking about living and immune system stimulant discovered crisis is that dying." effective in the late 1970s. The problem is "Let them scream socialized medicine," that DNCB cannot be patented, and the health care challenges Urvashi Vaid of the National therefore nobody can make any money off Gay and Lesbian Rights Task Force. of it. Hence, commercial interest in DNCB delivery system "One thing we should have learned from as a treatment is less than nil. the AIDS health crises is that the health AL 721 is a food compound derived in this country is care delivery system in this country is from egg yolk and has shown promise in totally bankrupt and immoral. It denies interfering with HIV. However, the totally bankrupt health care to people who need it most. It's manufacturer has been unable to obtain and immoral.~~ not set up to deal with emergencies like FDA approval to import the compound this." from Israel where it was discovered. Meanwhile, how many will die because AZT's nearest commercial rival, DOC, they cannot afford AZT? 9

!6 Science for the People THE NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY Buried AI ive

BY DIANE B. PAUL relationships." In the end, however, even ments. Indeed, one of the most frequent they will learn to live with the increasingly claims in the lengthy history of the nature­ ccording to Science magazine, obvious fact that effective social policies nurture debate has been that it is over. But the nature-nurture debate is must take account of genetic differences. the corpse of this particular controversy "basically over." In his edi­ Dr. Koshland's is not the first obituary will not stay buried. Earlier reports of its torial of Mav 20, Daniel for the nature-nurture controversy. In fact, demise were obviously premature. In my Koshland, Jr: asserts that the debate was hardly underway before a view, so are the most recent. recentA reports of the chromosomal victor was announced. In his 1914 to Why the persistent refusal accept the localization of genes related to Alzheimer's Presidential Address to the British issue as settled? Surely not, as Dr. disease and to manic depression demonstrate Association, Australia, William Bateson Koshland thinks, because judges, philosophers, that heredity and environment are both declared that the nature-nurture controversy and other nonscientists find it hard to cope involved in behavioral disorders. The was "drawing to an end. " 1 His was but the with the complexity of a position that general conclusion that both nature and first in a long string of similar pronounce- posits more than one factor. Even if this nurture affect behavior "may seem obvious to a scientist," he writes, "but our judges, journalists, legislators, and philosophers have been slow to learn this lesson." These nonscientists, Koshland contends, stubbornly assume that when children misbehave, rehabilitation of prisoners fails, or suicides are not prevented, their environments must be at fault. But the evidence also contradicts a purely genetic explanation. "Equally simplistic is the contention that there is no crime, only disease; no guilt, only a bad combination of genes." In his view, it is no longer possible to doubt either the "mounting evidence" for the commonsensical view that both nature and nurture contribute to differences in behavior-or the relevance of that evidence for public policy. Nevertheless, those who "dread complex­ ity" are bound to resist these findings. They will find it hard to abandon the old model that opposed heredity and environ­ ment. Nonscientists will find it particularly difficult "to cope with these complicated

Diane B. Paul is an associate professor of political science at UMass-Boston, whose research interests include the history of ·: evolution and genetics. Her most recent article, "The Nine Lives of Discredited Data," "Yes, Penelope, it's twins. But they say they won't come out appeared in the May I June 19 8 7 issue of The until the nature-nurture controversy is over!" Sciences.

September/October !987 !7 claim were true, it would be beside the point. The severest critics of the viewpoint articulated bv Dr. Koshland arc scientists. 2 Why have rh.ey been reluctant to accept the obvious? To answer this question, we need to consider some aspects of the history of the nature-nurture controversy. In 1869, Francis Galton published Hereditary Genius, followed five years later by English ,Hen of Science: Their Nature and Nurture--rhus originating the modern debate. In these books, Galton demonstrated that high achievement runs in families. He also maintained that talent would not ultimately be thwarted by poor environ­ ments; in his view, really capable people would overcome every hindrance to success. It followed that eminence in science, the arts, and public life was largely due to natural abilitY. In some respect~, the contemporary debate looks quite different from that of Galton's time. But certain features have also remained remarkablY constant. Throughout this century, "h.credirarians" have repeatedly concluded that the issue is settled. Also characteristic of this tradition Great Moments in is the claim that the issues arc, or at least Science: should be, strictly scientific. Thus, Dr. Ouasit finally isolates a hcreditarians have o~tensibly been forced chromosome with radical to their conclusions by the weight of genes! evidence- often in contradiction to their prior expectations and/ or personal wishes. "Hereditarian" and "environmentalist" arc contested and often confusing terms, and some discussion of their usage is therefore in order. There is no absolute Freeman, Lancelot Hogben, ].B.S. Haldane, attached to one's opponents. I consider Dr. hereditarian or environmentalist position. and H.S. Jennings. They were environ­ Koshland a hereditarian. I also expect that These terms have meaning only relative to mentalists only in comparison with he would disagree. Thus it is a term whose each other, and to the perspective of some Pastore's hcrcditarians (such as Bateson, meaning is nor only historically specific, observer. The early hereditarian position is Francis Calton, Karl Pearson, Edward but relative to the assumptions of the typified by Bateson, who maintained in his East, Paul Popenoe, and Henry Goddard). observer. 1914 speech that "of the overwhelmingly Although Jennings could have spoken There is a convent(onal understanding greater significance of nature there is no for most of Pastore's environmentalists, his of the nature-nurture controversy according longer any possibility of doubt." Few views would make him a hereditarian on to which hereditarians once asserted that would assert this view today. today's spectrum. Jennings thought it genes are everything. Biologists such as Thus, if there is a continuous hereditarian "certain that all the things that affect Bateson, Pearson, Popenoe, and East, tradition, as I believe, it is one with a character and conduct are deeply influenced psychologists such as Goddard and Lewis shifting content. At any time, we can by the hereditary materials. There is no Terman, and a host of amateur scientists meaningfully characterize a position as characteristic or quality of human beings and eugenic propagandists such as Leonard hereditarian (or environmentalist) only in that is exempted from its influence. This Darwin, Harry Laughlin, and Madison contrast to some alternative. conclusion is confirmed by all the many Grant did assert that nature was a far more Nicholas Pastore's 1949 book, The studies that have been made on the two powerful influence on behavior than Nature-1\'urture Contro'1.;ersy, provides a types of twins. And it is in harmony too nurture. Pearson's claim in Nature and good illustration of this point. Pastore was with all that we know of the science of Nurture that "the influence of environment interested in the political correlates of genetics. Experimental work on the is nowhere more than one-fifth that of attitudes to the nature-nurture question. breeding of organisms shows ... that they heredity, and quite possibly not one-tenth His book consists of 24 profiles of have no characteristics of any kind that arc of it" is often cited to illustrate this view. scientists active in the debate; twelve are not affected by the genes that they receive However, not even Pearson held that characterized as hereditarians, twelve as at the beginning of their lives. " 3 environment was powerless to shape environmentalists. In 1949, probably few Today, the key terms in the nature­ behavior. And by the 1920s, it had become would have argued with his assignments to nurture controversy have not only conventional to deny the opposition of either category. From the standpoint of the changed their meaning, but are also nature and nurture. Charles Davenport­ 1980s, however, there arc a number of contested. For most of its history, whose hereditarian credentials are impeccable-­ surpnses. participants and observers generally insisted in 1911 that "so long as we regard Some of his environmentalists, such as agreed on the content and application of heredity and environment as opposed, so John B. Watson or Franz Boas, would "hereditarian'' and "environmentalist." long will we experience endless contradic­ appear on anyone's list, compiled then or Some people continue to cheerfully tions in interpreting any trait, behavior, or now. But Pastore also included such describe themselves as hereditarians. But disease. " 4 biologists as H.J. ,~1ullcr, Frank N". they are few. Today, iris generally a label That statement would surely receive Dr.

