Commanding General Purpose: The U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence pub- Brigadier General Gregg C. Potter lishes the Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin (MIPB) Deputy to the Commanding General quarterly under the provisions of AR 25-30. MIPB presents Mr. Jerry V. Proctor information designed to keep intelligence professionals in- formed of current and emerging developments within the Deputy Commander for Training fi eld and provides an open forum in which ideas; concepts; Colonel Dennis A. Perkins tactics, techniques, and procedures; historical perspectives; Chief, Doctrine Division problems and solutions, etc., can be exchanged and dis- Mr. Stephen B. Leeder cussed for purposes of professional development. MIPB Staff: Disclaimer: Views expressed are those of the authors and not those of the Department of Defense or its elements. Editor The contents do not necessarily refl ect offi cial U.S. Army Sterilla A. Smith positions and do not change or supersede information in Associate Editors any other U.S. Army publications. Hugh M. Lewis, PhD Marion Margraf Miguel A. Rodriguez By order of the Secretary of the Army: Official: Design and Layout Patrick N. Franklin GEORGE W. CASEY JR. General, United States Army Cover Design Chief of Staff JOYCE E. MORROW Donald E. Stump Administrative Assistant to the Patrick N. Franklin Secretary of the Army Issue Photographs 1103902 Courtesy of the U.S. Army, Mahir Ibrahimov, and TCC.

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FEATURES

5 Cross-Cultural Competence 72 Culture from a Personal Perspective by Marilyn Willis-Grider, EdD by Bassam Almesfer Cross-Cultural Competence 74 The Importance of Cultural Awareness in the Modern Day 6 Some Thoughts on Cultural Mirror Imaging Operational Environment by Colonel Sonny Reeves, Director, Training, Development by Vern Philyaw and Support Iraq 10 Creating Culturally Astute Leaders: Joint and Combined 77 In Step with the Sons of Iraq Fires University Providing Innovative Cultural by Martin Scott Catino, PhD Education 82 Wasta: The Power of People by Sharon McBride, Editor-in-Chief, Fires by Timothy Baigent 14 What is Cross-Cultural Competency? Evolution of 3C in 84 Tactical Application of Cultural Knowledge the U.S. Army by Major Marc Meyle, U.S. Army by Angela Aube 86 Developing Cultural Competency for Success in 17 Leveraging Culture: Employing Culture as a Mission Stabilization Operations? Enabler by Chief Warrant Offi cer Five Scott Allen by Chris Clark Afghanistan Education 90 Socio-Cultural Lessons from Eurasia and Afghanistan 19 Operational Culture in the U.S. Army: The Fires CoE by Mahir Ibrahimov, PhD CFL Strategy Sets the Standard for the Rest of TRADOC 101 Mulik, Malik, or Musheran? Village Politics and the by Mahir Ibrahimov, PhD Pashtun Powerbroker 27 Why Maslow? by Clint Cooper by Dorothy Guy Bonvillain, PhD 104 Afghanistan: The Downfall of an Educational System and 32 Cultural Marksmanship its Cultural Impact by Mr. William Parrish by Fawzya Khosti and M. Yasin Khosti 34 Intergenerational Communication Across Cultures Africa by Donald Stump 107 African Indigenous Styles of Confl ict Resolution: 37 Religious Engagement and Diplomacy: Training the Endorsing the Compromise without Compromising 21st Century U.S. Military Chaplaincy Yourself by Chaplain (Colonel) Thomas C. Vail, PhD by Anatole Balma, PhD 43 Army Culture Training: What Works, What Doesn’t, by 112 Leveraging African Traditional Rulers for Mission Success the Numbers in Africa by David Tannenbaum by Zachary Angafor 50 The Army Journey in Training Cultural Competence: Asia 1941-2010 116 Shamans, Ghosts, Fireworks and Other Dangerous by Bruce Wood and Charles Morrison, PhD Things: The Dialectic of Tradition and Trans-nationalism Personal Vignettes in the Development of Greater Asia 53 U.S. Army CFL Advisor: Transition and Challenges by Hugh M. Lewis, PhD by El-Rayah A. Osman, PhD, CFL Advisor, Soldier Support 125 Muslim Populations in East Asia Institute, Fort Jackson, South Carolina by Marion Margraf 59 What a Chaplain Learned about Culture 137 Doctrinal Vs. Popular Buddhism in Modern Thailand by Chaplain (Lieutenant Colonel, USAF, Ret.) Mike Maleski by Yale M. Needel 61 Cross-Cultural Competency and Experiential Learning: My Observations from Brazil by Lucas Lynch Departments 64 My Cross-Cultural Experiences on the Reservation by Miguel A. Rodriguez 2 Always Out Front Inside Back Cover: TRADOC Culture 70 Cultural Awareness and the Challenges Ahead 3 CSM Forum Center Capabilities: What We Can Do by Raphique Antar For You always out front by Brigadier General Gregg C. Potter Commanding General U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence

Cultural Competence and the Contemporary American Soldier

From Valley Forge to Kandahar, the American and below and advising many senior leaders. The Soldier remains the same resilient, intelligent and TCC provides cultural knowledge and skills train- independent warfi ghter he or she has always been. ing for leadership development, including key leader The American Soldier is a model of courage and bat- engagements, negotiations, rapport building and tlefi eld bravery. The battlefi elds are dramatically dif- cross-cultural communications. (See CSM Holiday’s ferent, but the human dimension remains constant: column on page 3 for more details on 3C training.) People and their associated cultures. To be effective The TCC leverages knowledge and experience Soldiers, the Army, and its training base must be through partnering with the Marine Corps, Air relevant and forward-looking. Force, Navy, Reserve Forces, and key Allied nations Cross-cultural competency (3C) is a critical to provide the most relevant and effective cultural core skill for the contemporary American Soldier. training possible. The TCC is a Soldier friendly re- The U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command source staffed with the talent and experience to rap- (TRADOC) Culture Center (TCC) exists to develop idly prepare and fi eld course material and training and deliver relevant and mission-oriented training aids and serve as a call-back resource for the en- and education in all 3C aspects. This mission has tire Army. evolved from providing cultural awareness training to developing cultural understanding and cultural Our new and junior troops have not experienced expertise for all operational settings. an Army without culture training because the Army embeds culture training at every level. Because of No single expertise–whether cultural competence, 10 years of continuous war, most of our Soldiers’ 3C language expertise, or tactics–can stand alone in profi ciency has matured to the level of cultural un- molding a modern fi ghting force capable of meeting derstanding. Consequently Soldiers are demanding and defeating a foe on any battlefi eld. Integrating more advanced and sophisticated culture training. battle tactics with cultural strategies enables the Our redeploying troops have recognized this need modern Soldier to rapidly adapt, survive, and be as evidenced by the TCC’s dramatic increase in re- successful in all operational environments. quests for more advanced training. The TCC will Every Army commander must master 3C to continue to meet these advanced demands. achieve mission success, especially in a counterin- The Future of Culture Training for the surgency environment where people are the center Army of gravity. With so many competing demands and requirements, leaders must focus pre-deployment The Army must be a learning organization that training on developing their 3C expertise and con- encourages Soldiers to understand and apply fun- tinue building their own capacity in 3C as part of damental principles in rapidly changing contexts. their lifelong learning objectives. Culturally astute leaders will leverage awareness and understanding with other capabilities to achieve TCC as a Critical Multiplier an intercultural edge in reaching their objectives. The TCC is a robust resource for 3C. It is the lead Dynamic cultural situational awareness and re- in training and educating Army leaders from captain sponsiveness is a critical component of this devel- (Continued on page 4)

2 Military Intelligence csm forum

by Command Sergeant Major Todd S. Holiday Command Sergeant Major U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence

Cross-Cultural Competency Training

In 2002 we began cultural awareness training with products were designed for the graduated range of the establishment of the U.S. Army Culture Center the junior enlisted (Skill Level One, Smart Cards), for at Fort Huachuca. The original concern was coun- the NCOs (Skill Level Two and Three, Smart Books) terterrorism, but growing concern for cultural and for the First Sergeants and Commanders (Skill awareness ultimately led to the establishment of the Level Four and Five, Student Readers). Instructional TCC. Visibility increased over time. In January 2004 programs can combine all these resources for devel- the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command opment of cross-culturally competent Warfi ghters. (TRADOC) Commander Lieutenant General Wallace The Army Culture Education and Training requested an information brief from the Intelligence Curriculum (ACETC) booklet was developed to pro- Center on the way ahead for the Culture Center. This vide a quick reference for the Warfi ghter for ev- brief was then forwarded to the Army Chief of Staff, erything available through the TCC. The ACETC which led to the U.S. Army Culture Center becom- became a much sought after product because units ing the TRADOC Culture Center (TCC) in November could customize their training requests. Originally of 2005. Development of cultural awareness train- a two-sided brochure, the ACETC grew to a 46-page ing products continued and led to other undertak- booklet. The ACETC remains available by request or ings. In 2006 the TCC sponsored the fi rst TRADOC by online download. Culture Summit whose key concept was, of course, cultural awareness. Moving up from cultural awareness to cross-cul- tural competency (3C) training, the critical prob- In the TCC culture awareness phase all the pro- lem we now face is how to incorporate 3C into the grams of instruction (AFRICOM, CENTCOM, PACOM, curriculum. TCC developed interactive training vid- and CORPS lessons) were rolled into one package. eos, Army 360 and the IMT/BCT (Initial Military However, it wasn’t long before an urgent Warfi ghter Training/Basic Combat Training) Video to enable request came in from a unit that had spent a year Generation X and Y Warfi ghters to acquire more ef- training for deployment to Iraq only to receive or- fective 3C training. The Army 360 video, fi lmed with ders for Afghanistan just one week before their date professional role-playing actors, is an immersive, of deployment. Because the TCC had adopted a uni- interactive training video employing a decision-tree tary format of instruction, it could not provide dif- structure that offers the Soldier a mission brief. ferentiated assistance to deploying units. To meet Pauses throughout the video allow four alternative the needs of the Army the TCC went from a general decisions based on hypothetical cultural scenar- training support package (TSP) to a very modular ios representative of the OE. Successful navigation and specifi c TSP to meet the requirements of the de- through the system (mission accomplishment) re- ploying units. TCC now trains with regional exper- quires correct responses. Incorrect responses are tise throughout the operational environments (OE). terminal, possibly resulting in gunfi re, loss of life, or New training media from TCC include Smart other possible deleterious outcomes. Ultimately, in- Cards, Smart Books and Student Readers relating correct responses prompt retraining. It is an effective to CENTCOM, AFRICOM, and PACOM areas. These way to train young Soldiers prior to deployment.

January - March 2011 3 always out front (Continued from page 2) opment for the future Soldier as an Army leader. guided by a facilitator addressing the complex cul- These capabilities will help Soldiers quickly read tural combat skills of rapport building, negotiations and understand subtle cultural signs, clues and re- and key leader engagements. These skills are as in- lationships in the operational setting. terpersonal as modern Army combatives, so train- Army culture training will soon have the op- ing will be as interpersonal as combatives training. tion to integrate distributed learning products for Soldiers will apply their cross-cultural knowing to knowledge and face-to-face training for behaviors. cross-cultural doing and progress from being cul- Soldiers can complete interactive tutorials and par- turally aware to becoming cultural competent. ticipate in scenario-based culture training that puts America’s 21st Century Soldiers will continue to them into events as active participants to practice face challenges and opportunities that require 3C- their decision making skills and observe appropri- profi ciency. The TCC is a key enabler to further ad- ate behaviors role modeled in the cross-cultural en- vance and honor our Valley Forge roots, to Kandahar vironment. This will lead to small group training and beyond. csm forum TRADOC Commander General Dempsey man- critical feedback for further refi nement and develop- dated another training product, the IMT/BCT video. ment of training software. UMI is the main website All U.S. Army Soldiers in basic training must re- for online training using the IMT/BCT video. Army ceive this one-hour, multiple episode video vignette 360 Version Two video will soon appear on the UMI training. Two professional narrators guide the website, making the application entirely web-based. Soldier through different types of 3C environments Platform instructors continue to implement via cultural immersion scenarios. The narrators’ 3C training via institutional training (IT), mobile dress, behavior, and conversation illustrate fea- training teams (MTT), and train the trainer (TTT). tures of culture (values, beliefs, behaviors, norms) Instruction has grown into different team frame- in contrastive settings. Cultural differences come works in order to accomplish training requirements alive in contexts that young Soldiers understand at the Fort Huachuca level as well as with outside because they are set in familiar American scenar- organizations, including U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, ios. For example, a food court at an American mall, and Air Force units. The teams have been man- with all its ethnic foods, becomes a way to repre- dated to train the full spectrum of Warfi ghters, from sent subcultural diversity. This training quickly el- enlisted through captain. TCC has developed the evates the Soldier’s level of cultural competence. cultural curriculum for the Advanced Leadership This instruction can be incorporated into Advanced Course (ALC) and Senior Leader Course (SLC), Individual Training (AIT) at the different Training the Basic Offi cer Leadership Course (BOLC), and Centers of Excellence as well. Available through the the MI Captains Career Course (MICCC). These University of Military Intelligence (UMI) online, MI courses now include role-playing scenarios and sit- Soldiers can complete the curriculum during Phase 4 uational training exercises along with conventional and 5 training before they leave AIT. Fort Huachuca PowerPoint training. is producing Soldiers who are well trained in 3C. This developmental history of TCC training (from A Learning Management System (LMS) tracks the Counterintelligence, to cultural awareness, to cul- online training and issues certifi cates upon success- tural expertise, to 3C training, to future integrated ful completion of the training. The LMS is an auto- Culture and Language training) corresponds to the mated database for tracking users. When Soldiers fi ve levels of development of digital literacy meth- log on to UMI, the login name and password iden- odologies, and refl ects the movement of the entire tifi es them and tracks their performance. All train- U.S. military in the direction of increasingly differ- ing within the LMS shell allows the gathering of a entiated, digitally integrated, and distributed cur- great amount of detailed data on users and provides riculum methodologies. Level 1 represents a linear (Continued on page 31)

4 Military Intelligence Cross-Cultural Competence

The U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) impact of operationally-defi ned culture upon human be- Culture Center (TCC) at Fort Huachuca, Arizona, is proud havior in the areas of operations (AO). of this unique issue devoted to the challenges and dimen- 3C has an intellectual history in cross-cultural com- sions of cross-cultural competence (3C) in U.S. military munication studies that focused on value differentials training. between people of different cultures and how these dif- The aim of this special issue of the MIPB is to expand ferences infl uenced communication styles, intended es- upon a broader view of the general and applied problems pecially for intercultural competence training applied to of 3C, without pre-conceived frameworks or biased no- business and management. These studies were connected tions of the challenges involved in the complexities of 3C with models and requirements of international business conceptualization, training articulation, or operational and the conduct of high level meetings and negotiations, application. We wanted to examine, through fi rst-hand as well as for market research. They are not to be con- experience, the problems and requirements of 3C devel- fused with broader cross-cultural research aimed at a opment as told by those who daily instruct, practice, de- form of comparative analytical scientifi c knowledge in ba- velop, and ultimately put these skills into practice. This sic anthropology, that generally inform models of cross- special issue also explores ways in which these skills may cultural awareness and 3C skill requirements. be applied to human and military experiences where 3C In spite of academic criticism and theoretical method- becomes a critical issue, across a range of cultural set- ological questions regarding such applied research, the tings and contexts, in training and in operations as well broad use of 3C studies in education, business, political as in everyday life. negotiation, marketing or military operation underscores The articles refl ect a broad range of interests, skills, the value of brokering and mediating cultural differences knowledge and subject matter expertise from within the that might otherwise interfere with constructive out- TCC as well as from signifi cant contributors without. comes. The net benefi t of such systematic application is Our intention was to gather a diversity of ideas on top- in the long run clear in many operational settings in def- ics related to 3C without setting constraints or arbitrary initely reducing the requirements for kinetic alternatives boundaries upon what these ideas should be about. We in otherwise violent situations, as well as for increasing sought authors to write, as much as possible, in their the social leverage upon which the stable foundations of own voices and to bring to the table, as much as possi- development can be built. ble, fi rsthand experience. Only with a plurality of voices The theme of this year’s special issue grew out of the can we hope to achieve a solid foundation in exploring the interest generated by last year’s special issue devoted to 3C challenges. Cultural Awareness. The general theme (3C) of this issue U.S. military awareness of the importance of cultural covers a broad range of critical subthemes relating to cross- differences in operating environments has expanded to cultural negotiations, mediation, training and education, an understanding of the requirement to develop true religion, culture and language acquisition, and confl ict res- skill-based 3C for a broad range of personnel so that they olution and management. The sub-themes, problems and can successfully navigate and operate in foreign fi eld paradoxes of 3C, in training and application in operational contexts. It is recognized that considerations of cultural settings, are examined by a host of different voices, drawing awareness and 3C skill development necessary for opera- from a wide range of expertise and experience across many tional effectiveness will vary across the spectrum of com- different military, cultural, and academic backgrounds. A mand and occupation. 3C requirements will be different 3C fi nish line has not yet been reached. Indeed, this is but for higher ranking offi cers in command than for privates the fi rst leg of a long race, but it is clear that the entire U.S. or staff NCOs or other personnel on foreign ground. military is headed in the right direction. We can distinguish the use of cultural knowledge at The Army is rapidly catching on and correctly cipher- three levels (strategic, operational, and tactical) as well as ing the strategic and tactical requirements and necessity the different requirements and kinds of cultural knowl- of maintaining and developing applicable 3C skills in the edge for each of these levels. Though cultural knowledge AOs. This has not been accomplished without fi ts, starts for all three levels may be interrelated, strategic knowl- and stops, but the road as yet untraveled is made more edge generally requires more abstract notions of cul- worthy by the fact of its diffi culty and the learning from ture defi ned foremost by history and cultural dynamics. mistakes that come from such a journey. Operational and tactical levels of cultural knowledge re- quire practical application and an analytical understand- — Marilyn Willis-Grider, EdD ing of traditional customs and beliefs, as well as the Director, TRADOC Culture Center

January - March 2011 5 by Colonel Sonny Reeves, Director, Training, Development and Support

What is mirror imaging? Basically it is observing or pared for these perceptions and understand them, assessing someone else’s experiences from our own in order to use them as a mission effectiveness worldview. We all do it. We do it daily. It is just more multiplier. pronounced and at times operationally dangerous Mirror imaging does not just apply to military oper- when we do mirror imaging in a foreign land, espe- ations. In the mid-1990s I was a young men’s leader cially within non-Western societies. and Boy Scoutmaster for a male South African teen- Preconceived Notions ager named Percy. Percy, his siblings, and mother Mirror imaging is a perennial challenge for all were prominent family members of the Zulu tribe Soldiers. Throughout my 26-year intelligence ca- and therefore, by default, members of the Inkhata reer, I have struggled with this challenge. A simple Freedom Party. However, they committed a major example was my own mirror-imaging when I was social faux pas and tribal heresy; they supported on temporary duty in Qatar. I remember walking Nelson Mandela’s African National Congress which on the beautiful beach; the temperature was in the was primarily comprised of the Xhosa tribe. Because high 90s. An Arab father and mother were walk- of their tribal treason, they suffered signifi cant vio- ing on the beach with their small son. The father lence from fellow Zulu tribe members. Members of and son were in bathing suits with no shirts on. Percy’s tribe tried to kill Percy, his mother Christine, The mother was in complete, traditional black Arab and his siblings. Christine’s brother, a very prom- garb (the Aabaya). The mother had to be very hot inent Zulu and ANC leader, helped smuggle Percy and uncomfortable. I was hot and wearing a bathing and his family out of South Africa and they eventu- suit. The juxtaposition was bothersome to me, but ally ended up in the U.S. the sight was not that unusual in the Middle East. This experience was eye opening. I had al- It did not seem to bother either of the parents. Many ways viewed the South African confl ict, especially Westerners would probably condemn this act as os- Apartheid, from the lens of American Jim Crow laws. tensibly sexist, but was it? It was diffi cult not to. The South African perpetrators As a Soldier, one does not have to accept nor ap- looked like Jim Crow villains. Clearly, from a sim- prove of other cultures; however, one must be pre- plistic American perspective, their motives were the

6 Military Intelligence same. However, that is not completely true. South culture is rather present oriented, and even African policies of Apartheid were clearly racial what happened in the 1980s now seems dated. and tribal as well. Percy and his family’s hardships It is time that we started to learn and to remem- proved that point. I am not legitimizing or reduc- ber because our enemies do. When bin Laden ing the horrors of Apartheid, but I was attempting invokes the name of Salah-al-Din (Saladin), he to demonstrate how preconceived ideas might infl u- is drawing inspiration from the great twelfth- ence personal actions as well as U.S. operations. century Muslim general who threw back the Even the smallest failure to anticipate how others Crusaders and recaptured Jerusalem. In his vid- interpret things can affect US operations. One com- eotaped statement released on Al Jazeera televi- batant commander (COCOM) shared with a group sion, bin Laden said Americans should get used of military personnel an experience he had while to suffering because “our Islamic nation has briefi ng a theater Minister of Defense (MOD). The been tasting the same for more than 80 years.” PowerPoint slide had the COCOM area of respon- He was dismembering of the Ottoman Empire, sibility lines that showed his responsibility for the the last of the great Muslim empires, by the vic- 1 MOD’s country. Understandably, the MOD took ex- torious European forces after World War I. ception to the notion that the U.S. was responsible Put another way, D’Souza said that to Third World for his country. It was the MOD’s responsibility. members, “birth is destiny.”2 That’s a concept that contradicts the American myth that we can be what- Clearly the commander and slide maker did not ever we want to be. think through the potential cultural implications of this slide. We must be aware of mirror-imaging; if not, Perhaps the only similar backward-looking cul- dangerous consequences might not be avoidable. tural worldview in America relates to the Civil War (or the War of Northern Aggression depending on They Aren’t Like Us Necessarily one’s regional perspective). The noted southern his- My own operational and tactical experiences, as torian Shelby Foote said, “Southerners are very well as my own studies, have taught me that there strange about that war.”3 Additionally, this view are pronounced differences in attitude and world- varies in the U.S. depending on where one lives and view in locations where the U.S. has historically op- their race. Tony Horwitz, writer and former Civil erated, especially in the counterinsurgency (COIN) War reenactor, said: environment (e.g., Haiti for over one hundred years, Everywhere, I [travelled], I had to explore two Nicaragua, Liberia, Afghanistan, Cuba, etc.) Some pasts and two presents; one white, one black, of the most important cultural differences are the separate and unreconcilable. The past had poi- tribe, the strong tendency to look to the past (espe- soned the present and the present, in turn, now cially with grievances, perceived or real), and the de- poisoned remembrance of things past. So there centralized nature of many non-Western cultures. needed to be a black Memorial Day and a white Each of these factors complements one another to Veterans Day. A black city museum and a white a degree. Additionally, these are traits that are not one. A black history month and a white calendar possessed by Americans in general, and these bi- of remembrance. The best that could be hoped ases and outlooks are not generally carried into the for was a grudging toleration of each other’s his- operational environment. torical memory.4 It is not atypical that many of the countries in My own sense is that these separate racial views which U.S. soldiers conduct, or will conduct, op- are becoming more reconcilable. Related to this erations have a long historical perspective, or in backward-looking worldview in many regions is a some cases deep-seated grievances. These perspec- tribe or clan or a family based society beyond which tives are often alien to our country. Conversely, loyalty often may appear to be illogical. These per- Americans generally look to the present and the fu- spectives also often may appear to us as a form of ture. Denesh D’Souza, an Indian immigrant to the corruption because of what we perceive as nepotism U.S., articulated this issue: over merit. In America, because of our strong sense …a lot has happened since the twelfth century, of individualism, religious and ethnic diversity, and and we have forgotten a lot of things. American high mobility, this backwards looking mindset is

January - March 2011 7 generally an alien concept. Nonetheless, this differ- the sense of obligation is strongest, breed the worst ent community view is a challenge and a perspec- nepotism and cronyism.”8 These challenges occur in tive that we must remain cognizant of in order to areas where the U.S. operates regularly or has the accomplish our mission. potential to conduct operations. Keith B. Richburg, the New York Bureau Chief of Richburg wrote about a common African story that The Washington Post, and an author with signifi - highlights the pervasiveness of corruption. This ex- cant professional African experiences, commented ample may overstate the problem, but it conveys a on the centrality of the tribe in many of the African signifi cant cultural divide that we will likely expe- countries that he reported on and how these loyal- rience to some degree. He described the parable as ties undercut their own nations’ forward progress. follows: He said, “If there was one thing I learned traveling  An Asian and an African become friends while around Africa, it was that the tribe remains the de- they are both attending graduate school in the fi ning feature of almost every African society. Old West. Years later, they each rise to become the tribal mistrusts and stereotypes linger, and the po- fi nance minister of their respective countries. tential for a violent implosion is never very far from One day, the African ventures to Asia to visit his the surface.”5 Richburg even described how black old friend, and is startled by the Asian’s palatial Africans would ascribe to him a tribal or ethnic home, the three Mercedes-Benzes in the circular group despite his U.S. passport and regular asser- drive, the swimming pool, the servants. tions that he was an American. For example, while  “My God!” The African exclaims. “We were just in Kenya, a young woman asked Richburg where he poor students before! How on earth can you now was from, and this captures their dialog: afford all this?” Woman: I think you’re Kenyan.  And the Asian takes his African friend to the Richburg: No, I said I’m American. window and points to a sparkling new ele- Woman: You don’t look like an American. You vated highway in the distance. “You see that toll look like a Kenyan. road?”asks the Asian, then he proudly taps him- Richburg: No, I insisted, I really am American. self on the chest. “Ten percent.” And the African Trust me. nods approvingly. Woman: I know you’re a Kenyan, she said fi rmly,  A few years later the Asian ventures to Africa, turning away. You’re just trying to pretend you to return the visit to his old friend. He fi nds don’t speak Swahili. the African living in a massive estate sprawling Richburg: Okay, I said, resigned. You found me over several acres. There’s a fl eet of dozens of out. I’m really a Kenyan. Mercedes-Benzes in the driveway, an indoor pool Woman: Aha! she said, turning back to me, and tennis courts, an army of uniformed chauf- pleased with herself now. I knew it.6 feurs and servants. “My God!” says the Asian. “How on earth do you afford all this?” This surreal experience refl ects a paradigm that  This time the African takes his Asian friend to we may fi nd foreign but that may reinforce the ob- the window and points. “You see that highway?” stacles and challenges we must face to avoid mir- he asks. But the Asian looks and sees nothing, ror imaging. Franklin Foer, an author and writer for just an open fi eld with a few cows grazing. The New Republic, stated correctly that “humans  “I don’t see any highway,” the Asian says, strain- crave identifying with a group. It is an unavoidable, ing his eyes. immemorial, hardwired instinct.”7 Though he was referring to the nation state, a strong tribe, clan,  At this point, the African smiles, taps himself on 9 and familial identity may be more pronounced in the chest, and boasts, “One hundred percent!” the non-Western world; for some it is almost a form The story’s moral is obvious. Possessing this un- of fanaticism. This strong identity can lead to what derstanding will better prepare Soldiers to conduct we might consider corruption. Edward Banfi ed, in different operations, especially in a COIN environ- The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (1958), ar- ment. However, Major General Michael Jones, the gued that “the most familial-based societies, where CENTCOM J3, speaking at TRADOC Culture Summit

8 Military Intelligence IV, provided a different perspective. MG Jones high- Iraq, and Somalia with a combination of exciting lighted a discussion he had with an Iraqi general on movies, education, and interactive training por- corruption. The Iraqi said that Americans pay a tip tions. The TCC has other exceptional products that to a waiter after they provide service. The Iraqis pay it can tailor to unit requirements. You can visit the the tip (bribe from a Western perspective) before the TCC website at the following site: https://ikn.army. activity to ensure good service.10 mil/apps/tccv2/ for more information. Use Cultural Understanding to Achieve Mission The Apaches tribes, unlike the Sioux nations, were a decentralized organization with no real head. The Apache had Nant’an leaders that would rise up Endnotes and various tribal members would choose to follow 1. Denesh D’Souza, What’s So Great About America (New York: them. When a Nant’an died or was captured, oth- Penguin Group, 2001), 13. ers would arise, thus making it almost impossible 2. D’Souza, 82. for others to defeat them. The Spanish fought them 3. Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the for several centuries, without any success. The U.S. Unfi nished Civil War (New York: Vintage Books, 1999).

Army also fought them for several generations with 4. Horwitz, 208. limited success until the early 1900s.11 It was quite 5. Keith P. Richburg, Out of America, A Black Man Confronts Africa, ingenious how the U.S. Army fi nally defeated the (New York: Basic Books, 1997), 104. Apache without fi ring a shot. They essentially in- 6. Richburg, 155-156. verted the Apache culture and made them a central- ized tribe. How did they do this? With cattle!12 7. Franklin Foer, How Soccer Explains the World: An Unlikely Theory of Globalization (New York: Harper Perennial, 2005), 198. Ori Brafman and Rod A. Beckstrom said, “the 8. In Foer, 134. Americans fi nally realized that they needed to at- tack the Apache at a very basic level in order to con- 9. Richburg, 174-175. trol them.” The Army gave the Nant’ans cattle. The 10. MG Michael D. Jones, “How Culture Affects Operations in cows gave the Nant’ans power and responsibility, USCENTCOM AOR,” TRADOC Culture Summit IV, Tucson AZ, 21 April 2010. thus destroying their tribe’s decentralized nature. “Their power shifted from symbolic to material.” This 11. Ori Brafman and Rod A. Beckstrom, The Starfi sh and the Spider: empowered the Nant’ans but also turned their soci- The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations (New York: Penguin Group, 2006), 16-18. etal framework on its head because it made them a centralized group now tied to a land and formalized 12. Brafman, 151-152. their power. “The cows changed everything…this 13. Brafman, 151-152. broke down Apache society.”13 What relevance does this example have? The central point is if we are culturally sensitive, we can avoid the cultural faux pas of mirror imaging. If culturally sensitive, and well prepared, we can use cultural understanding to help better achieve U.S. objectives, thus reduc- ing deployment time, resources, and saving U.S., Colonel Reeves was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant coalition, and native lives. You do not need to be a in Military Intelligence upon graduation from the College of William and Mary in Virginia in May 1984 with a Government COCOM commander to appreciate cultural differ- Major and an Economics Minor. He began his career as an MI ences and to learn how to avoid mirror imaging. 35D/B offi cer and transferred to Strategic Intelligence Offi cer Where can you get help? The U.S. Army Training (FA 34) in 2001. He served in a variety of command and staff and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Culture Center positions throughout the world at the tactical to strategic levels. Colonel Reeves has deployed fi ve times: Sinai, Egypt (TCC) has numerous user-friendly training and ed- (MFO S2 1985-86), Kuwait (Squadron S2 1991), Bosnia (IO ucational products that can assist your soldiers to OIC 1997), Kuwait (CJTF J2 Forward 2001), and Afghanistan become more culturally profi cient. As an example, (Deputy J2 2002). He may be contacted at harold.reeves@ the TCC has Army 360 DVDs based on Afghanistan, conus.army.mil.

January - March 2011 9 JointJoint aandnd CCombinedombined FFiresires UUniversityniversity PProvidingroviding IInnovativennovative CulturalCultural EEducationducation by Sharon McBride, Editor-in-Chief, Fires

This article, from the September-October 2010 issue of Fires, is reprinted with permission.

Despite growing awareness among Army leaders to training tended to be overly simplistic and lacked a include foreign cultural education as a part of train- context for cultural understanding, Ibrahimov ex- ing and operational planning, the roles that cul- plained. The curriculum developed by CFLP helps ture and religion play in successful missions and Soldiers and leaders develop critical thinking skills deployments are often overlooked. Battlefi eld les- needed to understand how culture might infl uence sons learned have confi rmed that language skills the outcome of an operation. Ibrahimov has created and understanding of foreign cultures are crucial a holistic approach to cultural training that is now for success in full-spectrum operations. Often, cul- being looked at closely by TRADOC for other installa- tural understanding is necessary both to defeat ad- tions to emulate. According to him, becoming aware versaries and to work successfully with allies. The of cultural dynamics is a diffi cult task because cul- Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy, re- ture is based on experiences, values, behaviors, be- leased in 2009, highlighted operational experiences liefs and norms. In many in Somalia, the Balkans, Afghanistan and Iraq with cases, Soldiers may having critical gaps in the Army capability to infl u- experience a for- ence and operate effectively within different cul- eign culture for tures for extended periods of time. the fi rst time In an effort to develop adaptive, agile and cul- during a de- turally astute leaders with the right blend of cul- ployment, ture and foreign language capabilities, the Fires and as a re- Center of Excellence’s (FCoE) Joint and Combined sult may in- Fires University (JCFU) is leading the way with its advertently be implementation of a Cultural and Foreign Language disrespectful. Program (CFLP). Dr. Mahir Ibrahimov, who is fl uent For example, in in fi ve languages and versed in many cultures, Iraq, the left hand was hired as the fi rst TRADOC Cultural and is not used for con- Foreign Language Advisor, and is the head tact with others, of the CFLP here at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. eating or ges- Changing our current teaching par- adigms required new ideas and the ability to go beyond provid- ing Soldiers and leaders a rudi- mentary foundation in foreign culture and language familiar- ization. Traditionally, cultural

10 Military Intelligence tures; it is considered unclean. When talking with shock,’ and give Soldiers the ability to adjust to an an Iraqi, especially during key leader engagements, indigenous culture as quickly as possible to get the close personal interaction is customary and distance mission done. It should also build on the foundation is considered rude. Try all food and drink offered, of an individual’s existing leader attributes which in and it’s important to appear relaxed and friendly; so- turn reinforces the core leader competencies of lead- cial interaction is critical in building trust. Cultural ing others, developing oneself and achieving results. awareness training would help overcome the ‘culture Cross-cultural training should focus, in particular

Figure 1.1 Cultural Awareness Objectives on character, presence and intellect. (See fi gure 1.1 Cultural Awareness Objectives.) Learning Objective 1 (Character): Demonstrate interaction and cross-cultural communications skills in order to effectively engage and understand people and their Some programs defi ne cultural im- environment. mersion as simply ‘being there,’ assert- Demonstrate a level of cultural awareness that includes a positive openness to other ing that physically being in another people, an understanding of prevailing values, beliefs, behaviors and customs, and a desire to learn more about cultures and language. This includes an introduction to a country is an immersion in itself and language that supports current military operations with the intent to promote additional that knowledge of another culture and study through self-development at the institution, at home station or at an academic language will follow naturally. “That university. isn’t always the case,” Ibrahimov Learning Objective 2 (Presence): Demonstrate communication, infl uence and negotiation skills essential for leaders to effectively operate in a JIIM environment. said. When developing a comprehen- Leverage the knowledge gained by challenging students to employ skills to deal with sive program, Ibrahimov determined ambiguous and complex situations, to regulate one’s own behavior and to use the that three cultural competency lev- interpersonal abilities to deal with people from one’s own or other cultures. This includes an understanding and ability to engage other joint and allied military personnel, and host els (cultural awareness, understand- country indigenous leaders with a moderate level of confi dence. ing and expertise) must be included. Learning Objective 3 (Intellect): Demonstrate a familiarization in a geographic region of These competency levels are now in- current operational signifi cance. cluded in all courses taught by the Leverage critical thinking and cognitive skills through organizing information that JCFU, the FCoE Noncommissioned supports cultural self-awareness. Depending on level of leader development professional military education, expand cross-cultural competence skills by gaining an awareness or Offi cers Academy and in other leader- understanding of a geographic area that highlights the implications of a region’s economic, ship courses attended by offi cers and religious, legal, governmental, political and infrastructural features, and of sensitivities regarding gender, race, ethnicity, local observances and local perception of the U.S. and its warrant offi cers to overcome cultural allies. ignorance. (See fi gure 1.2 Cultural Apply relevant planning to considerations, terms, factors, concepts and geographic Competency Levels.) information to mission planning and in the conduct of operations. This includes leveraging other TRADOC and DOD schools, partnerships with universities and academia, gaming The Basic Offi cer Leader Course technology and opportunities that stress students’ ability to concisely and persuasively (BOLC), the NCO Warrior Leader speak and write, to engage in discussions, and employ cognitive reasoning and thinking skills. Course, the NCO Advanced Leader Course, the Captains Career Course, Figure 1.2 Cultural Competency Levels the Warrant Offi cer Basic Course, the Warrant Offi cer Advanced Course, and Cultural expertise the NCO Senior Leader Course have Advanced level of cross-cultural competence in a specifi c geographic area. Generally all been revised to contain specifi c ap- entails some degree of profi ciency in a language; skills that enable effective cross-cultural persuasion, negotiation, confl ict resolution, infl uence or leadership; and an understanding proaches appropriate to each level of the most salient historic and present-day regional structural and cultural factors of a in order for leaders to attain specifi c specifi c geographic area. knowledge on culture and foreign lan- Cultural understanding guage expectations. It is important to Well developed cross-cultural competence in a specifi c region. Able to anticipate the implications of culture and apply relevant terms, factors, concepts and regional information note, as designed the training places to tasks and missions. Familiar with a specifi c region’s economic, religious, legal, more emphasis on attaining cultural governmental, political and infrastructural features, and aware of regional sensitivities knowledge (big C), with some emphasis regarding gender, race, ethnicity, local observances and local perception of the U.S. and its allies. on learning foreign languages (little L). Cultural awareness “Our Soldiers and leaders really need Minimal level of regional competence necessary to perform assigned tasks in a specifi c to understand the cultural nuances geographic area; able to describe key culture terms, factors and concepts. Basic understanding of how foreign culture might affect the planning and conduct of operations. of other countries,” Ibrahimov said. “The decisions our younger Soldiers

January - March 2011 11 and leaders are making often have strategic impor- conducting train-the-trainer sessions for small group tance.” Cultural knowledge and understanding can leaders, new cultural awareness instructors and new open eyes so Soldiers can be more effective when TRADOC cultural advisors. He has also made arrange- dealing with a local populace. Having a rudimentary ments for allied international students and FCoE knowledge of a native language can be helpful in a liaison offi cers to conduct regular briefs on their re- variety of situations, he added. spective countries for additional knowledge. Partnerships and Cooperation Cultural Simulation Ibrahimov also designed the CFLP program to Items in FCoE Cultural and Foreign Language have ongoing partnerships and cooperation with Program’s arsenal include a ‘Cultural Awareness local universities and other military institutions. and Language Training Package,’ which is a portable Cameron University, Oklahoma University and training option for Soldiers that includes several for- Oklahoma State University faculties conduct regu- eign language CDs, a cultural awareness scenario- lar seminars for Fires professionals on topics of op- based game called “Army 360,” language fl ash cards erational importance. and fi eld-expedient smart books allocated from the Past topics have included: Central Asia: Modernity Defense Language Institute for troops’ use. (See fi g- and Geopolitics in the Stans, The Cultural and ure 1.3 Cultural Awareness and Language Training Linguistic Patterns in the Middle East and Projections Package.) for Iraq, Who Will Lead? The United States, the European Union, China, and the Global Diffusion Figure 1.3 Cultural Awareness and Language Training Package of Power, The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,  Iraqi Basic Language Survival Guide U.S. Strategic Options in Afghanistan, Iran and U.S.  Tactical Dari Language and Culture Strategy, Russia: A Declining Superpower Reclaiming  Multi-Platform Tactical Language Kit–Dari its Throne? Future strategic topics are related to  Pashto Headstart & LSK  Tactical Pashto: Language and Culture Russia, Iran and the Middle East.  Multi-Platform Tactical Language Kit Iraqi Arabic “These seminars have led to an increased under-  Pocket cards–for use in the fi eld  Army 360 standing by our students of cultural aspects and geo-  DLI Foreign Language Center (Presidio of Monterey) political trends, their impacts on the contemporary  Flipbook on Iraqi Basic–Language Survival Guide operational environment,” said Ibrahimov. “We are  Flipbook on Korean Basic–Language Survival Guide working on attracting more academic support to en- hance ongoing education and training so they can be better prepared to operate in the joint, interagency, intergovernmental and multinational environments that they might be deployed in the future.” Partnerships to enhance training have also been formed with TRADOC Culture Center and U.S. Army Intelligence Center of Excellence both located at Fort Huachuca, Arizona; the Marine Corps University at Quantico, Virginia; the Defense Language Institute (DLI) Foreign Language Center at the Presidio in Monterey, California, and the East and South Asia Center for Strategic Studies at the National Defense University. Ibrahimov himself also regularly conducts seminars “Army 360”3 iis a virtual i t l simulation i l ti application li ti that with students attending the Fires Support Coordinator enables students to immerse themselves in true-to- Course, Warrant Offi cer Instructional Branch, Field life scenarios in order to broaden their experience in Artillery and Air Defense Artillery Captains Career dealing with other cultures. They get to practice in- Course. He also conducts specifi c or generalized pre- tuitive decision making abilities in a mock environ- deployment training upon request. He has also been ment before facing the real–life culture dilemmas.