18 Science for the People Koshland's assent. And as Marxists say, scientists to rethink conventional assumptions resulting from the fact that relatives that is no accident. For the "confrontation concerning individual differences in generally share similar environments). In of extremes" that opposed the allmacht of intelligence and personality. Within just a their view, the enormous efforts required heredity to that of environment is basically few years, the critical position had been to overcome this problem were not a fiction created by modern hereditarians, transformed. justified either by the potential scientific or who are made to seem reasonable by The nature of that revision was shaped social interest of the results. companson. in important ways by the Cyril Burt Many behavior geneticists, on the other Dr. Koshland (and a host of behavior scandal. In his 1974 book, The Science and hand, protested that the standards geneticists) appear to stand for a sensible Politics of I.Q., Leon Kamin charged that proposed by critics were excessively high. middle ground between two absurd Burt's influential results (which apparently In their view, it was possible to design extremes. Ironically, radical critics of the demonstrated an . 80 + heritability of I.Q.) studies that met reasonable methodologn eugenics movement have in effect colluded were, statistically speaking, too good to be criteria, and that the best of the old, plus in this fiction. In their zeal to show just true. This is not the place to review the new studies, had in fact demonstrated some how awful eugenists were, critics have history of the ensuing scandal, which has in heritability of individual differences in trumpeted their most extreme statements­ any case been told many times. Suffice it to intellectual performance. They often thus feeding the perception that the say that his suspicions were justified; Burt stressed as well the potential importance "interactionist" position is, in contrast, had fabricated at least some of his work and for public policy of behavior genetic 5 moderate. the existence of his research collaborators. research. Through the 1960s, the environmentalist Kamin's book marked an important shift The most recent study purporting to position (at least as expressed by scientists) in the direction of the nature-nurture demonstrate the heritability of specific was itself interactionist. Its successor is a debate. After reviewing all the classic behaviors is by Thomas Bouchard and his product of the 1970s. Until then, no studies of the heritability of I.Q., he associates at the University of Minnesota. geneticist of whom I am aware doubted the concluded that "There exist no data which Their investigation of 348 twin pairs has existence of substantial genetic variability should lead a prudent man to accept the not yet been published, though its results for mental and behavioral traits. hypothesis that I.Q. test scores are in any have been widely disseminated in the media. According to U.S. News and World That situation changed as the result of a degree heritable." What followed was a Report, ''social potency, alienation, well­ series of linked events beginning in 1969. heated debate about the standards required being and harm avoidance were all found In that year, Arthur Jensen published his to demonstrate the heritability of intelligence. to be products of nature, not nurture."6 Harvard EducatioruJl Review article asserting When the dust settled, it was possible to Time reports the investigators' question as that at least half of the average black-white distinguish essentially two positions. "How much of any individual's personality Critics such as Leon Kamin and Richard gap in intelligence quotient (I.Q.) scores is due to heredity?" and their answer is Lewontin stressed the methodological was probably attributable to differences in "about half."7 (Genes apparently have a genes. Two years later, in the Atlantic difficulties involved in designing experiments particular! y potent effect on political Monthly, Richard Herrnstein developed an on the heritability of human mental and attitudes. According to Time, "a penchant analogous argument in respect to social behavioral traits, including intellectual for conservatism" is 60 percent inherited.) class. (This was soon expanded to a book, performance. They insisted that all earlier The assertion that 60 or any other I.Q. in the Meritocracy.) In the context of a studies-not just Burt's-were vitiated by percent of a trait can be inherited is, in a generally radicalized academic environ­ their failure to break the association of word, absurd. As Frederick Osborn, the ment, these studies prompted some genotype and phenotype (a problem Secretary of the American Eugenics Society, wrote in 1940: "Scientists no longer ask: which is the more important, heredity or environment? Such a question lacks reality, because when two sets of factors are necessary to produce a given result ... there can be no question of the relative importance of either set of factors. " 8 Translating the scientific journalese, we must thus assume that, according to Bouchard and his associates, about 50 percent of the variation in certain personality traits is, on average, attributable to genetic differences. One thing is in any case certain: whatever the exact nature of the Minnesota results, both the researchers and reporters assume that they have important practical implications. According to the reporter from U.S. News, "Psychiatrists and social scientists have long stressed the supremacy of environment in shaping personality and their theories are the basis of many public programs that seek to reverse the social causes of poverty and crime." The clear implication of her report is that these programs have now been shown to rest on 'They can't bury the nature-nurture controversy now! a naive belief in the power of environment. Our grant for the diapers hasn't come through." It is tempting to focus on methodological shortcomings in recent behavior genetic studies. That was the tack taken by Kamin

September/October 1987 19 in respect to Burt and the earlier generation link between their science and their assumptionless. This point should not be of I.Q. studies. It has its advantage. To politics. The result has been a certain shocking to radicals, who have traditionally identify the issue as methodological is to incoherence in the left position. denied the possibility of a science that is make possible an appeal to the widest Since the early 1970s, critics of I.Q. and wholly value free. It should be a threat to possible audience. Behavior genetic studies behavior genetic studies have simultaneously Dr. Koshland. are judged and found wanting, not by pursued two lines of argument. The first, There are, of course, important methodolog­ standards peculiar to the Left, but by those as we have seen, is methodological: it ical issues involved in the current debate. of mainstream science. This strategy has asserts that existing studies do not meet And it is necessary to identify technical costs as well as benefits, however. standards rigorous enough to compel shortcomings and lapses of logic in One cost incurred is to reinforce the agreement with the claim that there is some behavior genetic studies. But the nature­ belief that it matters whether there is heritability of any interesting mental or nurture controversy has never been, and is genetic variability for some mental and behavioral trait. The second rejects the not now, only a matter of good versus bad behavioral traits. Kamin himself has never equation of heritability with insensitivity science. The views of all the participants denied this possibility. Indeed, in The to environmental change. When critics are ultimately informed by their politics. Science and Politics of I. Q., he wrote that assert the irrelevance for public policy of To say that a view is political is "T~ere may well be genetically determined any evidence for the heritability of obviously not to condemn it. Some differences among people in their cognitive particular behaviors, it is for the second scientific controversies have an irreducibly and intellectual 'capacities,"' and he reason. political element. That the nature-nurture insisted that the book concerned only the Central to this latter argument is the dispute is one of them explains why it will heritability of I.Q. test scores. point that the same genotype may be not soon disappear. 9 However, this point has hardly been expressed differently in different environ­ stressed since, by Kamin or other critics of ments. Heritability estimates thus apply NOTES behavior genetic studies. The result has only to a specific population in a specific been to associate critics with an apparent range of environments. Unless we can map I. William Bateson, "Presidential Address to commitment to the zero heritability of any the range of environments over which the British Association, Australia," Sydney interesting skill or behavior. But someday genotypic expression varies, we cannot Meeting, 1914. Reprinted in William Bateson, a study may demonstrate, by standards conclude with Dr. Koshland that "better F.R.S.: His EHays and AddreHes. New York: acceptable even to a Kamin or Lewontin, schools, a better environment, better Garland Publishing Co., 1984, pp. 297-316, on the existence of genetic variability for some counseling, and better rehabilitation will p. 313. 2. For example, R.C. Lewontin, "Genetic help some individuals but not all." mental or behavioral characteristic. It will Aspects of Intelligence," Annual Review of then be too late to say-credibly-that the That assertion may be true, but it does Genetics, 1975, vol. 9, pp. 387-405; A.Jacquard, results don't matter. not follow from the fact that the relevant "Heritability: One Word, Three Concepts," The methodological critique is often behaviors are heritable; it also requires the Biometrics, 1983, vol. 39, pp. 465-4 77; D. associated with the claim that one's own assumption that we have done all we can or Layzer, "Heritability of I.Q. Scores: Science or position is nonideological. Kamin is will do to alter the relevant environments. Numerology?" Science, 1974, vol. 183, pp. quoted in the U.S. News report as saying That premise was implicit in Arthur 1259-1266; 0. Kempthorne, "Logical, Epistemolog­ about the Bouchard study, "This has Jensen's claim that black-white I.Q. score ical, and Statistical Aspects of Nature-Nurture nothing to do with science. It's a political differences were largely genetic in origin. Data Interpretation," Biometrics, 1978, vol. 34, pp. 1-23. debate." Of course, he means that politics To make it explicit is to see that political as 3. H.S. Jennings, Genetics. New York: motivates the other side. But the issues in well as technical assumptions inform the Norton and Co., Inc., 1935, p. 204. the nature-nurture controversy are not, "hereditarian" position-as they also do 4. Charles B. Davenport, Heredity in Relation and cannot be, wholly technical. To assert the views of its critics. to Eugenics. New York: Henry HoJt and Co., that one's own side stands above politics is The significance of heritability estimates 1911, p. 252. both false to the facts and at odds with the depends on assumptions about the 5. For example, T.J. Bouchard and M. most important point made by left critics. likelihood and desirability of social change. McGue, "Familial Studies of Intelligence: A It is an interesting characteristic of the On these points, conservatives, liberals, Review," Science, 1981, vol. 212, pp. 1055- contemporary debate that partisans on and radicals will necessarily differ. 1059; D.R. Caruso, "Sample Differences in Genetics and Intelligence Data: Sibling and both sides regularly charge their opponents To represent the current controversy as Parent-Offspring Studies," Behavior Genetics, with being politically moivated. Behavior simply a dispute over evidence permits 1983, vol. 13, pp. 453-458; ].M. Horn, ].C. geneticists assert that their adversaries have critics to associate their position with the Loehlin, and L. Willerman, Behavior Genetics, been captured by ideology, thus explaining cause of science, and their opponents' with 1982, vol. 12, pp. 4 79-516; R. Plomin and J .C. their "abuse of science." Critics charge just ideology. But this is obviously a game that DeFries, "Genetics and Intelligence: Recent the same thing, in reverse. both sides can play. It would be better, in Data," Intelligence, 1980, vol. 4, pp. 15-24. That one's views on the nature-nurture my view, for critics to admit that political 6. Julia Reed, "Genes: Little Things that issue are influenced not at all by one's as well as technical assumptions inform Mean a Lot," U.S. News and World Report, Dec. politics is traditionally a claim associated their position. The left perspective would 15, 1986, p. 8. 7. "Exploring the Traits of Twins," Time, with hereditarians. Pastore noted that of thereby gain in consistency. Jan. 12, 1987, p. 63. those scientists who had the opportunity to At present, critics simultaneously assert 8. Frederick Osborn, A Preface to Eugenics. review his profiles, the sharpest reactions that their own position is strictly scientific rev. ed., New York: Harper and Brothers, 1940, came from this group and he asks, "May and that the significance of heritability p. 81. Similarly, Curt Stern: "It has been an age­ not this differential effect be due to the fact estimates depends on assumptions about old question to ask, 'How much of the specific that the hereditarians were not as willing to the givenness of the environment. But the phenotype of an individual is due to heredity accept the connection between their second claim exposes the political content and how much to environment?' In this form, political affiliations and scientific outlook in the perspectives of all the participants. the question lacks meaning. No phenotypic trait as were the environmentalists?" The Dr. Koshland's standpoint is not, as is independent of either heredity or environmental agents, and an attempt to divide into 2 fractions answer is doubtless yes. perhaps he himself thinks, value free. It the interrelation of 2 agents, neither of which But the direction of the controversy depends on assumptions about the socially alone can produce a phenotype, is logical! y since the 1970s-with each side condemning possible. These premises are rejected by impossible." Principles of Human Genetics, San the other as ideological-has also made it Kamin, Lewontin, and other left critics. Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1949, p. impossible for those on the Left to admit a But that does not make their own work 453.

20 Science for the People MICROWAVES VERSUS HOPE The Struggle at Green hom Common

BY JOSEPH REGNA

n the Caribbean island of Guadeloupe in January 1979, U.S. President Jimmy Carter met with the heads of state O of West Germany, France, and Britain and secretly agreed to install a so­ called new generation of nuclear weapons in several Western European countries. In December 1979, NATO ministers formally agreed to deploy 108 Pershing lis and 464 ground-launched cruise missiles-known as the Euromissiles-beginning in late 1983. One of the destinations of the cruise missiles is also the site of the longest continuous protest presence against nuclear weapons buildup: the U.S. Air Force Base at Green ham Common, located in the British countryside 60 miles from London. The base is bounded by a nine­ mile perimeter fence, broken only by gates named by color. Since September 1981, women have maintained peace camps at these gates, most notably and visibly at Green Gate. Once the missiles themselves started arriving three years ago, an escalation and shift in protest activity ensued. The reason lies in the very nature of cruise missiles: their mobility. A cruise missile is small enough so that it can be mounted on the back of a truck-called a launcher vehicle-and driven to some predetermined launch point. In preparation for nuclear war, the U.S. 0 military at Greenham Common has z~ engaged in about 30 "dispersal exercises" .Cl since March 1984. During an exercise, a convoy of cruise missiles leaves the base in J

September/October 1987 21 the middle of the night, travels the back symptoms, many new and different Bertell's measurements at Greenham roads of the British countryside, and antennae had been installed at the base. showed strong electromagnetic radiation returns several days later. Each convoy Greenham women have experienced levels, including microwave frequencies, consists of four 52-foot launcher vehicles, both physical and psycho-emotional that coincided spatially and temporally each carrying up to four missiles, two symptoms. The physical include vertigo, with the women's symptoms. control vehicles, up to sixteen support headache, earache, sensation of the eyes When a woman would say, "It's strong vehicles, and a large police escort-all told, being pulled out, retinal bleeding, lisping here," that's what the meter would show. around 3 2 vehicles extending over a and slurred speech, swollen neck glands, When a woman would say, "It's not strong quarter mile. burnt face (even at night), dizziness, lack of here," the meter would show that too. Once a convoy leaves Greenham coordination, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, Once, when a convoy was leaving the base Common, the women of the peace camp sleep disturbance, palpitations, pain in the and the women noticed that base personnel start spreading the word that a dispersal ovaries and uterus, irregular menstrual saw that they were taking radiation exercise is in progress. This message is cycles, and postmenopausal breakthrough measurements, the women figured that carried through the Cruisewatch network, bleeding. Psycho-emotional symptoms whatever was causing the symptoms was ensuring that the exercises are never secret, include lack of concentration, disorientation, "switched off" because no one felt as the military meant them to be. Because loss of memory, depression, irritability, anything. of this network, the cruise exercises have aggressiveness, lack of confidence, sense of Members of the British group Electronics always been confronted with vigorous and loneliness, and a sense of panic in non panic for Peace have confirmed Bertell's findings continuous protest-along the convoy situations. during their measurement activities. In route (even to the point of stopping the Kim Besly is one woman who has fact, they found microwave levels to be up convoy), at the launch site, and at experienced health problems at the to I 00 times more than background levels, Greenham Common itself. Greenham women's peace camp. Although and concluded that since the radiation Greenham protester and peace actiVISt she describes herself as "a very ordinary might be pulsed, their meter may have been Kim Besly tells why the Cruisewatch mother and grandmother," Besly's recording an artificially low average value. network and encampment continue to symptoms of pain in the uterus and These results, coupled with her experience, thrive. "It's the women that provide the postmenopausal bleeding are anything but led Berte!! to conclude that the symptoms next generation, and women have always ordinary. Neither are those of her women have been experiencing are grieved in times of war. And I think what daughter, another camp protester, whose consistent with exposure to low-level women are saying now is we're tired of less frequent menstrual periods took a microwave radiation. providing the cannon fodder. There must whole year to revert to normal. be a better way." But Kim Besly's hope remains as strong VIOLENCE AGAINST GREENHAM as ever. "Despite the mud and the barbed wire and the verbal abuse and so on, WOMEN ZAPPING THE WOMEN Greenham is a very special place and it It would be a mistake to think that prior draws you back," she says. "There's a kind to the onset of the health problems, the Two things have changed dramatically, of vision there that something good has got Green ham women's protests came without however, since the fall of 1984: many, if to come out of this." cost. Beyond the expected arrests, there not most, of the women have become ill, The Greenham women report that the have been physical attacks on women, strip and the massive police and army presence prevalence and intensity of the symptoms searches, the extinguishing of camp fires in guarding the base has virtually disappeared. increase at specific points along the fence­ the middle of winter, and evictions and The first physical symptoms the women particularly at Green Gate-at times when destruction of campsites and equipment. observed occurred on October 15, 1984. there are many women demonstrating, and Police brutality has been severe, almost On that day, the women noticed the same when cruise missile convoys exit and deadly: picking up and throwing individual plane continuously taking off and landing. return. Visitors to the peace encampment, women into groups of other women, During this activity, the women noted that both men and women, report experiencing driving police cars at high speed through at particular points by the perimeter fence, the same types of symptoms and the same groups of women, and physical abuse with many of them were getting headaches. But pattern of variation as do the Greenham apparent intent not just to scare, but to kill. headaches were only the mild beginning to women. this story. It was much later, when a whole During one Cruisewatch exercise, the range of new and startling symptoms police seized one woman, Blue Joyce, and surfaced, that the women realized that MEASURING MICROWAVES dragged her into the back of a van filled something unusual was happening. They with police. After the police had abused later recalled that in September 1984, one Once they believed that a connection her, the van subsequently caught up with month prior to the first appearance of existed between what was going on inside and passed the convoy. One of the women the base and their symptoms, the women at recounts: Joseph Regna is a physician who works on Greenham enlisted the assistance of Dr. "The police then talked of 'excess public health, peace, and environmental issues Rosalie Bertell, an authoritv on the baggage.' Next came the 'countdown for in the Boston area. biological effects of nonionizing radiation. excess baggage: 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2,