12 Military Intelligence identifying a Dari or Pashto instructor (Afghanistan) to launch a similar 12-week program in the future. Join the Army, See the World Deployments are not going to be stopping any time soon. According to DA Pam 525-3-0, The Army Capstone Concept Operational Adaptability– Operation under Conditions of Uncertainty and Complexity in an Era of Persistent Confl ict, the Army is going to continue to send large numbers of Soldiers into a region about which they have little knowledge and almost no cultural connection. We then ask them to interact safely and effi ciently with Ibrahimov also established a Culture and Foreign military and civilian natives. Language Resource Center in the Morris Swett These interactions require varying levels of lin- Technical library, where students have access to com- guistic, cultural, and interpersonal backgrounds. puters for self-paced training, various cultural aware- Providing Soldiers with these backgrounds is criti- ness books and numerous other applicable digital (to cal. The FCoE CFLP in on target in providing an av- include Rosetta Stone) and traditional learning re- enue of learning for leaders and Soldiers to achieve sources. These resources are available to captains, at least an elemental language profi ciency (Level BOLC B attendees, NCOES and warrant offi cer stu- 0+/1) prior to deployment. (See fi gure 1.4 Speaking dents to prepare cultural research papers which are Language Profi ciency Levels.) FCoE CFLP hopes now a mandatory requirement in each of their re- that by providing evolutional training, it will make spective training. BOLC B students are now eligible all Fires professionals successful–no matter what to receive certifi cates after completing four to eight corner of the globe they happen to deploy. For more hours of language training. The FCoE CFLP identi- information on the FCoE CFLP, log onto FKN at fi ed fi ve operationally important languages for train- https://www.us.army.mil/suite/doc/21617522. ing: Dari, Pashto (Afghanistan), Iraqi Arabic, Korean, and Russian. Not sure where to start? A comprehen- Figure 1.4 Speaking Language Profi ciency Levels sive reading list is also available at the resource center  Speaking 0: No profi ciency that includes books on areas that are currently strate-  Speaking 0+: Memorized profi ciency gically/operationally important to Army operations.  Speaking 1: Elementary profi ciency  Speaking 1+: Elementary profi ciency, plus A dedicated FCoE CFLP resource page is also avail-  Speaking 2/2+: Limited working profi ciency able by logging onto FKN. The site contains an abun-  Speaking 3/3+: General professional profi ciency  Speaking 4/4+: Advanced professional profi ciency dance of cultural awareness and foreign language  Speaking 5: Functionally native profi ciency knowledge, information on past seminars, informa- tion on the program, media coverage of the events, for- eign languages guides, links to DLI, Foreign Language Center resources, as well as the CIA Fact Book. The list and site are constantly being updated and upgraded. The FCoE CFLP has also just launched an all- volunteer language and cultural awareness orienta- tion class/pilot program that started in July. It’s a 12-week language course that is conducted by a na- tive Arabic speaker. “Sometimes troops have more success learning a foreign language by listening and practicing with a person rather than just listening to a CD,” Ibrahimov said. The fi rst session was at- Dr. Mahir Ibrahimov talks with children in a local village during a tended by 46 volunteer students from FA/ADA CCC mission to open two water treatment plants in Balad, Iraq. (Photo and WOES. FCoE CFLP is currently in the process of courtesy of 28th Public Affairs Detachment)

January - March 2011 13 by Angela Aube

As we continually “learn new lessons” in each mili- had been created and/or delivered to an expectant tary engagement we face, the U.S. military has again audience–would have sounded something like this: remembered the importance of cultural information to the Soldier. An early ad hoc arrangement fostered “But that isn’t what I wanted…” by leaders who recognized the role of culture in mili- Over the years, these same conversations contin- tary operations, cross-cultural competence (3C) has ued to be (and most likely still are) dominated by mutated and evolved from an unformed mass to such words as ‘awareness’ and ‘sensitivity,’ but of- something closely resembling sponge cake. ten without a true understanding of what culture In the Beginning… education and training is, what it can do for your Upon entering Afghanistan and Iraq nearly a de- unit and mission accomplishment, and also what cade ago, the U.S. military again discovered that we it cannot do. The style of training, at least in the need to know as much as possible about ourselves Army, has moved from knowledge-based lectures and others. This has resulted in a compelling ar- focused on ‘the other’ to skill-focused interactive gument for the institutionalization of 3C education education and training focused on a standardized and training throughout all branches of the U.S. framework designed to build important interaction military. Even before its formal establishment in skills. This training has also evolved in many cases February 2006, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine from an additional separate block of instruction to Command Culture Center was driven by the Army’s education and training that is incorporated into the desire for culture education and training. However, learning and practice of existing Soldier skills. In a fl y on the wall listening to requests for training the beginning, culture training was often comprised since the beginning of this endeavor might have of a lecture about Iraqis or Afghans, which some- overheard some variation of this conversation: times culminated in a “culture situational train- ing exercise lane.” Unfortunately, this proved to be “We need cultural awareness training.” a waste of resources in many cases, as well as a faulty approach. With separate training and exer- “Ok, what do you need cultural awareness of?” cise lanes, culture education and training seemed “The bad guys…We just don’t know enough to be to be an unrelated topic, one that had no relation able to find them and kill them.” to the skills and abilities Soldiers were already re- Regardless of where this fl y was located–at an quired to learn, foster, and maintain. By incorpo- Army, Marine Corps, Air Force, or Navy base–the rating culture education and training into current conversation is likely to have been the same. Most Soldier tasks, culture’s role becomes more appar- certainly the end of this conversation–after training ent, robust, and integrated.

14 Military Intelligence One other stumbling block in the evolution of cul- Facebook users1 and 145 million registered Twitter ture education and training was the language used users,2 one would think that the 3C cornerstone to describe it: awareness and sensitivity. These skill of communication would be well honed within words often evoked a sometimes defensive feeling the U.S. population. However, when the bulk of from Soldiers, resulting in the continuous need to your ‘conversation’ is actually a one-way presenta- justify our existence as culture training develop- tion of inane comments like “This movie is boring!” ers and teachers. If you’ve stood in front of a class- “I made awesome fajitas last night” and “Man, traf- room of Soldiers on Day One of a 40-hour training fi c is crazy today! I hate the Beltway!”, one has to week on culture–particularly between 2004 and question the quality of our society’s communica- about 2007–then you know the feeling of having tion skills. Enter 3C. to justify why you were there talking to them when Compared to the number of Facebook and Twitter they could be doing something else much more users, the number of 3C users quite simply leaves interesting. them in the dust. Six billion people, give or take However, over the last few years, the military mind- a few million, actively login to their 3C skills every set has certainly shifted from what one might la- day. Communication, rapport building and negotia- bel ‘disinterest requiring justifi cation’ to students/ tion are key skills that have fallen by the wayside in Soldiers knowing why they needed the information many situations but are now making a comeback, and usually asking for more. Perhaps this is a result at least in terms of key skills for members of the of increased support from leadership or the fact that U.S. Army. No longer simply focusing on ‘the other,’ many more Soldiers have made their way to a dan- 3C allows us to explore these key people skills, hon- gerous and sometimes, at least in their own minds, ing them to a fi ne edge and incorporating them ef- inexplicable operational environment. It seems that fectively into our everyday tasks as members of the now, most members of the military recognize that military and as individuals. the infamous phrase “Kill them all and let God sort AR 600-100, Army Leadership, explicitly names them out” sounds good in theory, but tends to play communication as a core leader competency, con- havoc with successfully conducting most missions taining 12 distinct references to communication in in a modern, counterinsurgency environment where its 24 pages. FM 6-22, Army Leadership contains 95 “fence-sitters” can easily become active combatants. references to communication. Obviously, this key Regardless, the need for a new skill set has certainly 3C skill has an intricate role to play in just the lead- evolved from changing circumstances and has in- ership aspect of a Soldier’s skills. In fact, AR 600- formed culture education and training. 100 says that “Leaders at all levels must be able What is 3C? to communicate, coordinate, and negotiate with a So, what is 3C? In the beginning, those words did variety of personnel, including joint and coalition not exist in the minds of most members of the mil- forces, interagency partners, nongovernmental or- itary. Instead, awareness and sensitivity (those of- ganizations, local leaders, U.S. and foreign media, fensive words mentioned before) created images of civilians, contractors, and people of different cul- acceptance, tolerance, and appreciation for the un- tures and languages.” doubtedly strange customs of ‘the other,’ while hold- Of course, one of the biggest challenges facing the ing hands and dancing in a peace circle. That is not institutionalization of 3C throughout the military what 3C is, though. Essentially it is a process-ori- is the nature of the military and its purpose. The ented approach to a human-oriented skill set. The marriage of the necessary warrior mentality with emphasis here is on a skill set. Essentially, 3C is the peace-keeping/nation-building mentality has teaching the now-forgotten people skills. These im- been a troubled one. Even lacking statistical data to portant skills are communication, rapport building, support this claim, one can make two educated as- and negotiations, to name a few. sumptions regarding this troubled relationship: One would think, in the age of instant technol-  When you are holding a weapon and a member ogy, constant human connection and social net- of the most powerful military in the world, it can working, that these people skills would be well be diffi cult to feel like you need to engage others developed. With an excess of 500 million active in a communication exchange.

January - March 2011 15  When you are staring down the barrel of that come? What effect might this have on accomplishing weapon, you are likely to be less inclined to hold my mission? Can I accept these consequences? Do an honest, productive dialogue. they align with my unit/mission goals?” For Soldiers, if education and training cannot help achieve their objectives, then there is simply no point in even talk- ing about it. “Nice to know” information is essen- tially useless and there is always something more important they could be learning. Conclusion Of course, talk of the purpose of 3C begs the ques- tion: What isn’t 3C? Some try to avoid this question, but quite frankly, 3C has its limitations, as does any tool. It is not an algebraic formula, with a de- fi ned set of values and outputs. Although much of the culture training in the beginning focused on ‘the other’ and what ‘they’ do—often without much op- portunity to explore variations in cultures and the fact that people are inherently unpredictable—3C offers strategies and insights, but not formulaic an- swers. 3C education and training should strive to explore the development of people skills, beginning with self-exploration and understanding. Without the personal foundation, our efforts will most likely be in vain because failing to account for our own As the military learned in the past decade as it thoughts, desires, and motivations leaves a signifi - again made the shift between technology-based in- cant gap in our planning and execution process. telligence to human-based intelligence collection, As we continue with this endeavor, we must con- technology cannot replace human interaction. When tinually remember that the purpose of 3C educa- most exchanges in other cultures take place in per- tion and training in the military is to enhance the son over a cup of coffee, rather than over the phone, Soldier’s ability to effectively perform his/her job and eventually you have to go to the coffee shop if you return home safely. Bogged down with theory, this want more information. Of course, once you arrive can be almost impossible. Armed with an effective at the coffee shop you will certainly require commu- marriage of theory and practice, 3C can continue nication, rapport building, and negotiation skills if to be a signifi cant tool for members of the military. you hope to actually have something useful to show In the end, 3C is merely another tool for an already for your interaction. And, so we must engage on a overloaded bag, but one with a signifi cant role in to- human level and create connections. Quite frankly, day’s operational environment. Without 3C, the bag there is no alternative. Again, enter 3C. may be lighter, but certainly not as powerful. From an Army perspective, 3C provides a base- Endnotes line of knowledge of communication, rapport build- ing and negotiation skills, asking Soldiers to develop 1. Mark Zuckerberg, The Facebook blog, 21 July 2010. Accessed at strategies to help them achieve their objectives. 3C http://blog.facebook.com/blog.php?post=409753352130. is not hailed as a solution to all the planning woes 2, Twitterblog, The Evolving Ecosystem, 2 September 2010. Accessed one will encounter, but is a tool to assist in success- at http://blog.twitter.com/2010/09/evolving-ecosystem.html. ful planning and execution of key mission objectives. Ms. Aube served in the U.S. Army as an Arabic Linguist/ That is the purpose of 3C. It should help Soldiers at Voice Interceptor in a variety of global assignments including all levels answer these questions, from a universal a deployment to Iraq. She currently serves as an instructor human perspective, as well as an individual cultural and training developer at the TRADOC Culture Center, Fort perspective: “If I do this, what is the most likely out- Huachuca, Arizona.

16 Military Intelligence by Chris Clark

Introduction be used in the OE. Some consider culture training Understanding the operational environment (OE) to be the same as Equal Opportunity (EO) training. is one of the most critical requirements when de- While EO training is critical to maintaining the co- ploying to an assigned area of responsibility (AOR). hesiveness of today’s Army and there are many par- There are various methodologies that can facilitate allels between EO and culture training, EO training the understanding of the OE at various operational and culture training are two entirely different areas levels. Two of the most commonly used methodol- of focus. ogies are PMESII-PT (political, military, economic, Cultural knowledge is a tool within your over- social, information, infrastructure, physical envi- all toolkit of competencies that can be used when ronment, and time) and ASCOPE (area, structures, deemed necessary. A colleague of mine has stated capabilities, organizations, people, and events). on many different occasions that there is “no place To determine what the overarching theme is in for cultural considerations in an active kill zone.” these two methodologies, it would not be too far A caveat for this quote is that the goal of any ki- a stretch to say that all the variables within these netic engagement should be to identify all hostile methodologies can be either directly or indirectly elements and engage those hostiles without any tied to the culture of the AOR. In today’s fl uid bat- collateral damage to the local populace or existing tlefi eld, not only is understanding the primary cul- infrastructure. The reason for this is that force pro- ture and subcultures that exist within your AOR tection should never be put in jeopardy because important, but the ability to apply and integrate this you do not want to offend the local culture. Cultural knowledge into mission planning and daily opera- knowledge is not about not offending someone from tions is critical to mission success. another culture. It is about harnessing the infor- mation to make Soldiers more effective in their mis- Common Misperceptions of Culture sions. Training Circular (TC) 31-73, Special Forces Training Advisor Guide, lists force protection and human Many commanders now understand the impact rights as two areas that should not be compromised that cultural considerations will have on their mis- for the sake of maintaining rapport. sion and are beginning to take the necessary steps to ensure that the overall cross-cultural competence Three Steps in Culture Training (3C) of their unit is suffi cient for the area to which Like any tool, one needs to learn how to use it they are deploying. Nevertheless, there are still a and maintain it, and when to use it. This leads us number of units that do not prepare their Soldiers, to an informal three-step framework on how to en- noncommissioned offi cers, and offi cers adequately sure that Soldiers are trained and mentored in the to interact effectively with the culture in their AOR. 3C arena. The fi rst step is to develop a mindset There are myriad reasons for this. within your unit in which culture is not thought of One of the more common reasons is that there as a mysterious entity, but one that Soldiers feel is is a huge misperception about the purpose of cul- more of a mission enabler than a mission inhibitor. ture training and how cultural knowledge should To create this mindset, leaders should ensure that

January - March 2011 17 Soldiers understand the foundational infl uences points may be gained from the AAR than from the that exist within all cultures. actual training itself In addition, Soldiers should participate in various The third step is the actual execution of these self-awareness exercises to gain a better understand- skills sets in the OE. Your unit will not truly know ing of themselves. A higher level of self-awareness its overall 3C level until service members perform will better equip a Soldier to interact more effectively on the big stage in the AOR to which they are de- with someone from outside their own culture. TC ployed. Multiple evaluations and assessments 31-73 states that: can be executed and analyzed during your unit’s train-up for a deployment. They will be missing one “When communicating with people across cultures, key element–the added pressure or intensity experi- advisors must abandon any sentiments of ethno- centrism—the tendency of individuals to judge all enced while deployed; the one element that cannot other groups according to their own group’s stan- be replicated suffi ciently in a training environment. dards, behaviors, and customs. Such notions lead Commanders, fi rst sergeants, platoon leaders, pla- an individual to see other groups as inferior by toon sergeants, and squad leaders need to observe comparison.” their troops’ performance closely and provide timely Do not confuse developing self-awareness with sen- feedback to the individual. One of the more effective sitivity training. It is about understanding the poten- times to do this would be during tactical debriefs tial obstacles that may exist in your cross-cultural that occur after each operation. This is an optimal interactions, accounting for them, and maintaining time to critique the successes and failures of your an awareness of biases or prejudices that may factor interactions with the local populace. If a negative into your interactions and decision-making process. incident occurred, then discuss the incident in de- This mindset will not be accomplished via stand- tail and develop strategies to handle the situation alone culture classes, but from integrating cultural more effectively in future missions. This will en- considerations into appropriate collective training sure the continued collective growth of the unit be- sessions, battle drills, and OPD/NCODP. This al- cause the execution of cultural and other relevant lows Soldiers to process the practical applications skill sets should increase exponentially during the of cultural knowledge and will increase the collective deployment. “buy-in” of the unit to the relevancy of cultural con- Conclusion siderations in mission planning and execution. If these three steps are followed in one form or an- The second step is to integrate cultural skill other, the overall 3C of a unit will be increased to building training into the unit’s training plan. the point in which culture knowledge and skill sets Effective skill building training includes practice can be leveraged to become a mission enabler. The in cross-cultural communications, rapport build- point at which cultural knowledge becomes a mis- ing, negotiations, and key leader engagements. sion enabler is when a Soldier views cultural con- Cultural skill building training is a necessity be- siderations as a constant consideration in mission cause Soldiers need to understand how to employ planning and execution. Once the perception of cul- their cultural knowledge when required. Not doing ture training evolves from mandatory (Crowd into a this would be like lecturing Soldiers on the func- gym and listen to stand-alone training delivered as tionality of an M4 and never allowing them to fi re a lecture that is probably a waste of time) to instill- the weapon. The bulk of this training should not ing in Soldiers the operational relevancy of cultural be conducted as separate training sessions, but knowledge and the practical uses of it, an environ- should be integrated into your unit’s STX lanes ment will be established in which a unit views cul- and squad/platoon level training. The ability to tural training on the same level and relevancy as learn and properly execute these cultural skills weapons training. will have a signifi cant impact on your unit’s abil- Mr. Clark served as an Intelligence Analyst in the U.S. Army ity to accomplish its mission. As with any training, until his retirement in 2008. His assignments included various an after action review (AAR) should be conducted locations in Europe, Asia, and the Middle East. Mr. Clark to discuss all the learning objectives of the train- currently works on the Professional Military Education team ing exercise. If conducted properly, more learning at the TCC.

18 Military Intelligence by Mahir Ibrahimov, PhD lied and indigenous partners. It will require lead- ers who can anticipate change, create opportunities Article adapted from Fires, January-February 2011 and achieve results. Introduction The Army’s Leader Development Strategy pre- Globalization, Internet networking, and instant ac- scribes the future security environment will re- cess to worldwide news media have proliferated the quire leaders “who understand the context of the merging or partnering of ideological groups that op- factors infl uencing the military situation, act within pose the U.S. and/or U.S. policies. These groups that understanding, continually assess and adapt operate in pan-regional and multi-regional bat- those actions based on the interactions and cir- tle spaces comprised of numerous cultures, both cumstances of the enemy and environment, con- friendly and hostile. It appears likely that during solidate tactical and operational opportunities into the next decade the operational environment (OE) strategic aims, and be able to effectively transition of our troops will be characterized by persistent and from one form of operations to another.” As fi eld unpredictable confl icts in battle spaces teeming artillerymen and air defense artillerymen support with multiple foreign cultures. The Army must be full spectrum operations, challenges in how we prepared to effectively operate along with our mul- conduct fi re support operations will require agility tinational and host nation partners against sophis- and innovation as new adaptive threats that em- ticated and adaptive adversaries in order to achieve ploy a mix of new and old strategies and technolo- U.S. objectives. This dictates that Soldiers of every gies emerge. rank must become ‘culturally astute’ about the ar- To prosecute the fi ght and accomplish the as- eas where they operate. signed mission, the U.S. Army Field Artillery and Our junior leaders face adversaries who employ Air Defense Artillery will need leaders who are multiple and dynamic combinations of conven- adaptive, competent, and capable of operating with tional, irregular, terrorist, and criminal capabilities confi dence in these ambiguous and complex envi- as they engage our Soldiers or attack our strategic ronments. These leaders must be able to operate interests. These hybrid threats can be expected to in decentralized organizations; be able to network use a full spectrum of options, including every po- with their joint, interagency, intergovernmental, litical, economic, informational, and military mea- and multinational (JIIM) partners; and be able to sure at their disposal. Combating these threats will develop plans and operations that win the support necessitate creative solutions, and such solutions of the population while defeating the enemy. They will require military forces that are adaptive enough must have an understanding of how other peo- to function in a variety of situations and against a ple think and act, as well as an appreciation of myriad of threats with a diverse set of national, al- cross-cultural diversity and beliefs. This cultural

January - March 2011 19 sensitivity is just as important within a Soldier’s or- resolution; leadership and infl uence; cultural eval- ganization and with other sister services and allies, uation, synthesis, and predictive analysis during as it is in engaging indigenous people and threats staff planning; and other abilities that pertain to a who exist within the contested OE. In order to meet specifi c geographic area. these operational and environmental demands, we Additional 3C characteristics include awareness must enrich our leader training and education by of culture and of one’s own cultural context, gen- leveraging and adapting training methodologies to eral cross-cultural schema and culture-analytic replicate complexity and hybrid threats in the in- models, and an increasingly complex understand- stitutional classroom, at home station and while ing of the impact of culture on military planning deployed. and operations (knowledge). Critical aspects of 3C Assessing the fi eld artillery (FA) and air defense are interpersonal and communication skills, fl exi- artillery (ADA) communities’ requirements, we must bility in seeing different cultural frames and per- develop leaders who have the core competencies to spectives, and the ability to regulate one’s own visualize, articulate and build partnerships and al- reactions (skills). Necessary ingredients of 3C are liances; to effectively lead organizations; and be able non-ethnocentric attitudes, motivation to learn to adapt to unanticipated, changing and uncertain about culture and to update one’s knowledge base situations. as new information is encountered and the ability to empathize (attributes). The Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy Regional Competence To meet these operational and cultural challenges, Another major component of the culture develop- the Army’s goal as defi ned in the Army Culture and ment program is regional competence. This concept Foreign Language Strategy (ACFLS), 1 December is defi ned as a set of knowledge, skills, and attri- 2009, is to develop and maintain expeditionary butes related to a particular country, region, orga- forces that are led by Soldiers who are ready to de- nization, or social group, which enables effective ploy and operate effectively anywhere in the world adaptation to that specifi c culture. Additional char- across the full spectrum of confl ict. This will require acteristics include awareness of the historical, po- leaders who have suffi cient cross-cultural, regional litical, cultural (including linguistic and religious), and foreign language competencies to enable the sociological (including demographic), economic, and successful execution of military operations, not only geographic dimensions of a foreign country, global an understanding of the culture and language in region, or other specifi c culture. a particular area, but an understanding of the im- Acquiring regional competence enables negotia- plications these considerations have on how oper- tion and persuasion; mediation and confl ict resolu- ations are conducted. To achieve this goal, leaders tion; leadership and infl uence; cultural evaluation, and Soldiers must increase their cultural knowledge synthesis, and predictive analysis during staff plan- through operational experience, self-development, ning; and many other abilities that pertain to a spe- or as a learning opportunity during their profes- cifi c area of operations. sional military education (PME). Within the U.S. It’s also the ability to adopt perspectives common Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), to that culture; ability to regulate one’s own be- this will require schools and centers to develop, in- havior, communication, and emotional expression tegrate and deliver cross-cultural education within to match cultural norms where appropriate. It in- their respective programs of instruction (POI). cludes positive attitudes toward the population and Cross-cultural Competence motivation to learn about the culture, to include This is a set of knowledge, skills and attributes how they make decisions. that enables Soldiers to adapt effectively in any en- A combination of both competencies acquired dur- vironment. It can develop over time through experi- ing the cycle of training, education and experience ence, but can be accelerated by principled learning would help overcome the ‘culture shock,’ and give methods. Cross-cultural competence (3C) enables Soldiers the ability to adjust to an indigenous cul- negotiation and persuasion; mediation and confl ict ture as quickly as possible to get the mission done.

20 Military Intelligence Governance and air defense artillerymen understand the effects The TRADOC Deputy Chief of Staff, G2 serves as that culture, people and civilian factors have on the the executive agent for the CG, TRADOC as culture targeting process. and foreign language lead for the Army. The com- The FCoE CFLP will leverage the capabilities at its mander, Combined Arms Center, TRADOC is the disposal to establish the initial foundational train- lead for implementation of culture and foreign lan- ing and education for fi eld artillerymen and air de- guage career development within all TRADOC orga- fense artillerymen to be able to competently and nizations. The Army Culture and Foreign Language confi dently lead Soldiers. This includes the intro- Management Offi ce is delegated ACFLS implemen- duction and development of a basic awareness in tation management authority from the TRADOC culture and languages. DCS, G2. FRAGO 18 (weekly) to OPORD 09-008, TRADOC Campaign Plan 10-11 outlines specifi c Constraints, Limitations, and Risk tasks to TRADOC commanders, staff and subor- Time available and specifi c course length for stu- dinate organizations on implementing the ACFLS. dents attending FA and ADA initial military train- TRADOC centers and schools, in their roles as pro- ing (IMT) and follow-on leader development PME ponents, will be integrally involved in defi ning com- courses are the principal constraints the faculty mon education and training required to generate must contend with in order to meet the ACFLS de- the necessary culture and foreign language capa- sired outcome. Learning objectives will be achieved bility for the Army. Proponents will also determine through modifi cation of existing POIs, incorporat- the culture and foreign language capabilities re- ing tasks into collective training events (capstone quired in operating force units for which they are exercises) and through professional reading, criti- the proponent. cal writing requirements, and after duty language training and civilian education opportunities. The ACFLS goal is to establish a baseline of cul- ture and foreign language capabilities for all leaders Resources and funding for additional instructors, and Soldiers to support the accomplishment of unit role players, and lesson materials are limited. We missions. The strategy’s end state is to build and must leverage existing cultural training, language, sustain an Army with the right blend of capabilities civilian academic partnerships and virtual gaming to facilitate full spectrum operations. The resulting solutions to support USAFAS and USAADAS ACFLS force will have the ability to effectively conduct op- learning objectives. Inclusion of ACFLS learning ob- erations with and among other cultures. jectives into course curricula should complement and not put at risk common core and artillery tech- U.S. Army FA and ADA Schools nical training objectives. (USAFAS and USAADAS) The FCoE Culture and Foreign Language Training Approach Program’s (CFLP) desired outcome is to provide the In order to build and sustain an Army with the Army with technically and tactically profi cient and right blend of culture and foreign language capa- expeditionary-minded FA and ADA leaders who can bilities to facilitate full spectrum operations, we operate in a JIIM environment across the full spec- must leverage existing PME programs, organiza- trum of operations and with a level of competence tional and functional training, and continuous life- necessary to perform assigned tasks in a specifi c long learning through a combination of training, geographic area. education, and experiential opportunities to attain a level of awareness, understanding, and exper- For FA and ADA Soldiers and leaders, it is desired tise. As we determine how to best implement the they possess a suffi cient level of cross-cultural and ACFLS, we will use the current leader development regional competence to effectively accomplish du- strategy that serves as a base for our existing in- ties at their assigned level, and to have the cogni- struction within the school and in the growth of tive, interpersonal and cultural skills necessary to our leaders. make sound judgments in these complex environ- ments. For target mensuration and collateral dam- Cross-cultural training and education should age estimation, it is important that all artillerymen build on the foundation of an individual’s existing

January - March 2011 21 leader attributes which in turn reinforces the core Cultural awareness: Minimal level of regional leader competencies of leading others, developing competence necessary to perform assigned tasks oneself and achieving results: in a specifi c geographic area; able to describe Character. A leader of character internalizes the key culture terms, factors and concepts. Basic Army Values, lives by our Professional Military understanding of how foreign culture might af- Ethic, refl ects the Warrior Ethos and displays fect the planning and conduct of operations is empathy towards Soldiers, families, and those desirable. people affected by the unit’s actions. Competence Cultural understanding: Well developed 3C in places an individual in the position to lead; char- a specifi c region. A leader must be able to an- acter makes him or her an effective leader. ticipate the implications of culture and apply Presence. A leader of presence has credibility, relevant terms, factors, concepts, and regional exudes confi dence and builds trust. Presence information to tasks and missions. Familiarity is conveyed through actions, appearance, de- of a specifi c region’s economic, religious, legal, meanor, and words. governmental, political and infrastructural fea- tures is necessary, and awareness of regional Intellect. A leader of intellect has the concep- sensitivities regarding gender, race, ethnicity, tual capability to understand complex situa- local observances and local perception of the tions, determine what needs to be done and U.S. and its allies is paramount. interact with others to get it done. Leaders must have the ability to reason, to think critically and Cultural expertise: Advanced 3C level in a spe- creatively, to anticipate consequences, and to cifi c geographic area. This generally entails some solve problems. degree of profi ciency in a language; skills that enable effective cross-cultural persuasion, nego- At the USAFAS and USAADAS, the development of tiation, confl ict resolution, infl uence, or leader- cultural awareness and/or understanding will be the ship; and an understanding of the most salient principal objective; and introduction to a foreign lan- historic and present-day regional structural and guage (basic phrases and elemental profi ciency) is a cultural factors of a specifi c geographic area. supporting effort. In order to achieve a higher level of cultural understanding/ expertise or language profi - ciency, individuals would need to leverage other PME, civilian education and self-development programs.

Self assessment: • Employ Defense Language Institute assessment (Defense Language Aptitude Battery) tools • Prepare for follow on assignment • Tailor to individual’s learning style (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)

Skills development (Training): • U.S. Central Command/Pacific Command regional focus • Assignment oriented training elemental language proficiency (Level 0+/1) • Proposed languages (Dari/Pashto, Arabic, Korean and Russian) • Cameron University, Oklahoma University and Oklahoma State University guest lecturers • International Student Division/liaison officer briefs

Situational application (Education): • Assignment oriented training cultural awareness focus • Strategic university partnerships • Lectures/seminar panels • Critical thinking writing requirements

Experiential learning (Experience): • Redleg War (key leader engagement/civilians on the battlefield) • Role playing scenarios

Assessment Figure 2. TRADOC Cultural Competency Categories Execution of Training Experience Training In order to achieve this goal, the FCoE CFLP will Education incorporate the following learning objectives and as- sociated tasks in its IMT and follow-on leader de- Figure 1. U.S. Army Field Artillery School CFLP velopment PME courses. This information provides

22 Military Intelligence USAFAS USAADAS and NCO Academy with a plan Task 3: Develop confi dence in learning and apply- for the conduct of culture and foreign language ing language skills. training and education. The following implemen- Learning Objective 3 (Intellect). Demonstrate a tation plan is consistent with current Department familiarization in a geographic region of current op- of the Army and TRADOC leader development and erational signifi cance. cultural awareness initiatives to incorporate culture and foreign language into institutional training and (Leverage critical thinking and cognitive skills through education at the schools and CoEs. organizing information that supports cultural self- awareness. Depending on level of leader development Learning Objective 1 (Character). Demonstrate in- PME, expand 3C skills by gaining an awareness or teraction and cross-cultural communications skills understanding of a geographic area that highlights in order to effectively engage and understand people the implications of a region’s economic, religious, le- and their environment. gal, governmental, political and infrastructural fea- (Demonstrate a level of cultural awareness that in- tures, and of sensitivities regarding gender, race, cludes a positive openness to other people, an under- ethnicity, local observances and local perception of standing of prevailing values, beliefs, behaviors and the US and its allies. Apply relevant planning consid- customs, and a desire to learn more about cultures erations, terms, factors, concepts and geographic in- and language. This includes an introduction to a lan- formation to mission planning and in the conduct of guage that supports current military operations with operations. This includes leveraging other TRADOC the intent to promote additional study through self- and Department of Defense schools, partnerships development at the institution, at home-station or at with universities and academia, gaming technology an academic university.) and opportunities that stress students’ ability to con- Task 1: Understand one’s self; internalize the Army cisely and persuasively speak and write, to engage Values, our professional military ethic and Warrior in discussions, and employ cognitive reasoning and Ethos. thinking skills.) Task 2: Assess cultural perspectives and values Task 1: Apply culturally relevant terms, factors, different from one’s own; compare differences and concepts and regional information in the develop- sensitivities in order to modify one’s behavior, prac- ment of mission plans and orders. tices and language; and operate in a multi-cultural Task 2: Assess and describe the effect that culture environment. has on military operations specifi c to countries or Task 3: Apply cross-cultural communication skills. regions of operational signifi cance to the U.S. Learning Objective 2 (Presence). Demonstrate USAFAS and USAADAS instructors will use a communication, infl uence and negotiation skills es- variety of learning-enabled training, education sential for leaders to effectively operate in a JIIM and self-development techniques to teach stu- environment. dents attending IMT and PME courses at Fort Sill. Cultural instruction may be programmed, inte- (Leverage the knowledge gained by challenging stu- grated into other training objectives, or as rein- dents to employ skills to deal with ambiguous and forcement through the use of self-paced learning complex situations, to regulate one’s own behavior, tools or as research for presentations and writing and to use interpersonal abilities to deal with peo- requirements. ple from one’s own or other cultures. This includes an understanding and ability to engage other joint  Facilitated instruction. Classroom instruction and allied military personnel, and host country indig- will rely on instructor-led discussions and facili- enous leaders with a moderate level of confi dence.) tated problem-centered exercises to assist the stu- dent in understanding basic cultural awareness Task 1: Develop communication skills that enable and then challenging him/her through use of rel- effective cross-cultural persuasion, negotiation, evant scenarios they may encounter in their unit confl ict resolution or infl uence. and/or during a deployment. Facilitated learn- Task 2: Apply communications skills during cross- ing will focus on initiative, critical thinking and cultural negotiations. accountability for their actions. Small group in-

January - March 2011 23 structors will receive cultural training assistance dress geopolitical and cultural trends affecting from the FCoE Cultural Advisor to enable them to the Middle East, Northeast Asia, and other ar- better present information, lead discussions, and eas of operational signifi cance to the Army to in- facilitate the problem-centered exercises. The clude specifi c discussions on Afghanistan, Iraq, instruction will leverage blending learning re- and Korea. The target audience for the lectures sources and augmented by professional reading and seminars are the noncommissioned offi - requirements, self-paced technology-delivered in- cers (ALC/SLC), warrant offi cers (WOBC and struction and research outside the classroom. WOAC), and commissioned offi cers (BOLC and  Web-enabled instruction, simulations and CCC). The lecture-series is scheduled as part of gaming. The U.S. Army Intelligence Center of commandant’s time and is conducted in sixty to Excellence (USAICoE), Marine Corps University, ninety minute sessions once every six to eight Defense Language Institute Foreign Language weeks. We also have ongoing partnerships with Center (DLIFLC), and Near East and South Asia DLI, TRADOC Culture Center (USAICoE), among Center for Strategic Studies at the National other institutions and centers. Defense University all have a variety of online  Leveraging the International Student Division instructional material that is available for in- and FCoE liaison offi cers. All BOLC-B and CCC structor use. USAFAS and USAADAS currently students receive country and cultural briefs from are using the Army 360 Cultural Trainer as well their fellow international students and assigned as VBS2 Tactical Dari, Pashto (Afghanistan) and FCoE liaison offi cers during the resident course. Iraqi Arabic simulation and gaming tools to aug- Additionally, monthly “Know Your World” pro- ment instruction. As other culture and foreign gram assists students in better understanding language avatar and interactive simulation pro- the culture and geo-political signifi cance of the grams become available, we will evaluate and country from where their classmate comes from leverage those educational tools to augment and further expands the student’s awareness of classroom instruction and self-development other cultures. opportunities.  Analytical writing requirement. To address  Role-playing and key leader engagement sce- the need to develop critical thinking and im- narios. Instructors will leverage the knowledge prove written communication capabilities in our gained by challenging students to employ their leaders, a three-to-fi ve page analytical paper interpersonal skills as part of in class role play- (double-spaced, 12-pitch, Times New Roman) ing practical exercises and formal key leader will be required from ALC, SLC, WOBC, WOAC, engagement opportunities. The key leader en- BOLC-B and CCC students that addresses a gagement scenario will require an individual(s) cultural or geopolitical topic of military opera- to use an interpreter to engage other coalition tional signifi cance to the U.S. The papers will be military/police members and host country in- graded by USAFAS, USAADAS, and NCOA fac- digenous leaders in order to address a particu- ulty members and feedback will be provided to lar problem. This engagement will use mock-up the student. The FCoE is currently working with facilities and capstone fi eld exercises to rein- our university partners to contract and/or hire force the learning objectives and provide each a person to support our written communications student with feedback through an after-action requirements. review. Both role playing exercises and the key  Professional reading program. A critical compo- leader engagements will result in constructive nent of our leadership development and cultural feedback to the individual. awareness efforts includes a professional read-  Academic lectures and seminar panels. We ing program (professional reading list is located currently have partnerships with several lo- on the FKN-accessed CFLP web-site). All BOLC-B cal universities, most notably with Cameron and CCC students are encouraged to read one University, Oklahoma University, and Oklahoma of three books based on their follow-on assign- State University. These universities support ments: “The History of the Modern Middle East,” USAFAS instruction by providing lectures and by William L. Cleveland and Martin Bunton; seminars for our students on topics that ad- “Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism

24 Military Intelligence in Central Asia,” by Ahmed Rashid; or “China, languages guides and other signifi cant links. The Japan, Korea: Culture and Customs,” by Ju Brown website is available with an AKO login on FKN at and John Brown. https://www.us.army.mil/suite/doc/21617522.  Foreign language. The goal of the FCoE CFLP Course Implementation is to introduce foreign language to students at- Following is the roll-up of CFL POI hours (pro- tending PME instruction and to give them the grammed). (USAFAS is taken as an example to grad- opportunity to achieve an elemental language ually promulgate to the USAADAS): profi ciency of Level 0+, 1 (memorized profi ciency, elementary profi ciency) in a language of military Course Course Culture and Foreign Length Language Focus operational signifi cance. This includes opportu- Captains Career Course (CCC) 24 weeks 36 hours nities to learn Afghan Dari, Pashto, Iraqi Arabic, Basic Officer Leader Course B (BOLC-B) 20 weeks 10 hours Korean, and Russian prior to reporting to their Warrant Officer Advanced Course (WOAC) 10 weeks 15 hours Warrant Officer Basic Course (WOBC) 33 weeks 22 hours unit assignments. All PME students are issued Senior Leader’s Course/Advanced Leader’s 4-8 weeks 2.5 hours and provided basic instruction on the use of Course (SLC/ALC) 13B/D/F/M/P/R/T “Rosetta Stone” or multi-platform tactical lan- Advance Individual Training (AIT) 1 hour guage software programs in tactical Iraqi, Dari, 13B/D/F/M/P/R/T and Pashto. In addition, those students who are Figure 3. U.S. Army Field Artillery School CFL Hours interested in receiving additional Learning Objective 1 Learning Objective 2 Learning Objective 3 language instruction will be pro- Character Presence Intellect

vided the opportunity to receive Field Artillery Captains Career Course: 70 hours training on Afghan Dari, Pashto, Assess cultural perspectives and values Develop communication skills that Apply culturally relevant terms, factors, concepts different from one’s own; compare enable effective cross-cultural and regional information in the development of Iraqi Arabic, Korean, and Russian differences and sensitivities in order to persuasion, negotiation, conflict mission plans and orders modify one’s behavior, practices and resolution or influence • Insurgency overview and theory (4 hours) (I) as part of a twelve week, 24 to 36 language, and operate in a multi-cultural • Oklahoma University media training • Pattern and social network analysis and practical environment (8 hours) (P) exercise (8 hours) (I) hour program. This opportunity • Cross-cultural skills building (4 hours) (P) • Cross-cultural negotiations (4 hours) (P) • Counterinsurgency intelligence preparation of the • Cultural influence and military operations Apply communications skills during battlefield and planning (6 hours) (I) is voluntary and instruction is (5 hours) (P) cross-cultural negotiations Assess and describe the effect that culture has on • International Student Division briefs • Role-playing exercises (2 hours) (P) military operations specific to countries or regions provided through internal school “Know Your World” (2 hours) (P) • Key leader engagement exercise of operational significance to the United States Apply cross-cultural communication skills (1 hour) (P) • Strength, weakness, opportunities and threat analysis assets and assistance from the • Army 360 Cultural Trainer Develop confidence in learning and country brief (6 hours) (P) (2 hours – self paced) (R) applying language skills • Writing requirement: Analytical paper of 3-5 pages DLIFLC during off-duty language • Introduction to a language through (Approximately 10 hours of research) (R) Rosetta Stone software (4 hours minimum – • Analytical paper presentation/discussion sessions coordinated by the FCoE self paced) (R) (2 hours per section) (P) • Additional language training (optional) • FCoE CFLP lecture series (2 hours) (P) CFL Advisor. DLIFLC also pro- (PD) • Professional reading program (One book from vides a web-site to facilitate the recommended reading list – optional) (PD) Basic Officer Leader Course B: 53 hours

language training and sustain- Assess cultural perspectives and values Develop communication skills that enable Apply culturally relevant terms, factors, concepts different from one’s own; compare effective cross-cultural persuasion, and regional information in the development of ment profi ciency which can be differences and sensitivities in order to negotiation, conflict resolution or influence mission plans and orders modify one’s behavior, practices and • Operate in a multi-cultural environment • Information Operations instruction (11 hours) (I) found at http://www.dlifl c.edu. language, and operate in a multi-cultural (2 hours) (P) • Company Intelligence Support Team training environment Apply communications skills during (8 hours) (I) • Operate in a multi-cultural environment cross-cultural negotiations Assess and describe the effect that culture has on Additional Resources (2 hours) (P) • Key leader engagement during BOLC B fire military operations specific to countries or regions • International Student Division briefs support/maneuver lanes (8 hour) (R) of operational significance to the United States A CFL Resource Center is estab- “Know Your World” (2 hours) (P) Develop confidence in learning and • Writing requirement: Analytical paper of 3-5 pages Apply cross-cultural communication skills applying language skills (Approximately 10 hours of research) (R) lished in the Morris Swett Technical • Army 360 Cultural Trainer • Introduction to a language through Rosetta • Analytical paper presentation/discussion (2 hours – self paced) (R) Stone software (4 hours minimum – (2 hours per section) (P) Library within Snow Hall. Students self paced) (R) • FCoE CFLP lecture series (2 hours) (P) • Additional language training (optional) (PD) • Professional reading program (One book from are provided access to comput- recommended reading list – optional) (PD) ers, cultural resources and profes- Field Artillery Warrant Officer Advance Course: 37 hours sional reading material to facilitate Assess cultural perspectives and values Develop communication skills that enable Apply culturally relevant terms, factors, concepts different from one’s own; compare effective cross-cultural persuasion, and regional information in the development of research, learning and language differences and sensitivities in order to negotiation, conflict resolution or influence mission plans and orders modify one’s behavior, practices and • Cross-cultural factors and considerations • Intelligence preparation of the battlefield and indirect profi ciency. language, and operate in a multi-cultural during negotiations (2 hours) (P) Fires threat intelligence (8 hours) (I) environment Apply communications skills during • Counterinsurgency seminar (2 hours) (I) • Cultural awareness (3 hours) (P) cross-cultural negotiations Assess and describe the effect that culture has on The CFLP website is located on the • Cross-cultural factors and considerations • Role-playing exercises (1 hour) (P) military operations specific to countries or regions (2 hours) (P) of operational significance to the United States Fires Knowledge Network. The web- • Cultural influence and military operations • Writing requirement: Analytical paper of 3-5 pages (4 hours) (P) (Approximately 10 hours of research) (R) site contains cultural awareness Apply cross-cultural communication skills • Analytical paper presentation/discussion • Army 360 Cultural Trainer (2 hours per section) (P) and foreign language resources, DLI (2 hours – self paced) (R) • FCoE CFLP lecture series (1 hour) (P) • Professional reading program (One book from Foreign Language Center resources, recommended reading list – optional) (PD) information on past lectures, foreign Figure 4. Cultural Learning Objectives

January - March 2011 25 Learning Objective 1 Learning Objective 2 Learning Objective 3 how to leverage that knowledge as Character Presence Intellect a platoon sergeant and/or fi rst ser- Field Artillery Warrant Officer Basic Course: 70 hours geant. The desired outcome for mid- Assess cultural perspectives and values Develop communication skills that enable Apply culturally relevant terms, factors, concepts different from one’s own; compare effective cross-cultural persuasion, and regional information in the development of grade NCOs attending the ALC is to differences and sensitivities in order to negotiation, conflict resolution or influence mission plans and orders modify one’s behavior, practices and • Cross-cultural factors and considerations • Intelligence preparation of the battlefield and indirect demonstrate a basic understand- language, and operate in a multi-cultural during negotiations (3 hours) (P) Fires threat intelligence (8 hours) (I) environment Develop confidence in learning and • Pattern analysis and simulation exercise (16 hours) (I) ing of culture and how to leverage • Cultural awareness (3 hours) (P) applying language skills • Counterinsurgency seminar (8 hours) (I) • Cross-cultural factors and considerations • Introduction to a language through Rosetta Assess and describe the effect that culture has on that knowledge as a senior section (4 hours) (P) Stone software (4 hours minimum – military operations specific to countries or regions • Cultural influence and military operations self paced) (R) of operational significance to the United States (8 hours) (P) • Additional language training (optional) (PD) • Writing requirement: Analytical paper of 3-5 pages sergeant and/or platoon sergeant. Apply cross-cultural communication skills (Approximately 10 hours of research) (R) • Army 360 Cultural Trainer (2 hours – • Analytical paper presentation/discussion The instruction is offered through self paced) (R) (2 hours per section) (P) • FCoE CFLP lecture series (2 hours) (P) a blended learning approach which • Professional reading program (One book from recommended reading list – optional) (PD) includes programmed instruction, 13B, 13D, 13F, 13M, 13P, 13R, 13T Senior Leader’s Course and Advanced Leader’s Course: 22.5 hours seminars, educational tools and in- Assess cultural perspectives and values Develop communication skills that enable Assess and describe the effect that culture different from one’s own; compare effective cross-cultural persuasion, has on military operations specific to dependent study. differences and sensitivities in order to negotiation, conflict resolution or influence countries or regions of operational modify one’s behavior, practices and • Demonstration on use of tactical language significance to the United States language, and operate in a multi-cultural software (Two phrases weekly) (P) • Writing requirement: Analytical paper of 3-5 pages AIT. USAFAS’ desired outcome is for environment (Approximately 10 hours of research) (R) • Cross-cultural factors and considerations • FCoE CFLP lecture series (1 hour) (P) 13-series Soldiers in AIT is to inter- (1.5 hours) (P) Apply cross-cultural communication skills • Army 360 Cultural Trainer (10 hours – nalize the Army Values and Warrior self paced) (R) Ethos, live by our professional mil- 13B, 13D, 13F, 13M, 13P, 13R, 13T Advanced Individual Training: 6.5 hours itary ethic and display empathy to- Understand one’s self; internalize the Army Values, our professional military ethic and Warrior Ethos wards others. • Army Core Values (1 hour) (P) • U.S. Army Field Artillery history and museum tour (3 hours) (R) For More Information • Command team in-brief (1 hour) (I) • Initial, mid-course and final counselling The point of contact for the FCoE (1.5 hours) (I) Legend: (P) programmed, (R/I) reinforced/integrated, (PD) professional development CFLP and its implementation is Dr. Figure 4. Cultural Learning Objectives (continued) Mahir J. Ibrahimov. He can be reached at [email protected] or (580) 442-6666, FA CCC. USAFAS’ desired outcome is for FA cap- at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. tains to demonstrate an understanding of culture, how to leverage that knowledge in a JIIM environ- ment and with a level of competence necessary to serve as staff offi cers and leaders within a complex environment. FA BOLC. USAFAS’ desired outcome is for FA lieu- tenants to demonstrate a basic awareness of cul- ture, how to leverage that knowledge in a JIIM environment and with a level of competence neces- sary to serve as company fi re support offi cers and Mahir J. Ibrahimov is the Cultural and Foreign Language leaders within a complex environment. Advisor at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. He completed his PhD at the Academy of Social Sciences in Moscow in 1991 and has FA WOAC. USAFAS’ desired outcome is for senior attended several post graduate programs at Johns Hopkins W131A warrant offi cers to demonstrate a basic un- University and other U.S. institutions. He also served in derstanding of foreign culture, and how to lever- the Soviet Army and witnessed the break-up of the Soviet age that knowledge as a Corps/Theater targeting Union. As a former high-ranking diplomat he helped open offi cer. the fi rst embassy of Azerbaijan in Washington, D.C. While working for the U.S. Department of State, he instructed U.S. FA WOBC. USAFAS’s desired outcome is for ju- diplomats in languages and cultures. He also provided vital nior W131A warrant offi cers to demonstrate a basic assistance as a multi-lingual cultural adviser to U.S. forces awareness of culture, how to leverage that knowl- during Operation Iraqi Freedom II and became the subject of edge as a BCT/division targeting offi cer. a Department of Defense newsreel, “Jack of All Languages.” Dr. Ibrahimov specializes in the cultural issues of the former NCOA. USAFAS’ and NCOA’s desired outcome Soviet Republics, south-central Asia, and the Middle East. He for senior NCOs attending the SLC is to demon- is the author of “Invitation to Rain: a Story of the Road Taken strate a basic understanding of foreign culture and toward Freedom,” and numerous other publications.

26 Military Intelligence by Dorothy Guy Bonvillain, PhD

“What is necessary to change a person, is to change his awareness of himself.” –Abraham Maslow Sun Tzu is often quoted as having said; “If you know the enemy and know yourself, you need not fear the result of a hundred battles.” What is less known is that he continued that same thought by saying: “If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory gained you will also suffer a defeat [and] if you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will succumb in every battle.” The notion that a Soldier should be more than a simple tool of destruction designed only to close with and destroy an enemy was no more true in 500 BC than it is today…In fact, there are many lessons at play in Iraq and Afghanistan today that closely mirror the lessons of Sun Tzu and the “new” avocation that Soldiers must do much more than simply fi ght in order to actually win...they must think! Dr. Bonvillain’s article titled “Why Maslow?” is an excellent example of why modern U. S. Soldiers must learn, fi ght and think on today’s battlefi elds and how those lessons are continuing to shape an Army that understands and advocates Sun Tzu’s premise that: “For to win one hundred victo- ries in one hundred battles is not the supreme of excellence. To subdue the enemy without fi ghting is the supreme excellence.” –Foreword by Colonel Chris Hughes Executive Offi cer to the Secretary of the Army

Can understanding Maslow’s Hierarchy of stand the foreign operational environment. The ar- Needs increase a Soldier’s awareness of himself ticle will examine why and how Maslow’s theory can and others? On a macro level, does the appli- contribute to better cross-cultural competency. But cation of Maslow’s theory add value to culture fi rst, let’s look at the critical components of effective training? instruction and how this relates to Maslow and mil- itary education and training. This article will answer the questions posed, and for the purpose of edifi cation, will present a coun- Military Education and Training: terpoint to an article published in Parameters1 in Gagné’s Nine Events of Instruction which the authors caution against using American Any study of theory and effective instructional de- conceptual models to help warfi ghters better under- sign leads one to the work of an outstanding scholar

January - March 2011 27 and researcher, Robert M. Gagné, an American ed- agogical principles to teaching critical thinking ucational psychologist, who is considered by many skills and cultural acuity. to be the foremost researcher and contributor to a My point is that a key component in each instruc- systematic approach to instruction for the U.S. mil- tional design model is the link between new concepts 2 itary. His book, The Conditions of Learning identi- and prior learning, and it is precisely Gagné’s third fi ed the mental conditions for learning and created event that ties Maslow’s theoretical model to cul- a nine-step process called the events of instruction– tural education and training. I contend that Soldiers based on the information processing model of men- need a familiar point of reference as a context for tal events that occur when adults are presented with understanding themselves and their operating envi- various stimuli. The focus of his work (and his fol- ronment. When the Soldier better understands his/ lowers known as behaviorists) was on outcomes, or her own values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms, he/ behaviors, that result from training. Figure 1 below she can then link learning about the foreign culture shows Gagné’s Events of Instruction (Gagné, 1985) to improve tactical and operational planning. in the left column and the associated mental pro- This link from prior knowledge to new concepts cesses in the right column: provides a framework for comparison and con- trast that facilitates knowledge retention and mis- Level Instructional Event Internal Mental Process sion accomplishment. With regard to Operation 1 Gain attention. Stimuli activates receptors Iraqi Freedom, then Lieutenant General Peter Chiarelli said: “Cultural considerations are a per- 2 Inform learners of objectives. Creates level of expectation for learning vasive factor throughout full-spectrum operations. 3 Stimulate recall of prior Retrieval and activation of short-term learning. memory Understanding the effect of operations as seen through the lens of the Iraqi culture and psyche is 4 Present the content. Selective perception of content a foremost planning consideration for every opera- 5 Provide "learning guidance." Semantic encoding for storage long- term memory tion.” Further, such considerations are an integral component of “indirect and small wars capabilities” 6 Elicit performance (practice). Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification cited as necessities for current and future confl icts 7 Provide feedback. Reinforcement and assessment of by Defense Secretary Robert Gates. correct performance This familiar model gives Soldiers a framework 8 Assess performance. Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation for understanding themselves, as well as a visual

9 Enhance retention and transfer Retrieval and generalization of learned representation of how a host national’s needs may to the job. skill to new situation differ markedly from their own. In a recent inter- Figure 1 view (2010) and in his book, War on Two Fronts: Gagné’s work was further institutionalized by An Infantry Commander’s War in Iraq and the Madeline Hunter, who based her direct teach- Pentagon, Colonel Chris Hughes confi rms that, ing model on the nine events. Hunter’s Direct “most American Soldiers know and understand Instruction Model contains seven steps for effec- Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.” In a previous article tive instruction that mirror Gagne’s nine events. published in Field Artillery Journal (April 2007), I For decades her work, Elements of Effective proposed Maslow’s model as a tool to help Soldiers Instruction, has been the primary source for in- understand that the priorities of host nationals structional design for training teachers in schools may differ signifi cantly from their own. In the case of education throughout the U.S.3 More recently, cited, (Iraq, or any nation that has endured years Harvard’s Learning Spiral builds on the step pro- of war, chaos and destruction) an inverted Maslow cess of scaffolding lesson plans–with fi ve compo- pyramid refl ects the subsequent infrastructure nents for building thinking-centered lessons and break-down and lack of necessities available to projects that include a link between new concepts meet people’s basic needs. and prior knowledge. Spiral lessons are designed Maslow’s theory is that people are motivated to elicit the desired critical thinking performance by needs and that certain lower level needs must from students and set standards for those perfor- be satisfi ed before higher level needs can be at- mances. The Learning Spiral applies sound ped- tained. Until a people’s physical and safety needs

28 Military Intelligence are met, they will not progress up the hierarchy– all people (Myers and Myers, 1980/1995). Other re- their priorities will be on the basics of survival. The searchers who apply MBTI to international cultures inverted pyramid in the American hierarchy indi- are Kirby, Kendall, and Barger.5 cates the comparative level of concern for and ef- Our Soldiers are increasingly placed in mis- fort Americans must exert to progress through the sions that require an understanding of the people earlier stages of the hierarchy to the highest level as part of the operational environment. They must of self-actualization. See Figure 2. understand that needs believed to be important to Americans are not so important to others–a critical Self-Actualization Self-Actualization consideration in tactical and operational planning. If Esteem Esteem you ask a Middle Easterner and an American “Who are you?” they will likely respond differently. For ex- Social Social ample, what is important to the people of Iraq–being a member of a particular tribe, their religion, being Safety Safety a husband/father, and then being Iraqi–differs for people in the U.S. Americans generally would an- Physiological Physiological swer in the reverse order. Understanding these dif- Iraqis Americans ferences allows us to develop tactics, techniques, and procedures that target specifi c areas in order to FigureFigure 2 The effi cacy of using Maslow (or any western model stabilize the environment. to assess the operational environment) was recently Further, if we consider military objectives in Iraq challenged in an article by Drs. Abbe and Halpin in based on Iraqi priorities and needs, we can presume which the authors contend: that the Iraqis are most vulnerable to resistance or “Content can also be infl uenced by the infor- insurgent violence at the earlier “physiological” and mant’s own cultural biases. For example, one re- “safety” hierarchy stages. Over time, as the Iraqi cent article applied Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of people develop their own system of democracy that needs to Iraqi priorities. This analysis assumes that works for them, the levels of resistance and violence a theory based on a western conception of the in- become less likely. dividual applies equally to Iraqis at a societal level, an extrapolation that may be inappropriate with- Critical Incidents and Cross-Cultural out more detailed analysis of Iraqi society. Applying Competency western theories carries the risk of promoting eth- Increasingly over the last few years, the U.S. nocentric attitudes, as it implies that cultural dif- military has recognized the need to train skills in ferences can be attributed to a lack of societal cross-cultural competency (3C) for greater mis- maturity on the part of the nation being examined. sion success, and ultimately to save lives–Ameri- Such an approach refl ects a general bias assuming can, local nationals, and coalition forces. One of the that other nationalities are much like Americans, a best examples of cultural competency applied by a critical assumption that needs to be addressed in warfi ghter in theatre was demonstrated by then- culture training.”4 Lieutenant Colonel Chris Hughes, commander of nd Battalion, 327th Infantry, when he instructed My intent in this previous article was not to imply the 2 his Soldiers to get down on one knee, point their ri- a lower level of sophistication achieved or to sug- fl es to the ground, and smile. gest a lack of societal maturity in comparison to the U.S.; rather, it focused on differing views, needs, Hughes’ unit, nicknamed “No Slack”, had the fol- and priorities based upon the operational envi- lowing description on their offi cial website: “a rap- ronment. I still argue that Maslow’s theory can be idly deployable battalion that is lethal, ruthless, used as an effective cross-cultural tool in the same violent, and feared in combat.” But on 3 April, 2003, way that the Myers-Briggs personality type indica- Hughes ensured that his Soldiers understood cul- tor (MBTI) can be applied to other cultures. Isabel tural differences and the meaning of restraint with Briggs Myers and Katherine Briggs posited that Carl a strategic command that de-escalated a crisis sud- Jung’s theory of psychological type is common to denly spinning out of control in Najaf, Iraq.

January - March 2011 29 The Story: Soldiers were en route to the home of real-world exercise in restraint contain 3C lessons? one of Iraq’s leading holy men, Grand Ayatollah Ali The answer is yes, we should use familiar links to Hussein Sistani, to seek his crucial support for their better understand and develop effective tools, tech- stay in this southern Iraqi city. But as they turned niques, plans and procedures to keep our Soldiers a corner, a group of Iraqi men blocked their way. alive, which is what all of us are about. Shouting in Arabic “God is great,” the crowd grew When we refl ect on this critical incident, can we into hundreds, many of whom mistakenly thought fi nd instructive elements in Hughes’ decision mak- the Americans were trying to capture the town’s ing process to better prepare Soldiers for deploy- holy man and attack the Imam Ali Mosque, a holy ment abroad? Today it’s mission-critical to align and site for Shiite Muslims around the world. Someone teach skills in critical thinking, situational aware- in the crowd began lobbing rocks at the American ness, and the cultural acuity process that Hughes troops. LTC Hughes showed restraint and intelli- employed to de-escalate the situation in Najaf. One gence when he directed his troops: “Smile, relax, thing is clear, the environment we face in the fu- take a knee, point weapons to the ground.” Some ture will be unlike any we have trained for or faced Iraqis began to back off and sat down, many more in the past. For years the foundation for training ef- continued to yell and block the road. “We’re going fective application of warfi ghting doctrine at combat to withdraw out of this situation and let them de- training centers were the words: “Know yourself, fuse it themselves,” Hughes told his troops through know your environment, and know your enemy.” a loudspeaker. “All vehicles turn around.” Commanders and trainers need to consider the With his own rifl e pointed toward the ground, components of effective instruction, the importance the colonel bowed to the crowd and turned away. of teaching new concepts linked to prior knowledge, Hughes and his infantry marched back to their and then create calendar ‘white space’ dedicated to compound in silence. Responsible for hundreds training culturally-competent Soldiers. I believe the of Soldiers, Hughes’ thoughtful gesture of re- end result justifi es the goal and purpose for cultural spect helped defuse an escalating crisis situation training–lives were saved, American and Iraqi. and clearly conveyed their peaceful intentions. Endnotes Not all commanders would have done it this way, 1. Allison Abbe and Stanley Halpin, “The Cultural Imperative for but Hughes stayed cool under pressure and ulti- Professional Military Education and Leadership Development,” mately prevented the clash of two cultures. When Parameters, (Winter 2009-2010): 22. tempers had calmed in Najaf, the Grand Ayatollah 2. J. Michael Spector, Gagné’s Infl uence on Military Training, Sistani issued a decree calling on the people of Research and Development in The Legacy of Robert M. Gagné, Section 2, Chapter 8, 211-227, Rita Richey, Ed. 2000 at http://www.ibstpi. 6 Najaf to welcome Hughes’ Soldiers back. org/Products/Legacy-Gagne.htm. In the 1950s, Gagné served as Relevance to Current Training the Technical Director of the Air Force Maintenance Laboratory at Lackland Air Force Base, Texas, and also as the Research Director Fortunately most Americans do not need to be ap- of the Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory at Lowry Air Force prehensive about receiving the basic necessities of Base, Colorado. His interests covered a wide range of topics from life. Consequently, on a tactical level, do we begin perceptual abilities to personnel selection. In the early 1960s, Gagné to understand what is important to others, or what published an article in the American Psychologist which represented a consolidation of many of his fi ndings from military research they value and seek? Do we understand the cultural and eventually formed the basis for The Conditions of Learning. and motivational differences between them and us? Additionally, Gagné founded the Training Research Journal which Do we know what events or actions could lead to vi- had as its stated purpose the synthesis of theory and research pertaining to training from multiple fi elds. This annual journal olence? Do we understand that the threat of vio- represented a major contribution to the publication of research and lence is greater when basic needs are not met? More development initiated in military settings, and its fi rst publication importantly, how do leaders at the tactical level de- in 1995 contained an article refl ecting Gagné’s continuing strong velop skill at making such an analysis under pres- interest in internal cognitive processes and their implications for the design of instruction. In 1992, he was offi cially recognized by sure, often without the benefi t of a dedicated advisor the Commander of the USAF Systems Command, General Ronald with regional expertise or deep cultural understand- W. Yates, who specifi cally cited Gagné’s long-standing commitment ing? (Hughes, 2007) to improving the quality of military training and his many signifi cant infl uences on military personnel and training research. Over a 50- Is there linkage between Maslow and this critical year span, Gagné defi ned the framework for effective military training. incident signifi cant to current training? Does this He left a record not closely approached by any other individual.

30 Military Intelligence 3. Madeline Hunter, Enhancing Teaching: Planning for Effective Gagné, R. M. (1995). Learning Processes and Instruction. Training Instruction, Lesson Design (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 87-95. Research Journal, 1, 17–28. Hunter’s Direct Instruction Model contains seven steps: anticipatory Hughes, Christopher P. (2007). War on Two Fronts: An Infantry set, objectives and standards, teaching and modeling, guided practice, Commander’s War in Iraq and the Pentagon. Philadelphia and check for understanding, independent practice, and closure. Newbury: Casemate. 4. Abbe and Halpin, 22. Shulman, L. (1987). Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the 5. Linda K. Kirby, Elizabeth Kendall, and Nancy L. Barger, Type New Reform. Harvard Educational Review, 15(2), 1-22. ® and Culture: Using the MBTI Instrument in International Application Dr. Bonvillain holds a PhD in Educational Administration (Mountain View: CPP Inc., 2007). Also, see Myers-Briggs Type and International Education from American University in Indicator (MBTI), Kirby and Barger, 1996 which summarizes dozens Washington, D.C. Her experience crosses a global spectrum, of articles by researchers and practitioners of MBTI in non-U.S. cultures with groups and individuals who are culturally different from high school principal in Arizona to leading an international from those with whom the MBTI was developed and tested. research team as Special Consultant to the Minister of Education in the Sultanate of Oman. She managed programs 6. View CNN footage: Najaf critical incident at http://www.cnn.com/ for the Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia and the National SPECIALS/2003/iraq/heroes/chrishughes.html. Council on U.S.-Arab Relations in Washington, D.C., lectured References at Foreign Service Institute, and is a SETA advisor to the U.S. Gagné, R. M. (1962). Military Training and Principles of Learning. Army for ISC Consulting Group. Her published works include: American Psychologist, 69 (4), 355–365. Traditional Handicrafts of Oman and several professional Gagné, R. M. (1965 and 1985).The Conditions of Learning (4th ed.). journal articles. She is currently Chief of Partnership for the New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. TRADOC Culture Center at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. Check Out MIPB Online @ https://ikn.army.mil/apps/mipb_mag/

csm forum (Continued from page 4) instruction method involving PowerPoint slides (this There has been a paradigmatic shift in instruc- term is used fi guratively to refer to the learner’s tional methodologies as determined by the Army journey through the curriculum) in set sequence. Learning Concept 2015 Training Strategies. It is Level 2 involves the incorporation of multi-media a movement away from slide presentations and formats into the PowerPoint. Level 3 involves the instructor-centric fi xed training curricula toward incorporation of videos into the PowerPoint with al- more persistent, continued career learning at the ternative sequences and limited user interactions. point of need, involving greater online based level Level 4 involves limited branching of alternative 5 digital literacy, learner-centric interactive train- sequences, as well as multiple user interactions ing involving meaningful professional refl ection and (dragging things around on the screen, or select- concretization and contextualization of military ex- ing alternative scenario settings). Level 5 is a fully perience, and use of Socratic methodologies in dy- interactive immersion simulation, involving multi- namic instructional strategies. The future of 3C ple user integration/distribution, multiple people, development at the TCC and meeting the mission of multiple scenarios and multiple outcomes, in pos- the Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy in sibly multiple training locations. Currently we are integrating culture and language will depend upon at level 3 to 4 in training development, at both the the further development of cultural training prod- TCC and within the larger Army levels. ucts like Army 360 and the IMT/BCT video.

January - March 2011 31 by Mr. William Parrish

Your ability to adapt to culture began the fi rst time you interacted with another person. Many life events test our ability to adapt to cultures, though few of these life events are as severe as the transition from civilian to Service Member. Your drill sergeant served as your cultural coach in that transition; teaching you appropriate ways to interact with other people in your new mili- tary culture and teaching you skills this culture expected you to possess.

32 Military Intelligence One of the critical skills expected of a Soldier in requires the fi rer to pause, squeeze the trigger, and our military culture is Basic Rifl e Marksmanship. then resume their natural cycle of breathing. It is This article examines the fundamentals of Basic control. It places a slight pause before an action. In Rifl e Marksmanship and applies them as a model a cross-cultural interaction, if the situation allows, for intercultural interactions. FM 3-22.9, Rifl e take a breath before you speak or act. Slow things Marksmanship, M16-/M4-Series Weapons, advises down. It’s helpful to remember when you are in- us that “before a Soldier approaches the fi ring line, teracting with others they are also interacting with he must understand and apply the four fundamen- you. Each of you is having a cross-cultural experi- tals: Steady Position, Aiming, Breath Control, and ence and each of you is a little bit uncomfortable. Trigger Squeeze.” Imagine the fi ring line as interac- Inserting an intentional pause before you speak or tion with someone from a culture other than your act will help each of you feel a little more at ease. In own and then apply these principles to the meeting– shooting, if the round is consistently hitting above with some modifi cations to make them less kinetic! or below center-mass, you check your breath con- The Steady Position involves being comfortable trol. In your cross-cultural exchanges, if you consis- and keeping your weapon steady. In an intercultural tently feel out of control, you check your thinking to interaction your weapon is your ability to think. It’s help you control the event. easy to get rattled, and so makes your weapon (that Squeezing the trigger is the “do it” part of marks- is, your brain) unsteady when you can’t understand manship. The trigger squeeze should be an inten- the cultural cues you are getting from another per- tional and controlled action, almost gentle, applying son. It’s also easy to feel uncomfortable when you even rearward pressure on the trigger until the round don’t know about your operational environment is fi red. The cultural aspect of the trigger squeeze is (OE). Knowledge about the OE enables your under- your choice to engage the people of another culture standing of cultural cues and so enables you think one-on-one. It’s your choice to speak with them and clearly, to keep your weapon steady. If you can’t get to interact with them at the personal level. a good shot group on your target, you check your FM 3-22.9 reminds us “A Soldier’s marksmanship steady position. If you are consistently confused profi ciency depends on proper training and appli- by another culture, review your knowledge of that cation of the basic marksmanship fundamentals.” culture. Cultural marksmanship requires the same training Aiming is a combination of focus and alignment. and application as rifl e marksmanship: you have to You focus on the target, place the front sightpost do it, do it right, and do it regularly to be confi dent where you want to hit and ensure it is in line with and successful at cultural marksmanship. the rear aperture. Where the target is the other cul- ture, the front sight-post is your objective in the Mr. Parrish served in the U.S. Army as a Noncommissioned interaction. In a cross-cultural exchange the rear Offi cer in a wide range of worldwide assignments from the Cold War era through the War on Terrorism. He currently aperture represents all the laws and values that serves as an instructor and training developer at the TRADOC govern your behavior as an American Soldier. Our Culture Center, Fort Huachuca, Arizona. cultural aim is a focus on the cross-cultural inter- action while aligning our military objective with our American military cultural laws and values. If your cultural aim is off you’ll get repercussions from the other culture or from your own culture you were not expecting. If you can’t get a good shot group on your target, check your aim. If you consistently get an unexpected reaction from a person from a cul- ture other than your own, or from your own culture, reevaluate your knowledge of your own culture and your understanding of the objective. Breath Control requires the marksman to be aware of a generally unconscious action–their breathing. It

January - March 2011 33 by Donald Stump

Introduction Communicating across generational gaps between munication strategies we should address for other cultures can be diffi cult because of different devel- cultures. opmental timelines of the societies composing these cultures. Generational differences within a culture Generational Profiles in the U.S. may not be the same as those of another culture. In In the U.S., currently four major generations are order to shed some light on this often overlooked dif- identifi ed, focusing on the different ages of commu- fi culty for the warfi ghter, I propose that generations nicators. It should be noted that these four demo- within a different culture be identifi ed and strate- graphic groups are very broad categories, and there gies for better communications between cross-gen- are sub-categories that could be created using any erational cultures be explored. An exploration of the combination of nationality, gender, religion, educa- broad baseline generational categories within our tion, age, or other socioeconomic life-experiences that own country will serve as an example of what com- may offer a different way of thinking or reacting to a

34 Military Intelligence set of circumstances. These various factors provide systems, fl oppy disks, dot-matrix and laser print- the basis for the systematic construction of cross- ers, computer word processors, Pong (the fi rst video cultural or cross-generational frames of reference. game), gene splicing, and Post-It® notes are just a few of the technological breakthroughs that happened Tradionalists 1925 - 1945 when Generation Xers were still just children. What Baby Boomers 1946 - 1964 really sets them apart from the previous two genera- Generation X 1965 - 1980 tions is that they had the curiosity of youth to learn Generation Y or Millennial Generation 1980 - 1994 how to effectively use computer technology.5 Also, Let’s look at the profi les of the generations named this period witnessed the rise of “latchkey kids” who in the table. A man walking down the street hears didn’t spend that much time with their parents. The a loud air siren (such as was used during WW II result was that they became typically self-reliant to alert the public of an oncoming air attack) may and goal oriented individuals. Another factor that is look up remembering how to get to a shelter, or he hard to overlook is their way of thinking “globally.” might become very sad because of the previous loss For the fi rst time, this generation started to see how of a family member. These Traditionalists, born be- each individual had a responsibility to the world. tween 1925 and 1945, have a very distinctive set The green movement took off with the X Generation, of values. They are team players, indirect in com- with the support and encouragement of their Baby municating, and are loyal to an organization. They Boomer parents, and was passed on to subsequent respect authority, are dedicated, respond well to di- generations.6 1 rective, and adhere to rules. Valla comments that: Generation Y, born between 1980 and 1994, also “This group not only survived the Great Depression known as the Echo Boomers, Millennial Generation, of the 1930s, but was instrumental in shaping the or Generation Next, have a mind-set that is domi- United States as an economic and military power. nated by ‘always on’ or ‘always connected.’7 They Patriotism, teamwork, ‘doing more with less,’ and have never known a time when cell phones, e-mail, task-orientation are the values that very much de- cable television, video games, and computer network- 2 fi ne this generation.” ing did not exist, and they have always multitasked. In comparison, Baby Boomers, born between 1946 The Internet, with its instantaneous connection to a and 1964, remember the wide implementation and multitude of useful and useless information, has al- growth of television that shaped their whole way ways existed for this generation. The Y Generation of looking at the world. In fact, most of this gener- has always been able “to communicate instantly ation does not remember a time when a television across national and international borders through was not in the home. In 1946, cars cost around ‘electronic mail’ or ‘e-mail,’ to call on the resources $1,400, gasoline was 21 cents per gallon, and the of famous libraries, museums, or data bases, and to minimum wage was 40 cents per hour.3 Growing acquire information about commercial products, ser- up in the Cold War era, this generation came of vices, and practical concerns with just a few clicks of age during the most dramatic social changes that a keyboard.”8 the U.S. had ever seen. This generation worked for One of the biggest misconceptions about the civil rights movement, equal rights for women, Generation Y is that they lack social skills. In re- social justice, free love, rock music, and so much ality they communicate quite well and with more more. This adaptive generation values individual people than any other generation, but in a differ- choice, community involvement, prosperity, own- ent way (Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, or MySpace).9 ership, self-actualization, health, and wellness. Unfortunately, this generation is known for very Generation X, born between 1965 and 1980, grew poor face-to-face communication skills and is ste- up in a time of technological revolution. Take the reotyped as being socially isolated. This genera- computer for example. Traditionalists had comput- tion carries on with a globalized mind set, but to ers the size of homes, Baby Boomers had comput- a higher degree than Generation X. Some surveys ers the size of rooms, but Generation X had home suggest that as much as 61 percent of this genera- computers that were now desktop appliances.4 tion feels a defi nite responsibility to make a positive Hand held calculators, automatic laser check-out change in the world.10

January - March 2011 35 At times, communicating effectively within one’s the complexity of cross-cultural communication. own generation is diffi cult, but a new level of com- Learning different ways to show respect to differ- plexity arises when there is a generation gap, and ent generations within different cultures is an in- this can be made even more complex and challeng- valuable tool for all communication. Under any ing when communicating with someone from an- circumstance, keeping an open mind to new ways other culture. There are many strategies that could of thinking and doing things is a frame of mind that be used for better cross-generational communica- not only opens doors of communication, but also tion: be fl exible (keep an open mind), avoid genera- innovation. tional jargon, be attentive, practice active listening, show respect, and don’t reference generational events. Two strategies that could be used for all sit- uations, experiences, and even when dealing with Endnotes other cultures to better communicate are having re- 1. Snjezana Valla, Overcoming Generational Gap in the Workplace spect and keeping an open mind. (New York: Executive Offi ce, Talent Management Team; United Nations Joint Staff Pension Fund 2009).  Respect. Yes, this seems obvious, but to have 2. Valueo Options Putting People First at http://www.valueoptions. true respect for an individual, one must let go com/spotlight_YIW/traditional.htm. Accessed 14 Oct 2010. of misconceptions, generalizations, and pre- 3. Tom Genova and Michael Bennett-Levy, Television History-The conceived ideas about what type of group they fi rst 75 Years at http:///www.tvhistory.tv/1946%20QF.htm. appear to belong in.11 It is not easy to let go of as- Accessed 14 October 2010.

sumptions and judgments, but as Kate Berardo 4. www.valueoptions.com. and Simma Lieberman gracefully point out, “Life 5. Mary Bellis, 20th Century Timeline-About.com Guide at http:// is richer and your observations and refl ections inventors.about.com/od/timelines/a/modern_3.htm. Accessed 15 of people more accurate if you can move away Oct 2010.

from simple classifi cation and allow for individ- 6. www.valueoptions.com. ual variations.”12 It is then that one can fi nd true 7. Valla, 2009. respect for someone by recognizing their own in- dividual merits.13 8. Jane Healy, Failure to Connect: How Computer Affects our Children’s Minds, for Better and Worse (New York: Simon and  Keep an open mind. It is so often true that a Schuster, 1998). serious breakdown in communication happens 9. Randall S. Hansen, PhD “Perception vs. Reality: 10 Truths About when one party decides what is best without The Generation Y Workforce.” Quintessential Careers at http://www. considering all possible solutions to a problem. quintcareers.com/Gen-Y_workforce.html. Accessed 19 Oct 2010. For example, it is not always best to use a phone 10. Sharon Jayson, “Generation Y Gets Involved,” www.usatoday. call when communicating if a text message or com at http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2006-10-23-gen- e-mail will get the job done faster and without next-cover_x.htm. Accessed 27 Oct 2010. any miscommunication. Older generations have 11. Hansen. a tendency to pick up the phone. Younger gen- 12. Kate Berardo and Simma Lieberman, “Strategies for Cross- erations are known for using e-mail or text mes- Generational Relationship Building.” Culturosity.com at http://www. saging to avoid any face-to-face communication culturosity.com/articles/cross-generationalrealtionshipbuilding. that might be uncomfortable, even if the situ- htm (accessed Oct 19, 2010). ation demands interpersonal conversation. No 13. Hansen. matter what generation you are from, all solu- tions to a given problem, not just the solution that worked the last time or the one that you Mr. Stump currently serves as the Audio Visual Specialist think will work the fi rst time, should be consid- for the TRADOC Culture Center supporting the Middle East, ered before making a fi nal decision. PACOM, and AFRICOM teams with sensory input expertise. Conclusion He has developed successful online training for ISAF, NAVAIR, U.S. Army, U.S. Marine Corps, and the U.S. Power It is important to be aware that there are cross- Squadrons. His professional interests have been primarily generational communication differences within ev- in the production of 2D animation for online computer based ery culture. These kinds of differences compound training.