22 Science for the People 1'-the back doors were opened and they tried to push Blue out of the still-moving van. But she resisted, clinging to the inside. So a policeman jumped out to drag her out, but the van was going too fast for him to keep up. MICROWAVES AND THE "After the van slowed down, Blue was dragged out and left lying in the road in a MILITARY state of shock. The cruise convoy then approached with its police escort. The police vehicles swerved around Blue, not he.military has. known for more than weapon." stopping. Just before the massive cruise fifty years that microwaves are Adding credibility to such speculation vehicles bore down on her, Blue managed Tdangerous. As early as 1930, the is the startling assertion by Eldon Byrd, a to crawl onto the verge. Much later, a U.S, Navy found that people who stood researcher with the Naval Surface passing car gave Blue a lift. She was still in a in front of antennae would experience Weapons Center in Silver Spring, state of shock, vomiting continuously, and discomfort, weakness, drowsiness, and Maryland. "Between 1981 and September was taken to hospital." headaehes. The U.S. Air Force, in a 1955 1982 the Navy commissioned me to With the police brutality and presence study, discovered rhat standing in the investigate the potential of developing now markedly less than it used to be, it way of radar beams caused ringing in the electromagnetic devices that could be seems that the military has traded this more ears, buzzing.rype vibrations, pulsations, used as nonlethal weapons by the Marine visible type of repression for the more and tickling around the head and ears. Corps for the purpose of 'riot control,' politically acceptable and invisible punish­ Project Pandora, a 1965 study on hostage removal, embassy and ship ment from microwave radiation. As Kim chimpanzees done in response to the security, clandestine operations, and so Besly observed, "It is easy enough to kill microwave bombardment of the U.S. on," Byrd srated. people. It is harder not to kill them but to embassy in ·Moscow, concluded, "The There is evidence that the U.S. stop them all the same. The principle is not potential of exerting a degree of control government has already used "energy we really one of minimum force, but of on human behavior by low-level can't see, feel, smell, or taste" against minimum political reaction." microwave radiation seems to exist." people it regards as enemies. For Richard S. Cesaro, the pro jeer's director, example, the U.S. employed ultrasound MICROWAVE EXPOSURE & urged that the effects of mierowaves be in Vietnam to disorient and dem~ralize SURVEILLANCE srw.li~ for "possible weapon application." the Vietnamese people. Specifically, the This recommendation seems not to have U.S. used a device known as the "squawk Nearly a year after Dr. Herrell's spring gone unnoticed. In 1972, the Pentagon box" or "sound curdler," which 1985 Greenham visit, two British admitted that rhe Army had, in fact, produces a scientifically designed shrill, newspapers revealed what may be the tested a microwave weapon, what it shrieking noise in the ultrasonic range crucial link in explaining the mystery called an "electronic flame thrower." and causes people to experience nausea, behind the women's symptoms. City Also in that same year, a U.S. Army giddiness, permanent impairment of Limits claimed that the British Ministry of Equipment and Research Center study, hearing, and mass psychological distress Defence is probably using its new intruder "Analysis of Microwaves for Barrier in crowds. detection system CLASSIC (Covert Local Warfare,'' stated that it was possible to A report in Electronics Today in Area Sensory System for Intruder field a truck·portable microwave barrier December 1985 stated that police forces Classification) around Greenham Common. sy.stem that. would completely immobilize in the U.S. have carried out trials with The Manchester Guardian wrote that "the people in its path. infrasound generators mounred on the U.S. employs an intruder detection system Whether such a device or one of its back of trucks. In addition, police forces called BISS (Base Installation Security technological .offspring has ever been in Britain have been known to use a System) which operates .. .'on a sufficiently used is not certain, but the utility of such devicecaUed a "photic driver," a glorified high frequency to bounce radar waves off a an approach to control people almost strobe light that causes giddiness, nausea, body moving in the vicinity of a perimeter precludes the possibility that usage has fainting, and epileptic seizures in those fence.'" Both the British CLASSIC and not occurred, Robert Becker of the exposed. After 198 3, a form of the photic the American BISS employ microwaves to Syraettse, New York .Veterans Administra­ driver, the Valkyrie, and other so-called detect anything that gets in their path. tion Hospital pur it. thi$ way in a 1985 frequency weapons were completely Is what's happening to the women at interview: "If energy we can't see, feel, eliminated from the British Defence Greenham Common an attempt to smell, or taste ean wreak havoc with our Equipment Catalogue, though all were electronically subdue them, or the result of immune systems and even upset brain still in use, at the request of the British the use of radar surveillance? Is it chemistry; it would seem to be rhe ideal Ministry of Defence. deliberate, or is it incidental to the CONTINUED ON PAGE 32

September/October 1987 23 ASTRONOMY'S ANTI·STAR WARRIORS Saving the Stars From Nuclear War

BY STEVE NADIS "But when will people begin to notice benefit not only astronomy, but also n June 1985, a man rammed an automo­ that, for economic, political, and other missile defense and antisatellite systems. bile into the doors of the Maui Optical reasons, more and more persons trained Studies of radio jets -huge outpourings I Tracking Facility, protesting a missile as astronomers are looking less at the stars of energy found outside galaxies -could tracking experiment conducted for the and more at Star Wars?" Hockey asked. eventually lead to better particle beam Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program. "In particular, will they soon realize that weapons. Interferometry -an astronomical The incident is considered the first the principal problems involved with technique which uses distant radio "terrorist" attack on an astronomical SDI are astronomical ones? Could the sources to measure positions on earth observatory. time come when astronomers are viewed very precisely--could be useful in missile Although no one was hurt by the first as specialists in weapons research?" guidance systems. Interferometry also collision, astronomer Thomas Hockey of Rick Harnden, an astronomer at the helps astronomers determine whether a New Mexico State University is Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astro­ distant light source is a single star or concerned that the event may signal a physics (CF A), acknowledges that the perhaps two or three stars. "The Air change in public attitudes toward boundary between star wars and pure Force wants to use this to look at Soviet astronomy-what he calls "one of the last astronomy is often quite fuzzy. The geosynchronous satellites and find out 'pure' sciences in the public imagination. Defense Department, for example, pays how many are up there," CFA astronomer astronomers to monitor the infrared Mark Lacasse said. "They can see these Writer Steve Nadis specializes in astrophysics, brightness of stars to make sure a satellites going into orbit with regular nuclear war, and the "inner gmne" of starburst is not mistaken for a missile telescopes, but can't tell whether the volleyball. launch. Improved infrared sensors would Soviets might release other satellites-

24 Science for the People such as 'space mines' --once they're up children for the show. I have three kids government dropped the approach there." myself, hut I decided, heck, why don't shortly thereafter. "I can't say this article Another problem critical to astronomers we get people from CF A talking about killed it," Harris said, "but it definitely and Star Warriors alike is finding ways to it? So I put some notices on bulletin helped." counteract the scattering of laser beams as boards telling them to see the movie and Also last year, 3, 700 U.S. professors they pass through the earth's atmosphere. talk afterwards. That's how we started." and senior researchers (comprising more Stars, as viewed from the earth, appear to The group discusses all aspects of the than half the science faculty at I 09 twinkle owing to atmospheric turbulence, nu~lear arms race, but focuses on Star universities and research centers, including and astronomers have developed techinques Wars because it borders so closely on the CFA) plus 2,800 graduate students to minimize the blurring. "Laser their field of expertise. The other reason signed a petition not to accept money for

1 weapons travelling from earth to space for concentrating on SOl is that-at $5 Star Wars-related research. (See Seth might use something like that in reverse billion a year and a potential trillion­ Shulman's article, "Stopping Star Wars," to correct for atmospheric distortions," dollar overall price tag--it is the biggest, in the January/February 1986 issue of Lacasse said. costliest military venture ever proposed, SftP.) "For some of us, there's a fine line dwarfing the Manhattan Project and Since then, 7,000 U.S. scientists have between helping out the defense of our strategic weapons systems such as the signed the petition, as have 12,000 country and stimulating an insane arms MX missile and the B-1 bomber. scientists worldwide. This includes race," Harnden said. "How do you "We look at Star Wars as astronomers," 3,000 Japanese scientists and 1,000 know whether monitoring the infrared Harnden said, "and try to evaluate it British scientists, more than half the brightness of a star helps our defense or technically-infrared sensors, space scientific membership of Britain's Royal hurts? It often comes down to a personal mirrors, lasers, computers, and software­ Society. By making this pledge, these decision." all things we usc in our work. One of our scientists, including several members of "Just about any kind of research can be former members was actually in favor of the Nuclear Discussion Group, jeopardized misused," said CFA astronomer Dan Star Wars, but the rest of us think it's future sources of funding. Harris. "My philosophy is that if you're madness." With billions and billions of dollars sure your work will be misused, you In addition to trying to raise the committed to Star Wars, many scientists have a responsibility to cease and desist. awareness of fellow astronomers, the find the money hard to resist. Harris But if it's your own research, which group also reaches out to students and the plans to investigate how much CF A conceivably might be misused, you go local community by teaching courses and astronomers receive from the Star Wars ahead and do it." Since taking a summer sponsoring regular lectures on Star Wars program. The bottom line in Harris's job at the National Testing Station at and the arms race. "One of the issues we view, however, is that astronomers must China Lake, while still a college student, formed around was to let students know take a stand, regardless of personal or Harris has refused to do any research that about the potential implications of their professional risk. In the newsletter requires security clearance. He has, work," said George Field, a world­ Astronomers and the Arms Race, which he however, received Air Force funding for renowned astronomer, the former has helped publish for the past two years, "basic" astronomy research which had director of the CF A, and an active Harris asked, "Is it possible we scientists no military applications. "There are member of the group. have become the universal soldiers for the significant numbers of people who aren't "There's always the possibility that arms race? doing Star Wars research now, but whose graduate students could be working on "Classically, we scientists defer work is so close, they could be a couple of something related to SDI without even decision-making to government and even years from now," he noted. knowing it," said David Spergel, a to industry, just as the foot soldier obeys For example, in a year or so, Lacasse former student of Field's and now a post­ the orders of his superiors," Harris said. will be doing a project for the Air Force. doctoral fellow at Princeton's Institute of "It is time to choose a new path. We don't "It won't be Star Wars, but it is Air Force Advanced Studies. Spergel looked into have to be universal soldiers." money," he said. "And that will pay my that issue while serving on Harvard's Charles Hyder is one astrophysicist bills." Graduate Student Council. He found who chose such a path, carrying his Mike Ratner, now at the CF A, that the problem was less likely to occur protest of the nuclear arms race to an checked with an employment agency at Harvard than at other universities extreme. For over seven months, from after finishing graduate work in astro­ more eager to take SDI funding. "In September 1986 to May 1987, he staged physics. "I was told the best job for me some cases, a student might pursue a hunger strike in front of the White was in missile guidance," he said. "There research for years, only to find that under House. (See Newsnotes in the March/ was a lot more money in that than SDI rules his work has been classified," April 1987 issue of SftP.) "Our system spacecraft navigation (which had been Spergel said. responds to dead bodies," Hyder said. my specialty), but I never pursued it." Going beyond the confines of Harvard "With a holocaust you can't fix it Harnden, Harris, Lacasse, and Ratner and the Boston metropolitan area, Field afterward, so you have to offer up the are members of the CF A-based Nuclear recently arranged a meeting between bodies in advance." He ended his strike to Discussion Group, which has been Soviet scientists and CF A astronomers. launch a seven-month, 150-city nationwide meeting on a weekly basis for the past "They shared our view that Star Wars is tour in a live-in station wagon, trying to four years to discuss what astronomers insane," Harnden commented. "Which is make global disarmament the key issue in can do to curb the arms race. not surprising, since Gorbachev also the 1988 presidential campaign. "The thing that pushed me over the shares that view." "Hyder feels there's a mass movement edge," Harnden explained, "was the Last year, Field and Spergel coauthored out there waiting to happen in the U.S. movie The Day After," shown in an article for Science magazine which and the world," Harris said. "He sees November 1983. "The media was strongly criticized space-based laser himself as that small pebble that just advising everyone about preparing systems, a key component of SOL The might start the avalanche." 9

September/October 1987 25 ENVIRONMENTAL ACTION FOR

Scorched earth destroys the CENTRAL AMERICA environment in El Salvador, while Costa Rican cattle (insert) are raised for fast-food burgers and pet food in Confronting on the u.s. tion has increased alongside poverty in the region. Ecological Crisis Central America's rain forests house some of the densest concentrations of BY BILL HALL allowed to continue, it will make future biological diversity in the world. Like development impossible and will deepen other rain forests, they are home for the entral America's rapidly deterio­ social instability." majority of the earth's species. But today, rating natural environment has More than 150 environmentalists from two-thirds of Central America's forests C failed to gain the attention of across Central America gathered in have been destroyed, and destruction policy makers in Washington, who are Managua, Nicaragua on May 13-16, continues in the region at the rate of more concerned with stemming the tide 1987 to confront the region's severe 4,000 kilometers annually. of social change in the region. But, as ecological crisis. Massive deforestation, Deforestation is a result of the unequal biologists, geologists, planners, and widespread pesticide poisoning, extensive distribution of land that characterizes naturalists gathered at the First Central soil erosion, and loss of wildlife habitats Central American economies. Wealthy American Environmental Conference threaten all the countries of the isthmus, landowners push peasants off the land in warned in a joint declaration, "If this and are inextricably linked with the order to enlarge their holdings for export process of environmental deterioration is region's crushing poverty. crop ventures, or keep the land idle for Central America is a biologically rich speculation. The landless peasants are Bill Hall is program director for the Earth region. Volcanic soils, dense tropical rain among the poorest of the poor in Central Island Institute's Environmental Project on forests, and many exotic plant, animal, America. In search of arable soil, they Central America (EPOCA), located at 300 and insect species have given the area its migrate to tropical forests. Tragically, Broadway, Suite 2 8, San Francisco, CA unique natural beauty and made it well­ rain forest soil is unsuitable for agriculture­ 94133, telephone (415) 788-3666. suited for sustaining human civilizations. the forest's fertility is held in the foliage EPOCA makes its series of educational But since the expansion of export itself-and peasants must abandon their Green Papers available to activists for agriculture began in earnest in the farms and move on in just a few years, distribution. twentieth century, environmental destruc- slashing and burning more forest to farm.

26 Science for the People Large landowners also cause deforesta­ consumers. Says Alexander Bonilla, a actions destroy our natural resources, tion through cattle ranching. Since 1960, Costa Rican environmentalist, "Transna­ such as one attack on Atlantic coast one-fourth of the rain forest in Central tional corporations are sending us great reforestation workers and another where America has been cleared to accommodate quantities of pesticides outlawed in the 140,000 hectares of forest were set on Del Monte, Swift-Armour, and other U.S. and Europe. As a result, we are fire." transnational demands for cheap beef. exporting contaminated oranges, meat, Environmental projects and environ­ The meat winds up in fast-food and mangoes back to consumers in those mentalists arc targeted by the contras. hamburgers and pet food in the U.S. countries." More than 74 percent of the "In the past four years, more than 70 Central America's highest rate of pesticides used in Central America are environmental and forestry workers have deforestation is in Costa Rica, where the banned, restricted, or unregistered in the been killed or kidnapped by the contras," country's huge external debt has led to an C.S. Cardenal explains. U.S. citizen and emphasis on export ventures to earn Central America's water supply has environmentalist Benjamin Linder was foreign exchange for interest payments. been poisoned by pesticide runoff, executed by the contras while working on The implications of forest destruction industrial contamination, raw sewage an appropriate technology hydroelectric are catastrophic. The area where rain dumping, and sedimentation caused by project in EI Cua, Nicaragua. The project forest trees are destroyed quick! y loses its deforestation and agricultural practices. was part of a regional ecologically topsoil. Erosion of watersheds is a serious Enteritis and diarrheal disorders, caused sustainable development plan initiated by problem, and rivers fill with silt washed by polluted water, remain the major the Nicaraguan government. away from deforested lands. Habitats causes of death in Belize, Guatemala, War takes a heavy environmental, as disappear and many animals have become Honduras, and Nicaragua. 1'\icaragua' s well as human, toll throughout Central extinct. Aquatic ecosystems such as the Lake Managua contains toxic levels of America. Scorched earth warfare in El reefs and mangrove swamps of Central mercury, dumped by the U.S. electrochemi­ Salvador involves the bombing of America's Caribbean coast have become cal manufacturer Penwalt. villages, crop lands, and forests, while choked with silt. While its literacy, health, and land warfare has also led to numerous forest Impoverished peasants have also reform programs have received more fires. The soil erosion that ensues causes deforested other lands, leading to a international attention, Nicaragua's dust storms, siltation of reservoirs, and shortage of fuel wood and worsening economic and political revolution has the drying up of natural springs. "Daisy poverty in the region. The continued also meant a reversal of the environmentally cutter" anti-personnel bombs explode at flooding in Managua, Nicaragua has destructive policies of the past. The new ground level, clearing the area not only of resulted from deforestation of the government faces a legacy of environmental human beings but of forest cover as well. hillsides surrounding the city. degradation as well as poverty. As Dr. John Conablc, a prominent U.S. burn Pesticide poisoning presents another Nicaraguan National Parks director surgeon who visited EI Salvador in 1984, serious hazard in Central America. Lorenzo Cardenal describes, "Four saw "perfectly classical, clear-cut cases" Nicaraguans and Guatemalans have more hundred years of Spanish conquest and of napalm burns. White phosphorus, a of the deadly pesticide DDT in their one-and-a-half centuries of North poisonous incendiary bomb, is also used bloodstreams today than any other American occupation and puppet govern­ there. These chemicals destroy wildlands people on earth. The average DDT levels ments visibly destroyed the natural and contaminate the soil and water. in Guatemalan cows' milk is 90 times wealth of Nicaragua. Somoza opened the In Honduras, U.S. military 'roads, higher than that allowed by U.S. country to private enterprise which bases, and airstrips criss-cross the standards. Agricultural workers aren't disregarded the Nicaraguan environment." countryside, displacing people and given protective clothing when they Today agrarian reform is removing the destroying wilderness. The Honduran apply pesticides, and the areas where they root cause of much environmental State Forestry Corporation reported that work are often sprayed by crop-duster destruction, as well as poverty, in the "Cabanas '86" U.S. military planes. While most of these workers Nicaragua. Granting land to peasants has maneuvers destroyed ten percent of the cannot read the warning labels on virtually eliminated pressure to colonize country's pine forests in the savannas pesticides, warnings written in English the rain forests, as well as improved near the Nicaraguan border. As military offer little protection even to those who nutrition. The new government has roads are cleared through rain forest, can read. banned DDT and DBCP, two deadly landless peasants have a new pathway to To combat increasingly resistant pesticides which were widely used under colonize previously untouched areas. insects, cotton farmers and other large the Somoza government and are still used As a U.S. :\rational Guard spokesman growers stepped up pesticide application in the rest of Central America. On the told the Washington Post, engineering to 20-30 times per season in the 1970s. Pacific coast, a program has been projects in Honduras are "less environ­ Encouraged by U.S. chemical companies, introduced to protect the endangered mentally constrained. If you're building a 40 percent of all U.S. pesticide exports Ridley and Loggerhead sea turtles. Mil­ road, you don't have to worry about the went to Central America in the seventies. lions of saplings have been grown for width of the culverts, about the Pesticide runoff has contaminated water reforestation efforts and watershed Environmental Protection Agency, or and saturated the land of the fertile Pacific management. about the environmentalists. Those plains of G:ntral America. Not surprisingly, But U.S. intervention in Central aren't concerns down there." there are few birds of any kind left in that America is propping up the environmen­ Activity by the U.S.-backcd contras area. Even honeybees have disappeared, tally destructive unequal economics in also has an environmental impact in upsetting pollination and the life cycles of the region. It is also causing the diversion Honduras. According to newspaper plants. of funds from environmental programs to accounts of a confidential Honduran Through this circle of poison, arms spending. As Lorenzo Cardenal presidential report, "the contras have pesticide-contaminated products wind explains, "War is Nicaragua's principle generated a wave of destruction in up on the dinner tables of C.S. environmental problem. Contra military CONTINUED ON PAGE 32