36 Military Intelligence Religious Engagement and Diplomacy: Training the 21st Century U.S. Military Chaplaincy

Chaplain (Colonel) Thomas C. Vail, PhD

The views contained in this article are solely those of the author. Background However, the chaplaincy needs to ponder what the Religious leader engagement by military chaplains is National Security Strategy (NSS), May 2010 states: a hotly debated and contested battle ground within We will draw on diplomacy, development, and interna- the U.S. Armed Forces. The issues revolve around tional norms and institutions to help resolve disagree- whether a military chaplain is suited to conduct re- ments, prevent conflict, and maintain peace, mitigating ligious leader engagement due to his/her training where possible the need for the use of force. This means credibly underwriting U.S. defense commitments with tai- and education, background or calling. Fears of los- lored approaches to deterrence and ensuring the U.S. mil- ing non-combatant status and becoming an intelli- itary continues to have the necessary capabilities across gence gathering apparatus for the U.S. military or all domains—land, air, sea, space, and cyber. It also in- information operations or extension of American cludes helping our allies and partners build capacity to foreign policy abound.1 Despite these contentions, fulfill their responsibilities to contribute to regional and the world has changed and the ability of the mili- global security. While the use of force is sometimes neces- tary chaplaincy to adapt to the changed conditions sary, we will exhaust other options before war when- ever we can, and carefully weigh the costs and risks of is critical to facilitating religious discussions con- action against the costs and risks of inaction 3 cerning peace and reconciliation around the world. Religious engagement and diplomacy is a means to One of the loudest complaints registered by chap- meeting this goal. Furthermore, Religious Support lains is that ‘they are ill-equipped, unprepared and Teams (RST) can assist with addressing the sources untrained’ as specialists in conducting religious en- of radicalism through dialog, peace building and de- gagement operations. This is probably an accurate veloping religious diplomatic skills. As the NSS fur- statement. Many commanders, as well as senior ther suggests: military chaplains, are concerned about a chaplain …we must address the underlying political and eco- conducting engagement operations and vehemently nomic deficits that foster instability, enable radicaliza- oppose doing so, whereas, on the other hand, some tion and extremism… reorient and strengthen our devel- commanders heartily embrace doing so.2 opment agenda; to take stock of and enhance our capa- bilities; and to forge new and more effective means of ap- Compounding the debate, the Air Force Chief of plying the skills of our military, diplomats, and develop- Chaplains strictly limits religious leader engagement ment experts. These kinds of measures will help us di- of Air Force chaplains to only taking care of the re- minish military risk, act before crises and conflicts erupt, ligious and spiritual needs of Air Force personnel, and ensure that governments are better able to serve their in spite of his approval of the new Joint Publication people4 1-05, Religious Affairs in Joint Operations that Furthermore, the JP 1-05 states: Religious affairs clearly lays out this responsibility. in joint military operations will require a variety of

January - March 2011 37 actions supporting different types and phases of as a ‘religious diplomat’ and proposes a set of joint operations. Close coordination should be maintained courses for training chaplains and chaplain assis- among the RSTs of the combatant command, Service tants/religious program specialists in religious di- components, JTFs, and other subordinate units in- plomacy. The three courses are designed to meet volved in joint military operations.5 the needs of tactical, operational and strategic mili- tary religious leaders in the art of providing advise- Religious engagement and diplomacy is one of ment to the commander and staff on and conduct those actions. The chaplain’s role in military opera- religious leader engagement. tions has grown in proportion and importance due to need for the integration of soft power as the primary Religious Diplomacy: A Snapshot means to facilitate a lasting peace. Integrating reli- Religious diplomacy is the infl uence of religious gious and cultural considerations in planning and leaders facilitating a constructive dialog that builds activities at the tactical, operational and strategic bridges between confl icting parties leading to under- level is extremely important for success of any diplo- standing and reconciliation. Conducting religious matic, economic or military endeavor. Religious en- diplomacy eventually leads to negotiations between gagement and diplomacy is largely overlooked in the the confl icting factions that aim toward building professional and educational development of chap- peace.7 Chaplains are facilitators that build under- lains and chaplain assistants or religious program standing between people. As trusted agents, chap- specialists. But this training needs to become a reg- lains are generally understood as having a foot in ular developmental requirement in order to provide two worlds: celestial and temporal. Owing allegiance commanders a well trained, capable, and ready re- to a greater celestial force that transcends the tem- source to successfully ply the murky waters of rela- poral powers opens the moral framework to mend tional connectivity, social networking, and cultural human brokenness in ways heretofore not consid- and religious confl ict resolution. ered. Pastoral and spiritual care extends to healing In addition to the responsibilities described in social and relational discord leading to a transfor- Chapter II, JP 1-05, Fundamentals, Relationships, mation of all parties involved in the confl ict. In ad- and Duties, the list below is meant to illustrate dition, chaplains who have a fairly well established some of the special considerations that RST mem- sphere of infl uence in the community whether mil- bers may need to consider; the list is by no means itary or civilian, tend to have an apolitical posture. an exhaustive list. RST activities may include: They are perceived as reconcilers and re-humanizers of fractured relationships and have the capacity to  Liaison and coordination activities throughout the mobilize local, national and international partners operational area and with subordinate units in for peacemaking and peace-building. This powerful support of the commander’s theater security co- combination of capabilities provides an immediate operation program. This includes participation in conduit for chaplains to actively engage in conver- humanitarian and civic assistance missions. sations that transcend cultures and confl icts.  When directed by the commander, establish- ing relationships with appropriate local religious Moreover, chaplains possess theological resources leaders in consultation with the combatant com- that others in uniform do not. They have a redemp- mand chaplain. tive historical meta-narrative that provides a pow- erful means to contextualize and transcend confl ict  As requested or directed by the commander and by providing hope, making suffering dignifi ed and consistent with their noncombatant status, build- meaningful. Chaplains also promote the promise of ing and maintaining partnership capacity by genuine healing and embrace the power of sacred assisting other militaries in establishing or im- tradition(s) and stories giving a depth and breadth proving their own military chaplaincies. to the perceptions of human pain. As morally  Building relationships and collaborating with grounded yet fundamentally pragmatic peace build- other government agencies, NGOs, and intergov- ers, chaplains accept the notion of unity through ernmental organizations (IGOs).6 the diversity and plurality of life (i.e., culture, eth- This paper explores the concept and issues con- nicity.) They embrace all parties in the dialog, and cerning the chaplain’s role in military operations understand how forgiveness is a prerequisite for re-

38 Military Intelligence storative relationships, and how social justice is the chaplain must be patient. Since each of the parties basis for right ordering relationships. This unique must see the outcome of discussions as a win-win combination of characteristics enables chaplains to for all parties, patience and persistence are require- conduct religious diplomatic operations at the tacti- ments. Advising the commander of the longitudinal cal, operational and strategic levels. requirements with conditions based benchmarks The primary mode of intervention focuses on creat- rather than time based benchmarks will allow the ing dialog. Dialog is the conduit to heal the wounds dialog process to work. of history, managing the collective memory of the Extensive pre-dialog preparation is critical to suc- people who have suffered great loss, thus releasing cess. The chaplain will need to conduct a thorough the mental constraints of suffering, pain and an- assessment of history, culture, religion, social mo- ger. The dialog humanizes the ‘other.’ In addition, res and values, political affi liations and beliefs of all dialog seeks mutual understanding and harmony. the actors. He must thoroughly examine the world- The dialogical journey is one of building respect and views (values and assumptions),and conduct a rea- understanding through a growing awareness of the sonable social network analysis considering all of other. Moreover, learning to accept the tension be- the personalities (qualities, character and beliefs) tween the past, present, and dreams of the future and their connections. creates the potential for harmony. Thus, the dialog- Establishing reasonable goals for each engage- ical process is innately a humanizing process and ment is crucial. Expecting too much from initial and is an essential component to building understand- following discussions can lead to discouragement ing and placing each of the actors into an empathic and disillusionment. Setting the conditions by for- and sympathetic state. Furthermore, retributional mulating a coherent strategy that fi ts within the cul- justice often common in a confl ict setting becomes tural environment along with tactical, operational, replaced by restorative justice. Restoration of con- and strategic plans is vital to shaping lasting effects. structive relationships leads to a reduction of emo- Building relationships with each of the actors prior tional intensity bringing the confl icting parties into to collective meetings is important to test the waters, agreement to fi nd ways to resolve confl ict. establish boundaries, identify issues and motives, Moreover, dialog is the process of ‘seeing through’ and simply to get to know one another in order to the discourse leading to an understanding of the create trust. Trust and good-will should not be un- meaning and infl uence of assumptions on self and derestimated. Both have the power of transcending others. Placing assumptions alongside the dis- pain and suffering. The context for holding a meet- course leads to self-awareness and catharsis. This ing is essential. The meeting location has to provide dialogical process is premised upon the following both physical and psychological safety for all par- assumptions: ticipants. Even the structure of the meeting room  All parties must be considered equal. must be carefully considered to ensure that all par-  There must be abstinence from coercion of any ticipants feel and believe they are equal. kind. During the dialog, the religious diplomat needs  There must be both empathic reasoning and lis- to conduct appropriate introductions. Introducing tening. someone varies by culture. Creating a ‘positive fi rst Beginning the dialog with confl icting parties takes impression’ is very benefi cial and assists in reduc- courage along with a critical, self-refl ective under- ing tension and anxiety. Setting the context and standing of the religious diplomat’s assumptions, ground rules for dialog along with providing an values, and worldview. The religious diplomat must overview and history of the problem gets all of the then lay the ground work for all of the participants’ cards on the table. Further, each of the parties has discourse by striving to build in each participant of to agree to the common ground rules for the dialog. the confl ict a spirit of compromise, coexistence and Listening carefully to all parties’ (content or nonver- mutual respect. Without these three peace building bal) conversations is no easy task, especially when characteristics embraced by each of the actors in using translators. The nuances of language and the confl ict, a meeting to work through the confl ict culturally relevant contextual clues and nonver- will not stand much chance of succeeding. Thus, the bal cues can be easily misunderstood. It is impor-

January - March 2011 39 tant to identify and name assumptions and ensure ment, religious and cultural factors in confl ict, and that all parties are heard, leading to fi nding com- the nature of religious diplomacy along with a com- mon ground and identifying remaining unresolved prehensive review of the literature. friction points. Assuming that not everyone has the Competent religious diplomats shape and infl u- same vision and version of the confl ict is important. ence dialog through social networking, leveraging Clarifying positions, sometimes over and over again, goodwill, advocating for humanitarian concerns will help not only gain understanding but shape the and persuasive storytelling. Collaboration, build- conditions for future dialog. Closing the dialog is ing co-creative partnerships, sharing information just as important as opening the dialog. Unfi nished and facilitating dialog are the competencies under- business can be a good thing to get all the parties to lying successful religious diplomats. Collaboration meet again at some point in the future. is a multidimensional concept and may be con- Obviously, dialog is a continuous process and con- sidered at its most basic level as interchangeable fl icts are resolved not in a single meeting but through with teamwork. Collaboration is as much an art as a series of meetings, often over many months, or in it is science, embracing goal setting, problem solv- some cases years. Following a meeting, the chaplain ing, planning, co-creating policy and processes that will need to reassess progress or lack of progress, are benefi cial for the community. Additionally, ev- identify outstanding issues, assumptions, opinions, ery military spiritual leader is connected to a spe- or barriers, and carefully review all the participants’ cifi c faith community and webbed within the fabric attitudes, including his or her own. Once the dialog of the community’s relational matrix and worldview. is assessed, formulating new strategies, goals and Distinct as each faith community’s worldview might setting the conditions for future dialogs will need to be, religious diplomats need to be able to intercon- take place. Therefore, integration of this approach nect similarities, embrace and enfold differences, as within tactical, operational and strategic plans will well as synergize a multitude of perspectives with cement the importance and identify appropriate re- reverence and respect simultaneously transcending sources required for commanders to leverage on his or her worldview. non-kinetic means to resolve confl icts. In doing so, Below is a list of the required competencies, keep- commanders could well see a reduction of costs and ing in mind that as the individual moves up the perhaps establish a lasting peace. operational spectrum increasing levels of sophisti- Joint Religious Engagement and cation and training are required: Diplomacy Course(s) 1. Managing confl ict. To develop chaplains as religious diplomats I would 2. Shaping the environment. like to suggest the Joint Religious Engagement and 3. Facilitating dialog. Diplomacy Course Program or JREDC. The defi n- 4. Collaborating with all confl ictual parties. ing philosophical assumption for the JREDC is the 5. Communicating messages that foster good will scholar-practitioner model. This model provides a and understanding. fundamental means to conceptualize and structure 6. Connecting people, agencies and activities. the critical refl ective balance between praxis and theory, thus providing the religious leader the abil- 7. Analyzing culture, social networks and actors. ity to actively engage in a continuous practice of life- 8. Researching the literature for solutions. long learning. 9. Infl uencing perspectives. 10. Orchestrating peaceful confl ict resolution. The JREDC will be scholastically grounded in current and past theories and research of religion Overview of the Program and religious diplomacy, as well as confl ict resolu- The JREDC will have three distinct courses. Each tion and associated knowledge domains. This will in-resident course will be comprised of 6 modules thereby broaden, deepen and expand each chaplain lasting for 9.5 days, or approximately 70 hours of and chaplain assistant or religious program spe- classroom instruction. Resources and presentations cialist’s thinking and integration of best practices can be easily tailored to meet the pressing require- of engagement in dialog through critical-refl ection, ments at each level. Guest subject matter experts critical analysis of policy execution, plans develop- can provide a rich source to illuminate each mod-

40 Military Intelligence ule, providing a rich source for learning and discus- 3. Joint Religious Engagement and Diplomacy Course (Senior) sion. Here is a list of suggested courses: Proposal: To train senior grade RSTs on how to lead religious engagement/diplomacy at the strategic level. 1. Joint Religious Engagement and Diplomacy Course (Basic) Objective: To familiarize RSTs with complex spectrum of religious Proposal: To train junior RSTs on how to conduct religious engagement engagement operations in the strategic environment. and diplomacy operations at the tactical level. Concept: Create a 2 week functional course to provide instruction in Objective: To familiarize RSTs with the tactical spectrum of religious religious engagement and diplomacy at the strategic level. engagement and diplomacy operations. Target Audience: 05/06, E8/E9 Concept: Create a 2 week functional course to provide instruction in the basics of religious engagement. Course Length: Two weeks, offered once a year. 6 blocks of instruction (76 hours of instruction). Target Audience: 03/04, E3-E5 Delivery Method(s): Lecture/symposium, practical exercise. Course Length: Two weeks, offered 4 times a year. Class size: 15 chaplains/15 chaplain assistants/RPs. 6 blocks of instruction (76 hours of instruction). Delivery Method(s): Lecture/symposium, practical exercise. Tasks: • Direct cultural assessment. Class size: 15 chaplains/15 chaplain assistants/RPs. • Direct social network analysis. Tasks: • Direct conflict resolution. • Conduct cultural assessment. • Direct religious engagement and peace building. • Conduct social network analysis. • Ensure the effectiveness of religious engagement and peace building. • Assess conflict. • Analyze legal and policy considerations with religious engagement and • Identify actors. diplomacy at the strategic level. • Conduct initial interviews. Course Outline (Blocks of Instruction): • Plan dialog. • Geopolitical aspects of peace building and religious engagement. • Conduct dialog. • Strategic art, cross-cultural communication and social network analysis. • Assess dialog. • Strategic challenges of HA/DR Operations: integrating NGOs, FBOs, and Course Outline (Blocks of Instruction): IGOs into planning and peace building operations. • Conflict management and peace building. • Integrating religious engagement and diplomacy into strategy. o Theory and practice of conflict management and peace building. • Strategic case study analysis. o Establishing relationships. • Practical exercise. o Facilitating dialog. • Exam. o The power of collaboration. • Building a communication strategy. Conclusion • Cultural, operational, and social network analysis. A 21st Century U.S. military Chaplaincy requires • The unique challenges of HA/DR operations: integrating NGOs, FBOs, and IGOs into planning and peace building operations. a series of courses designed to prepare military re- • Principles of religious engagement and diplomacy. ligious leaders with the knowledge, skills and ap- • Case study analysis. • Practical exercise. titudes required to navigate the turbulent waters • Exam. of the complex asymmetrical environment. These

2. Joint Religious Engagement and Diplomacy Course (Advanced) courses are a means to do that. Commanders who Proposal: To train midgrade RSTs on how to conduct religious engagement have access to such skilled religious leaders will and diplomacy operations. greatly benefi t by being able to reduce the need for Objective: To familiarize RSTs with the operational spectrum of religious the use of kinetic weapon systems. American for- engagement operations. eign and domestic policy makers will have greater Concept: Create a 2 week functional course to provide instruction in the advanced theory and practice of religious engagement. fl exibility and situational awareness to manage reli- Target Audience: 04/05, E6-E8 gious, cultural, and social engagements at each level Course Length: Two weeks, offered twice a year. of the Department of Defense and perhaps through- 6 blocks of instruction (76 hours of instruction). Delivery Method(s): Lecture/symposium, practical exercise. out the government. Of all the lessons learned from Class size: 15 chaplains/15 chaplain assistants/RPs. our international and national challenges facing Tasks: the U.S. military, to avoid the impact that culture • Plan cultural assessment. has on creating and sustaining confl ict between re- • Report social network analysis. • Facilitate conflict resolution. ligions, as a fundamental purveyor and shaper of • Supervise religious engagement and peace building. • Coordinate religious engagement and peace building. human beliefs and behaviors, these recommended • Assess effectiveness of religious engagement and peace building. courses are a must in the professional development • Identify legal and policy issues with religious engagement and diplomacy. of U.S. military religious leaders. Finally, religious Course Outline (Blocks of Instruction): • Advanced theories of conflict management and peace building. engagement and diplomacy is a critical capability • Operational art, cross-cultural communication and social network analysis. needed in the 21st century in support of the National • Operational challenges of HA/DR Operations: integrating NGOs, FBOs, and IGOs into planning and peace building operations. Security Strategy. The end result of fully embracing • Advanced principles of religious engagement and diplomacy. this discipline could be saving lives from the wars • Case study analysis. • Practical exercise. that will not be fought, and partaking of the peace • Exam. from confl ict that will be reduced or eliminated.

January - March 2011 41 Endnotes Gerencser, M., Van Lee, R., Napolitano, F. and Kelly, C. 2008. 1. Commander Arthur M. Brown, “Should U.S. Chaplains Serve Megacommunities: How Leaders of Government, Business and as Liaisons with Indigenous Religious Leaders in Areas of Military Non-profi ts can Tackle Today’s Global Challenges Together. Operations?” (Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College, 2008. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Army Chief of Chaplains, Chief of Chaplains Policy #3, Religious Marshall, P, Ed. 2007. Religious Freedom in the World. Maryland: Leader Liaison, 30 September 2008. Rowman and Littlefi eld. George Adams, “Chaplains as Liaisons with Religious Leaders: Phillips, K. 2006. American Theocracy: The Peril and Politics of Lessons from Iraq and Afghanistan,” (Washington, D.C.: United Radical Religion, Oil, and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century. States Institute of Peace, 2006). New York: Penguin Group. Kenneth L. Sampson, “Engaging Afghanistan–The Mullah Philpott, D. 2006. Politics of Past Evil: Religion, Reconciliation, and Connection,” (Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College, 2006). the Dilemmas of Transitional Justice. Notre Dame: University of Stephen L. Cook, “U.S. Military Chaplains on the Ambassador’s Notre Dame Press. Country Team,” (Carlisle Barracks: U.S. Army War College, 2005). Religion-online. 2010. At http://www.religion-online.org/. William Sean Lee, Christopher J. Burke and Zonna M. Crayne, Skillen, J., Ed. 2009. Prospects and Ambiguities of Globalization. “Military Chaplains as Peace Builders, Embracing Indigenous Lanham: Lexington Books. Religions in Stability Operations,” (Maxwell Air Force Base: Air Thames, K., Seiple, C. and Rowe, A. 2009. International Religious University Press, 2005). Freedom Advocacy: A Guide to Organizations, Law and NGOs. Chaplain (COL) Lamar Griffi n, “Strategic Religious Dialogue: Waco: Baylor University Press. A Chaplain’s Perspective on Religious Leader Liaison,” Faith in Thomas, S. 2005. The Global Resurgence of Religion and the International Affairs, 16 December 2009, accessed at http://www. Transformation of International Relations: The Struggle for the rfi aonline.org/archives/issues/7-4/591-religious-leader-liaison. Soul of the Twenty-First Century. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Chaplain (LtCol, USAF) Steven A. Schaick, “Examining the Wilber, K. 2001. A Theory of Everything. Boston: Shambhala. Role of Chaplains as Non-combatants while Involved in Religious Resources Leader Engagement/Liaison,” (Maxwell Air Force Base: Air War College, 17 February 2009), accessed at https://hclogin.maxwell. Chicago Council on Global Affairs at http://www.thechicagocouncil.org/. af.mil/.../20091006_Religious%20Leader%20Engagement%20 Council on Foreign Relations at http://www.cfr.org/index.html. Policy%20Letter.pdf. The John Jay Institute at http://www.johnjayinstitute.org/. 2. Air Force Chief of Chaplains, Air Force Chaplain Corps Policy of Heartland Alliance for Human Need and Human Rights at http:// Religious Leader Engagement, 6 October 2009, accessed at https:// www.heartlandalliance.org/. hclogin.maxwell.af.mil/Resources/Policy/20091006_Religious%20 United States Commission on International Religious Freedom at Leader%20Engagement%20Policy%20Letter.pdf. http://www.uscirf.gov/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1. 3. National Security Strategy, May 2010 accessed at http://www. State Policy Network at http://www.spn.org/. whitehouse.gov/sites/default/fi les/rss_viewer/national_security_ World Economic Forum at http://www.weforum.org/en/Communities/ strategy.pdf. 22. FaithCommunities/c100/WestIslamicWorld. 4. Ibid., 26-27. Institute for Global Engagement at http://www.globalengage.org/. 5. Joint Publication 1-05, Religious Affairs in Joint Operations, Pearson Peacekeeping Centre at http://www.peaceoperations.org/. Department of Defense, 13 November 2009, p. III-1. Introduction to Social Networks, Robert A. Hanneman and Mark Riddle 6. Ibid. at http://faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/nettext/index.html. 7. Douglas Johnston, Ed., Faith-based Diplomacy: Trumping Faith and International Affairs at http://www.rfi aonline.org/. Realpolitik (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003). United States Institute of Peace at http://www.usip.org/. Other References ‘Why Youth Join al Qaeda’ at http://www.usip.org/resources/why- Ahmed, A. 2004. Resistance and Control in Pakistan. New York: Routledge. youth-join-al-qaeda. Ahmed, A. 2003. Islam under Siege: Living Dangerously in a Post- Offi ce of the Inspector General, Audit of USAID’s Faith-Based and honor World. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. Community Initiatives, Audit Report No. 9-000-09-009- P, 17 Beck, E. and Cowan, C. 2006. Spiral Dynamics: Mastering Values, July 2009 at http://www.usaid.gov/oig/public/fy09rpts/9- Leadership and Change. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. 000-09-009-p.pdf. Berger, P. and Huntington, S. Eds. 2003. Many Globalizations: The cost of cultural missteps can be large. Below is an example Cultural Diversity in the Contemporary world. USA: Oxford from the Horn of Africa at http://oversight.house.gov/index. University Press. php?option=com_content&task=view&id=4928&Itemid=47. The Berger, P. Ed. 1999. The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent complete GAO report may be found at http://www.gao.gov/new. Religion and World Politics. New York: Eerdmans Publishing. items/d10504.pdf. Brafman, O. and Beckstrom, R. 2006. The Starfi sh and the Spider: The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations. New York: Penguin Group (USA) Inc. Chaplain (Colonel) Thomas C. Vail, USA, is the command Bouvier, V. Eds. 2009. Columbia: Building Peace in a Time of War. chaplain for North American Aerospace Defense Command Washington, DC: United States Peace Institute. and U.S. Northern Command. His deployments include Farr, T. 2008. World of Faith and Freedom: Why International Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Bosnia, Kosovo Religious Liberty is Vital to American National Security. Oxford: and Operation Iraqi Freedom. Chaplain Vail holds a PhD in Oxford University Press. Psychology from Saybrook University.

42 Military Intelligence tions, the cultural errors of our troops, and worse, by David Tannenbaum were being exploited by our enemies with great stra- tegic consequence.2,3,4 In November, 2004, the Army saw a need for cul- ture training and created the U.S. Army Training The purpose of Army culture training is to pre- and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Culture Center pare Soldiers to interact successfully with people (TCC) for this purpose at the U.S. Army Intelligence from foreign cultures while accomplishing the mis- Center at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. For a genera- sion. This may be on any level, from personal inter- tion, our military strategists had been preoccupied action to strategic planning and policy formulation. by the Cold War. The enemy was the Soviet Union; But how to train Soldiers on the cultures of dis- the likely battlefi eld would have been Europe, were tant lands and unfamiliar peoples? There was no there a land war. Russians and Europeans are not Army doctrine for culture training, no military oc- very alien to Americans. The origins of American cupational specialty (MOS) duties and tasks that majority culture can be traced to the large num- pertained to cultural expertise. In the absence of ber of European immigrants who came to the U.S.1 doctrine, the newly formed TCC defaulted to the However, by the early 2000s, the Army found itself standard TRADOC model of training developed for sending troops to distant corners of the globe, to other fi elds which was centered around lecture pre- countries like Iraq and Afghanistan that had never sentations based on constructivist theory that de- contributed large numbers of immigrants to the pend heavily on expert or non-expert instructors 5 U.S.; people whose histories, religions and world- and PowerPoint presentations. views remained largely unknown to Americans. And According to the TRADOC model, each lesson in the age of instant global personal communica- must have a clearly stated training objective whose

January - March 2011 43 attainment is observable, measureable, and quan- The essential problem of determining the effective- tifi able.6 That objective must enable the soldier to ness of cultural training is that culture will always perform a task or duty, but there were no tasks involve dealing with people. Among their other char- or duties in culture training, leaving the effective- acteristics, people can be irrational, deceptive, self- ness of that training ill-defi ned and nearly impos- deceiving, emotional, forgetful, etc. People cannot sible to measure. The Army Culture and Foreign be relied on to behave consistently or predictably, Language Strategy has gone a long way toward re- or not to deviate from past patterns of thought and solving these problems by defi ning three levels of action for identifi able causal reasons. The approach cultural competence: cultural awareness, cultural that works with Sheikh A may not work with Sheikh understanding and cultural expertise, but even B. What works with Sheikh A today may not work this document says little about effective methods with Sheikh A tomorrow, and for no good reason. for achieving these levels of competence and de- Success or failure in the domain of cultural skill is, termining when the soldier can be said to have at- therefore, unavoidably subjective. This characteris- tained them.7 tic alone puts culture training apart from virtually all other Army training and throws into question What does effective culture training look like? Most the applicability of the TRADOC model of attaining likely, it will not look like other Army training. Most observable, measureable and quantifi able training Army training is oriented toward imparting a skill, objectives. be it a physical skill (operating weapon systems or communications equipment) or a cognitive skill (an- True to the TRADOC model, the TCC devises alyzing intelligence data). Negotiating the minefi eld assessment tools (generally written tests) to de- of culture may require skill, but that skill differs in termine if its students have attained the stated at least one signifi cant way from other militarily use- training objectives of its lessons. It has also devel- ful skills. The successful operation of a weapon sys- oped rubrics to judge student performance in more tem has a clear result–destroyed target. Operating advanced role-playing exercises. However, beyond communications gear has a clear result–A message that TRADOC requirement, the TCC has also sur- transmitted or received. Even the successful analysis veyed its students to solicit their subjective opin- of intelligence data has a clear result–correct predic- ions of the lessons that they received. While the tion of enemy action. But cultural success? Training Evaluation Form may not be rigorously validated according to established survey methods, At one level, this may mean avoiding offence to na- it has served as the TCC’s only measure of student tionals where our forces operate. It is a basic prin- satisfaction with the training received. The TCC has ciple of logic that a negative cannot be proven. One assumed that as highly competent military profes- cannot demonstrate when offence was avoided, let sionals, our students are the best judges of use- alone establish a causal relationship with actions fulness, applicability, and appropriateness of our that led to that avoidance. At another level, cultural training to their individual MOSs and missions, success may mean devising a military strategy that though as is sometimes the case, students do not takes into account the cultural history, worldview always know what is best for them. Judgment, too, and attitudes of the people whom it affects, and that is subjective. The survey uses student judgment of leads to American military success and the advance- satisfaction as a proxy for effectiveness. The use of ment of our national interests. Again, we are faced this survey was never a requirement of TCC train- with the problem of proving a negative. How can we ing, so not all of our training is represented in the determine whether any other strategy would not data. have achieved the same end? In this second exam- ple, it may be possible in principle to devise a con- The survey form has undergone one signifi cant trolled experiment to determine the effect of cultural modifi cation since its inception which makes com- considerations in strategy design, but the conduct parisons between earlier and later data diffi cult. In of that experiment–the application of several mili- its early form, in use from March 2006 to October tary strategies, and observation of the results–might 2009, the survey asked students to give their opin- prove to be immoral, unethical and prohibitively ex- ions, ranging from 1 (I disagree strongly) to 5 (I agree pensive in terms of lives and national treasure. strongly), of the following fi ve statements for each

44 Military Intelligence lesson in their program of instruction (POI). Scores The questions on the overall course hardly changed of 2 and 4 omitted the word “strongly.” The central at all: value of 3 on the initial version of the form repre-  The location of training provided an environ- sented “I have no opinion”: ment conducive to learning.  The instructor stated the objectives at the begin-  The training was presented in a logical ning of training. sequence.  The training objectives were met.  The training presented relevant topics and  The instructor was knowledgeable on the sub- issues. ject matter.  The media selected (if any) to accompany the  The instruction was understandable and clear. training were appropriate and informative.  The instructor allowed suffi cient student–instructor Results from these surveys were divided into two interaction. categories based on class size. TRADOC defi nes two For each lesson, students were also asked to pro- categories of class size: small groups (up to 16 stu- vide written comments. dents) and large groups (more than 16 students), and prescribes different methods of instruction for In addition, student opinions were solicited of their each.8 In its training, the TCC made only slight ac- training overall by asking them to use the same 1 to commodations to class size. For example, certain 5 scale to address the following fi ve statements: classroom activities, including role-playing exer-  The location of instruction provided an environ- cises, are more diffi cult to implement in a large ment conducive to learning. group. Also, the use of recorded media (fi lms) seems  The instruction was presented in logical to keep the attention of large groups more effectively sequence. than uninterrupted lectures. The TCC developed no  The training offered relevant topics and issues. guidelines for these accommodations to class size,  The fi lms selected to accompany the training which was left largely to instructor discretion. The were appropriate and informative. academic literature on the effect of class size on stu- dent course evaluations also draws a distinction be- Here, too, students were asked for their written tween classes that are larger and smaller than 20 comments. students, only slightly larger than TRADOC’s dif- 9 In February 2010, this modifi ed list of questions ferentiation at 16 students. Since the literature on was adopted for each lesson in the POI. The inten- class size and evaluation scores is more germane tion behind this change was to shift the focus from to the present topic than TRADOC’s instructional instructor performance to training effectiveness: strategies, student evaluation data from classes larger and smaller than 20 students were analyzed  The instructor made the training objectives clear separately. The method used was to calculate the at the beginning of training. weighted mean of responses to each question for  The training objectives were met by the end of each lesson, with the number of votes cast as the the lesson. weighting factor. A simple average of those means  I know more about this topic than I did before was used to determine the overall level of satisfac- the lesson. tion with each lesson.  The form and content of the lesson made this Literature on students’ evaluations of academic training effective. courses suggests that students will express the high-  The instructor was effective in presenting this est degree of satisfaction when class size is smallest, training. all other factors being equal.10,11 Evaluation scores  This training is relevant to my mission. generally decrease with increasing class size until While the meaning of the high and low scores did class size reaches 20 students. Thereafter, evalua- not change, a central score of 3 now meant “I nei- tion scores tend not to change appreciably as class ther agree nor disagree.” As ever, students were size continues to grow. At various times, as the TCC still asked to provide written comments on each collected data using its survey forms, these predic- lesson. tions were realized. However, by the time the orig-

January - March 2011 45 inal survey form fell from use, the results differed purpose or composition, encourage closeness and somewhat from those predictions. solidarity among group members; larger groups al- low greater distance, alienation and disengagement between individual members. However, there are many differing factors among the many POIs that are represented in the evaluation data. In an effort to tease out the most infl uential factors, the follow- ing were considered:  Number of students in each class vs. evaluation score.  Ratio of students to instructors vs. evaluation score.  Number of lessons taught per day on average vs. evaluation score.  Lessons assigned per instructor during the POI vs. evaluation score.  Days of training in the POI vs. evaluation score. No account was made of the contents of each POI, Figure 1. Class Size vs. Course Evaluation Score whether they included lessons from the TCC’s train- Note that POI evaluation scores given by classes of ing support packages (TSPs) on the Horn of Africa, up to 20 students trend toward independence from Trans-Saharan Africa, West Africa, the Middle East, class size, and average about 4.81 on the 5-point Asia or any components or subsets thereof. Neither scale. Evaluation scores given by larger classes are was the identity of the instructor and his teaching generally lower, and tend to decrease with increasing style considered. class size. However, it must be said that this sample Conventional wisdom might suggest that smaller of 33 results is rather too small to be considered sta- student-to-instructor ratios should yield higher tistically robust. Nineteen small groups and fourteen evaluation scores because of more individual atten- large groups contributed these data. Note the relative tion. That wisdom might suggest that fewer lessons sparseness of the large group data. Nevertheless, the per day would satisfy students more, as would fewer median class size in these data is 20, exactly the di- days of training. Both would tend to lessen the stu- viding line between small and large groups. dents’ workload. Furthermore, conventional think- ing might suggest that the fewer lessons assigned to each instructor would improve his classroom effec- tiveness, both because of better, more focused prep- aration, and decreased fatigue in the classroom. Few of these conclusions are supported by data. The total number of students in a class, as well as the ratio of students to instructors, infl uences what may generally be described as classroom crowding. In and of itself, crowding is not necessarily a bad feature in classroom instruction. A degree of crowd- ing may encourage closer communications between the instructor and students. Surprisingly, the data does not support the hypothesis of the benefi t of low student-to-teacher ratios. Figure 2. Class Size vs. Frequency of Occurrence The data also do not support the hypotheses re- The likely cause of the trends seen in the data is garding both instructor and student workloads. group dynamics. Smaller groups, regardless of their Both the number of lessons taught per day on aver-

46 Military Intelligence age during the training and the number of lessons appear to have been ameliorated by increased in- taught by each instructor, also on average, appear structor experience. The TCC implemented no in- to be randomly distributed with regard to evalua- structional methods and made no policy changes tion score. The number of days of training, however, that would affect the quality of large group instruc- shows a surprising result. Students have a slight tion during this period. preference for longer POIs, as the upward slope In February 2010, the TCC started using the re- of the trend line indicates. It is not clear that this vised survey form, which is more focused on train- trend is statistically signifi cant. However, if it is, its ing effectiveness than on instructor performance. roots may be found in every cultural subject matter Data collected with this new survey, though few, expert’s (SME) frustration: When the SME teaches, have begun to show similar trends. he must convey to his students in a matter of only a few hours the wisdom and experience that he gained through years of fi rsthand contact with the cultures on which he is expert. Longer training clearly is more satisfying for the instructor. Apparently, it is more satisfying for students as well. Overall, however, the strongest infl uence on stu- dent satisfaction with their training is class size: Smaller is better. Large and small group data show interesting stability trends in time during this pe- riod when the original survey form was in use.