September/October 1987 27 REMEMBERING BEN LINDER A March For Peace In Nicaragua

BY JEFF WOODSIDE Ben Linder was well known and small-scale hydroelectric power, and he respected in the towns where he worked had supervised installation of a 100- n April 28, 1987, Benjamin and within the community of ;-.;orth kilowatt plant that has brought electric Linder, a 27-year-old North Amer­ Americans in Nicaragua. With his loss, light and power-for tools, refrigeration, O ican engineer, was murdered as he many of us felt for the first time the kind water pumps, and machine shops -to the arrived at his work site in northern of personal pain and grief which people of El Cua for the first time. At the Nicaragua. He was killed, as were his two Nicaraguans have had to deal with on an moment of his death, he was doing water Nicaraguan coworkers, Sergio Hernandez almost daily basis. Since 1981 the contra flow surveys on a river near San Jose del and Pablo Rosales, by the U.S.-funded have murdered over 16,000 people, Bocay-preliminary work needed to and directed contra. The murders were many of them teachers, doctors, community bring electricity to that community as not an isolated, random incident, but part leaders, and development workers­ well. of the systemic aggression and terror people who are crucial to Nicaragua's Part of our response to Ben's murder which the United States continues to progress. Ben's death was unique only in and the policy of terror which caused it wage against Nicaragua. the fact that he was a North American. was to organize a march for peace Ben was an electrical engineer, a rural through the northern region of the jeff Woodside is teaching physics at development worker dedicated to country where Ben had worked. Seventy UNAN, the National Autonomous Univer­ building the infrastructure necessary for U.S. citizens participated in the march on sity of Nicaragua, through SftP's Science for economic development in the remote May 16 and 17, which was sponsored by Nicaragua project. north of Nicaragua. His specialty was three organizations -the Committee of

28 Science for the People U.S. Citizens Living in .'\'icaragua, the generator, the water piping, and spillway love and determination in their eyes was Ecumenical Committee of U.S. Church were impressive in their economy of overwhelming. Personnel in .'\'icaragua, and the U.S. design. Here we recalled that Ben Linder As we entered San Jose del Bocay, \' eterans Peace Action Team. The was killed at point-blank range. The walking side-by-side with the Mothers of march covered 44 kilometers, from the autopsy revealed that he was shot in the Heroes and Martyrs, our march carne to an town of El Cua, where Ben had lived and head from less than three feet away. It is end. The next dav most of us would worked for many months, to San Jose del clear that the contra knew who thev were return to Manag~a, first in trucks, Bocay, where he and his coworkers were killing. Ben was murdered beca~se his passing the same road we had walked, killed. work was effective, because it made a and later by bus from Jinotcga to the There were several purposes common tangible difference to .'\'icaragua. capital. We felt we had accomplished our to all of us for the march. First, we The final destination of the first dav's immediate goals, but realized that much wanted to demonstrate that in the walk was the small cooperative community work lay ahead. international community, we would not of El Cedro, where we received a warm The march had been a learning he intimidated or moved from our lives and spirited greeting from the towns­ experience. It had helped us understand and work here in ?\'icaragua hy the attack people. There we encountered evidence more clearly than before the meaning of against our companero, or by threats of the terrorist practices of the contra that this war in the lives of the Nicaraguan from the U .S.-contra terrorists. Shortlv touched us very directly, for during the people; we could now measure more after Ben was killed, the FDN, one ofth.e welcoming ceremony at the cooperative, directly the suffering that the U.S. contra groups, announced that internation­ community leader Don Pablo Blanco government has inflicted here. During alists should leave !'\icaragua or "face the showed us two land mines that had the march, we had witnessed an consequences." recently been discovered buried in the incredibly courageous people, working Another purpose for the march was to road that we were to travel the next day. and fighting, committed to endure visit the areas where Ben had lived and These devices, supplied by the United whatever sacrifice is necessary to achieve worked in order to meet the people there States, have killed many people in their liberation. and express to them our solidarity with Nicaragua. Before entering El Cedro we The Nicaraguan revolution IS an their struggle, our resolve to work to end had passed the site, now marked with example and an inspiration for all the the U.S. aggression in :\'icaragua, and several crosses and twisted wreckage, world's people, including our fellow our commitment to continue the develop­ where one such mine murdered 3 2 citizens in the United States. It is this ment work that Ben had starred. A special civilians traveling in public transporation example which threatens the U.S. concern was to visit the families of Ben's vehicles. Later, closer to Bocay, we government and corporate system. For if murdered coworkers, Sergio and Pablo, would pass another such site where a revolutionary Nicaragua survives, and it to offer them our love, support, and Spanish nurse, Ambrosio Mogorron, and must survive, it will demonstrate that a solidarity. eight Nicaraguan companions were small, poor, and long-exploited society A third purpose was to state clearly our killed in the same manner. can successfully challenge the hegemony continuing support for the .'\'icaraguan The people of El Cedro demonstrate of the U nitcd States to demand and revolution and its effort to build, in the the meaning of courage. Three times the achieve economic and political self­ face of great obstacles, a new life in this contra have attacked the settlement and determination. country-better, more just, and a life in destrovcd the health center and school. The experience of the march for' peace which everyone can enjoy peace and Three.times the people have rebuilt them. reaffirmed and strengthened with vivid freedom, decent food and housing, health This is the story of too many rural images our commitment to work to care, and education. Nicaraguan communities. ensure the survial of this process. We left On the morning of :vla y iS, we met in \Ve passed the night in El Cedro and the march more determined than ever to Jinotcga, a principle city in northern the next day walked the remaining 20 stop, in all of its forms-economic, .'\'icaragua, and there climbed aboard kilometers to our final destination of San political, and military-the unjust, flatbed trucks for the trip to El Cua, the Jose del Bocay. Perhaps the most moving immoral, terrorist war which the United town where Ben Linder's work has had of the experiences of the march were the States government is waging against the the greatest impact. Evidence of the U.S.­ greetings and expressions of solidarity people of Nicaragua. 9 backcd terrorist war appeared shortly. which we received from people along the Still in the trucks, we passed a privately route, and of these, none was more Members of Ben Linder's family have been owned coffee farm that had been attacked heartening than the welcome we were touring the United States since June to talk and burned by the contra, and upon given ncar Bocay. about Ben's volunteer work in Nicaragua, reaching El Cua we attended the funeral In Nicaragua, an important organiza­ technical aid, and the significance of his of two militiamen from that town who tion is that of the mothers of those who death for U.S. foreign policy in Central had been killed the dav before in an have given their lives in the struggle for America. Science for the People is ambush. That simple c~rernony in the freedom. They arc known formally as cosponsoring the tour's visit to Boston from hillside cernetary of El Cua, amid people the \1others of Heroes and Martvrs. October 1) -18. The tour is also raising who have suffered such loss, helped fix Perhaps 200 such women and their money for the Benjamin Linder Memorial for us the terrible human costs of this children marched out about two kilometers Fund to complete the hydroelectric pou·er immoral war. from town to meet us along the road. project that Ben was working on when he was After spending the night in El Cua' s They carried banners and placards, murdered by the contras. Tax-deductible municipal building, we visited the makeshift in form, constructed with contributions may be made to the Linder hydroelectric plant, which itself had been whatever materials were at hand--a tree !vfemorial Fund/ fJ and sent to the fund in attacked by the contra several weeks branch, an old piece of cloth, a broom care of the Portland Central America earlier and was successfullv defended bv handle. The dignity of these women, Solidarity Committee, P.O. Box 6443, its :\'icaraguan manager. l'he turbine and their strength and tranquility, and the Portland: Oregon 9 722 8.