Figure 4: Number of Students vs. Evaluation Score

Note that the highest evaluation score by far yet recorded on the new survey came from the small- est class to use the form. Note also the very differ- ent distribution of class sizes to use the new form compared with that of the old form (Figure 1). This is largely a result of the decline in requests for train- Figure 3. POI Evaluation Stability through Time the-trainer (TTT) instruction at TRADOC schools A linear least squares fi t to the small group data around the country. TTT classes are generally lim- shows great stability through time, averaging ap- ited to 30 students or fewer. The instruction is gen- proximately 4.81, while the same analysis of large erally 40 hours long, the longest course that the group data shows marked improvement from 4.55 TCC offers. Instead, recent training requests have to 4.74. It is ironic that during this period, Fort favored pre-deployment training. Deploying units Huachuca made Small Group Instruction (SGI) tend to be larger than the training cadres that might mandatory for all instructors, while no training in receive TTT instruction. Median class size in these large-group instructional techniques was required. data is 38 students. Even at this point, the TCC For the TCC at least, this mandate ran contrary to does not require the use of the survey, so these data the principles of Pareto analysis: Identify the great- too, are a random sample of all training given by the est problems and focus fi rst on their solutions.12 TCC’s instructors. The TCC was already good at SGI; training in those The new survey allows analysis of the relevance techniques yielded no appreciable improvement of the TCC’s training to the Soldiers who receive it. in evaluation data. Instead, the TCC had a rela- In separate sections, the survey asks them about tive weakness in large group instruction that would the relevance of each lesson to their individual mis-

January - March 2011 47 sions, and about the overall relevance of the POI. A related words, correlated more strongly with stu- discrepancy between these two scores might sug- dents’ evaluation scores for certain questions more gest, for example, that students felt that the train- strongly than with overall scores. Those correlations ing was relevant in some abstract sense, but was not are revealing. Often when students used words like relevant to each of them individually. The greatest “briefi ng” more frequently than “lesson,” there was factor infl uencing this discrepancy seems to be the a discrepancy between their perception of the les- students’ sense of mission and whether they were son having achieved its training goals and their feel- deploying to the region on which they were trained, ing of having learned something about the lesson’s or if the topic was selected for them by their course topic. The goal of all TCC lessons, designed in accor- director as something that would be good for them dance with TRADOC standards, is student learning. to learn. Bottom line: Attitude matters. There should be no discrepancy. Beyond the analysis of student evaluation scores, When students expected a lesson, they felt that students’ written comments also reveal interest- the lecture achieved its training objectives, and that ing and valuable aspects of their opinions of the they knew more about the topic after the lesson than training. Individually, students’ comments help in- they did before. When students expected a briefi ng, structors to identify opportunities to improve the they felt less strongly that the lecture achieved its ob- contents and delivery of their lessons. However, text jectives, though they might still feel that they knew analysis of the aggregate of students’ comments more about the topic after the lesson than they did also yields valuable statistical insights. It has long before. The correlation between the ratio of the uses been evident that many students’ attitudes toward of “lesson” vs. “briefi ng” and the feeling that the les- the TCC’s training were not in line with the attain- son’s objectives were met is 0.86, a strong corre- ment of our lessons’ training objectives. Specifi cally, lation in such sparse data. The TCC knows what many students treat our training as country brief- works and what does not in the realm of culture ings, not as culture lessons. The distinction is im- training: smaller classes, longer POIs, and positive portant. Briefi ngs are merely informational, and put attitudes toward learning. The data analyzed within the burden of conveying information on the briefer. this paper demonstrate that. However, what usually Lessons, on the other hand, require students to happens is that the TCC designs training in accor- demonstrate, through the satisfactory completion dance with TRADOC standards, then we deliver it in of an assessment, that they have achieved the les- some compromised form. son training objectives. Training puts the burden The TCC determines the number of hours of train- of learning on the student. These very different at- ing required to master a topic, but we deliver the titudes affect students’ expectations in the class- number of hours of training that a requesting unit room, and likely affect their satisfaction with the can squeeze into an already stressful training pro- training that the TCC delivers, as refl ected in the gram. To address the problems of time pressure on evaluation scores they give their training. training programs, the Army has explored the alter- With the implementation of the revised survey native methods of delivering culture training. Among form, text analysis was conducted on students’ writ- them are Smart Cards (two-sided folding cards that ten comments. Two lists of words were identifi ed, summarize in 1500 to 1800 words the culture of one that refl ected the preconception of the lectures a nation or region), Smart Books (100 to 200 page as briefi ngs, the other that refl ected the preconcep- fl ip books–PowerPoint presentations on paper) and tion of the lectures as training. Those word lists Readers (200 to 300 page academic studies of se- included: lected countries). The TCC has no data on the effec-  Briefi ng: Brief, briefi ng, briefer, info, informa- tiveness of these products. tion, informative. The Army has also developed interactive media  Training: Lesson, learn, instruct, instruction, instruction (IMI), or computer gaming simulations instructor. that allows Soldiers to learn while playing culture In the analysis of word use patterns vs. evalu- games on their own time. The assumption behind ation scores, it was noted that the ratio of occur- this individual training is that the young genera- rence of “briefi ng” and related words to “lesson” and tion is accustomed to playing computer games, so a

48 Military Intelligence well-designed computer simulation will convey nec- imparted in a brief training session. Wisdom gained essary knowledge and skills to young soldiers via a in this way would likely be idiosyncratic, individual- medium that already appeals to them. In a discus- ized and highly subjective. sion of one of these products, a representative of Endnotes TRADOC Intelligence Support Activity (TRISA) said 1. David Hackett Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in that his IMI product, the Virtual Cultural Awareness America (Oxford University Press, USA, 1989). 13 Trainer, was being tested for reliability. That is, 2. William Quinn, “The Other End of the Abu Ghraib Camera,” The the product was being tested to see if consistent in- New York Times, 25 July 2009. Accessed at http://www.nytimes. put choices by the user would yield consistent out- com/2009/07/25/opinion/25quinn.html. puts from the simulation. 3. Mike Nizza, “Deadly Protest Over Koran Shooting,” The New York Times blog, 22 May 2008. Accessed at http://thelede.blogs.nytimes. This is standard practice in the objective, quanti- com/2008/05/22/deadly-protest-over-koran-shooting/. fi ed world of software engineering. However, it runs 4. Howard Kurtz, “Newsweek Retracts Guantanamo Story,” The completely contrary to the problem of Sheikh A today Washington Post, 17 May 2005. Although Newsweek magazine and Sheikh A tomorrow posed at the outset of this retracted its story about a Koran being fl ushed down a toilet at the detention facility at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, the damage to the paper. Real people are not reliable automatons, they United States caused by that story had already been done. are not consistent in behavior. One of the greatest 5. TRADOC Pamphlet 525-8-2, The United States Army Learning complaints about our increasing reliance on com- Concept for 2015, Version 1, Section 1-3 Current Learning Model puter communications technologies is that, as they (Baseline), 14 September 2010. allow us to communicate more rapidly and more 6. TRADOC Regulation 350-70, Guide for Developing Collective broadly than ever before. Paradoxically they break Training Products, Chapter V-2, Critical Collective Task Analysis. the simple bonds that have bound people since time 7. Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy, 1 December 2009. immemorial: physical closeness and even contact; POC at HQDA G37/TRI (703) 614-9839 DCSG3InstitutionalTngDiv@ conus.army.mil and HQ TRADOC G2 (757) 788-4654 steven. the art of polite conversation and civility; logical in- [email protected]. stead of heated argumentation; careful composition 8. TRADOC Regulation 350-70, Appendix H, H-2-1, Instructional of prose; eloquence. These details matter very much Strategies. to many of the cultures that the TCC teaches about, 9. “Editorial: How Reliable is Teaching Evaluation? The Relationship but we fail to provide an object lesson on their im- of Class Size to Teaching Evaluation Scores.” IEEE Transactions on portance every time we talk about them–or let our Reliability,56: 2 (June 2007), 178-181. computer avatars talk about them–without demon- 10. Ivor Pritchard, National Institute on Student Achievement, strating them. If we use computers to train Soldiers Curriculum and Assessment Reducing Class Size, What Do We to deal with people, we will succeed in nothing other Know? March 1999. Accessed at http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/ ReducingClass/Class_size.html. than to train them to deal with computers. This is a 11. Kelly Bedard and Peter Kuhn, “Where Class Size Really Matters: failure to perceive one of the pitfalls of our own cul- Class Size and Student Ratings of Instructor Effectiveness” (Santa ture. It is also an attempt to follow a cultural trend Barbara: Department of Economics, University of California, when we should be taking the cultural lead. August 2005). Available at http://www.econ.ucsb.edu/~pjkuhn/ Research%20Papers/Ucsb.pdf. Many of the cultures that the TCC studies and 12. “Pareto Charts: Distribution and Causal Analysis Tools.” teaches are not technologically advanced. Socially, Available at www.hanford.gov/rl/uploadfi les/VPP_Pareto.pdf. many are very conservative and traditional. Short 13. Briefi ng given at the TRADOC Culture Center, Ft. Huachuca, 4 of the constructivist ideal of cultural immersion February 2009. training–an approach that is being used by several 14. See https://www.us.army.mil/suite/page/575354 accessed 4 Army activities, among them the ROTC’s Cultural November 2010. Understanding and Language Profi ciency Internship program,14 it seems the best means of conveying the David Tannenbaum has held positions as an acoustic cultural SME’s deep understanding of the culture researcher for the U.S. Navy, an educator, freelance writer, and is to spend some time with him, in a small group, photographer. He lived in Africa for 13 years and has written two books about the continent. As a writer and photographer slowly gleaning insights and assimilating them. he has some two dozen magazine credits. As an educator he That kind of wisdom cannot be rushed, nor can it has taught every level from middle school to medical school. be mass-produced. It is more a slow process of ed- He holds both bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Physics. ucation than it is a body of knowledge that may be David has been with the TCC since 2005.

January - March 2011 49 by Bruce Wood and Charles Morrison, PhD

Introduction decades, though not in formats corresponding to Fourteen hundred years ago, a Chinese military Army training methods. The focus here is informa- thinker advised that, in effect, if a commander tion specifi cally designed for use by general purpose knows both the enemy and oneself, his forces will troops. Some organizations’ specialty missions of not be imperiled in a hundred battles; if he knows course received training in culture and language as a only himself, the probability of losing is fi fty per- matter of doctrine, but not until recently did cultural cent.1 In this short article it is impossible to fully awareness become part of the professional military develop the evolution of cross-cultural competency training and education of general purpose troops. as a basic training goal for the contemporary sol- World War II (1941-1946) dier. However, we will trace the outlines of “know- Unlike subsequent wars in the 20th and 21st cen- ing” the enemy from the U.S. entry into World War turies, WW II is distinguished by total war on a II to the present by highlighting attempts by the global scale. Furthermore, the enemy constituted War Department and later Department of Defense belligerent nation states (Germany, Hungary, Italy, to provide training materials to U.S. forces in war- Japan, Romania, Bulgaria) aspiring to empire and time. We will see that attempts have been made to global hegemony. Worldwide operations of the War a greater or lesser degree, but that integration of and Navy Departments necessitated a sudden need culture awareness and cross-culture competency as for massive amounts of information on the affected part of individual training has only recently become populations, and for dissemination of information systematic. to Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines in appropriate Until recently, the development of training ma- forms. terials for general purpose troops during wartime Never before had the U.S. marshaled its intellec- reached its peak during the period 1941-1946. tual resources under central control so completely. There was another period of high production from “World War II was the largest and most violent 1988-1998, and the current one from 2006 to the armed confl ict in the history of mankind,”2 and to present. provide information on the history, culture, geog- Generalized open source but static information raphy, and economies of practically every corner has been abundantly available from the Library of the world academic specialists and civilian ex- of Congress, State Department, and the Central perts were mobilized. The result, among other re- Intelligence Agency, among other offi cial sources for sources, were the Pocket Guide, Short Guide, and

50 Military Intelligence Introduction series produced by the Special Services combat operations moved the emphasis to militar- Division, perhaps better known for its motion pic- ily defeating the Communists. Of this war it was ture work. said that “underdevelopment carries its own kind of invulnerability,”3 as escalating tactical force was brought to bear, fi rst against the communist insur- gents, then against the People’s Republic of North Viet Nam regular. By the Tet Offensive in 1968, the focus of opera- tions was increasingly on conventional regimental and division-size units involved in direct combat. Culture training was ad hoc when available at all, and most cross-cultural interaction was confi ned (after 1967) to military and civilian components of the Civil Operations and Revolutionary Development Support mission (‘hearts and minds’). Iraq and Afghanistan and Post Cold War (1990-present) With the end of the Cold War, information on na- tion states, and the rise of U.S. military hegemony as the pre-eminent world power, the Department of the Army (2004-06 by J-5) funded the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress to produce the Army Area Handbook Program, later known as Country Profi les, and currently in online form as Country Studies.4 A total of 101 titles were produced. Two notable geographic weaknesses of the Country Studies are the Korea (1950-1955) absence of most U.S. allies The Korean War (or the United Nations’ “Police and many of the West Africa Action”) was by defi nition limited to the Korean states. Culture is not the Peninsula. The military objective was to defeat a sin- primary focus of Country gle belligerent state, Studies, the data are static. the People’s Republic Granular cultural infor- of Korea. Although Civil mation was–and remains– Affairs had a role, cul- mostly in the domains of tural competency was subject matter experts and unnecessary in light of special operations forces. the initial objective–the Operation Desert Storm primarily utilized Cold Yalu River. However, in War era training for conventional maneuver war- 1950 the Pocket Guide fare which was derived from NATO planning using to Korea was issued doctrine assuming the adversary to be the Soviet (the year before the Union. The Soviet Union’s previous military support Guide for Alaska). to the Republic of Iraq and the limited objectives of Viet Nam (1961-1975) the Coalition made cultural considerations super- Because the confl ict was originally characterized fl uous. At the tactical level, culture training was ir- as a guerilla war against a national government, the relevant to the objective of destroying Iraqi ability notion of interaction with native culture was inher- to resist. However, as it developed, 1990 was the ent from the initial phases. The shift from an ad- prelude to the “The Long Small War” in which the visory and training role for American soldiers to U.S. is presently engaged.5 After 21 March 2003

January - March 2011 51 Operation Iraqi Freedom (now “New Dawn”) made it of current military thinking replaced the “fi nd ‘em, obvious that the ensuing insurgency and irregular fi x ‘em, kill ‘em” tradition that characterizes Western warfare, with U.S. forces cast in the culturally po- warfare.6 tent role of “foreign occupiers” of territory both Iraqi and Islamic, required more cultural competence than training doctrine had provided. Operation Enduring Freedom in the Islamic Endnotes

Republic of Afghanistan began with Special 1. Sun Tzu, The Art of War: The Defi nitive Interpretation of Sun Tzu’s Operations Forces, differing from Iraq by the ab- Classic Book of Strategy, Translated by Stephen F. Kaufman, Ed. sence of a prior functional nation state. Eventually, (North Clarendon:Tuttle Publishing, 1996). the training shortcomings of U.S. general purpose 2. Mobilization: The U.S. Army in World War II, the 50th Anniversary troops collided with inherent Afghan xenophobia accessed at http://www.history.army.mil/documents/mobpam.htm. and traditional confl ation of Islam with Pashtun 3. Bernard Fall in Current History (December 1964). culture values. The U.S. and its NATO allies moved toward providing culture training throughout their 4. At http//www.lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs. forces. 5. Robert M. Cassidy, “The Long Small War: Indigenous Forces for Counterinsurgency,” Parameters, Summer 2006, 47-62. Conclusion 6. Executive Lecture Forum, Mississippi State University, “Fighting By 2005, responding to the increasing need for the Long War-Military Strategy for the War on Terrorism,” 12 January general cultural competence training at all levels in 2006. Accessed at http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/jcs/ Iraq and Afghanistan the Army and Marines began jcslongwar_12jan06_j5.pdf. the development of culture training programs of in- struction. Training materials were produced by the Army’s Training and Doctrine Command’s Culture Center and the Marine Corps’ Center for Advanced Bruce Wood has served the TRADOC Culture Center as an Operational Culture Learning. They eventually be- instructor and developer of culture training materials for over came part of professional education from recruit 7 years and was the Director and Deputy Director for many of to captain with an eye as to how culture, in fact, those years. He was the original lead of the fi rst team formed to develop culture education and training materials for the U. S. shapes the battlespace. Several professional insti- Army. He served in the U.S. Army for over 28 years, including tutions have also developed their own programs for 18 months enlisted service, 3 years as a warrant offi cer and fi eld and general offi cers. 24 years as a commissioned offi cer. His experience includes both tactical (armored cavalry squadron, mechanized infantry division) and strategic assignments (Chief of War Plans, U.S. Army). Assignments included Central America, Europe, and Southeast Asia. He holds an MA in Curriculum Development and Instructional Design.

Charles Morrison, PhD, served the TRADOC Culture Center as an instructor and developer of training materials for six years. He was instrumental in developing the original culture training curriculum for Professional Military Education in 2006 and expanding and improving that product over the next four years. Three years of service in the U.S. Army gave him fi rsthand insight into the needs and interests of Soldiers, combined with 27 years as an archeologist for the Department of the Interior (Bureau of Land Management and Indian Affairs) which gave him an extensive understanding The notion of the “Long War,” a period of engag- of the requirements for developing working relationships with ing theological and ideological non-state actors in many cultures. He holds degrees in Anthropology and Public asymmetrical armed confl ict, has in most quarters Administration.

52 Military Intelligence by El-Rayah A. Osman, PhD, CFL Advisor, Soldier Support Institute, Fort Jackson, South Carolina

I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. James I am excited to be a part of and at the service Schnell, Lead Social Scientist, ACFLMO, for sug- of the U.S. Army for a number of reasons. First, gesting the topic for this paper and for his support it is an honor to work with Soldiers to infuse cul- and encouragement; however, he is not responsible ture into their professional education and training. for any shortcomings. Special thanks to Drs. Mahir Second, this opportunity will allow me to use my Ibrahimov and Tseggai Isaac for answering many of teaching skills to teach a different audience than my questions and for their support. I am use to as a college professor. Third, through Introduction this unique opportunity I will gain new skills that I The main goal of this article is to discuss the chal- can use in my classes in the college environment. lenges I face as a Culture and Foreign Language Finally, the position focuses on two areas–culture (CFL) Advisor, as well as to trace my transition from and language–that have been of special interest to teaching sociology and economics for more than me since I was a student in college. In spite of my fourteen years at the university level to my new po- excitement, however, the transition from an aca- sition as a CFL Advisor to the U.S. Army at Fort demic environment to a military setting was not 1 Jackson, South Carolina. Additionally, I will offer without trepidation. The Soldiers and offi cers have a brief discussion of what I have learned about the done an exceptional job at making me feel at home evolution and the current views of integrating cul- and becoming part of the team and I am learning tural education and training in the U.S. Army. I will from them every day. also offer some suggestions on how cultural educa- In reality, any new position offers opportunities tion and training can be most effectively integrated and poses challenges. One of my weaknesses is that into Army operations. I have neither military education or training, nor

January - March 2011 53 had I previously worked in a military environment. time. As a CFL Advisor, one of the challenges I have However, I came to this assignment with an open faced when instructing a typical culture class is mind and I was promised (that promise was real- learning to cover a large amount of material in a rel- ized) some initial in-house training through a Staff atively short time period. and Faculty Training course focusing on course Civilian or Military Culture? development and instruction in a military setting. Another distinction I made during my transi- Additionally and luckily, I was not the fi rst CFL tion was that between civilian and military culture. Advisor working for the U.S. Army. So far, I have Civilian culture is broader and more general and been able to draw and learn from the rich experience less structured than military culture. Military cul- of six cultural advisors with excellent and diverse ture is a sub-culture of the dominant civilian cul- backgrounds and training. The Solider Support ture. Both cultures have beliefs, values, norms, Institute (SSI) Leadership, Commanding General, and behaviors. However, military culture has its Deputy Commander, and Chief of Staff have made unique set of beliefs (Soldier’s Creed), values (the my job easier and provided every type of assistance Army Values), and norms and behaviors. The Army possible. I am grateful for that. is more task-oriented and values effi ciency more Teacher or Cultural Advisor? than the average civilian. In my short time with the U.S. Army as a CFL These differences led to the development of differ- Advisor, I have realized that there are major dif- ent defi nitions of “culture” among members of civil- ferences between teaching in college and teach- ian and military culture. “Based on 160 defi nitions ing a military audience. First, the college audience compiled by Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn is relatively homogenous in that the students are in 1952, the word “culture” is used mostly in three younger and have less experience than those in senses: fi rst, the excellence of taste in the fi ne arts a military classroom. Students in a college class- and humanities; second, an integrated pattern of room have more or less the same education level human knowledge and behavior that relies on the and practical experiences in life. When teaching a capacity for social learning and symbolic thought college class, in most cases I assume that the stu- and third, the set of shared attitudes, goals, prac- dents have little or no background in the topics tices, and values that characterizes an institution, of discussion. For example, in an Introduction to group, or organization.”3 Sociology course, the topics discussed will be more In military culture, the third defi nition or explana- or less the same each semester with only slight tion of culture is considered more useful and prac- updates. tical because Soldiers need to understand why a In contrast, the Army Professional Military group of people acts, reacts, behaves, or perceives Education (PME) is continuously revised with things in a certain way.4 In contrast, a civilian may changes in doctrine and current military operations. believe that the fi rst defi nition of culture is just as Military students are diverse in their education and important and practical as the third defi nition of life experiences, experience in the workforce, as culture because civilians are more diverse in their well as from exposure to other cultures. The teach- cultural consumption. The goals of military person- ing style implemented for the military audience is nel tend to be more infl uential in nature than those more engaging and encompasses a more interactive of the typical civilian. For example, a Soldier work- learning environment. Often, I will need to integrate ing on an operation in a foreign country would be culture-related lessons learned from previous oper- more concerned with learning about interactions ations in order to enrich the class discussions.2 In and effective communication with the local people addition, college-level classes usually last about four than their appreciation of the fi ne arts because he/ months. Military classes are generally shorter, with she is focused on introducing a novel idea, concept, just a few days and sometimes only a few hours of or premise to the local people. In contrast, a civilian class time devoted to culture. This means that the may prioritize the fi ne arts and humanities of a for- culture classes have to be both effective and effi - eign land over the basic values and beliefs of the lo- cient in educating the military students about cul- cal people because his/her goal is to simply expand tural concepts, given the limited amount of class his/her knowledge of that culture or country.

54 Military Intelligence Historical Integration of Culture in the to make cultural education and language training U.S. Military a priority.6 Students of history and military scholars have ar- Also prominent in this debate was the military gued that there are real challenges and many diffi - voice advocated by retired Major General Robert culties associated with decision making just based Scales who made a strong case in 2004 for a better solely on culture, race, or ethnic group. This was understanding of the enemy’s culture and mind set evident on many occasions when the Army showed and stated this may have aided in the nation build- little understanding of the targeted group’s cul- ing phase.7 Anthropologist Montgomery McFate and ture. For example, in the late 1800s the military de- others have also made the case for the military util- cided to use African American Soldiers to fi ght the ity of understanding adversary’s culture.8 In short, Spanish American War because they were thought the case was made that victory in current and fu- to be immune to Caribbean diseases. In another ex- ture confl icts rests on understanding enemy’s ac- ample, in War World I the Army leadership selected tions, behavior and motivation. Operational success white Southern offi cers to lead an infantry division requires more cultural and language education and of mostly black Soldiers because the military as- training in the military. The question then becomes, sumed that they (white Southerners) had more con- How do you integrate culture and language within tact with, and thus were more familiar with, their the military mindset? Two alternatives are dis- subordinates. In both examples, military judgments cussed below. were not sound, resulting in failure because the de-  Global Scouts or Socio-cultural Experts or cision makers paid little attention to the culture of Both (Which Bullet to Use?) There are many the target population. options for infusing culture and language train- However, there are also historical culturally-based ing in the military, taking into account the re- decisions made by the Army. For example, the Army sources and the many commitments of the Army used the Navajo “code talkers” during World War II at the time. One approach, proposed by MG to ensure secure communication. In this case the Scales in his ‘culture-centric warfare” concept Army used culture and language to its advantage. as part of the intelligence reform of the military, Also in the Vietnam Confl ict the Army interacted was to create a cadre of global scouts who are with local civilian leaders which helped in gaining well educated, fl uent in foreign languages, and the hearts and minds of the Vietnamese. However, comfortable living in strange and remote places. despite the effort to engage local culture in the over- He also called for funding them suffi ciently and all U.S. military strategy, the North Vietnamese protecting their career advances. Many military achieved strategic success by using intelligence and experts believe that MG Scales’ proposal is an tactics of deception.5 appropriate solution; however, they argue that The Current Surge for Culture: Victory this transformation is too costly for the military not by Fire and Maneuver but by given the engagements in Iraq and Afghanistan Winning Hearts and Minds and other commitments around the globe. This proposal would also require more time to In the 1990s and earlier decades, the U.S. mili- develop.9 tary focused more on technological advancement to outpace other countries. When the wars in Iraq Employing professional anthropologists to and Afghanistan reached the counterinsurgency aid in integrating culture and language in mil- stages, this led to a realization that an understand- itary training is another approach. According to ing of the people, their culture and their motiva- McFate, the U.S. military, as well as economic, tion was central for military success. In late 2003 diplomatic, information, and economic elements Congress held a hearing to examine the lessons have not explicitly taken into consideration the learned from Operation Iraqi Freedom. A fi nding at adversary culture. She recommends that an- the time was that cultural and language training thropologists would help address this short- for Soldiers was inadequate. In order to meet the coming for two reasons. First, anthropology is current and future needs of confl icts, and fi ll this a social science that focuses on understanding gap, Congress directed the Department of Defense non-Western tribal societies and that the pri-

January - March 2011 55 mary aim of anthropology is to understand be- AO and it is the people-centric approach that is havior in societies from their own perspective.10 needed to win the hearts and minds.16 Although In contrast to Scales’ “global scouts,” anthro- initial assessment showed that HTT led to a sig- pologists are already highly trained in their fi eld nifi cant reduction in force to force operations, and some are willing to use their knowledge and some military analysts claim that it is too early expertise for interests of the Army. However, the to assess the success of the program.17 An oppo- employment of anthropologists in the military nent of HTS raised a number of concerns in his presents challenges. Some anthropologists are recent assessment of HTS. First, he argued that not interested in national security. More impor- the program is inconsistent with the current tantly, most anthropologists feel that they are military doctrine and does not acknowledge the morally obligated to protect the privacy of the improvements in military cultural capabilities. subjects they study. Employment with the mil- Second, he claimed that the military adapted to itary would violate this ethical standard, thus the environment after initial setbacks between increasing anthropologists’ skepticism and sus- 2001 and 2003 in Iraq and Afghanistan. He picion of the military operations.11 also stated that deploying academics with com-  Human Terrain System. An important ap- bat units may undermine the civil-military link proach for achieving more effective decisions in that the military is hoping to build with social the area of operations using accurate social, eco- scientists. Finally, he argued that the program nomic, and cultural data is the Human Terrain put a heavy burden on the military budget. For System (HTS). This option is a hybrid approach all these reasons HTS should be discontinued that combines both civilian and military exper- and refocused upon a more sustainable culture 18 tise to help provide better, more accurate infor- program. mation to commanders on the ground and also Culture and Foreign Language Centers assist in the planning and implementation of The U.S. military has created four centers for cul- 12 stability and reconstruction operations. The ture and language training, each using differing concept for HTS was developed by McFate and methods for integration of cultural concepts and Jackson and received a strong support among ideals. The centers emphasize the importance of returning combat veterans who were unhappy cultural competence and learning about cultures with both the quantity and quality of their cul- of interest more than language profi ciency because 13 tural training. the understanding of culture is a broader and more HTS was based on seven components: human applicable skill than the acquisition of a language, terrain teams (HTTs), reach back research cells, which takes more time to master and also decays subject matter expert networks, tool kit, tech- over time.19 For example, the U.S. Army’s Training niques, human terrain information, and spe- and Doctrine Command’s Culture Center (TCC) be- cialized training.14 The backbone of the HTS is lieves that cultural competence is a skill set that the fi ve-member HTT that is embedded in each is easily gained and transferred from one region to forward-deployed brigade. The HTT will provide another, while learning a language is less transfer- the brigade commander in the area of opera- able and more time consuming. For this reason, the tions (AO) with ethnographic and socio-cultural TCC has prioritized cultural competence in the cul- data showing unique cultural features, focused tural training of Soldiers over regional competence, study on any issue needed by the commander, which encompasses language profi ciency. The TCC and links to offi cial data and academic experts has created a number of short cultural training ses- in the U.S. to fi nd out answers to questions from sions for deploying troops in addition to a set cur- the commander and staff. More importantly, the riculum that is devised for integration into current team and the data are transferable to the incom- PME. 15 ing unit. The Marine Corps’ Center for Advanced Proponents argue that the introduction of HTS Operational Culture Learning (CAOCL) defi nes cul- and its human teams is critical in culturally em- ture as “those aspects…that infl uence the outcome powering deploying brigades once they enter the of a military operation; conversely, the military

56 Military Intelligence actions that infl uence the culture of an area of of a language will be greatly appreciated by the lo- operations.”20 CAOCL thus limits the defi nition of cal people within the AO, resulting in widespread culture to operational culture and pays little atten- acceptance of the military’s infl uence and success tion to language training. In fact, two infl uential of the mission in that particular area. Efforts to books published recently by scholars at the Marines speak the language will allow Soldiers to gain the Corps University Press did not mention language respect and trust and divert attention from the dif- as a critical component of cultural training.21 The ferences between the locals and Soldiers encourag- CAOCL has developed pre-deployment culture train- ing a focus on the similarities. ing programs similar to those of the TCC. Both the In order to build on the capabilities of the mili- CAOCL and the TCC were established to fulfi ll the tary’s culture centers, CFL Advisors were hired to culture-awareness needs of deploying forces in ad- provide relevant subject matter expertise for Army dition to infusing culture education into the exist- personnel and organize and coordinate all culture ing PME. and foreign language activities, as well as provide The Air Force Cultural and Language Center (CLC) culture and foreign language assessments at their operationalizes culture in terms of family, kinship, specifi c center/school. They also work to make the religion, gender, history, politics, language, and eco- military aware of the importance of culture aware- nomics. It also prioritizes the importance of culture ness in the success of military missions. training over language and regional competence be- So far, the Army has fi lled six out of fi fteen CFL cause it is quickly learned. However, it classifi es Advisor positions. These individuals are making both training routes for culture and language as progress towards the mission of increasing cultural separate but “complementary.”22 awareness among members of the military. Over The Navy’s Center for Language, Regional time, this group of advisors will make their imprint Expertise and Culture (CLREC) has developed in the area of culture on the Army. cross-cultural competency training in ad- dition to some culture-specifi c training. Its Operational Cultural Awareness Training (OCAT) covers topics regarding a nation/ country to include ethnic groups, history, people, languages, religious infl uences, so- ciety and norms, behavior and etiquette, and geography.23 In sum, all branches of the military have a shared philosophy: “Big ‘C’ (culture), lit- tle ‘l’ (language).” This means that lan- guage plays a minor role in the training of Soldiers. In my opinion, language is an im- portant medium through which one learns about aspects of a particular culture. In fact, the best way to learn about a culture is by communicating with those who embrace that culture, thus making language profi - ciency very important in the understanding of culture and the acquisition of important cultural concepts. Language should be of equal importance as cultural competence in the culture training of U.S. Soldiers be- cause the language learning process itself leads to effective intercultural communica- tion. In addition, Soldiers’ basic knowledge

January - March 2011 57 Conclusion 11. Holiday, 16-18. The transition from an academic position to that 12. Ibid, 18-20. of a CFL Advisor to the U.S. Army has so far been 13. Montgomery McFate and Andrea Jackson “An Organizational an exciting and enriching experience for me. I have Solution for DOD’s Cultural Knowledge Needs,” Military Review, received incredible support from the SSI as well as July-August 2005, 18-21. See also Major Ben Connable, “All our Eggs in a Broken Basket: How the Human Terrain System is the ACFL Offi ce. The advice and support of the CFL Undermining Sustainable Military Cultural Competence,” Military Advisors I have met has contributed greatly to my Review, March-April 2009, 57-64. adjustment to the new position. During this short 14. Jacob Kipp, et al., “The Human Terrain System: A CORDS for period, I have learned about Army culture and the the 21st Century,” Military Review, September-October 2006, 8-15. multiple missions the Army has embarked upon. 15. Ibid, 9.

The focus on cultural and language training and 16. Ibid, 15. education is of equal, if not more, importance to 17. Holiday, 19. technological advancement in fi ghting insurgency as well as executing humanitarian and peacekeep- 18. Connable, 57-59. ing missions of the Army. I intend to use my skills 19. Jeff Watson, “Language and Culture Training: Separate Paths?” and expertise to enhance the cultural training and Military Review, March-April 2010, 93-97. education of Army Soldiers in order to contribute to 20. Barak Salmoni and Paula Holmes-Eber, Operational Culture for the success of these missions. the Warfi ghter: Principles and Applications (Quantico: Marines Corps University Press, 2008), 15.

21. Ibid. Paula Holmes-Eber, et al.,(2009) Applications in Operational Culture: Perspectives from the Field (Quantico: Marines Corps University Press, 2009), 15.

Endnotes 22. See Watson.

1. I am not the fi rst academic to be anxious when joining a military 23. Christopher Wise, “Navy’s Center for Language, Regional setting. See, for example, Pauline Kusiak, “Sociocultural Expertise Expertise and Culture,” Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, PB and the Military: Beyond the Controversy,” Military Review, 34-10-1, January-March 2010, 18. November-December 2008, 72.

2. The Army established Centers for Lessons Learned in addition to publishing articles by both Army personnel and social scientists in journals such as Military Review, the Marine Corps Gazette, and the Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, creating forums for commanders, Army leaders, and civilians.

3. Gerardus Wykoff, “CSM Forum,” Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, PB 34-10-1, January-March 2010, 3-4.

4. Ibid, 3.

5. This section draws heavily on Patrick Porter, “Good Anthropology, Bad History: The Cultural Turn in Studying War,” Parameters, Summer 2007, 45-58 and Hershel Holiday, “Improving Cultural Awareness in the U.S. Military,” U.S. Army War College, Carlisle El-Rayah A. Osman completed his PhD in Sociology at Brown Barracks, 2008. University in 1995. He was appointed assistant professor 6. Holiday, 10. of Sociology at South Carolina State University in 1996 and 7. Major General Robert Scales, “Culture Centric Warfare,” became full professor in 2007. He has taught Sociology courses Proceedings, U.S. Naval Institute, 2004. Accessed at http://www. at South Carolina State University for 14 years and was military.com/NewContent/0,13190,NI_1004_Culture-P1,00.html. the coordinator of the Sociology program in the Department of Social Sciences. He is a demographer specializing in the 8. Montgomery McFate, “The Military Utility of Understanding socioeconomic issues of the Sudan. He earned an MA in Adversary Culture,” Joint Force Quarterly 38 (2005), 42-48 and McFate, “Anthropology and Counterinsurgency: The Strange Story Sociology in 1991 from Brown University; an MS in Economics of their Curious Relationship,” Military Review, March-April 2005, from the International Islamic University, Pakistan in 1988; 24-38. and a BS (Honors) in Economics and Rural Development in 1984 from the University of Gezira, Sudan. Currently, he is the 9. Holiday, 13. SSI Cultural and Foreign Language Advisor at the U.S. Army 10. McFate, Anthropology and Counterinsurgency. Soldier Support Institute at Fort Jackson, South Carolina.

58 Military Intelligence by Chaplain (Lieutenant Colonel, USAF, Ret.) Mike Maleski

While serving in Vietnam, I often heard comments  Vietnamese people are not unlike Americans. like, “When will these people learn to speak English!” Initially I did not agree with his statement un- “Why don’t they trust us?” “Why are there so many til he explained it in more detail. The chaplain Buddhist temples?” “Don’t these people know we are said that the Vietnamese people valued many of here to help them?” As I refl ect back on what I heard the same things that Americans do. They have a and saw in Vietnam I realize how unprepared I was high regard for their family members and want to interact with Vietnamese culture. My experiences to provide for them. They have a much higher were like those of thousands of men and women regard for their elderly than many Americans who have served in the U.S. military. We were pre- do. They want their children to get a good edu- pared to engage the enemy on the battlefi eld but cation and live in relative safety. woefully unprepared to engage their culture.  The Vietnamese people celebrate special events I now think back on how badly we treated the peo- in their lives just as Americans do. They rejoice ple of Vietnam at times. We often talked harshly at wedding ceremonies, and at the birth of their about them and spoke of them as being inferior to children, and mourn when a loved one dies. He “us” Americans. Indeed, anytime that we got a rocket went on to say that the actual ceremonies may attack we became even more suspicious of “those” be different from what we are use to, but they people. Once, when a booby-trap was discovered, hold the same signifi cance as our own cultural we accused everyone, and made life even more diffi - ceremonies. During the holidays they get to- cult for them. We often felt like we were not appreci- gether with family and friends and enjoy a meal ated for helping to make their country free. together. They tell stories about relatives who One of the fi rst things I did to help me better un- are deceased and honor them during this time. derstand Vietnamese culture was to seek out my  The people of Vietnam will act and behave in a chaplain. I knew that the chaplain was sensitive to manner that is totally acceptable and normal the needs of the men and women in his unit. He was within their society. Our Chaplain, Chaplain always there for us and seemed to have answers to Peterson, told me that if something looked our questions. The chaplain was able to provide cul- strange to me it might actually be perfectly ac- tural information that allowed me to better under- ceptable behavior or a norm of their society. (I stand the Vietnamese people. He taught me about must confess that I was taken aback the fi rst the many different religious groups in the country time a young Vietnamese man wanted to hold and explained the following things to me. my hand when talking with me. I later found out

January - March 2011 59 that this was normal between males and was a and in the Delaware Air National Guard. Then I was sign of friendship.) I also learned that the people recalled to active duty on September 11, 2001 and in the villages acted differently than those in the remained on duty until my retirement in 2009. larger cities like Saigon. People in the villages During the fi rst Gulf War I was assigned to a had a greater respect for animals, the land, and Military Police company and had to give religious their families. However, they were cautious of and cultural briefi ngs to the soldiers before they de- any person from outside of their village because ployed to Iraqi. In the years following the Gulf War they did not want reprisals from the Viet Cong I have had numerous opportunities to give religious at night. Another lesson I learned from the chap- and cultural briefi ngs to both soldiers and airmen. I lain was not to misjudge the age of Vietnamese have been able to utilize all the latest cultural brief- teenagers. While Americans might call a teenage ings, lessons learned, and testimonies from those boy someone who is 14, 15, or 16 years old, in who have returned from the area of responsibility Vietnamese society they are considered men. (AOR). When I refl ect back on all resources I had  In just about every town or city you would see available to me, I have come to some interesting Buddhist temples. The majority of the Vietnamese conclusions: people practiced their Buddhist faith on a fairly  Chaplain Peterson was forty plus years ahead of regular basis. The chaplain again pointed out to his time in dealing with culture. Little did I real- me that I should respect their religious faith as ize at the time that he had understood the values, well as any other faith they believed in. He asked behavior, beliefs, and norms of the Vietnamese. me how I would feel if foreigners came to my home town, and were disrespectful of my per-  Soldiers need to pay close attention to non-verbal sonal religious beliefs. In a nutshell he told me communication because it reveals a lot about to practice the “Golden Rule” when interacting how a conversation is going. with another person’s personnel faith. This ad-  Soldiers need to understand that culture aware- vice proved to be very good and I tried to treat all ness is not culture compliance! people with dignity and respect.  Soldiers need to separate the “bad guys” from the general population who only want stability One of the greatest experiences I had in Vietnam for themselves and their family. was helping the local Catholic orphanage. I had the  Soldiers need to treat people with dignity and re- privilege of helping by providing food, clothing, and spect whenever possible. school supplies that were sent to me by my church  Soldiers need to be culturally aware of the pre- back in the States. During the holidays we were dominant religion, customs, and ceremonies in able to have cookouts and play games with the chil- their AOR. dren. Christmas was a very special time because we played Santa Claus to the children and gave them  Soldiers need to fi nd out what locals value. some very nice things that they needed. The experi-  Soldiers are guests in a foreign country. ences I had at the orphanage gave me a very positive  Soldiers need to remember that relationships cultural understanding of how people needed to be help build rapport with the locals. treated regardless of what country I was in.  Soldiers should try to learn a few words or phrases of the local language. During my time in Vietnam I felt a call to minis- try and was greatly infl uenced by my unit’s chap- As I look back on my military career as a chaplain lain. He had such a loving and caring spirit about I have come to one conclusion concerning cultural him and genuinely cared for his people. After I re- awareness training. If cultural awareness train- turned home I got married and began college. After ing helps to save one soldier’s life, then it has been earning my BA in Education, I enrolled in Seminary worth it. I have had the experience of going with my and completed my Master’s degree, which meant I command to inform a young wife, parents, or next of could apply to the military and become a chaplain. kin that their loved one was killed. I often wondered However, it would take several years before I be- if there was something more we as chaplains could came an Army Chaplain. I served as a chaplain in have done in the area of cultural awareness to pre- the Arizona and Pennsylvania Army National Guard vent a death.

60 Military Intelligence by Lucas Lynch

Introduction to an understanding of myself, my own culture, and The U.S., because of its geography, is largely isolated cross-cultural insight. from contact with other cultures which have vastly different values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms than Cultural Journey: Brazil our own. Americans, if they do not want to, could An hour after dawn we were reaching our desti- spend their whole lifetime without being forced from nation. It had been a long overnight bus ride and I their secure social “bubble.” Many who do travel go was ready to be rid of that confi ning seat and stuffy to places already signifi cantly “Americanized” like air from the rain. We had just descended from the Cancun or Cozumel and do not ever get out of their highland areas down to the plains near the Atlantic cultural comfort zone. In order to receive a genu- coast. I had already been in Brazil for a month and ine understanding of ourselves we need to step out- had had my share of cross-cultural experiences, side this bubble–we might become disoriented, but many funny ones, but the next hour on the bus nothing worthwhile is ever easy. would change me for a lifetime. We can learn about other cultures through books As we were nearing Rio de Janeiro I got my fi rst and the classroom, but in order to really understand glimpse of the extensive favelas (slums) that sur- ourselves, to get a glimpse of who we are, we have to round this international vacation destination. Most leave our cultural comfort zone without the option have heard of the famous Copacabana beach, seen of return. In this article I will highlight my own ex- pictures of the giant Cristo (Christ) statue that over- periences in Brazil and how they have contributed looks gorgeous Rio, or viewed the week long Carnaval

January - March 2011 61 festival on TV. These are the images that you will these people and places fi rst hand. Any Soldier who see in the travel brochures. What you won’t see in has been deployed, any civilian who has had a sim- the brochures are the favelas that populate Rio’s ilar experience, knows what I am talking about. The hillsides and periphery. Perhaps, if you watch the nausea I felt when I gazed upon those slums was news or read the international section of any news- actually my fi rst real experience of empathy, a feel- paper, you might have seen the recent raids by the ing which we cannot teach nor truly understand Brazilian military and police in these slums to eraderad- through words. icateicate tthehe ggangsangs tthathat hhaveave bbecomeecome tthehe ddee ffactoacto power AAlthoughlthough BrazilBrazil is ververyy momodernized,dernized, EnEnglishglish is not brokersbrokers in tthesehese areas. TThesehese are aalsolso imaimagesges not as prevaprevalentlent as one wouwouldld expect fforor a nation on tthehe inin the brochures.brochures. vvergeerge ooff bbecomingecoming a worworldld superpower. Because of NothingNNothing wouwouldld cchangehange me more thanthan tthathat ththis,is, itt wouwouldld not bbee easeasyy fforor someone to navinavigategate next hhourour on thethe bbus.us. It was llikeike watcwatchinghing tthehe ththee countrycountry alonealone witwithouthout kknowingnowing at lleasteast tthehe NationalNaational GeoGeographicgraphic cchannelhannel picturinpicturingg cchil-hil- bbasicasic llevelevel BraziBrazilianlian PortuPortuguese.guese. drendren swimmingswimming in a river

Very few peo- blackblack ffromrom cocon-n- ple outside tour- taminatedtaminated runorunoff,ff, ist destinations oror oonene of those nnon-on- speak English, but profi t aadvertisementsdvertisements yyouou seseeee this was a factor that made my onon latelate ninightght TV ooff a vivillagellage in AAfricafrica fi rst experience in Brazil even more strewnstrewn withwith ggarbagearbage anandd a mamalnour-lnour- valuable. For example, on an ex- ishedished child,child, bbutut tthishis I was seeiseeingng tremely slow, hot, and bumpy all-day forfor mymyselfself fi rst-rst-hand.hand. ThisThis was real,real, bus ride nothing would satisfy me. I andand as we cruisedcruised by row upon roroww sat in my seat antsy and counted the of ststructuresructures wwhichhich looked llikeike bobombsmbs seconds until I would be off. I heard hadhad struckstruck them,them, I bbeganegan to pphysicallyhysically some people in the back of the bus feelfeel sicsick.k. TThehe occasionaoccasionall ggarbagearbage fi lllleded laughing and talking. During a bus waterwater chchannelannel wwouldould cut betbetweenween the stop I decided to talk to them and rowsrows ooff hohousesuses andand litteredlittered didirtrt sstreets.treets. they invited me to the back of the TheseThese imagesimages I hhave,ave, fi ve yyearsears llater,ater, are bus to play cards. The last half of stillstill as crisp as on tthathat dday.ay. the trip fl ew by, and with the help of some Brazilian beer and good ItIt wasnwasn’t’t onlyonly tthehe poor llivingiving conconditionsditions company I avoided an uncomfort- thatthat I was witnessing,witnessing, it was tthehe expanse able experience. This is just one of of thethem.m. TThehe ffactact ththatat iitt took aatt leleastast an the cases in which having language hourhour goinggoing freewayfreeway speespeedsds to pass tthemhem skills improved my experience by was whatwhat impacteimpactedd me tthehe most. abroad. Although my head hurt at NeedlessNeedless to sasay,y, aafterfter tthathat hhourour I bbeganegan the end of every day for the fi rst toto appreciate whatwhat llifeife I was ggiveniven by mmyy two weeks in Brazil from trying to circumstancescircumstances of bbirth.irth. speak and learn another language, InIn cocollegellege I hhadad stustudieddiede tthehe sociasociall sci- it was well worth it for the expe- ences, andand theythey providedprovided me withwith tthehe rience abroad would have been backgroundbackground to looklook at pepeopleople in an ununbi-bi- very dull if I had decided asedased manner andand fromfrom theirtheir perspecperspec-- not to, and I would have tive.tive. BButut the clclassroomassroom anandd books never made the life-long are not enoughenough whenwhen we attempt relationships I have toto llearnearn aaboutbout fforeignoreign ppeopleeople anandd now with my Brazilian cultures.cuc ltures. OnOnee mumustst eexperiencexppere iencce family and friends.

62 Military Intelligence Language is not only important to build relation- Brazil I went to the gas station to get a pack of cig- ships, but if you do not know the language, you arettes. When I got to the counter to ask for them, I may misinterpret emotions while observing other butchered the Portuguese language and I had to re- cultures. For example, when I fi rst observed my vert to pointing and trying to pronounce the color girlfriend and her mother converse I had the feel- of the cigarette package while the cashier patiently ing they did not have a good relationship for I be- worked with me to get what I wanted. The line be- lieved, from their actions, that they were arguing hind me was getting so long that I started feeling and fi ghting constantly because of the high level of sheepish for taking so much time, but fi nally she emotion in their communication. What I was seeing grabbed the right brand. The whole time I was ex- was the famous Latin American passion which is pecting that she would become impatient and help visible in many contexts, but before this I had only the next customer but she made sure I got what I heard about it and it took an experience to under- wanted. When I turned around there were no agi- stand what it really meant. It wasn’t until I learned tated faces. This was a breath of fresh air for I had some basic Portuguese did I fi nd that I had been been used to the urgency of everything in the U.S. misinterpreting passion and emotion for anger or which is often expressed by impatience–especially discontent. when it comes to an individual who has language The hospitality I experienced in Brazil also had an barriers. impact on me. I’m from the “Land of Lakes,” but the So, anyone who really wants to be “cross-cultur- “Minnesota nice” which you might have heard about ally competent,” have real empathy and truly expe- does not hold a candle to the hospitality I experi- rience another culture, needs to just go, learn the enced in Brazil. For example, I was invited to a party language, and talk and interact with the people. of a friend of my girlfriend. I knew no one there, but Additionally, those who want to try to get an under- by the end of the short night I had made friends standing of another culture have to undergo “cul- with everyone, some twenty-odd people, some- ture shock,” and be uncomfortable in their own skin thing that had never happened to me in the States. in another culture. Only when this happens do we Additionally, the fi rst time I met my girlfriend’s fa- get a true understanding of who we really are and ther, he took me for a tour of his house and offered our own culture, which is the fi rst step to becoming to lend me some clothes. I accepted a couple of his cross-culturally competent. shirts but when he offered me his speedo bathing suit I declined politely as he kept insisting, and all Mr. Lynch currently serves as a Cultural Awareness Instructor the while my girlfriend laughed hysterically. After and Developer at the TRADOC Culture Center on the CENTCOM saying “No, thank you” a number of times I accepted Team. He is currently pursuing his MA in Latin American Studies at the University of Arizona, Tucson with a focus in because it dawned on me he was demonstrating his Brazil Studies. Mr. Lynch has intermediate language skills in approval of me through the gift-giving, and I did not both Brazilian Portuguese and Spanish. He received his BA want to offend him and damage the relationship. At in Anthropology from the University of Minnesota–Twin Cities his house I was also provided breakfast, lunch, din- Campus. Mr. Lynch has traveled extensively throughout ner and snacks in between. Brazil studying language and culture there. These are just a couple of the many examples of hospitality I received there, and the fact that these people have a lot less than people in the States do, they were genuinely eager to share what they had. This is what has been labeled “relationship-oriented” in culture training but you will not really know what this means until you experience it for yourself. It is also common that when people from the U.S. visit other countries they often expect things to run as they do back home. If you do, you will always be disappointed while traveling. This is not always negative though. For example, days after arriving in

January - March 2011 63 by Miguel A. Rodriguez

Introduction My experience in cross-cultural awareness and tion in the Army as on the Navajo and Hopi reser- communication spans four different but overlapping vations, but in the latter two cases, methods were culture zones. Not only was I raised in California shaped in response to the cultures of the students. in a bicultural home (Hispanic-American), I have My cultural competence and effectiveness to reach had over 20 years of personal experience with peo- and teach my students depended on the features of ples in three other distinct cultural environments. the particular cultures encountered, and my ability I was a drill sergeant for three years in the US to learn from and accommodate these cultural dif- Army, as well as a Junior Reserve Offi cers’ Training ferences in my work and in my thinking. Corps (JROTC) instructor in Arizona on two differ- My understanding of the importance of culture ent Native American Indian reservations. Common was later sharpened at the TRADOC Culture Center to all these environments was my mission to teach when I became acquainted with the formal under- and to reach my students. The same basic teaching pinnings of the study of culture, and this led me to methodology was applied to the course of instruc- see how military mission effectiveness is favorably

64 Military Intelligence impacted by incorporating awareness of the contact Your team was where your loyalties lay no matter culture into planning. what. Buddies shared experiences and stuck with each other. My general cultural awareness grew as a result of meeting guys from different back- grounds. I was surprised to meet young men who could speak Spanish as well as they could speak English, and I tried to recover the language I had lost. Navajo and Hopi Cultures Soon after leaving the Army I became a JROTC instructor in Arizona on two different reservations. My own competence in teaching effectively in a cul- turally different environment began at Pinon, on the Navajo reservation in the northeastern part of Home Culture the state. It was like living in a third world for the students–cars and buses sometimes couldn’t even I was born in central California. My parents, get to their homes–so they had to walk. No elec- U.S. citizens, made many sacrifi ces in order to im- tricity, nor running water. Some areas had wells, prove the lives of our small family. One big sacrifi ce so families would drive their pick-up trucks with was that I lived with my maternal grandmother in water containers and pump the water. We teach- Mexico when I was little. It was not until I was fi ve ers, however, lived pretty well in triple-wide trail- years old that my parents felt economically secure ers, funded and supplied by the school district. enough to send for me. I was happy in Mexico with my extended family, but happy to be with my par- ents, too. When I started school in the U.S., I be- gan to learn English and soon forgot my Spanish. In fact, I remember consciously deciding to speak only English. Although I had no brothers or sisters, I had numerous relatives in California, and we got together frequently on the weekends which were to- tally devoted to family. However, my parents saw more opportunity in southern California, so leaving the family behind, we moved when I was in seventh grade. Even though we lived apart, we would get to- gether at reunions. Army Culture I enlisted in the Army after graduating from high school. This pleased my parents on two counts. My dad, the youngest of fi ve brothers, had dropped out of school after eighth grade to take care of the fam- ily farm, but his older brothers had all enlisted to serve in World War II, now his only son had fi n- ished high school and sought opportunities in the military. The Army became my new family, but Army cul- ture was team culture, and instead of extending laterally to relatives, it was organized in a hierar- chy of ranks. Still and all, we were family, and if “Home” is the reservation. From Flagstaff trav- anything happened we would “take care of it here.” eling east, you see a sign “Entering the Navajo

January - March 2011 65 Reservation” beyond which there is just desert. Hopis thought they wanted something from them, to Flagstaff real estate companies want to purchase take away their secret culture. Navajos worked bet- the land back from the Navajos because of the sce- ter with anthropologists as they may have fi gured nic views; the land is pristine, unused, unspoiled. they had something to gain from them in turn.) Even though I was stationed in Arizona three or four I had my own stereotypes to overcome when I fi rst times, I never realized that the largest reservation went there. For example, I assumed that my Navajo in the U.S. was in northeast Arizona. I never knew students would prefer Native American music, but of their history, like the Long Walk, which changed when I asked one young man, ear buds in place, their culture tremendously. I never knew about the what he was listening to, he turned his Walkman government decision to give them that piece of land, over to me, and I discovered that his choice of mu- isolated and desolate compared to Flagstaff. sic was Metallica, a heavy metal group popular then The Hopi live on land completely surrounded by among the general population. I realized then that I the Navajo Nation. They are Pueblo Indians, not had been stereotyping their culture. plains Indians, as compared to the Navajo, a more Although these youngsters connected seamlessly warrior oriented tribe. The Hopis and Navajos have with the general population in their choice of mu- a working agreement; the Navajos occupied the sur- sic, their attitudes toward other things was very dif- rounding areas to protect the sacred ritual spaces ferent. I found, through talking with them and their of the Hopi lands. parents, that they had what I would call old-school On the “Res,” the Navajos were at fi rst very stand- ideas about family. In general, many of their ideas offi sh, while the Non-Natives on the Res were very were about twenty years behind the times in terms receptive. Teachers came and went and turnover of our own ways of thinking, especially on social is- was quite high. But as we stayed on the Res and sues like child abuse and alcohol abuse. They were came to know the Navajo, they eventually became similar to the way we were in the 70s and 80s about much friendlier. They started overlooking the pull of these issues. their own culture when they begin to identify some- Drug use was different than in the rest of the U.S. thing better to work toward. Peyote specifi cally was used in a ritual ceremony. It The Hopi were opposite to the Navajo. There, was for them a medicine to be used ceremonially to teachers were not regarded as an imposition. We help them with problems or issues. I had one man were integrated more into the society, but society come to me and tell me he didn’t want to reenlist in was very traditional. The Hopis were very receptive, the Army. We had a peyote ceremony. They drank, but the non-native people on the Hopi Res were very ate, and chewed on peyote all night long to discuss standoffi sh. The Hopi had a low turnover of teach- the decision. By morning time they came out with ers. Self-awareness was high. Non-native kids on a decision. This was one part of the ceremony, that the Hopi Res were not as friendly as the Hopi kids. because of my Army culture, I could not attend. Hopis put the teachers on a higher level of impor- As we started teaching, our program became very tance and were treated with a lot more respect. The popular. We had all ranges of kids: academic, ath- turn-over rate was not has high. For instance while letic, regular students and students with special the Navajo would lose 50 percent of their non-native needs. Everyone was looking at our instructors as a teachers every year, the Hopi would lose only 1 or 2 way to become more disciplined. We also unexpect- teachers per year. edly fulfi lled a parental role. A lot of kids were miss- On the Navajo Nation, one had to be very patient ing a parent at home. Families were disrupted and with the students and their culture, but once they got there were a lot of single families. Mixed mothers or to know you they would accept you into their family, fathers–sometimes the father was in jail, or some- as a guest of their tribe. On the Hopi Reservation, times the father was the parent because the mother it was very easy to be accepted. Teachers were ac- would be dead. It seemed like their life-spans were cepted by the Hopis as members of the community not as long as ours, medicine and medical facilities with something meaningful to contribute to their were not as advanced as ours. Because of that they people. (By way of contrast, anthropologists tra- looked toward the JROTC program as a way of men- ditionally did not work well with the Hopis, as the toring and role modeling for their children.

66 Military Intelligence There, I discovered a new way of family organiza- norms. The Navajo were also not aware of the restric- tion. Of course, it was more like my own family than tions that current pedagogical practices imposed on like the Army, but there were signifi cant differences. teachers. These parents counted on teachers to dis- For one thing, the families are extended, but orga- cipline their children, even physically, and parents nized into matrilineal clans for general support and were not sympathetic with my not being able even to identity. A man moves to his wife’s home, and it is touch students as a sign of affection, let alone cor- she who owns livestock and land. A newborn be- rect them by physical punishment. longs to the mother’s clan, but identifi es with the I mentioned that my parents were pretty strict. I father’s clan. was raised to respect their authority as well as my Growing up, I had chores, like cleaning and do- teachers. If I did something wrong at school, I got ing yard work, and I would get in trouble with my in trouble at home, too. Army organization is cre- parents if I didn’t do them on time or the right way. ated along a hierarchy of authority and discipline But my responsibilities were nothing compared to is clearly defi ned, and strict. But on the Navajo Navajo kids. Every morning before school they had Reservation at a parent-teacher conference, if a to feed the livestock and clean up, and then walk teacher told a parent that their child was not doing to the bus stop, which was often a matter of miles so well, the parent expected the teacher to correct away. the situation by doling out the discipline. They be- At fi rst we JROTC teachers did not understand why lieved that the teacher was an extension of the par- our students seemed so slow in class. We thought ent, and told the teacher to discipline the child. they were lazy. But when you fi nd out about their In Navajo land, mom and dad were disciplinarians, culture, it is easy to see that it would be wrong to say but on the Hopi Reservation, twenty miles away, it Navajo kids are lazy. But it was because they were was totally different. The aunt and uncle disciplined tired after doing so much work at home. A lot of kids the children, not the parent. It took me four months were falling asleep in class, especially on Mondays. to fi nd out that we had to call the aunt and uncle to We later found out that they had to participate in discipline the child. You would tell the Hopi student ceremonies on the weekends, beginning Friday af- that you were going to call his or her parents, and ternoon, lasting until Sunday night. Come Monday they would just say ‘okay’ and continue what they morning, they were exhausted. We found this was a had been doing wrong in the fi rst place, but when cultural thing we had to accept and work with in or- you told them you were going to talk to their aunt or der to be effective teachers. It was culture fi rst, fam- uncle, then they would listen. ily second, everything else, third. They were trying Culturally, the Hopi people are arranged into to meet so many demands, and there was just not matrilineal clans, too, but it plays out differently enough time. than with the Navajo. For one thing, children be- Speaking of time, I later learned that even ideas long to the mother’s clan, but the women in the about time are cultural. My parents were pretty father’s clan name the baby. Some people have ad- strict about my getting things done on time, but we mired the fact that discipline comes from the aunts could relax when we were with family. Of course in and uncles because that keeps the focus on the the Army a soldier’s time is regimented and there family but lets the children see their parents as are many suspenses and deadlines. Navajo sense very loving and not to be feared. So, as teachers, of time was called “Indian Time.” Although the an- once we knew the cultural norm, we could adjust imals were attended to according to their need, for our JROTC program and policies to accommodate people it was always Indian time on the reservation, these norms. even in school. For example, if a parade was sup- The fi rst year of the JROTC program, we presented posed to start at nine in the morning, it might really student evaluation plans, and syllabi for the kids– start at 0930 or 0942, or whenever everybody had grading, goals, etc. Kids at fi rst really didn’t under- assembled and was ready, after they had taken care stand it. We had to reword it for them–This is how of other family business. we are going to teach you, show them the book; a few Once we knew the cultural norm, we could adjust days later, this is how we are going to counsel you, a our program and policies to accommodate these few days later, this is how we are going to grade you.

January - March 2011 67 The following year, we introduced our classes in the rid of the bad spirits that may have attached to Navajo language. Introductions in Navajo really ac- you. They have one site where the funeral rituals celerated the learning–even just an opening intro- are conducted, and another site where they burn duction in their language. Trying to communicate in the cedar and people walk up and get smoked on someone’s language shows them that you care. You the arms, under the armpits, the groin, the legs, may not understand it well enough, but they will re- and the bottom of the feet. ciprocate and make the effort. Once I began using Hopis however, have a cultural dilemma about Navajo language, the kids, even the harder kids, be- serving in the military, more than the Navajos. They gan opening up. were in confl ict with both being Hopi and being in One of the things that helped us in their disciplinary the military. Before they join the military, they go issues in the classroom was their culture. Everyone through a traditional cleansing ceremony to wipe in the class was a family member. Everyone in the away their Hopi cultural identity, and then, after class will help out with management of the class as serving 4, 10, or 20 years, they go back through an- with family members. Sometimes family problems other cleansing ceremony to wipe away the military overfl owed into the classroom. If kids began rebel- cultural identity and restore their traditional Hopi ling in class, then their peers would step in to medi- Identity. There are some Hopis who suffer mental ate and assist us. illness because in their minds they can’t separate Education has an important place in all four of their Hopi identity from the things they had to do in the cultures I have experienced. My parents made the military. sure I did my homework and always encouraged me I went through a cleansing ceremony at a sweat to fi nish high school. The Army pushes education, lodge with the Navajo. It had four parts, about ten too, and that is how I wound up with a degree in to fi fteen minutes per part. The fi rst part was to get broadcasting and journalism over and above all the to know the other members in the lodge. The second training required just being a Soldier. part was to bring out why we were all in the sweat The Navajo are very adaptive and receptive to out- lodge. The third part was praying and the fourth side infl uences. They try to be competitive and are round, the warrior round, was for singing and open to new ideas. For example, they put money chanting. The person running the sweat lodge faces from their casino profi ts into scholarship funds, east at the head of the lodge, with a bucket of water guaranteeing tuition payments for any Navajo stu- and a sage branch. The steam would rise up above dent who qualifi es to go to college. While they look the rocks and go to the ceiling, then go down your beyond the reservation and understand the impor- back and up the other side. It would completely sur- tance of getting an education, I noticed that many round you with heat. The sweat lodge was steamed Navajos prefer to return to the reservation. with nine lava rocks, representing a woman’s nine Even though Native Americans are a minority months of pregnancy. Three stones were put at ev- in Arizona and they form their own Nation, they ery round. The sweat lodges were hot, not comfort- proudly serve the U.S. military. In fact, more Native able, but it was the most refreshing thing to actually Americans from the reservations serve per cap- sweat and then come out and lay down on the sand, ita in the military than any other populations in looking at the crystal blue sky. The reason for this the U.S. That tradition of service goes back to the process was for healing. It was a place to let out Navajo and the Hopi Code Talkers. They have a tra- your issues and discuss them among the people. At dition of service in the Army and the Marine Corps this ceremony, we went in to try to discuss a bet- that most people don’t know about. When the ter way of running things for the kids, the man who fi rst female Navajo war casualty, Laurie Piestewa ran the lodge was a drug coordinator for the school died, ceremonies for her were conducted on the district. Reservation. They brought the body back and had When we taught JROTC, we had many different the ceremony at her graduating school, with both programs. Our curriculum was very well developed. military personnel and medicine men in atten- We started off with history–American history, then dance. As a cultural aside, any time you attend a military history, leadership classes, physical fi tness funeral, you have to get smoked with cedar to get classes, navigation classes, and then brain based

68 Military Intelligence programs When General Colin Powell spoke of the only natives might normally attend. Since they be- importance of JROTC in isolated communities in lieved a teacher is part of their culture, they invited helping kids, JROTC became a big hit on the Res. us into their kiva. The Elders frowned on this be- The Navajo leadership and families realized it was a cause the Kiva is considered sacred, but teachers way for their kids to become better citizens. In fact, would still be allowed inside. in Northern Arizona, there are signifi cant JROTC The fi rst time I attended such a ceremony, I programs in major reservation high schools, while thought the celebration would last a couple of outside the Res the schools are looking at getting hours. In fact, the ceremony started at sunset and their own programs because of the success of these didn’t fi nish until sunrise. This was something new programs on the Res. to me. One of the surprising things was that many As training proceeded, we attempted to incorpo- of the people participating in the ceremony were rate Navajo standards of education and their lan- our students. They all wore costumes with masks guage into our program to make it better. When so that we couldn’t tell, but the following week they we taught land navigation, the elders wanted us to would tell us they saw us. Then we went one step teach the kids how to track like they did in the old further and were invited to participate in their cere- days (tracking, night navigation, footprints on the monies. We became part of a team who volunteered ground, etc.) The Elders realized some of the old to dance in one of the school ceremonies. We had skills had been lost, and we were teaching the kids the largest dance group of them all. We did a simple some of the old ways and in turn we were learning dance in a big circle and as we were dancing, people about their culture. would bring out containers of food and place them The program was so successful that we had to cre- in front of us. It turned out the food was not for you, ate after school programs. Kids were often absent but for your partner, because you dance so well. I in school, but not in JROTC. They appreciated and didn’t understand this at fi rst–the offering was for sought the discipline that JROTC offered. We of- the partner. There were many small things that at fered them opportunities to become better, to excel fi rst we were not aware of but once becoming aware in color guard, physical fi tness, drill teams, march- we had to make sure we understood it and adapted ing teams, and brain-based programs. Our instruc- to them. tors were seen as role models, and our teaching had One of the saddest things was the passing of a application beyond the classroom. life. We had incidents in each school where we lost In all, there were 150-180 students in the a cadet. We learned they had four days of mourn- JROTC per year, 30 to 35 per class, and after ing: one day to pray, one day to cry, one day to school, about 10-30 in each program. We had remember, and one day to rejoice, sing, and then six programs in all: a Color Guard team, Physical they had to forget about it, otherwise the spirit Fitness, Marksmanship, Parade Team, two march- wouldn’t go where it was supposed to go. The stu- ing teams (male and female), as well as two drill dents followed these rituals in school–pictures of teams–six altogether. It was a level two school, the deceased were put up in the class the second under 500 kids. At least a third of the whole stu- day, and on the third day pictures went away. After dent body was in JROTC at any time–a very pop- the fourth day, everything about the person had to ular program. We even had gang members in our go so that the spirit could fi nd its way. As a non- program. The kids on the teams wanted to become native, I thought it was a very neat way of dealing better and a majority of our teams were success- with death. Learning these death rituals helped me ful in their competitions. One of the teams came to better prepare myself for death. to me to say thanks for being there, because they Having the ability to mentor a child and be a good won a trophy and in their entire life they never role model, to look for and offer suggestions, rec- won anything. ommendations, and advice before mistakes were As we became more accepted into the culture, we made. That was what was most important to me. It had the opportunity to go to their traditional cel- was a fulfi lling job because not only did you teach ebrations and ceremonies such as PowWows and American culture and military culture, I, in turn, Hopi Kiva ceremonies. A Kiva is a sacred area that learned about two special cultures.

January - March 2011 69 Cultural Awareness and the Challenges Ahead by Raphique Antar

When I fi rst came to the United States to attend col- “Oh my God, I am going to be attacked.” All of those lege 27 years ago, I had no idea about the behav- images from those movies that showed black people ior or the norms of the “Americans,” because no one selling drugs and attacking men and women in the ever taught me about American culture. The only streets of New York City fl ashed through my mind. cultural awareness I received was through the black I was about to run for the door when he gave me and white Western movies that Morocco purchased a nod moving his eyebrows in an upward motion. from the French Government that were dubbed in I didn’t know what to do. I could not understand French or had French subtitles, as well as televi- what he was trying to convey to me, so I looked up sion programs from the seventies such as Kojak, thinking that he was giving me a head’s up or warn- Columbo, Dallas, Dynasty (the series), Rich Man, ing me about something above me. He looked sur- Poor Man, or Shaft. prised, as if to say what an idiot I was!! And I was I came to the United States in the early eighties, acting like one. He repeated his gesture and waited and one of my fi rst American cultural experiences for my reaction, then fi nally gave up and left. happened to me in a large department store. I de- When I got home, I told my wife what happened cided to visit an indoor mall and walk the aisles of and asked her to explain. She laughed, and informed the department stores. As I entered the fi rst store, me that the man was trying to be kind and was say- an African American man kept looking at me. I ing hello. That’s when I realized that that was the thought maybe it was my afro that got his atten- way some people said “hi” or “what’s up” in the U.S. tion, or maybe my height (I’m six feet seven inches My wife told me that the proper response would have tall,) or the fact that I was drinking a Coke. been to emulate his gesture. But that’s not the way Then it hit me, and I started to panic. Yes, all six we say hello back in Morocco. “If he wanted to say feet seven inches of my body panicked. I thought, hello, he should have come closer, and offered to

70 Military Intelligence shake my hand,” I said. My wife, understanding how Remember, this too shall pass. Many of our young Moroccan men greet each other, and how reserved soldiers have no awareness about other cultures. Minnesota men are, then said, “Please, for the love So, when they hit the ground in the area of opera- of God, no matter what you do, do not touch or hug tions, they have a multi-dimensional and challeng- a man when you are saying hello. That’s not usually ing duty. Defeat the enemy and win the hearts and how men greet each other here.” minds of the Afghan people. How do we accomplish Are you laughing yet? Remember, this was my the latter? fi rst week in Minnesota, and there were so many It may be as simple as understanding the cul- new things for me to learn and adjust to, includ- tural differences in a greeting, just like the example ing mosquitoes, wearing a winter coat that weighed I gave when I fi rst came to Minnesota. For American more than I did, and understanding why men in men (like myself), when someone infringes on our Minnesota go fi shing when it is forty degrees below three foot personal space, tries to hold our hand, zero. But seriously, the most diffi cult thing for me to or hug us we tend to become very uncomfortable. get used to was the reserved way that people inter- For Afghan men, that’s the way they connect with acted with each other. you and show that they like you. From previous ex- Eventually, I got over my Minnesota culture shock, periences, we know that the population is the cen- learned the language, and embraced my new cul- ter of gravity when it comes to counterinsurgency tural environment. You may feel the same culture operations. If soldiers use common sense and ap- shock duringg youry fi rst daysy of dutyy in Afghanistan.g ply what they learn during their cultural awareness ttrainingraining ttheyhey rreceive before deployment, then they wiwillll hhaveave enoenoughu cultural understanding to operate eeffectivelyffectively amamongo the population. ArmyArmy valuesvalues are already in place. Those values are uuniversalniversal andand fail-safe. Although Afghanistan’s cul- ttureure is ververyy didiverse and complex, it is not impos- ssibleible to ununderstandder because the average Afghan is no differentdifferent tthanh the average American. They love thetheirir ffamiliesamilies aand work hard for them and want to bbee treatedtreated witwithh respect. WeWe sometimsometimese worry so much about offending, that we foforget to just relax and approach ev- eryer situation with common sense. The cchallenge is not whether we can defeat thet enemy, that’s the easy part. It is tto get the Afghan people to help fi nd ththe bad guy, defeat the common enemy aand establish a legitimate government anand the rule of law. This can be accom- plplished by understanding the culture aandn using everyday common sense.

Mr.Mr. Antar is a native of Casablanca, Morocco. He has been a U.S. resident for 28 years andand graduated from the University of St. Thomas,Tho Minnesota with a degree in Business Management.Ma He is a member of the Middle East/AfricaEa Cultural Awareness Trainer Team atat the TRADOC Culture Center, Fort Huachuca, Arizona.Ar

January - March 2011 71 by Bassam Almesfer

Becoming an American helped me understand more cultural differences early on. I grew up in a soci- about my previous culture. Living in the United ety where folks noted anything that was different. States for several decades shaped the individual Most everyone is of the same ethnicity; all practiced that I am today. the same religion, and had many cultural similar- ities. They ate mostly the same foods, dressed the Learning how to be part of a new environment re- same way, and enjoyed the same type of activities. quired accepting, changing, experiencing, and ap- In the Saudi society, foreigners are not easily ac- plying on my part. The more I became immersed in cepted into the group yet those who are members by American society, the more I understood the pre- birth have a lifetime membership. The nomadic way vious culture that I grew up in. This is important of thinking dominates the society. Low tolerance for for me as part of my process of understanding cul- differences is widely observed. tural diversity and of how being part of a multi- ethnic society shaped my way of thinking and Everyone is highly encouraged to attend the Friday perspective. noon prayer. Not only on Friday but every day, fi ve times a day. The call to prayer invites all. During that Upon migrating from Saudi Arabia to the United time streets are usually deserted and everything slows States, cultural and linguistic challenges were part down. Shops close and businesses take a pause. It is of adjusting to my new surroundings. What that re- indeed a way of life where the society has integrated ally has meant was simply that I realized that I had these pause times within the daily routine. to change. How much change was I willing to un- dergo in order to adapt to the new environment? The Saudi society is a secretive one. More than This was a question that I could not have answered two people are a crowd, and public announcements early on, but is one that I can only refl ect back on are not a preferred method of communicating. The after many years to fi nd the answer. personal approach is much more effective. Formal meetings and offi cial business achieve their objec- All these transformations did not come about tives during breaks where the participants conduct without challenges. My deliberate decisions to let go small sidebar conversations. The Saudi people are of being dependent on some aspects of the previous described as collective rather than individualistic. culture and to take on new ones has helped shape Saudis identify with the life of the nomad, the prac- my transition. While some choose to immerse com- tice of Islam, and family ties. Older folks are well re- pletely in a new culture, many choose to partially spected and cared for. Elders had the fi nal word in adapt to the new environment and maintain much my home when I was growing up. Saudis like most more of their original culture. It is a personal choice Arabs rarely experience living alone even though that varies from person to person, based on circum- they frown upon crowds. Their offspring typically do stances, as well as the conditions to which an indi- not leave home. Men usually will get married and vidual may be subjected. bring their wives to live with his parents. It is typi- Growing up in Saudi Arabia with a Saudi father cal to see the extended family throughout. No elder and a Christian Lebanese mother sensitized me to couples live alone.

72 Military Intelligence Although I realize that this is quite natural, I fi nd closer and closer. This is viewed as a good thing by it quite interesting how folks try to bring with them a some, while others prefer to see their traditions re- piece of their old culture when they migrate to a new main intact, untouched, and unchanged. one. Food is one such item. In many communities However, those who today strive to uphold staunch throughout the United States, a replica of the old traditions are forced to use the very technological country is often created where one may walk down platforms that they are blaming for the erosion of the streets of a Chinatown, a Little Italy, and so on, their society’s norm, from their point of view. While and read street signs in different languages, eat foods on one hand they would prefer to sway the minds of of the different regions, and experience many of the their supporters and sympathizers via personal in- characteristics that are indicative of those cultures. teraction, they recognize their need to disseminate Some immigrant communities strive to maintain their material in the broadest band as possible. and strengthen the infl uence of their culture of ori- They also understand that many of their prospec- gin. In my old culture I fi nd that they are very slowly tive listeners are young and tech-savvy. It is said doing away with the old and bringing in the new. that change is constant and, in time, this opens the Forget standing in line waiting for hot fresh bread to possibility for peaceful integration of technology ad- come out of the oven, folks now prefer the presliced vancement while maintaining favorable traditions. bread stuffed in plastic bags stacked on supermar- Some want to cripple the ability of those who speak ket shelves. McDonalds, Burger King, Kentucky out against any sort of change to their traditions and Fried Chicken, and Taco Bell have replaced the good norms. Unfortunately, many of them have become freshly made foods in the old country bakery. accustomed to such tactics of censorship through- Little Americas are sprouting up everywhere even out their lives, either personally or through friends in the Middle East. Globalization is here in a world and family. What they are not prepared to face is the that is shrinking everyday by means of technology. ability of their high-value audience to embrace un- Today, teenager and young adults can carry a small fettered openness. The lack of censorship in the tech iPod in Riyadh, while eating grocery store bread, world encourages and educates their target audience. and instantly get the latest and greatest entertain- In cyber space, instead of controlling the message as ment, news, and events. a single source, many of these pro-traditionalists are In the past, the Saudi government controlled the only a single voice for all surfers (in and out of the fl ow of information in the country. Today, this task group) to investigate. Therefore it seems apparent to is much more challenging as information pours in me that the entire world will benefi t from more, not through many portals, primarily the Internet. The less, education and less, not more, censorship. And I insatiable appetite that people have for informa- could only have come to this determination through tion sharing has brought the country much closer my upbringing in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and, to the rest of the world and the world closer to the most importantly, later my blessing of becoming an country. Blackberries have become a tool that teen- American. age boys and girls use to communicate together in a society where males and females are strictly pro- hibited from mixing or communicating unless they Mr. Almesfer is an Arabian Peninsula native and a certifi ed U.S. are related. Online chatting and other tools such Army military trainer with the TRADOC Culture Center at Fort as Facebook, have changed the way people interact Huachuca. He is a course developer who has trained Soldiers and have enabled a more fl uid method of commu- throughout CONUS and OCONUS in Arab culture, language, religion, geo-politics, history, communicating with locals in the nication. Some cultural traditions are still strong. target regions as well as on the Arab psyche and behavior. Marriage is mediated and arranged by the fami- He has taught command level audiences in counterinsurgency lies. No marriage takes place without the consent seminars supporting the Battle Command Training Program. He of the family. Folks meeting online for example, still has completed multiple deployments with the U.S. Army and have to engage the consent of their families when it Marines in Iraq, his latest in 2008 to 2009 as a Human Terrain comes to marriage. senior cultural analyst supporting I Corps in the Human Terrain Research and Analysis Cell. Mr. Almesfer has an engineering In my own personal experiences, I have seen many background and is currently pursuing a graduate degree in cultural changes. I see the world as coming together Cultural Anthropology.

January - March 2011 73 byby VernVere n PhilyawPhPhiillyyaw

As a result of the 9/11 shockk to our system sus- when it is merely perfunctory because it is “manda- tained at the beginning of this decade, the United tory.” I have personally sat through block after block States currently fi nds itself at a cultural crossroads. of mandatory training: EEO/Sexual Harassment, We need to give kudos to our successes, as well as Suicide Prevention, Alcohol/Drug Abuse Prevention, seek solutions to our problems. Financial Management, etc. Many instructors taught with the same lack of concern that the lead- The Doctrinal Warfighting Focus ership expressed. It was deemed okay because the The post-cold war intelligence perspective might training objective was met. Unfortunately, when be characterized as “better living through tech- cultural awareness is lumped in with this group, nology.” Through Signals Intelligence and Imagery soldiers automatically revert to a predetermined bi- Intelligence, among other technologies, we had ased attitude. shifted our abilities to long range monitoring de- The argument can be made that similar to EEO/ vices. Human Intelligence (HUMINT) was viewed as Sexual Harassment; cultural awareness is a chal- Cold War and old hat. It was easy to justify budget- lenge because many Soldiers bring their personal ing for a new piece of hardware with its specifi cations biases to these classes. (But if sick people, or at sheet versus the “tea leaves reading mentality,” as least people who have concerns about their health, HUMINT information gathering was considered at are supposed to go to doctors, why shouldn’t people the time. Another argument in favor of technologies with certain biases be given the opportunity to chal- was that few of our then current “spy types” could lenge the very issues they are biased about in the blend in anywhere other than Europe, by reason of fi rst place.) Soldiers merely warm chairs and keep language skills or appearance. their personal views to themselves, to the relief of In an attempt to give credit where credit is due, their classmates and unfortunately some of the in- I acknowledge that after 9/11 the Department of structors. Another factor that inhibits free expres- Defense initiated one of the quickest and most ex- sion is that too often cultural awareness is taught tensive changes in the doctrinal warfi ghting focus in a ‘Death by PowerPoint’ format. for all its Armed Services in the history of the U.S. Cultural awareness should be taught in a small Cultural Awareness blocks of instruction were soon group forum setting. It is not just about present- to follow. ing facts but more importantly, perspectives and, at To say that Cultural Awareness classes, and now times, attitudes need to be addressed. In a perfect instruction in cultural competence, have had an forum, Soldiers should be challenged in a way that uphill battle is a major understatement. Part of the invites them to contribute, as long as they remain problem has been due to command attitude. Leaders professional, either positively or negatively, to the tend to focus on their ‘mission’ as the primary and classroom without fear of retribution. Negative in- singular focus of their units, including the sched- put, as a rule, usually sparks more class discussion uling of training time. Soldiers are not stupid. They than positive input. Instructors should view this notice when leadership is truly behind the issues, or as a teaching opportunity, as usually if one Soldier

74 Military Intelligence has the nerve to challenge a certain point, there are ing and showing the incoming unit what it needs to usually at least three more that feel the same way survive, and spends the second half watching and but do not want “to rock the boat.” evaluating the performance of the incoming unit be- fore it leaves. Another oft-given argument against cultural awareness and competence is that some leaders Over the next year those two units, separated and Soldiers see it as being diametrically opposed only by the river, had very different experiences. to the mission of the military. “We are not the UN Unaffi liated Military Intelligence (MI) units be- or the Red Cross, we are going overseas to destroy gan to notice that on the eastern side signifi cant threats to the security of the U.S. and its Allies. How activities (SIGACTs) (KIAs, CIAs, IEDs/VBIEDs/ does this class help me do that?” Since the end of SVBIEDs, etc.) were continually on the rise. They the Cold War Era, current doctrine has the U.S. mil- also began to notice that SIGACTs on the western itary involved in peacekeeping, country rebuilding, side (even when compared with the preceding unit) police actions and a multitude of other similar oper- were continually on the decline. The MI units also ations around the world that most Soldiers are hon- discovered that the eastern unit could not conduct estly ill-equipped to handle. dismounted patrols in neighborhoods due to the constantly high threat level. Their western counter- That is where cultural awareness comes in: parts, however, could not only conduct dismounted to help provide some of the tools for their tool- patrols, they were actually being warned by the lo- box to successfully perform those missions. And cals when they were in danger of being ambushed! what exactly are those tools? A few from the Core These MI units did deeper research and eventually Curriculum blocks of instruction at the TRADOC found the problem. Culture Center are Introduction to Culture, Cross Cultural Communications, Cross Cultural Back when both units began their RIP process, Negotiations, and Cross Cultural Rapport Building. the western incoming unit trained very studiously There are also region-specifi c blocks. and respected the ‘lessons learned’ taught by the outgoing unit as to how to deal with specifi c nu- A Specific Example ances of each neighborhood under their control, Unlike what some Soldiers believe (and unfortu- good or bad. To the contrary, their eastern coun- nately still some leaders), the purpose of cultural terparts showed complete disdain and totally dis- awareness is not to get you to “kumbaya” with the regarded the RIP process. They came in with the enemy. We realize that there are certain objects perspective of the combat environment in 2004 in- and persons within the operational environment stead of 2008. All were treated on the eastern side that are designated as “kinetic targets,” but cul- as if they were the enemy, and what they got was tural awareness is not attempting to impede this 2004-era casualties. mission in any way. To the contrary, proper cul- A General Example tural awareness understanding has the potential During the practical exercises of various cultural to accentuate the unit’s combat effectiveness. The awareness classes that I have personally taught issue at hand: How does the proper application of during the past three months, I have witnessed re- cultural awareness help me with my mission down peated occurrences in which the experiences of com- range? Nothing brings a lesson home like real world pany level offi cers mirrored two sides of a similar examples. scenario. They were each members of units deploy- Spring, 2008 in Mosul, Iraq, the main U.S. Army ing to Iraq or Afghanistan. They were either part of unit in charge of the city was being replaced. a unit that accepted and employed cultural aware- Identical to the outgoing unit, the incoming unit ness, or they were part of a unit that ignored and had two combat maneuver units taking over secu- disregarded application of cultural awareness prin- rity of the city that is divided by the Tigris River. One ciples. Those who were ‘culturally unaware,’ as com- unit was taking over the eastern side and the other pared to the preceding unit, experienced a marked the western side. Both units had completed the re- increase in hostilities. Those who were ‘culturally lief-in-place (RIP) process. In RIP, the outgoing unit aware,’ as compared to the preceding unit, experi- spends the fi rst half of the transition time teach- enced a marked decrease in hostilities.