September/October 1987 29 The Vanishing Forest where the direct human costs of deforestation and desertification are The Human Consequences of most tangible and tragic. Of course, Deforestation loss of food from the demise of The Encroaching Desert agricultural systems contributes directly to malnutrition and hunger. The Consequences of Human Bur beyond that, the disruption of the Failure ecological balance itself leads to Reports for the Independent increases in death and disease. Commission on International Disappearance of predators leads to an Humanitarian Issues increase in the disease-carrying rodent Zed Books. London and New Jersey. available population. Decreases in bird and bat from Humanities Press. Atlantrc Highlands. NJ populations cause an increase in the 07716. 1986. 56.95 each. paper numbers of disease-carrying insects. And even indirect phenomena can cological sanity is a necessary contribute to a change in vector status: Egoal, not merely for irs own sake, but vehicle tracks, ruts, and discarded tires also for human-and economic- · provide pools of water that act as survival. Humanitv's failure to perfect breeding sites for whole comprehend and a~t on this populations of malaria-bearing fundamental truth will result in irs own mosquitoes. demise. Stated simply, that is the It is clear that when ecological message of these exposes of the crises disruption occurs, vector ecology of deforestation and desertification changes to favor the vectors. And occurring particularly in those people and a total of 3.5 billion when that happens, rates for diseases countries where the bulk of humanitv hectares are threatened by like leishmaniasis, Chagas's disease, lives: the Third World. · desertification, with 21 million hectares malaria, scrub typhus, schistosomiasis, Logging, dam building, ranching, reduced to a state of uselessness every and trypanosomiasis go up. It only highway construction, mining, slash­ year. makes matters much worse that a and-burn agriculture, resettlement The consequences for people arc population of individuals will be programs, and poverty threaten the both myriad and tragic. As the susceptible to any infectious disease to forests in Third World areas. destruction of the natural world which those individuals have not been Desertification results from proceeds, the economic base declines. previously exposed. The failure of overgrazing, overcultivation, forest Food production for the indigenous policy makers to understand and take destruction, mismanagement of water population decreases with a into account the complexity of the resources, urbanization (from increased concomitant rise in hunger and natural world, in essence, is killing demand for firewood), and poverty. As malnutrition. The increasing search for people. befits the ecological nature of the food and water falls heavily on women These books, though they ar~ short, situation, not only do deforestation and and children, with daily tr;ps of six do not duck the question of which desertification share causal factors, but hours just to acquire water not policy makers have exacerbated the these factors are themselves uncommon. Women and children must problem. At the same time, these interdependent. They reinforce one also sell their labor in order to acquire reports do not offer a comprehensive another, acting synergistically to the currency necessary to purchase analysis of how things developed the accelerate the whole process of food. way they did. Third World countries ecological destruction. With the pressures of poverty themselves are the target of criticism: The ecological consequences ring becoming more prevalent, groups often exploiting land for short-term gain, familiar: extinction of species, soil choose to migrate to improve their growing cash crops instead of food for death, and even climate change. These, situation. Bur the difficulty in adapting the indigenous population, accumu­ in turn, can result in unexpected to the new environment often makes lating a crushing foreign debt- events. For example, much of the matters worse. Even in the midst of all of which feed back on one another damage caused by the 1983 resurgence plentiful food supplies, people can to make the situation even worse. of the El Nino current off the starve: their intimate knowledge of The donor countries and agencies, northwestern coast of South America their old milieu is useless in the new like the World Bank, have also done was due to deforestation in the surroundings, and often the learning of their share by focusing on projects Amazon basin. necessary survival skills does not with narrow goals. They don't But it is in illuminating the human proceed rapidly enough. adequately fund programs based on endpoints of these processes that these In addition, encountering other ecologically sound land-use principles, books really shine. Damage to people groups already rooted in the new areas frequently funding the wrong things. and their lives need not wait until some may result in cultural and more serious The infamous Indonesian abstract threshold, like carrying conflict. In the end, the spiral of Transmigration Program and the capacity, is exceeded; it is happening worsening conditions may result in funding of pesticide and livestock right now. disruption of interpersonal imports-instead of supporting a An estimated 140-200 million people relationships, total social disintegration, regenerative agricultural system-are live in or around forested areas. The and even disappearance of entire examples of poor funding choices. "myth of the vast emptiness" is just indigenous groups. Even the United Nations, if not by that. At the same rime, 230 million It is in the area of health and disease commission but by what it has failed to