January - March 2011 75 Impact of the Media the area, as compared to U.S. forces who the locals Earlier I stated that the U.S. military is currently readily identify as foreigners, and know will eventu- involved in peacekeeping, country rebuilding, police ally leave. Also as I stated earlier, the local populace actions and a multitude of other similar operations is usually already under the threat of death to be- around the world that, honestly, most Soldiers are gin with if they are found to be “aiding and abetting” ill-equipped to handle. They are also ill-equipped U.S. forces in any way. It is asking a lot of a popu- to deal with the international media coverage that lace to risk its life on the hope that a foreign military such assignments inadvertently present. will be willing and able to protect them. Today’s soldiers or units that commit a cultural When Soldiers show up for the fi rst time in their faux pas, unintentionally or otherwise, run the risk village, the locals only see the uniform and what it of receiving fi fteen minutes of fame on an Al Qaeda or represents to them, for better or worse. Just like Taliban propaganda website or becoming a ‘star’ on most Americans when they look at a foreigner, their YouTube. And with the speed of technology this could own personal cultural lens dictates what they “see.” be uploaded to CNN and disseminated in their state- In both cases change only happens when one or both side hometowns before any offending solider has even sides begin to communicate, build rapport, negoti- arrived back at his base camp from the mission. ate, and eventually understand the perspective of the other. If Soldiers are successful in making cultural Some may think I am over dramatizing the me- inroads with the locals, it is possible that the locals dia situation, but the enemy captures the footage will see them as people, as individuals and not as ge- of cultural mistakes made by our forces it undoubt- neric cut outs of the U.S. military war machine. edly will be used in at least a two-fold manner, spe- cifi cally for recruiting purposes to strengthen their Summary numbers, or generally, to attempt to sway the local Throughout our history, our military has been the populace against supporting ‘The Occupiers.’ The catalyst for national level changes of attitudes. I feel local populace is usually already under the threat that once again our military must bear the mantle of death to begin with if they are found to be ‘aiding of great responsibility. Because the military spends and abetting’ U.S. forces in any way. It is diffi cult so much time overseas as compared to the rest of enough to elicit support in local villages without the America, they are the best equipped to grasp and additional hindrance of propaganda footage of ac- understand the advantages of learning and imple- tual acts committed by our forces. One must only menting cultural competence. consider the damage done by Abu Ghraib to the in- terrogation community. Many Americans unfortunately glean their cul- tural perspective from the media. This is counter- Cultural Competence is Logical productive, as many times the media feed their From an intelligence gathering perspective, being various fears and biases. It is hard to criticize other culturally aware is logical. Many of our present day countries and their cultural issues if we do not fi rst enemies have the ability to blend in with the local understand and eventually unravel our own. There populace. Cultural understanding can assist this are many reasons that justify the importance of cul- problem in one of two ways. Either we understand tural awareness and cultural competence in the the cultural nuances of the local area and can iden- modern day operational environment; however, it tify the enemy ourselves, or we are accepted by the is possible that the most important reason may be local populace enough that they identify the enemy the simplest and the oldest: Do unto others as you for us. In these ways proper cultural understand- would have others do unto you. ing has the potential to accentuate the unit’s com- bat effectiveness. On the subject of local population cooperation Vernon Philyaw, an Army retiree, served in both combat arms and military intelligence positions with overseas tours and support, many Americans echo a belief that “we in Korea, Europe, and the Middle East. He has eight years do so much for those people, why don’t they help experience as an MI instructor and deployed to the Middle us fi nd the enemy, it is to their benefi t!” The prob- East as an MI contractor. Mr. Philyaw is currently an instructor lem is that many times the enemy is indigenous to with the TCC.

76 Military Intelligence by Martin Scott Catino, PhD

While there is no formula to use in every KLE, there are certain principles that fi nd ready application in Dr. Martin Scott Catino and Analyst John Jacobs having a light many similar occasions. The following steps worked moment with the Sons of Iraq-Abu Ghraib, October 2009. well for us during that critical meeting. These steps First light breaks the darkness of a Baghdad night will most likely work well for you also. with a sovereign determination that intrudes into Step 1: Prepare. Familiarize yourself with the ma- the crevices of war-blighted lives stirring to meet the jor cultural issues–the history, facts, and events– mortal challenges of a new day. The diverse worlds of occurring in your area of responsibility (AOR). East and West fi nd common ground in Iraq through a culture of progress, which reaches deeply into the A large portion of the Sunni population prior to determined energies of American service personnel 2005 either openly supported Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) as well as ordinary Iraqis seeking to bury the mem- or tolerated its presence. This open and tacit support ories of a cruel despot named Saddam Hussein. for AQI not only created a major security threat to As a cultural specialist, each day last year on my Coalition Forces (CF) but threatened the very emer- tour during Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) brought gence of the GOI, which sought to create legitimacy new challenges to fi nd the light that brightens the and public support by creating security and provid- path through the uncertain ground we call human ing a better life for Iraqis. This hostile or permissive terrain. population also allowed AQI to have sanctuary for further operations into Shia areas and populations Mid-September 2009 was no different. One mis- throughout Iraq, thus gaining operational depth. sion during that time, a Key Leader Engagement (KLE) with the Sons of Iraq (SOI) in Abu Ghraib, In general, the Sunni population felt betrayed, mar- stands out among the others. The urgency of the ginalized, and angry that it no longer dominated Iraqi moment, the costs of losing a valued partner, and politics as it had prior to toppling of Saddam Hussein. the fact that these friends of the Government of Iraq The U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 involved the compli- (GOI) were embittered, all added to that unique mo- ance of Shia political parties and leaders in Iraq (as ment in time. The purpose of this short essay is to well as tolerance from Iran at fi rst), particularly the underscore the steps that we as cultural specialists aid of Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani and the Islamic used to successfully engage our alienated partners. Supreme Council of Iraq. The majority Shia popu-

January - March 2011 77 lation had much to gain and the Sunni population, the SOI openly and tacitly hinted at either switching which dominated Iraqi politics for decades under both their allegiance to AQI or at the very least becoming the British and Saddam Hussein, had much to lose. more tolerant to AQI in their area. Like many Middle The implementation of democracy meant simply this: Easterners, the SOI believed we (USF) could fi x al- the Sunni population would be voted out of power. most anything because we were “American,” citizens This indeed occurred and the Sunnis compounded of the only global superpower—and rich. This unre- the problem by boycotting the early elections. The re- alistic opinion of American power and reach only sult was not only a loss of power at the hands of Shia compounded the problems of the moment. politicians, but also at the hands of Kurdish leaders, Given the severity of the situation in which the who moved into Sunni areas of Iraq and occupied gov- SOI was embroiled, the issue rapidly “went up the ernment seats vacated by boycotting Sunni, such as fl ag pole,” and our team found ourselves in the mid- Mosul. Bottom line up front: Many Sunni were very dle of the problem. We could have allowed these angry at the CF and the GOI. Iraqi leaders, or some of them, to come to our post During this time, AQI overplayed its hand and used at Camp Liberty, Baghdad–which was not an un- its partnership with Sunni tribal leaders to push out common practice–in hope of a quick fi x. the Shia leaders and install and bolster AQI leaders, Nonetheless, the cultural terrain was visible. Sunni including foreign leaders, who held little respect for mistrust and suspicion of Shia leadership and power Iraqi, tribal, or local culture; often criticizing it, disre- was ancient, and was renewed in contemporary specting it, or outright destroying it. Dead bodies be- hostilities that predated the rise of the Maliki gov- gan to show up in the streets of Iraq. The CF found ernment. This mistrust was the very lens through that tribal leaders used their militias to counter AQI which the SOI viewed the Baghdad leadership. presence, and thus the Anbar Awakening began in Loss of wages caused shame and loss of face, both earnest in 2006. USF, CF, and the GOI quickly em- among the community and among family members. braced the movement and placed it under Baghdad’s Balancing power, weighed carefully like a merchant control. Most importantly, the many young Sunni selling produce in an Iraqi souq, was an art that fi ghters/militias received government pay checks for tribal and political leaders had mastered almost in- their service of fi ghting AQI. Many hoped to become stinctively through their “cultural DNA.” full-fl edged members of Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) or This synopsis of events involving the SOI in our Iraqi Police. The GOI made many favorable promises AOR is not just an abridged Situational Report, but at fi rst regarding the SOI–and these promises were rather the fi rst step in engaging them and learn- not forgotten by the SOI. ing the history, facts, and events pertaining to their The GOI later claimed that the SOI were too often problem. Without this preparation we could not ineffective, infi ltrated with AQI, and playing both have seriously answered their questions, appeared sides. Indeed, the GOI did promise to pay the SOI interested in their lives, and engaged effectively their after the U.S. Forces (USF) stopped paying them (a cultural values. In order to enter a KLE or the hu- transfer of sponsors), which occurred in 2008. man terrain of another society, the issues must be In late 2009, the SOI in Abu Ghraib, mostly Sunni, understood. claimed that the GOI was not paying them regu- Step 2: Plan. Be prepared for a response that is larly as promised. They complained of irregular pay, both understandable to the local populace and nonpayment, and lower wages than promised. They within the Commander’s Guidance. also claimed that they were not treated as equals, Our team of cultural experts had an outstanding were insulted openly, and were not trained and in- member who understood the SOI very well. John tegrated with ISF, or given the respect for the great Sargon Jacobs, a Human Terrain Analyst, was an sacrifi ces and shed blood to support the Shia gov- obvious choice to lead the communication of that ernment in Baghdad, led by Nouri al Maliki. KLE. “Johnny,” as he preferred to be called, had the The SOI also claimed that the ISF was not pro- wasta (skills, infl uence, and respect) among the lo- tecting their areas but instead gave protection to cal tribal sheiks to carry the day. And he did. Thus Shia areas. Feeling neglected, disrespected, and in- fi nding the right person to put out front is critical. sulted, as well as vulnerable to insurgent violence, Too often any Arab speaker took the post during

78 Military Intelligence KLEs, regardless of country of origin, dialect of spo- strating respect for our partners by visiting their ken Arabic, Arab rivalry, or understanding of the headquarters. human terrain. Finding the person to put out front Inviting them to our forward operating base (FOB) is critical to the response during a KLE. Johnny was would not have been construed an act of hospitality. the man, and our message came through his per- AQI and other Sunni insurgent groups were targeting sonality as well as his spoken words. the SOI not infrequently, making travel risky. What Establishing fact was next in importance. We message would have been communicated if would planned to avoid the rush to judgment, the feeling have invited these already endangered allies to our that we knew a lot, and the American penchant of FOB? No doubt this thoughtless and innocent act wanting to “fi x things.” Instead, we planned to give would have been construed as an act of inconsider- empathy where empathy was deserved, articulation ation or worse, indifference to their situation, thereby of grievances when it was called for, and clarifi ca- setting a negative atmosphere for engagement. tion where it was needed. If all we could do was get Consider the cultural consequences of the ap- the facts straight, record them accurately, and com- proach, and use it accordingly. municate them to command, then we could count the days as a success. Our preparation held no false Step 4: Isolate the Issue. Isolate the key players promises–and we planned to give none either. and be aware of secondary and third order effects. The issue with the SOI came to a head through the Most importantly, we had prepared to connect following people–and they needed to be identifi ed: the dots, gaining information and passing it along to the right people. All too often during KLEs the  The local tribal Sheikh. He was very infl uential problems, although diverse, had a common factor. and had turned against AQI. He was among the One side was not communicating directly or fully very fi rst Awakening leaders in Iraq and was irate with the other. This slippage was no mere error, over the situation, having not been honored for but a gap exploited by enemy, exacerbated by one’s this leading role in opposition to Sunni extrem- own prejudices, and left to fester over time. During ism, a problem we had seen before. His decision that meeting with the SOI, we carefully followed the to oppose AQI was no small matter. Such a deci- chain of communication involved in the grievance, sion was no doubt made with the consideration documented the fl ow of information, and made sure that the GOI and CF were the dominant powers, later that the right people were notifi ed. more likely to support rather than oppose tribal power, and would in the short and longer term Choosing the right front person, active pursuit sustain the role of tribes rather than crush them of facts, and readiness to fi nd the communication under the name of Allah and Islam, as AQI and chain may not seem like much of a preparation. But its like had attempted. the simplicity and fl exibility of that preparation is often invaluable. Tribal sheikhs like this often had much to lose. With the loss of funds coming from the GOI came Step 3: Approach. Be very considerate of approach, a loss of respect, loyalty, and wasta among his the very means you use to engage the individual, in- tribe and competing tribes. Typically, sheikhs dividuals, and issues at hand. have challengers within and without the tribe The approach, the process of initiating and re- waiting to exploit such losses. We feared that sponding to requests is critical in many cultures, even if he did not turn against the GOI, he would including the Middle East. Who should go to whom? send them a message by allowing the level of in- The consideration is often overlooked, inconsequen- surgent violence to rise as he opened the doors, tial one could say, and of little value. Yet in many perhaps ever so slightly, to the many networks eastern societies the approach demonstrates au- (social, economic, security, and political) run- thority, humility, respect, and courage. Taking the ning through his domain. He could do so with initiative to go to our allies could communicate that impunity, and with a poker face if necessary. we respect them, are willing to brave the dangers  The leader of the SOI Abu Ghraib. He was the of travel across hostile terrain leaving behind the most vocal, being very angry but controlled, and comforts and protection of our base, and demon- pressing the CF to give redress to the issue. He

January - March 2011 79 openly threatened to switch sides. Later he de- Also, successful KLEs involve clearly communi- manded a solution in a very loud voice. He was cating your purpose of the mission. Yes, you have also asking us in rapid fi re questions (made faster been taught correctly to avoid stating your business by the interpreter’s translation) about “Why did in the beginning of negotiations. Small talk, patient the U.S. invaded Iraq and found no weapons of discussions about apparently incidental issues, and mass destruction (WMD)?” “Why does the U.S. preliminary conversation are all very important in tolerate Iran and its WMD programs and not in- Mideast cultures. It is an act of self control as much vade it?” And he added: “Matters were better un- as learning about the persons conducting offi cial der Saddam than now.” business. Your host is indeed testing your character He held one card in his hand, and did not worry and patience. But somewhere in the meeting, com- about showing it to us: “We will switch sides.” No municate your objective clearly. In order to foster one on our side wanted that. But he did not need understanding, particularly if it is not implied and to play that hand. We knew it ahead of time. The understood by the context of your meeting, you need secondary and tertiary order of effects would be to take this step. On that day, we asserted pointedly: simple: a rapid erosion of security in his area. “We are here to try and understand your situation  The Iraqi police chief and his subordinate were and report back to command. We have heard of the also in the mix wanting the issue to be resolved, courage and dedication of the Sons of Iraq but are noting that the security of their area was at not aware of the important circumstances of your stake. He often looked composed and listened case. In order to allow our commanders to make the carefully to the others. He was a representative best decisions, we must establish the facts and the of the GOI, but was also at the mercies of local opinions that you are presenting to us today.” powers. He wanted a resolution to the problem Moreover, do not hesitate to address gross mis- that would support the status quo. A switch in perceptions of your hosts. We as American service allegiance would make his job (and life) far more personnel often hesitate to discuss controversial is- precarious. sues. Avoiding religion and politics are often stan- Identifying the important players in KLEs is not dard practices in American cultural context. Yet, always that simple. Informal relationships, hid- these religious and political issues are often major den networks, and political rivalries obfuscate obstacles to effective communication and need to the truths that are often elusive. Nevertheless, be addressed for clarifi cation. True, there are topics this process is unavoidable for success. and subjects that are “not your lane,” but belong in Step 5: Contact. Clearly communicate your posi- the realm of higher command and the echelons of tion, objective, and authority (if appropriate), un- the Department of State. But where applicable, ad- derstanding that non-verbal actions are just as dress the erroneous views that obstruct your mis- important as verbal. sion. In our case, we addressed the false notion that the U.S. had unlimited resources and held complete Amid the hum of up-armored vehicles, anxieties control of the GOI. We noted that our limited re- clenched under necessary commitments and hidden sources, information–in addition to the sovereignty perspiration, and a host of requests for intelligence/ of the GOI–all affected our mission and the ability information, one can easily forget the importance for resolution. Our Iraqi hosts took note of our com- of communicating clearly your relationship to U.S. ments. Perhaps they did not understand or believe command and leadership. Your rank may not do it us, but clarity of communication necessitates blunt clearly, and explanation may be necessary for your statements about realities. foreign hosts. The security risks may limit your abil- ity to communicate. But when possible, clearly de- Step 6: Listen. Listen rather than act. Act only if clare your relationship to the command so that the you have to. importance of the engagement will be known to your Attentive listening is often considered to be a highly audience. In other words, let your audience know respectful action on the part of any foreigner in a that you have the commander’s ear (if that is the host country. Again, avoid the rush to speak, to act, case), and that you will forward the information to and to fi x things. Listen carefully and note the word- people who will listen, and can act if so decided. ing, context, and expressions used during the KLE.

80 Military Intelligence However, do not remain aloof. To merely record sure to offer no additional changes, agreements, and events, main points, and accuracy of context too of- arrangements; rather, use the time to strengthen ten leads to miscommunication. A lack of energy, the agreements or outcomes of the meeting. In our emotion, and vocal volume communicate, in Mideast case, the post-meeting discussions were very light, context, a lack of concern. Often your Iraqi hosts as friendship followed an agreement to look further have studied your culture and communicative be- into the issue and not make rash decisions. havior, and may not be overly concerned about ap- Step 8: Review. Review the event, seek advice, and parent apathy. But vivid expression resonates with disseminate information as ordered. your hosts, and allows them to more readily and easily digest your message. The after action review (AAR) is not just an ex- ercise in military formality. During a formal review At the beginning of our meeting with the SOI and of KLEs many contextual and subtle messages are their partners, the SOI leader noted that we should gained. Look at the notes, the pictures, and the key not be offended at his raised voice and body lan- topics discussed. You may fi nd further that you not guage, for this was typical in Iraqi culture and not only missed substantial points but that you can indicative of anger toward us. I responded that my identify trends in the engagement that portends fu- Italian-American heritage is similar, and I welcome ture outcomes. his energetic communications, which would make me more “at home.” We all laughed at the lightness Seek additional review from outside eyes. I mean of the moment and then continued our discussion. we should be careful not to rely on just our own team, but seek additional points from the Red Another point is salient: Use sincere praise and Team, Provincial Reconstruction Teams, PSYOP, not fl attery. Such compliment is not inappropriate Civil Affairs and others knowledgeable on your sub- in the context of many Middle East societies. Do not ject. Again, you may have missed a message or mis- fl atter your Iraqi hosts. Let your words be sincere, interpreted one. honest, and truthful. But do not mince them either. During our discussion an awkward moment arose Moreover, your insights and AAR do little good if when the point was communicated very clearly by they do not get to the intended targets, not just up the Iraqis: “We are risking our lives for the GOI and the chain of command. Look for others who could Americans, and what are we getting in return? Our gain from your experience if it was indeed different situation is not improving when we are denied the in quality or direction. Information sharing is still compensations and benefi ts of partnership.” Several needed in earnest, and we should all do our part. of us heard the point and understood the implica- Conclusion tion that the American people are not respecting the The Key Leader Engagement with the Sons of Iraq great sacrifi ces of the SOI. We answered immedi- in Abu Ghraib ended in success. Not all of our KLEs ately: “Many Americans believe you (SOI) are heroes went that smoothly. Furthermore, the SOI continues for resisting the inhumanity of AQI, and believe that to face hardships in Iraq to this day, and thus our your bravery is exemplary and the very foundation work was not conclusive. But the lessons learned of the new Iraq.” The comments were well received were important. The principles outlined in this es- for the sincerity in which they were offered. say can certainly add to the effi cacy of cross cul- Step 7: Double-Take tural communication in Iraq and the region. Be very careful of post-discussion questions, state- ments, and agreements, for these are often impor- tant moments that foreign cultures use to modify agreements or statements made during the offi cial Martin Scott Catino is a specialist in culture and COIN, U.S. meeting. Light conversation after meetings is of- foreign policy, and Middle East area studies. He is a Fulbright ten not light. The discussions afterward, in cultural Scholar and served in OIF (2009-2010) as the Deputy Team Leader of the Human Terrain Analysis Team-South, Basra, perspective, are often more important than the “of- Iraq. His publications include the The Aggressors: Ho Chi Minh, fi cial” meeting. Many meetings have been altered, North Vietnam and the Communist Bloc. He is currently co- amended, or abrogated during the postscript to a authoring a book-length study of OIF. Dr. Catino also teaches meeting. Be sure not to take that time casually. Be Irregular Warfare online for American Military University.

January - March 2011 81 by Timothy Baigent

Six months prior to the start of Desert Storm I was in many ways might makes right. My vertically chal- on my way to Bagdad on the once weekly fl ight. As a lenged diet phobic counterpart was not going to let six foot one, two hundred and twenty pound Arizona this unarmed white demon off that easy. After all, redneck, I stood out like the one black sheep dur- this was his homeland and he had the gun. It was ing shearing season. The overweight, Kalashnikov- then made clear to me that if I was going to proceed carrying Iraqi police offi cer got a very large smile as to the next step, and most likely the next payoff, I the aforementioned redneck came sauntering off the would need to give him what he was asking for and plane. With thick leathery hands, an offi cer sepa- the tax for my stubbornness had now gone up. My rated me from the herd and guided me to an empty response was “No, what is your name?” room. Between me and the now locked door was my You could see the Brahma-Hereford mix come out counterpart of equal weight but lacking about eight as my newfound comrade did not react well to my inches. He looked me in the eyes and stated the word challenge. I was in a battle I had to win. Giving up that we both knew was coming…bakhsheesh (or my money could mean I might not make it the whole bribe). It was clear that I was about to be fl eeced. week. Having been in the Middle East about seven The challenge of cultural understanding was one years at this point, I was not fazed as I was told that that I learned fi rsthand during many years in the if I wanted to leave Iraq I would be paying his toll. Middle East. Being asked for a bribe was nothing I understood the ever so important concept of new. The wheels of the Middle East are greased by Wasta. This is the most powerful word in the Arabic many a dollar, lira, mark and yen. In all honesty language. If you don’t understand it, your time will I really understood this man’s need for it as well. be fi lled with strife. If you grasp the concept and Saddam’s Iraq was a cruel world. Survival was par- can use it correctly the doors of heaven will open amount and opportunities were few. If it were me up to you. Wasta is the word that means you have a that was on the other side of this situation, need- man in the middle. A powerful friend that will help ing to feed my family, I can’t say I would not do you with what you need. In the Middle East it is the same thing. That being said, credit cards issued all about relationships. Build them! Make powerful from U.S. banks could not be used in Baghdad. I friends! They will keep you safe and provide you the needed all the cash I had to get through the week tools needed to be effective. and make it to the only fl ight out the next week. Here were a few things that I knew for sure. For Battle lines were drawn as I told him 'no,' and that I this guy to be a guard he did not have big powerful would be keeping all my cash. Wasta. As a white Westerner in Iraq just prior to the Pride and power are vital parts of the Arab cul- start of the war I had to be crazy or know someone. ture. The people are very proud and, let’s be honest, I looked my friend square in the eye and told him

82 Military Intelligence he could have his bribe but there was one catch. He This all begs the question as to how I got to know was going to need to go to the phone and call the Uday Hussein. Honestly I did not know him. I was National Olympic Committee of Iraq. He was to ask working with the National Olympic Committee, of for Uday Hussein and tell Uday that he would not let which Uday was the head. Uday knew that my let- me out without payment. Uday would come down to ter from them was more than enough to circumvent the airport, and deal with the situation. I could see my current diffi culties. The implied power of this his face turn white. This Arizona cowboy had more letter was more than enough to get me past not only than his 8 seconds as he went from sheep to be this person, but would have the exact same results fl eeced to PBR champ being escorted through every when I was leaving Iraq and was stopped for my exit way point in the airport by his personal Brahma- bakhsheesh. I do not recommend using wasta if you Hereford mix. The power of Wasta must not be un- don’t have to, but in a pinch it might become an ac- derestimated. Grasp it and use it…no bull will be ceptable risk. tootoo stronstrongg to riride.de. How ddoesoes oonen develop wasta? In Central Asia that iiss easeasy.y. PeoPeoplepl in this region have very well devel- opopeded socialsocial skills.sk They can talk your ear off. This hahhass createdcreated a society where everyone knows a ton of pepeople.ople. WhenWhen I would build a relationship, I would never tatakeke fforor granted who they might know. This hhasas openedopened upu many doors that I never expected ooverver thethe yyears.ears As previously mentioned, there is a ggreatreat pridepride tthath exists in the people from this re- gigion.on. IIff I neeneededd something, a permit for example, I wouwouldld not gog to the permit offi ce and wait in line. I wouwouldld cacallll mmyy friend and ask, “Ahmed, did you say yoyouu hadhad a cousinco in the permit offi ce who could hhelpelp me?”me?” AAtt this point two factors would kick in. ThThee fi rst wowouldu be the local pride. They will go out of ttheirheir wawayy ttoo fi nd a way to show me that they could hehelp.elp. TThehe sesecondcoo factor is that people from those ar- eaeeass hahaveavev hhugeuge families. If you need organic, hand haharvested,arvested, YakYakk milk from a producer in the Cherskiy momountainunntain range,ran then there is an Arab who has a cousin tthathat dodoes that. Understanding these factors wiwillll bbee a grggreatea help for you in your work in this reregion.gion. MyM fi nal words of advice for anyone go- iingng to ttheh Middle East or Central Asia are to bbuilduild rrelationshipse and never ever underes- ttimateimate what doors a common stonemason ccanan oopen for you.

TimothyTim Baigent completed his undergraduate studiesstu in California after which he went to ThailandTha to work with an aid organization for a year.ye Wanting to study Middle Eastern politics he decided to go overseas for his education and completedco his Master’s degree in International RelationsR in Beirut, Lebanon with a thesis focus ono Hezbollah. Currently he is working at the TCC assisting in the preparation of troops prior to their OIF/OEF deployments.

January - March 2011 83 by Major Marc Meyle, U.S. Army

Most Military Intelligence professionals agree that them” is virtually non-existent in our force today, cultural knowledge and competence is critical to even though unfortunately this stereotype still ex- success in our current full spectrum operations as ists in some social circles. However, a quandary of- well as likely future military operations. The need ten develops between mission accomplishment and for this competence spans the spectrum of our mil- culturally smart operations when operating within a itary, from the infantryman walking the streets of foreign population. Sometimes it is nearly impossi- Kandahar to a Marine in Bangladesh for hurricane ble to conduct the assigned task while maintaining relief to the Commander-in-Chief determining our a culturally competent posture. A catalyst for some national strategy. Which level is more important is of these predicaments can be found in our own mil- an unanswerable question that depends upon one’s itary lexicon. In most cases it serves us very well, as operational perspective. This article will focus on task and purpose can be relayed throughout differ- the tactical application of cultural knowledge and ent echelons while still retaining defi nition and in- highlight some of its inherent challenges. tent, but it can also become a double-edged sword. FM 3-24, Counterinsurgency Operations, and nu- The best example in current operations is the joint merous command guidance directives specify that task Secure. FM 1-02 defi nes “Secure” as to gain leaders and Soldiers must learn and understand possession of a position or terrain feature, with or the culture of the host nation in which they are without force, and to make such disposition as will deployed. But exactly where is the return on this prevent, as far as possible, its destruction or loss by knowledge investment at the tactical level? It is enemy action. It is easy to “armchair quarterback” surely not as tangible as time committed registering operations with CONUS comfort level and hindsight the company mortars, or rehearsing Battle Drill Six, but to tactically apply cultural competence while se- but it can be as effective to achieve success. curing is rarely a simple endeavor. Would additional cultural training prevent high vis- I personally experienced this dilemma and its ibility blunders such as the Quran shooting incident cross-cultural dynamic while on my most recent or Abu Ghraib? Likely not. Most often, effects of cul- deployment to Mosul, Iraq in 2009. During a rou- tural competency are one of many variables in a situ- tine command update, a subordinate commander ation and are often intangible to measure, especially reported that the downtown fi sh market area was the positive effects. How do we improve a company experiencing a recent upswing in economic activ- commander’s ability to negotiate with a tribal leader, ity. Pedestrian traffi c, street vendors, and construc- when even the results of a meeting may or may not tion projects were all steadily increasing. All these be related to his/her cultural competence? Positive or indicators were tangible measures of effectiveness negative results can be attributed to the actions of a in our economy line of effort within the campaign severely disgruntled or opportunistic local individual plan. In the spirit of reinforcing success, the higher just as easily as to a Soldier’s cultural competence. commander issued a directive to ensure the mar- Cultural understanding of the operating environ- ket remained secure. To paraphrase the guidance, ment is strongly promoted and reinforced in most “We can’t allow a spectacular attack to upset this tactical units that I have dealt with. In my opin- progress, we need to secure the fi sh market.” The ion, the warmonger mentality of “just bomb all of task and purpose, though not formally issued in

84 Military Intelligence a FRAGO, was intimated as: Secure in order to en- macy,” and then added that we could not be seen able continued economic activity. How does an ar- as interfering or infl uencing the process in any way. mor company commander accomplish this mission? He further explained that we were to help physically He does what he has been trained to do, and if he’s secure/fortify the polling sites beforehand and help been trained according to doctrine, he takes posses- the ISF develop concentric layers of security around sion of the terrain and makes a disposition that pre- each. In this case, the election occurred success- vents destruction by the enemy. fully; both task and purpose were accomplished. The next day, my unit patrolled the area, and from One of the reasons for this success may be that the the turret perspective of the lead MRAP, I saw traf- concept of “not interfering with elections” is cultur- fi c control points on the main avenues of approach, ally familiar to us Americans and the vision of what including M2 Bradley fi ghting vehicles at 200 me- it looks like is tangible, or perhaps the higher com- ter intervals around the area and dismounted pa- mander’s explicit instructions set the conditions trols in and around the commerce areas. The M2s better than the fi sh market situation. Regardless of were scanning the crowd with their 25mm guns, the the reasons that led to each result, this is the di- checkpoints were searching vehicles and the patrols lemma our Soldiers fi nd themselves in daily. were walking in tactically smart formations. My im- The answer is not to second guess decisions, re- mediate perception (and the likely perception of the write doctrine, or prescribe how to integrate culture population) was that of a siege. The enemy did not into operations. Our challenge is to equip leaders attack, but the economic activity decreased in a no- and Soldiers with the knowledge, resources, and ticeable manner, presumably out of simple fear. The ability to apply cultural competence in tactical plan- task was accomplished well, but the purpose was ning and execution. We need to design training ap- not attained. plications that address this “gray area” between task Were these actions respectful to the population in and purpose. Training primarily to avoid a cultural the manner that we promote in our cultural aware- faux pas was necessary during the initial years of ness training? Probably not, but it all depends on our current operations, but that demand is now min- context and perspective. It is easy to say that the com- imal. The fact that our current standards of mea- mander should have reduced his signature, aimed his surement aren’t very effective in assessing cultural weapons away from the crowd and convinced host na- competency should not deter our pursuits. If our tion security forces to conduct the checkpoints and training is feasible, applicable and presented cor- dismounted patrols. This action would likely decrease rectly, the return on a cultural competency invest- the unit force protection posture, which in turn would ment will emerge in Soldiers’ decisions and actions increase the chance of taking casualties. in the complex situations in which they operate. Do we really expect this? Put yourself in the com- pany commander’s boots–he lost two Soldiers the week prior to a vehicle borne IED and most likely Major Marc Meyle served as the Director of the TRADOC had just fi nished writing letters of condolence to Culture Center at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. He entered the their families. Is it realistic to assume the additional Army in 1989 after completing high school in Michigan and risk to Soldiers in exchange for creating a more cul- served in the 101st Airborne Division during Operations Desert turally palatable perception that may or may not Storm/Desert Shield, then in the 25th Infantry Division and the affect anything? Given the same situation I likely 1st Ranger Battalion before attending Offi cer Candidate School. would not. This is a paradox of counterinsurgency After commissioning, he completed a BA from the University of Arizona in Political Science with a minor in History. He operations and cultural competence that has no served as the Battalion S2 for the 1st Battalion, 509th Infantry easy solution or remedy. (OPFOR) and later commanded its headquarters company Here is another situation involving the application at Fort Polk, Louisiana. He deployed to Iraq twice during his of cross-cultural competence. Two months later the time at Fort Polk and again in 2008 when he was assigned as an Iraq Transition Team member. Major Meyle spent 12 provincial elections were approaching and in one months with the 3rd Iraqi Federal Police Division in Mosul, Iraq of the command updates, the MND-N Commander as an Intelligence offi cer/advisor. He returned from Iraq in gave guidance: “Assist the Iraqi Security Force (ISF). September 2009 and completed the resident portion of the Secure the elections to promote government legiti- ILE, Command and General Staff College.

January - March 2011 85 DDevelopingeveloping CulturalCultural CompetencyCompetency forfor SSuccessuccess iinn StabilizationStabilization OperationsOperations

What will win the global war on terrorism will be people who can cross the cultural divide. -Lieutenant General John Abizaid

The missions today are certainly non-traditional, I have trained and established police forces, judiciary com- mittees; resettled refugees; negotiated with warlords, tribal leaders, and clan elders; and distributed food and provided medical assistance. Nowhere in my military career did anybody prepare me for this…these are the kinds of non-traditional tasks we have to do better and will be required to accomplish in the future. –Lieutenant General Anthony Zinni

by Chief Warrant Offi cer Five Scott Allen

Introduction these cultures are relatively stable in their be- To achieve success in stabilization operations such liefs, values and behaviors, other factors that af- as Operation Iraqi Freedom, U.S. personnel from all fect interactions with these groups can change levels and all organizations must have signifi cant signifi cantly, quickly, and often. To be culturally and specifi c cultural competencies. They must be competent, personnel must have access to current able to grapple with a high level of cultural com- cultural intelligence. plexity under continually changing and often am- As a Military Intelligence debriefi ng operation in biguous conditions. To effectively develop these Baghdad from the beginning of the stabilization competencies, personnel from all levels and organi- operations in Iraq to the end of 2003, our strate- zations should go through intense, integrated and gic debriefi ng intelligence collection operation de- measured cultural competency training activities briefed Iraqis from diverse backgrounds at least prior to and during deployment. Deploying person- eight hours a day, seven days a week. Other units nel are often given cultural awareness (CA) briefi ngs, and operations have had similarly sustained con- read-ahead materials, and quick reference tools; tact with the Iraqi people. This intense, deep in- however, this is not suffi cient. Personnel must have teraction with the people of Iraq and the drive to repeated opportunities to develop specifi c cultural accomplish our mission eventually resulted in our competencies in realistic, relevant, and challenging team developing cultural competency in dealing scenarios. As part of pre-deployment training, key with the Iraqi people. personnel should be trained to collect and access Because of our offi ce location within the previous cultural intelligence in a way that realistically mir- Republican Palace in the Green Zone, we interacted rors how they will be expected to collect and access with and observed U.S. personnel and senior leader- cultural intelligence while deployed ship from many agencies and organizations. Many in For this article, culture refers to the set of beliefs, senior leadership positions had access to consulting values and behaviors and the way of life shared by academics and other cultural experts, and were very the members of a group, organization, tribe, soci- capable individuals with excellent foundational and ety, or nation. Iraq is a culturally complex nation, advanced cultural competencies. However, too of- with diverse ethnic, religious, educational, politi- ten they did not have continual, intense, immediate, cal, and tribal cultures that often overlap. While and broad contact with the people of Iraq, which re-

86 Military Intelligence sulted in their relying on past assumptions, knowl- ness, awareness, authenticity, adaptability, creativ- edge, and experience which were often outdated or ity, integrity, and maturity. did not apply to the specifi c person or group with Traits of the Culturally Competent whom they were dealing. This in turn led to their Deliberateness is the ability to align one’s behav- misreading of key indicators, misinterpretations of iors with one’s desired results. Fear is the primary regional atmospherics, misunderstanding various enemy of deliberateness. When afraid, people often groups’ intentions, and missteps in national policy. fall back on behaviors that are familiar and too of- These senior leaders needed access to the most cur- ten pathological. Impairment from alcohol, drugs, rent, specifi c cultural intelligence. They also needed lack of sleep, and extreme emotion can also debili- to move beyond cultural understanding to cultural tate one’s capacity to be deliberate. Those debrief- competency and profi ciency. ers who had the discipline to act deliberately were Our debriefi ng team also worked with soldiers and better able to function effectively in the cultures of other U.S. personnel from various agencies and or- Iraq. ganizations whose jobs required frequent interac- Awareness is a necessary but not suffi cient trait tion with the people of Iraq, but they sometimes for developing cultural competency. To work effec- lacked the cultural competencies to deal effectively tively with the people of Iraq, personnel obviously with the people of Iraq. Our team received CA train- have to be aware of the specifi c culture of the peo- ing during pre-deployment and each member of the ple with whom they are working. They also have to team had relatively extensive experience with other be aware of their own beliefs, values, and behav- cultures (All soldiers on our team were linguists iors and how these compare and relate to those of who had lived several years in their foreign language the person or group with whom they are interacting. countries.) However, our team members often had This quality and level of awareness is unobtainable to overcome a steep learning curve before develop- to those whose fear makes them overly rigid or judg- ing specifi c cultural competency in doing our jobs in mental. Awareness should be seen as being on a Iraq. Our interpreters also had to develop cultural continuum. Being defensively judgmental is indica- competencies specifi c to operating in Iraq; because, tive of lower-levels of awareness. Also, one can have while they were almost all native Arabic linguists an intellectual awareness of many aspects of other and U.S. citizens, few were of Iraqi heritage. Some cultures without really understanding the other cul- also often had to overcome debilitating prejudices ture. The deepest levels of awareness require signifi - about specifi c cultural groups in Iraq. Without these cant behavioral changes. cultural competencies, many personnel, including our team, misjudged people, misunderstood situa- Authenticity to some might not seem relevant or im- tions, and made signifi cant mistakes. portant to cultural competency; however, our team found that being authentic was necessary in dealing Competency: Be, Know, Do effectively with the people of Iraq. People from cul- The term Competency, for the purpose of this tures that are relationally-based rather than trans- article, aligns with the Be, Know, Do leadership actionally-based are often keenly sensitive to the paradigm of the U.S. Army. It includes values, attri- authenticity of others’ commitment to the relation- butes, knowledge, skills, character, and attitudes. ship. We found that the Iraqis were generally skilled Competency is not merely awareness or knowledge. at detecting insincerity and that they looked for It is also not exclusively intellectual. For example, proof of sincerity. The complexity of the problem of emotional maturity and the ability to adapt and em- being inauthentic in relational cultures is magnifi ed pathize are critical to the development of cultural because these cultures often have face-saving prac- competency. tices that obscure the offense to those from trans- The development of cultural competency requires actional cultures. The clash between transactional both general and specifi c knowledge, skills, and and relational cultures often results in operational traits. During our debriefi ng operations, we ob- failures in stabilization missions. Iraqis used indi- served that certain traits were essential to cultural rect ways to avoid cooperating with those they sus- competency. Some of the essential general traits of pected of being inauthentic. The better debriefers cultural competency we observed were deliberate- with our operation developed the ability to deter-

January - March 2011 87 mine when a person was fading away from cooper- oring friendships is an important value. This of- ating due to a lack of trust. ten requires considerable sacrifi ce. I saw Iraqis risk Adaptability is the ability and willingness to make and lose their lives to protect friends. Friendship is changes when one’s actions are ineffective. With not a casual commitment to most Iraqis. Personnel respect to cultural competency, the alternative to should be aware of the commitments they are mak- adapting is rigidly holding to one’s own cultural ing when they work with Iraqis. Understanding the views and behavior without regard or awareness of expectations, nature and depth of relationships in a the other culture. U.S. personnel must be trained to culture and effectively utilizing that understanding the standard of observed and demonstrated adapta- is a very complex activity, but cultural competency tion. All cultural competency training must test to is inherently complex. the standard of changing the trainees’ perceptions Maturity, relative to cultural competency, refers to and performance. If not, we risk that we will give the psychological and emotional development nec- many people just enough cultural training to pro- essary to function effectively in a foreign culture. In vide them with ammunition to support their preju- addition to the areas previously discussed, a person dices and their resistance to change. must have a certain level of maturity to function ef- Creativity is related to adaptability and it requires fectively in foreign cultures. An inexperienced per- many of the same skills and attitudes. While cre- son who has limited experiences beyond his or her ativity is not as essential to developing cultural own culture is at a disadvantage compared to a per- competency as adaptability, it is essential to be- son who has experience adapting to other cultures. ing effective in conditions requiring cultural compe- Experience with other cultures does not necessarily tency. In stabilization operations, one is required to lead to competency within those cultures, but with- think and act beyond one’s own culture. Planning out experience, it is unlikely that a person will func- and operations must be developed from the unfa- tion effectively in foreign cultures. miliar perspective of the other culture. Listening Cultural Intelligence Collection and openly to people from the other culture can help Dissemination one discover creative and effective solutions. Many Developing and maintaining cultural competency of the competencies required to operate in foreign across combined stabilization operations requires cultures, such as openness and courage, are the new processes and tools for the effective and contin- same competencies required when discovering and ual collection and dissemination of cultural intelli- executing creative solutions in one’s own culture. gence. Stabilization operations require more inclusive Personal courage is foundational to creativity and participation in who contributes to and receives cul- cultural competency because it allows one to take tural intelligence. In addition to including academic, the risk of leaving the stability of one’s own culture historical, foundational, and general information, to explore effective solutions in the context of unfa- this system must provide for the collection and dis- miliar cultures. semination of very specifi c cultural intelligence from Integrity, one of the Army values, was essential to a broad selection of sources with direct and deep cultural competency in Iraq. For many Iraqis and for contact with the populace. the Iraqi culture in general, Islam and its standards The system should provide a continual read on of behavior are very infl uential. When U.S. person- individuals, organizations, tribes, religions, demo- nel did not practice personal integrity, it directly graphics, atmospherics and other intelligence that undermined the stabilization efforts. In our debrief- infl uences cultural factors in theater. The processes ing operations and while working with Civil Affairs and tools for collecting, analyzing, and disseminat- units in Iraq, we talked with Iraqis who told stories ing cultural intelligence must be ubiquitous and of how the behavior of specifi c American civilians, accessible. Personnel must be able to report and re- soldiers or leaders in and out of Iraq had infl uenced ceive cultural intelligence from the system quickly their view of the U.S. “occupiers” generally. More and easily. Processed cultural intelligence products specifi cally, our debriefers found that those Iraqis must be broadly and immediately re-disseminated with whom we worked lost trust in the relationship on both a push and a pull basis and in formats and when we did not act with integrity. For Iraqis, hon- ways that are logical and accessible to all.