30 Science for the People RESPONDING

CONTINUED FROM PAGE 12 do, has contributed to the worsening of idea - the usc of weakened E.coli the ecological situation in Third World bacteria to "grow" insulin uno countries. For example, the U.N. something utterly befuddling to the progressives s~1ch as Margaret Sanger, by Conference on Desertification's 1977 lavman. But undoubtcdlv, this hook socialists and communists in Germany, Plan of Action to Combat will make many best-seller lists for its and hv communists in the Soviet Union Desertification was the first appeal to the crowds who like to read during the 1920s.) international recognition of the about money and science being made. But this is the only evidence she presents problem. The plan recognized the need They'll kick themselves for not buying for the social origins of current interest in to address the socioeconomic causes of biotech stock in '78. genetics. \Nhilc clearly one can cite desertification and the nccessitv of a In this case, it seems that the DN"A­ scientists and others (as I have often done) multiple and interdisciplinary ~pproach tampering done by these scientists who enthusiastically view the new to the problem. But ten years later - caused no apparent harm. However, developments in gcnct.ics as the harbinger and with billions of dollars having this book laughs off the warnings of of a new eugenics era, such citations do not already been spent the situation is the ::'\ational Institutes of Health, Ruth prove that the origins of the current worse than ever. The f:'ncroaching Hubbard, and other concerned interest in the field lie with these sources. /Jesert provides an engaging discussion scientists as alarmist. Although it took I am working in the Genetic Screening of the bureaucratic and political events a great deal of pressure to get any of Study Group ofSftP. Most of the concerns which go a long way in explaining this the earlv insulin researchers to usc that Hubbard raises about the new genetics dramatic failure at international high-se~urity lab procedures, Hall and reproductive technologies are ones cooperation. seems to feel that thev were able to that we agree with and have raised in our The hooks do report on some police themselves and monitor any writings and talks. However, again, the success stories, like the efforts to save health and safety dangers. actual and potential problems that these forests and combat desertification m The author rightly concludes that new technologies arc causing docs not China, Syria, Soviet Asia, and Niger. the biggest gain from this insulin prove that they originated with these Also, there arc recommendations for experiment was increased public harmful purposes in mind. action, like total protection for acceptance of biotechnology (gain, that \Nhat we need is a detailed analvsis and a exceptional areas and usc of bilateral is, for companies like Bingen and justification of the claims for s~cial and and multilateral aid (like the World Gcnentcch). A recent survey by the economic roots of a particular scientific or Bank) to fund ecologically responsible Office of Technology Assessment used technological development, not an automatic projects. But there is no indication of the production of insulin for diabetics application of the "science under capitalism how even these meager proposals as its example to measure acceptance of and patriarchy is always evil'' dogma. would be implemented. biotechnology and found strong public There is also too much of a conspiratorial The problems of deforestation and support. flavor to Hubbard's description of how desertification "must be solved at the Much of this book is devoted to certain technological developments arose. local level, by people who understand scientist-hero worshipping, and The truth is much more complex than this. them in derail, as thcv affect each unquestioningly reports their lack of I agree with Hubbard that a major community." Local i~volvemcnt, local interest in the application of genetically source of suffering and death from parasite control, and the democratic engineered insulin (until, at the end of diseases in Third World countries- can he empowerment of people where they the story, they discover that it can found in social conditions. But I strongly are living may he the most sensible make them rich). The proposed disagree that the only tack to rake is social approach. application and initial rationale for their revolution and that vaccines will necessarilv --Joseph Regna research is to sol vc a future shortage of onlv make things worse. Would she hav'c insulin, which they anticipated through said the same thing about smallpox and Invisible Frontiers a projected five percent yearly rise in polio vaccines? Also, I do believe that the diabetes and a decrease in bovine and World Health Organization is aiding in the The Race to Synthesize a Human porcine pancreases -the original source Gene development of vaccines (among other for insulin as the C .S. population eats projects) with the intention of avoiding the by Stephen S. Hall less meat. But even this rationale is kind of dependency of Third World The Atlantic Monthly Press. 1987. Si9 95 cloth illogical-the increase, which is not five countries that Hubbard rightly criticizes. percent for insulin-dependent diabetes, Whv docs it have to he all or nothing? osh, isn't science fun? Yes-but is caused primarily by the aging of the We c;n fight for social change, pointing G isn't it a bit dangerous sometimes? population and its ever-increasing our the relationship of social and economic Heck, no! That's what Stephen Hall obesitv. systems to disease and poverty, hut at the At the end of the book, disclaimers tries to document in this saga of the same time develop medical interventions to invention of human insulin. Hall flv. Ten vears later, human insulin is improve the health of the living. I would still more. expensive than bovine or follows the Harvard research group suggest also that one of the major killers, (founders of the biotech firm Biogen) porcine -and there is no shortage of malaria, will still be a problem even when pigs in sight. People who develop and the University of California-San social conditions change. 1 allergies to animal insulin arc often Francisco City of Hope researchers 1'\:lv concerns still stand. And I would (founders of Genentcch) in their race allergic to the engineered variety as sugg~st that while it would appear that the to earn praise, recognition, well. So what was the real purpose for respondents present a similar response in collaboration with Eli Lillv, and an developing human insulin? To increase criticizing my article, there arc some awful lot of money. · public acceptance of biotechnology, of serious underlying differences. There arc In an unusual a~hicvement for an course. And in Hall's estimation, that many other points that deserve response, experienced science writer, Hall reason is good enough. but perhaps it is better to let the debate he manages to make a relatively simple -Ellen Weinstock continued by others. 9

September/October 1987 31 CENTRAL AMERICA MICROWAVES CONTINUED FROM PAGE 27 CONTINUED FROM PAGE 23

Honduran forests." The contra presence operation of the base? But this may be an here is not to keep you from them, but on their land has led some 450 families to irrelevant distinction, because either way, more importantly to keep them from you." relocate and colonize the Mosquitia rain if the government is using microwaves or In addition, people arrested on the forest, destroying some 40,000 hectares other invisible means of security and grounds of U.S. bases arc prosecuted for of forest in the process. And according to control, it must be doing so intentionally trespass under U.S. law, with stiffer newspaper reports, the contras have set and it must be aware of microwaves' penalties than exist under British law. The some 300 square kilometers of valuable potential for harm. (See the accompanying U.S., in the event of war, has the right to forest ablaze. sidebar.) shoot anvone entering one of its bases In Guatemala, the armed forces have Beyond this inclination to place fault lies without .permission and would not be waged a scorched earth strategy, burning the larger issue of exposure to unnatural liable to the British people for any of its hundreds of villages and destroying forms and levels of electromagnetic actions. As a draft U.S.-British Status of crops, forests, and fields. "Half of the radiation and the effects those exposures Forces Agreement states: forests in Chichicastenango have been have on most of us in the industrialized "Should the U.S. military commander destroyed" in 1983, "depriving us of world. Electromagnetic radiation is consider that the U.K. government does wood for cooking and destroying the ubiquitous, from police radar and television not possess the capability of quelling natural resources which could help us to transmitting towers to high-tension power disorders which may materially affect the survive in the future," said one Indian lines, VHF radio antennae, and CB radios. mission or security of the U.S. forces witness. More than one million refugees For microwaves and radar specifically, the effectively or in time, the U.S. forces may have been created by this policy. Many U.S. exposure limit of I 0 milliwatts per take such action as the U.S. military relocate into rain forests, including the cubic centimeter (I ,000 times the Soviet commander deems necessary, either imperiled Lacandon forest in southern Union's standard) was set not to ensure unilaterally or in cooperation with the Mexico. health and safety, but to allow the military governmcnt ... no civil action shall be Recently the Guatemalan army has high enough levels for virtually unrestricted brought in the courts against any member begun a controversial spraying campaign usc of microwaves and radio waves. of the U.S. Forces .... The authorities of the of paraquat, a deadly defoliant, in the lush In addition to the symptoms experienced U.S. shall have the exclusive right to Peten rain forest region. While the by the Greenham women, microwaves can exercise criminal jurisdiction." government claims use of the defoliant is also cause cataracts, miscarriages, birth In the event of a crisis, 100,000 U.S. to destroy marijuana cultivation, it is defects, leukemia, hair loss, decreased life troops could pour into Britain, outnum­ widely believed that the spraying is part expectancy, anemia, tremors, diminished bering British forces three to one. Civilians of the counterinsurgency campaign in sexual vigor, loss of appetite, sweating, could be compelled to work in labor gangs this area of guerilla activity. suppression of the immune system, and be at the disposal of the U.S. military. polycythemia vera (a rare blood disorder), Up to 30 hospitals may be ordered to As noted Costa Rican environmentalist heat stroke, decreased sperm production, discharge all civilian patients to make way Gerardo Budowski told participants at increased permeability of the blood-brain for U.S. military casualties, and even the May environmental conference in barrier, meningitis, and brain tumors. With today, with the British health system in Managua, "The search for environmentally many cases currently in litigation, 25 need of major renovation, the U.S. has sustainable development is the same as former U.S. military personnel have decided to build 16 military hospitals for the search for peace." A network of already been granted compensation for the exclusive use of Americans 1n Great nongovernmental organizations established injuries suffered as a result of exposure to Britain. by Budowski and others at the conference microwaves and radar. But then, Great Britain's sovereignty, will coordinate the work of environmen­ most Greenham women would agree, is talists throughout Central America-a not the real issue either. The existence of gesture toward regional cooperation at a NUCLEAR HEGEMONY VS. nation states and the national security time when governments are deeply BRITISH SOVEREIGNTY mentality that they engender is the divided. underlying problem. It is in this context­ However, environmentalists in the But the danger of microwave radiation the struggle against two occupying forces, U.S. have been slower to realize that war to all people is not the only issue on which their "own" government and that of the in Central America is an environmental the Greenham women's struggle has U.S.-that the efforts of the Greenham issue. While the environmental movement focussed attention. Another is the women and the British people take on their has become a vocal opponent to the sovereignty of Great Britain. With over real significance. nuclear arms race, environmentalists are I 02 U.S. military bases in Great Britain, it Their struggle is unique to, and yet part only just beginning to get involved in the is small wonder that the British often feel as of, the larger struggle for freedom, effort to stop U.S. intervention in Central if they're living in an occupied country. democracy, and people taking control of America. Nor has the ami-intervention Other irritants bolster this feeling. For their own lives. With all of its technological movement reached out to their natural example, U.S. soldiers have participated in arsenal, from photic drivers and squawk allies--environmentalists. Reflecting on the repression of the women's activities at boxes to nuclear bombs and cruise missiles, a two-week tour through Honduras, Greenham Common: making arrests, the state is defenseless against the hope Nicaragua, and Costa Rica as part of a using abusive language, and wielding wielded by a people determined to resist. delegation investigating environmental batons to crush women's fingers as the "One can look at all this and feel that it's destruction there, Greenpeace USA latter tried to cut or unravel the fence. very, very depressing, but my feeling is executive director Steve Sawyer said, When some Greenham women asked a that I believe that people arc going to "It's about time that the U.S. environmental British soldier why he was guarding a change it," says Simone Wilkinson, a movement recognizes that it has a crucial foreign military power's nuclear weapons longtime Grcenham activist. "I believe it role to play in resolving the Central base on British soil, he replied, "To be absolutely, and that's the strength that I American environmental crisis." 9 honest with you, the sole reason we are found through being at Greenham." {t

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