88 Military Intelligence Based on our experience in country, cultural in- the new battlefi eld. By doing this, we will be able to telligence was collected inconsistently or not at all. bridge the cultural divides and realize the victory Some of the personnel with the deepest and most that comes only through undaunted understanding prolonged contact with the Iraqi people did not have and courageous cooperation. the expectation or means of collecting and reporting what they knew. The existing intelligence processes, and tools were unavailable to key personnel or were References not used effectively for collecting, reporting, analyz- John Tierney, Baffl ed Occupiers. The New York Times at ing, and disseminating cultural intelligence. http:/www.nytimes.com. Leaders should identify those key personnel and Yerkes, R.M. and Dodson, J.D. 1908. The Relation of Strength of units that have contact with indigenous people. Rapidity of Habit Formation. Journal of Comparative and Neurological Psychology 18: 459-482. They should consider the depth of contact, breadth th of contact, and the capability of collecting, analyz- Hilgard, E.R. et al. Introduction to Psychology, 6 ed. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1975. ing, or disseminating cultural intelligence of these Moody, R. Norman. War-themed Game Pushes Troops’ Cultural people and units. Leaders should make these people Awareness. Florida Today 2005. a part of the cultural collection and dissemination Earley, Christopher P. and Ang, Soon. Cultural Intelligence: process. All personnel who will have signifi cant con- Individual Interactions across Cultures. Stanford: Stanford tact with indigenous people should be trained as col- University Press, 2003. lectors of cultural intelligence, so they will become Belbutowski, Paul M. Strategic Implications of Cultures in Confl ict, an integral part of the combined collection effort. Parameters Spring 1996, 32-42. Lindberg, B. C. Major, USMC. Culture...A Neglected Aspect of War, Conclusion Command Staff College, 1996. Even before the events of 9-11, some realized and Zinni, Anthony, Lieutenant General. It’s Not Nice and Neat. Naval warned that the new battlefi eld would be primarily Proceedings 121: 8, August 1995, 62. asymmetrical and that CA would be critical to suc- Howard, Michael. The Use and Abuse of Military History. cess on that battlefi eld. As the U.S. continues into Parameters March 1981, 14. the new generation of military operations other than Webster, Mike, Ed.D. Crisis Intervention: Using Active Listening war, nation building, stabilization operations and Skills in Negotiations. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin August 1997, 16-18. complex asymmetrical cultural confl icts, U.S. per- Bender, Bryan. Pentagon Seeing New Keys to Victory: Report sonnel must go beyond CA to cultural competency. Emphasizes Post-combat Work ‘Social Intelligence.’ Boston Globe Many of the personnel of our strategic debriefi ng November 15, 2003. operation were able to develop and achieve a level of Scully, Megan. Intelligence Increasingly Focuses on Relationships cultural competency necessary to effectively collect among Individuals: ‘Social Intel’ New Tool for U.S. Military. Defense News April 26, 2004, 21. intelligence and participate effectively in stabiliza- Smith, George W., Jr. Avoiding a Napoleonic Ulcer: Bridging the tion operations in Iraq. We observed that person- Gap of Cultural Intelligence (Or, Have We Focused on the Wrong nel who were deliberate, curious, aware, authentic, Transformation?). Marine Corps War College, April 2004. adaptable, creative, honest, and mature were more Tyson, Anne Scott. A General of Nuance and Candor: Abizaid likely to develop cultural competency. We also ex- Brings New Tenor to Mideast Post. Christian Science Monitor perienced that the principles, processes and tools March 5, 2004, 1. used to collect, analyze and disseminate cultural in- telligence needed to be rethought, redesigned, re- CW5 Allen has been a linguist and interrogator with the aligned, retooled, or completely redone. Collection, 300th Military Intelligence Linguist Brigade for 30 years. He analysis and dissemination of cultural intelligence is currently on orders with the National Ground Intelligence in stabilization operations must be more broadly Center’s Reach Language Support Program (RLSP). The RLSP based and easier to access and use. provides support in meeting foreign language translation requirements for the warfi ghter and Intelligence Community. As the U.S. military enters this new era of com- Chief Allen has deployed twice to Iraq and once to Afghanistan. plex operations centered on cultural confl icts, all On the civilian side, he has over 25 years experience in personnel must courageously create new solu- training and leadership consulting and is currently completing tions that recognize and utilize the complexities of graduate work in the area of cross-cultural communication.

January - March 2011 89 SSocio-culturalocio-cultural LLessonsessons ffromrom EEurasiaurasia aandnd AAfghanistanfghanistan by Mahir Ibrahimov, PhD What is culture? Soviet culture, Western culture, Iraqi culture, Afghan culture, military culture, corporate culture, generational culture…Becoming aware of cultural dynamics is a diffi cult task because culture is based on experi- ences, values, behaviors, beliefs and norms, as well as collective memories and history. Cultural Shift in the USSR derly woman used to sweep the square every morn- Soviet culture was an ideologically driven, atheist ing. Every morning I would say hello to her and she based set of norms and behaviors. Despite all efforts would reply, “Good morning, son.” Then the char- at homogenization, the Soviet Union remained a acter of the Ploshad Nogina changed. It became a deeply ethnic place. We were defi ned by our heritage; gathering place for the new Russian businessmen but according to the government, we were citizens of complete with cell phones, laptop computers, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). There prostitutes. Clothing styles, and even the manner of was an unoffi cial hierarchy between the Russians talking to other people, changed. Life became louder and non-Russians. The Russians were treated with and more frenetic. Restaurants popped up along the greater respect. In the former Soviet Army ethnic plaza like mushrooms. Russians created zemliachestvo or gruppovshchina, Perestroika, in theory, should have led to greater their own enclave within the unit that persecuted debate and understanding among the different pop- other ethnic groups. Critical thinking and indepen- ulations of the Soviet Union; instead it created an dence were not only discouraged in the Soviet Union, opportunity for many to express long held ethnic it was dangerous and could be punished. hatred with little fear of reprisal. People like me were On 11 March 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected jeered at on the street, and one time I was threat- General Secretary of the Communist Party and de ened while waiting in line to purchase food. facto ruler of the Soviet Union. The world changed. It’s all in the language, in the defi nitions, in the When he came to power the Soviet economy was types of words you use: comrade instead of friend; failing, worsened by miners’ strikes. Store shelves micro rayon (micro-district) instead of home or apart- were empty; some of the Soviet republics continued ment; Azeri or Armenian or Georgian instead of cit- to call for greater independence, and ethnic con- izen. The heat and fi re from the mixing of races and fl icts in Transcaucasia (which includes Armenia, ethnicities in the U.S. created a melting pot. In the Georgia, and Azerbaijan) were accelerating. Soviet Union those same elements only served to cre- Gorbachev transformed the Soviet Union. His pol- ate greater friction and separation among its peoples. icies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (re- During perestroika things turned ugly and unpre- structuring) gave the populace a sense of power and dictable. The children of communism had never been a taste of freedom that was the ultimate undoing taught how to deal with freedom, and the State as a of the seventy-year old union of republics. For the parent had been too restrictive during their youth. fi rst time, representatives of foreign countries came The release of state control over all things created to the Soviet Union to invest and exchange goods a vacuum. The population acted as ill behaved teen- and ideas. The entire structure of Soviet society, as agers who no longer needed to heed rules of com- I had known, began to shift. At the time I was un- mon civility. The disintegration and ultimate demise sure how I felt about it. Fortunes were being made, of a socialist society as a system was a good thing, but it seemed as though the people making them but its unexpected and unintended consequences were the same people who had been in power under led to a proliferation of ethnic confl icts. It occurred the old system. fi rst among the peoples of the former Soviet repub- Independent newspapers, magazines, television lics and later in the Middle East, which was no and radio stations popped up. The Ploshad Nogina longer controlled through the balance of power be- (Nogin Square) where I worked was situated across tween the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Gorbachev in- from a quiet park. Before Gorbachev’s reforms an el- tended to enter history as a great reformer, I doubt

90 Military Intelligence he ever intended the country’s demise, but his re- Soviet citizen. “Nobody can defeat our country, our forms contributed to the process that was inevita- country is the greatest!” he proudly declared. ble. When he realized the consequences it was too He showed me the brochure (below) given to him late. As Gorbachev himself used to say protsess and his comrades as a part of the Soviet counterin- poshel Russian for “process began.” surgency (COIN) tactics in Afghanistan. More than The Soviet Experiment in Afghanistan twenty years later I see the equivalent of those ma- I met Nikolai at the Medvedkovo metro station in terials with “do’s” and “don’ts” disseminated to U.S. a suburb of Moscow in November 1988. Moscow troops being deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan. The still was the capital of an empire that was des- brochure, published in 1987, contains prohibitions tined to collapse in just few years. Nikolai was tell- for Soviet troops serving in Afghanistan: ing me about his past experiences in Afghanistan Do not enter into unsanctioned contacts; do not as a former spetznaz (Soviet Special Forces) mem- visit private stores or individuals to buy goods, alco- ber. Seven hundred members of this elite spetznaz, holic beverages or drugs; do not take your clothes off under the commander named Ruslan, stormed for sunbathing in front of locals; do not try to talk to President Hafi zullah Amen’s palace in winter 1979. local women; do not accept any gifts from local offi - That marked the beginning of the ten-year Soviet cials or individuals; keep the secrecy while discuss- invasion of Afghanistan. The reason for the inva- ing military topics, be aware that many Afghans are sion: The Soviets decided that the pro-Soviet Afghan fl uent in Russian. president was not pro-Soviet enough. Afghanistan once again became a battleground of empires. Many years later I would be fascinated to learn from the BBC that Ruslan, who now lives in Moscow, and a woman, who as a girl had survived the onslaught in the Afghan president’s palace, would be connected through VTC. More than thirty years later she was asking Ruslan diffi cult moral questions. Almost everybody in the palace was mur- dered that night as part of the former Soviet military doctrine, which ultimately led to more than one mil- lion Afghan deaths, destruction of the country, and loss of hearts and minds of Afghans. The country of which I was then a citizen no longer exists. The Army, in which I served, luckily before Nikolai is a huge, athletically built guy in a prim- the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, is also gone. itive wheelchair that he moves with his hands. He returned from Afghanistan after being ambushed by Afghan Mujahedeen (holy warriors) and lost legs. Despite his youth he seemed to be completely lost and morally devastated. He blamed the West and China for the support of mujahedeen and Afghans for the betrayal. He was telling me that many Afghans were calling them friends and brothers but then turned against them and joined the insur- The author in the Soviet Army, 1974-1976, and in Iraq, 2004-2005, gency. He was repeatedly asking what went wrong where he served as a cultural advisor and interpreter for several and why the “internationalist duty” of the Soviets U.S. military units. was not appreciated and welcomed. He said that the The Accords of 14 April 1988 included the principles country was making huge sacrifi ces: militarily, po- of non-interference and non-intervention, the volun- litically, and economically. Yet he still believed in tary return of Afghan refugees, and interrelationships the popular notion in the country that Afghanistan for the settlement of the situation. The phased with- was going to become the sixteenth Soviet Republic drawal of foreign troops was supposed to begin on 15 of the USSR and he still considered himself a proud May. The U.S. and the USSR also signed a declaration

January - March 2011 91 on international guarantees, stating they would both ing the protection of civilians a higher priority, an refrain from any form of interference and intervention. endeavor to attain more popular support in order In the fi rst three months, it was reported that some not to repeat the mistakes of the unsuccessful Soviet 50,183 foreign troops had withdrawn, another 50,100 experience in Afghanistan.4 Nevertheless, in a sur- left between 15 August 1988 and 15 February 1989. vey of Afghan cities, a report released by Pentagon During the withdrawal, troop convoys came under at- in April 2010 classifi ed 21 Afghan cities as being tack by Afghan fi ghters, 72 Soviets were killed. in support of the government, while 48 other cities were cited as inclining to back the Taliban forces. The total withdrawal of all Soviet troops from The report also highlighted the current state of the Afghanistan was completed on 15 February 1989. In insurgency, its strengths and weaknesses. a symbolic move, Lieutenant General Boris Gromov, commander of the Soviet contingent in Afghanistan Strengths. The speed and decisiveness of insur- (equivalent to U.S. Commander in Afghanistan, gent information operations (IO) and media cam- General Petraeus) was the last to leave the coun- paigns remain not only the insurgents’ main effort, try. I remember the TV images when he turned the but also their most signifi cant strength. last time towards the Afghan territory and walked Organizational capabilities and operational reach away. He was the last Soviet Soldier to walk from are qualitatively and geographically expanding. 1 Afghanistan back into Soviet territory. These images The ability to intimidate through targeted killings and of the Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan threats in order to force acquiescence to their will. over the bridge to the former Soviet Central Asian The strength and ability of shadow governance to Republic still live in my memory. discredit the authority and legitimacy of the Afghan Cultural Challenges for U.S. Missions Government is increasing. in Afghanistan Improvised expIosive devices (IED) use is increas- Operational experiences in Somalia, the Balkans, ing in numbers and complexity. IEDs are as much a Afghanistan, and Iraq have highlighted critical gaps tactic and process as they are a weapon. Insurgents’ in the Army’s capability to infl uence and operate tactics, techniques, and procedures for conducting effectively within different cultures for extended complex attacks are increasing in sophistication periods of time. Battlefi eld lessons learned have and strategic effect. demonstrated that language profi ciency and under- According to the report insurgent weaknesses standing of foreign culture are vital enablers for full and vulnerabilities are as follows: spectrum operations.2 The insurgency includes multiple locally-based Globalization, Internet networking, and instant ac- tribal networks, as well as layered command struc- cess to worldwide news media have encouraged the tures, which at times can make coordinated execu- merging or partnering of ideological groups that op- tion diffi cult. pose the U.S. and/or U.S. policies. These groups op- Persistent fi ssures among insurgent leadership per- erate in pan-regional and multi-regional battle spaces sist at the local levels. comprised of numerous cultures, both friendly and The insurgency is dependent on many marginalized/ hostile. It appears likely that during the next de- threatened segments of the Pashto population. cades the operational environment of our troops will be characterized by persistent and unpredictable con- The insurgency is over reliant on external support. fl icts in battle spaces teeming with multiple foreign Insurgent violence against civilians and respected cultures. The Army must be prepared to effectively fi gures can be counterproductive.5 operate along with our multinational and host nation When I talked to Nikolai some 20 years ago I real- partners against sophisticated and adaptive adversar- ized that he was still missing the main point about ies in order to achieve U.S. objectives. This dictates why the Soviets, with a powerful military establish- that Soldiers of every rank must become ‘culturally ment, were losing the war, even though they were astute’ about the areas in which they operate.3 winning the battle to some degree. The main reason The new U.S. strategy advocates a military strike was that they did not manage to “win hearts and and further increasing civil development while mak- minds” of the local populace although they made

92 Military Intelligence extensive use of Soviet ethnicities similar in cul-  Forcing people to pay donations. tural heritage to Afghanistan’s. Yet, these Soviets  Searching homes. were predominantly associated with ethnic Russian  Kidnapping people for money. “infi dels” by the locals and Mujahedeen. This book is given to each Taliban fi ghter as Nikolai told me that when insurgents ambushed guidance. It has thirteen chapters, 67 articles and and captured ethnic Russian troops they would be- lays out what one head them. When Soviets of Tajik, Uzbek, Kirgiz or can and cannot do. other Central Asian origin were captured, the insur- Following are some gents would sometimes give them copies of the Holy key quotes that out- Book and let them go if they acknowledged their alle- line the new code of giance to Islam and Koran. The degree of alienation conduct: towards Soviets was very signifi cant. They could never On asylum: “Every Muslim can invite anyone work- overcome it despite their active COIN activities, con- ing for the slave government in Kabul to leave their ducted mainly by culturally and linguistically well job, and cut their relationship with this corrupt ad- trained KGB and elite Special Forces units operat- ministration. If the person accepts, then with the ing inside Afghanistan. The Pentagon report acknowl- permission of the provincial and district leadership, edges that we are also having problems in the same a guarantee of safety can be given.” area but we are making efforts to overcome them. On prisoners: “Whenever any offi cial, soldier, contrac- Taliban “Hearts and Minds” Campaign tor or worker of the slave government is captured, Published July 2009 by the self-proclaimed these prisoners cannot be attacked or harmed.” Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, Bylaws for the “The decision on whether to seek a prisoner ex- Mujahedeen, outlines a Taliban code of conduct. change, or to release the prisoner, with a strong This is the Taliban leader Mullah Omar’s COIN guarantee, will be made by the provincial leader. guidance, a population centric strategy that is ex- Releasing prisoners in exchange for money is strictly actly geared towards “winning hearts and minds” prohibited.” of the local population and maintaining their loy- “If the prisoner is a director, commander or district alty. It says: chief or higher, the decision on whether to harm,  Keep people and their property safe. Do not let kill, release or forgive them is only made by the those who love money take our local people’s Imam or deputy Imam.” property and cause them problems. “If a military infi del is captured, the decision on  Keep good relations with your friends and the lo- whether to kill, release or exchange the hostage is cal people, and do not let the enemy divide/sep- only to be made by the Imam or deputy Imam.” arate you. On civilian casualties: “Governors, district chiefs The Taliban leadership also clearly defi nes its tac- and line commanders and every member of the tics towards the coalition forces: Mujahedeen must do their best to avoid civilian  We do not have to beat ISAF militarily; outlast deaths, civilian injuries and damage to civilian prop- international will to remain in Afghanistan. erty. Great care must be taken.”  Continue population outreach and protection On suicide attacks: “Suicide attacks should only be programs. used on high and important targets. A brave son of  Continue successful asymmetric operations. Islam should not be used for lower and useless tar-  Expand lethal IED and high-profi le attacks to gets. The utmost effort should be made to avoid ci- deny ISAF freedom of movement. vilian casualties.”  Make the main enemy the U.S. On unity: “Creating a new mujahedeen group or bat- Afghan Taliban directives also include prohibi- talion is forbidden. If unoffi cial groups or irregular tions on: battalions refuse to join the formal structure they  Mistreating the population. should be disbanded. If a governor or leader has  Forcibly taking personal weapons. in the past had a unit or active group in another  Taking children to conduct jihad. province, they should bring it to the attention of

January - March 2011 93 the leader of that province. That leader should then with Taliban and Mujahedeen. Otherwise, they take over command of the group.” should leave Laghman and go and live with their On relations with the Afghan people: “The American overlords. If not, they do not have Mujahedeen have to behave well and show proper the right to complain later (they will take the treatment to the nation, in order to bring the hearts consequences). of civilian Muslims closer to them. The Mujahedeen 2. It is being announced to all those people who co- must avoid discrimination based on tribal roots, operate with the infi dels, aggressors, and trai- language or their geographic background.”6 tors, to stop their shameful acts and instead Below is an English translation of some quotes work for and support their beloved country from the speeches of Mullah Omar. These quotes and preach on behalf of the true children of the are also part of the Bylaws: land. They are responsible for the dire conse- quences if they do not obey these commands. Dear Mujahedeen Brothers: 3. It should be said to the informants that they All your intentions and deeds should be accord- have been exposed and they do not have any ing to God’s edicts and the Prophet’s guidelines. place to run and hide. And we warn them not Stand like steel when confronting the enemy. to side with the Americans in persecuting and Incidents (failures) and propaganda should not martyring ordinary civilians, children, elders, shake your will. Be sincere to your friends (fel- and women. Otherwise, God willing, they will low fighters) and civilian populace; sustain the not be able to run from the Mujahidin. strong bonds of loyalty and brotherhood, so that 4. Muslims in general, (religious) scholars, Mullahs, the enemy must not succeed in achieving his evil and Imams should understand that according goals of splitting our ranks. In your work and to the above quote from the Quran, they cannot operations take good precautions and consulta- perform at the funeral ceremony of an informant tions, and use wisdom and intelligence. Do not and traitor because such people belong to them let your personal beliefs, emotions, haste, and (infi dels). So our Muslim brothers should under- carelessness interfere (in your judgment), when stand this issue (in a religious sense) and should punishing someone. Protecting people’s lives not participate in the funerals of people who and property is a major goal of Jihad. Governors are traitors of their nation and faith. (Religious) should not harass people for their own personal Scholars, Mullahs, and Imams should seriously and material gains. consider their own safety as the results may not Below is the a translation of a ‘night letter’ (threat be pleasant. letter) which was addressed to the people of Laghman It is the duty of Mullahs and Imams to announce Province. this message to their followers. Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan Announcement Translator: Farooq Babrakzai, PhD Greetings to the Muslim and Mujahedeen residents FOB–Mehtar Lam (Laghman) (2009) of Laghman Province These examples indicate major efforts by Taliban Respected Friends leadership to “win hearts and minds,” while endeav- God has said “oh Muslims, do not associate and be- oring to intimidate the local populace to prevent it come friends with Jews and Christians (Americans, from cooperating with Afghan government and coali- British, and other infi dels) because their friends are tion forces. Coalition forces are facing tremendous those who support them (as we see them). And who- security and IO challenges from a sophisticated and ever became friend with them will therefore be con- adaptive enemy well versed in the local psychology, sidered one of them. And their end result and death culture, and traditions. will be like them (Jews and Christians)”. So we an- But the insurgency in Afghanistan is not mono- nounce that: lithic and unifi ed. Many leaders of different groups 1. Those people who live in Laghman Province and are allied with the Taliban and Al Qaida at this time, work with them (Americans, British, and oth- the main reason is that their tactical and strategic ers), should stop working there and cooperate interests presently coincide. They are supported by

94 Military Intelligence the same elements of Pakistan’s ISID (Inter-Services Middle East, Central and South Asia, and Africa. Intelligence Directorate) and other Pakistani and Their leaders, Osama bin Laden and his deputy Dr. regional forces as was the case during the anti- Aiman Al Zawahiri, are believed to be closer in their Soviet jihad. But this time support is mainly fo- ideology to the concept of the confl ict of civilizations, cused on a strategic counterbalance to India and actively using the “Islamic factor” as the banner for other countries. Compared to the Soviet invasion of mobilizing new recruits. Their weakness was clearly Afghanistan, however, when mujahedeen were sup- refl ected in Iraq when the declared Umma (Islamic ported at least by two major powers such as the U.S. brotherhood), mostly of foreign fi ghters belonging to and China, the current Afghan insurgency does not Al Qaida, did not get their desired support within seem to enjoy the kind of consistent state-level sup- the local population. The factor of alienation also port from major powers such as China or Russia. played a role when around 100,000 former Iraqi There were some unconfi rmed reports of the Shia insurgents, formerly allied with Al Qaida, turned Islamic Republic of Iran supporting a Sunni Taliban against them. Why did it happen? insurgency. But if the foreign forces withdraw it’s be- Although former insurgents in the predominantly lieved that different insurgency groups would turn western Iraqi province of Anbar are Sunni Muslims, their guns against each other vying for power as hap- similar to the members of Al Qaida, the majority of pened after the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in homegrown Iraqi insurgents were not attracted by 1989. The confusion on which “strategic side” the U.S the Islamic political slogans of Al Qaida. They were led coalition forces are on also fuels the Afghan and mostly former Baath party members with an ide- Iraqi insurgency. The removal of Saddam Hussein’s ology based on Pan-Arab nationalism rather than government in Iraq created a vacuum in the regional Islamism. Saddam Hussein himself was considered strategic counter balance towards its archenemy, the a secular politician who was trying to explore the Shia Islamic Republic of Iran. “Islamic factor” at some point for political reasons. The map below shows the diversity of the enemy and Second, compared to Afghanistan, the more ed- insurgency network and operations in Afghanistan ucated and urbanized population of Iraq had al- and Pakistan. The new U.S. strategy justifi ably fo- ready enjoyed close political, military, economic cuses on both Afghanistan and Pakistan, because and cultural ties with the West in the past. These of their historical and strategic ties. factors made Iraq relatively more prepared for co- operation with Western governments and coalition forces. The growth of other insur- gency groups in Iraq and the growing in- fl uence of Iran make the future of Iraq very uncertain. The third factor is the terrain and differ- ence in histories of Afghanistan and Iraq. Afghanistan mostly consists of rugged mountains; plains in north and southwest. It’s landlocked. Geography and history played a signifi cant role in the socio-political, eco- nomic, and cultural formation of the coun- try. It also affected the Afghan psyche, its Iraq and Afghanistan Insurgencies social differentiation. Today one can say that Compared Afghanistan is mostly at the medieval socio-economic As the map above shows, Al Qaida (from Arabic level of development with very diversifi ed tribal and “base”) is an organization with global aims. It could ethnic societal systems. The above factors signifi - operate, if the opportunity arises, in any corner of cantly explain why many experts and policy makers the world. It is seen as a decentralized franchise expect that the task of stabilizing of Afghanistan is network with multiple branches mainly active in the going to present more challenges than in Iraq.

January - March 2011 95 Main Personalities within Insurgent trayed the Pakistani national interests collaborating Groups in Afghanistan with the West and coalition forces. Along with Taliban, the majority of the insurgency Strategically their goal in the fi ght is the West and its groups in Afghanistan are homegrown, united un- ideological concepts. But one should remember that der the same Islamic banner and against the pre- Taliban as the movement was created by Pakistani dominantly Western coalition forces. This is their politicians at the time of former Prime Minister strength, because it is very easy to justify their ac- Benazir Bhutto, who was allied with the West. It was tions against the “foreign invading factor.” Their created as a strategic tool and counterbalance vy- knowledge of the local indigenous cultures and psy- ing for infl uence in the region mainly against India. chologies are additional advantages for the very di- Ironically the Pakistani Taliban was believed to be verse insurgency network. Among them are: behind the assassination of Bhutto, the main ar-  Warlord Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. Established chitect of the movement. Former ISID Chief General Hizb-i-Islami to counter growing Soviet infl u- Hamid Gul was directly involved in creation and sup- ence and occupation in the Eighties. Allied port of Taliban and other Islamist groups, according to the Taliban. Studied to Ahmed Rashid, the author of The Taliban: Militant 7 engineering at Kabul Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. University in the 1970s. Hamid Gul considers that if the West has to negoti- His goal is the indepen- ate with the Afghan insurgents they have to deal only dent Islamic state and with Mullah Omar, because he is the only principal restoring Afghan sov- leader of the Taliban in Afghanistan. But one can ar- ereignty. Fighters have a reputation for being gue against this for two reasons. Although Mullah more educated than the Taliban. “Hizb-i-Islami Omar is still the primary spiritual leader, he is not will fi ght our jihad until foreign troops are gone the primary political day-to-day operations leader from Afghanistan and Afghans have set up an of the insurgency. Secondly, he is the creation and Islamic Government.” a tool of mostly Pakistani intelligence services and  Jalaluddin Haqqani. Anti-Soviet war veteran. likely continues to exist due to their support. Early advocate of the “Afghan Arabs” to join But for many ordinary Afghans, especially of the the Jihad against the Soviet Union. Elements Pashto tribes of the East and South, as well as for of the Haqqani network Taliban fi ghters and other homegrown insurgents work closely with al of Afghanistan, the symbolic charismatic image of Qaida. Reportedly based Mullah Omar fi ts perfectly in the Afghan ethno- in Waziristan. Supported cultural psychology in the same way as the char- by Pakistan’s ISID. He is ismatic “Mad Mullah,” Fakir of Ipi (Mirza Ali Khan) now an old man and day who battled the British during the First Anglo- to day operations of the network are conducted Afghan War of 1839-1842.8 This period marked the by his son Sirajuddin or Siraj Haqqani. “Great Game,” a power struggle between Russia and The map of the enemy and insurgency groups Britain for dominance in the region. Britain occu- shows the Pakistan focused Taliban, Tehrik-e pied Afghanistan and used it as a buffer to protect Taliban-e. Tehrik-e-Taliban-e does not pose a direct British India from Russian threat to the coalition forces because their main goal infl uence. Ultimately this is the struggle against the Pakistani state and its power struggle resulted establishment. In 2007, Baitullah Mehsud (report- in the 1893 Durand Line edly killed by U.S. air strike) had formed Pakistani Agreement between the Taliban groups into a single organization. He was Government of colonial replaced by Hakimullah Mehsud (from the same British India (now Pakistan) Mehsud tribe). The group, also referred to as the signed by Henry Mortimer “Pakistani Taliban,” have strong links to al Qaida. Durand and Afghan Amir The reason for the organization’s Pakistani focus is Abdur Rahman Khan to the perception that the Pakistani government be- delineate their respective Source: RAND Corporation

96 Military Intelligence spheres of infl uence. About 1,610 miles long, this line “Lowlanders.” These are Pashtuns who live on the continues to be an area of tension between Afghanistan cultivated and irrigated plains and tend to be more and Pakistan but very few across both borders, espe- integrated into the Afghan governance and society as cially among Pashto tribes, recognize it.9 a whole, and more subjected to external infl uences. The Afghan Taliban is presently intensifying its IO The main elements of Pashtunwali include: among the locals based on its knowledge of the lo-  Badal–Right of blood feuds or revenge. cal customs and culture, and nuances of the local  Nunawati–Right of a fugitive to seek refuge and psyche. The outcome of the coalition forces efforts acceptance of his bona fi de offer of peace. will depend on their ability to gain the trust of the  Melmastya–Hospitality and protection to every ordinary Afghans. It will require a skill set of knowl- guest. edge and abilities to prepare Soldiers for living and  Isteqamat–Persistence. working in a new country, preventing culture shock,  Ghayrat–Defense of property and honor. easing the transition, and creating awareness of dif-  Namus–Defense of one’s female relatives. ferent cultural and individual styles to maximize operations. Operating in indigenous cultures rather Another feature of Afghan and specifi cally Pashto than in a bipolar strategic environment of Cold War character: Do not show you emotions, impatience, era (traditional war fi ghting) adds new dimensions anger etc. because it’s considered a sign of weak- to military’s missions in Afghanistan, Iraq, and else- ness. Personal relationships, trust and most impor- where. Operating in joint interagency, intergovern- tantly deeds are crucial elements of “winning the mental, multinational (JIIM) environments requires hearts and minds” of the Afghan people. Knowledge a new more sophisticated set of knowledge and skills of the local culture and customs would be the ulti- that are very different. mate factors in winning the local populace. Islam in Afghanistan The Pashto Influence Afghans predominantly follow the Sunni Hanafi As was the case during anti-British and then anti- school of Islam. The Taliban movement belongs to Soviet Jihad, the insurgency in Afghanistan is com- Hanafi School with a strict interpretation of Islam, prised of Pashto tribes. Between the two main Pashto known as Deobandi, which does not recognize any tribal confederations Durrani and Ghilzai, the home- innovation or modifi cation within Islam since the grown insurgency mostly consists of Ghilzai tribes. time of Prophet Mohamed, including Shiism, which There has been animosity between the two through- emerged later. That explains to a certain extent the out the history of the country; the Durranis mostly tense relationships between in power including late Zahir Shah, the last king of the Shiite dominated Islamic Afghanistan and current President Hamid Karzai. Republic of Iran and the Sunni Mullah Omar, who was born in 1961 in Kandahar, Taliban government that ex- the leader of the Taliban movement is a Ghilzai, of isted during the second part the Hotak tribe. of 1990s until the beginning of That’s is why the Sun Tzu’s maxim, “Know your 2000s. Right is the structure enemy,” is very important in the current fi ght in of the religion of Islam with Afghanistan. Understanding cultural factors such its main branches and sects. as Pashtunwali (way of the Pashto) is very important Sufi sm, a mystic interpreta- in understanding the Pashto dominated Afghan so- tion of Islam, is also common ciety and in ultimately succeeding. in Afghanistan. What is Pashtunwali? It’s an unwritten or informal My recent contacts with Afghan expatriates in- set of religious, ethnic, tribal and moral norms which cluded one originally from the Pashto area of north were formed over the centuries among the Pashto west Afghanistan and another one from Nuristan. tribes. This way of life to a greater extent is preserved As always, I enjoyed their fi rst hand experiences and among the so called “Hill Pashtuns” or “Highlanders” assessments of different Afghan socio-cultural and who live in the mountains and are naturally isolated political situations. One of them told me the story and historically more independent than the so called about al Qaida members, mostly of Arab origin, who

January - March 2011 97 moved to the Southern province of Kandahar, the The external factors are: spiritual home of Taliban, and settled there. In early  Pakistan. Pakistan was seeking to exert and 2000s, during the U.S. bombings of the area many maintain an infl uence on the government of of them were killed. The locals buried them and over Afghanistan to facilitate economic and trade re- the years residents have been visiting the burial lations with central Asian republics because the sites regarding them as sacred. The perception is post-Soviet Mujahedeen government of Rabbani that that the foreign Muslim mujahedeen came to and Masoud was not cooperating with Pakistan Afghanistan and died for the Afghan cause fi ghting from Pakistan’s perspective actively enough. the infi dels. That was one of the primary reasons why Also according to the expatriates, Taliban and Al Pakistan unsuccessfully gave aid to Gulbuddin Qaida are not really formalized organizations any- Hekmetyar, his Hizb-i- Islami group and Afghan more by traditional defi nition, but rather ideologies Uzbek leader General Dustam. When the Taliban which infl uence the military doctrines and foreign movement became prominent, Pakistan lost the policies of Western countries. These ideologies con- opportunity to support it. tinue to attract those who oppose the Western cul-  The U.S. In the beginning, the U.S. selec- ture and way of life for different reasons. Al Qaida is tively fought some radical Afghan war lords, a global terror network and Taliban is homegrown, while at the same time relying on those groups mostly an Afghan/Pakistan Pashto tribal based which would be easier to control and infl uence. movement. It seems that it easier to justify the fi ght Another goal has been to prevent the spread of against Al Qaida than Taliban, because Taliban the Iranian infl uence in the central Asian repub- and affi liated groups say that they fi ght against lics which have the second biggest oil reserves in the foreign invasion trying to restore Afghanistan’s the world after the Arab gulf. sovereignty. According to the Arab media the movement had several goals, which have since gradually under- The “Taliban Factor” as Viewed in gone changes and adjustments. They were de- Arab Media clared by the movement’s spokesman Mullah The Arab media widely covers the socio-cultural, Abdul Mann an Niyazi on 3 November 1994 after political, and strategic aspects of the Taliban phe- capturing the town of Spin Buldak. The main goal nomenon which has become a source of encourag- then was to restore security, collect weapons from ment for many Islamic and jihadist organizations other groups, and eliminate check points that ex- around the world. The outcome of the fi ght is of spe- torted people. cial importance for the future strategic balances not After the spread of Taliban control to other Afghan only in the region, but globally as well. provinces, the movement declared its new goals. On Psychological features of the movement. This in- 4 April 1996, Mullah Muhammad Omar declared cludes obstinacy and the ability to stand up to that the movement’s goals were: and face very tough circumstances and hardships.  Establishment of an Islamic government that These are applicable to the Afghan people in gen- follows the examples and teachings of the four eral and the people of Kandahar in particular, the rightly guided Caliphs, rulers of the Islamic Southern province of the country where the move- Caliphate. ment was born. There is a very popular game in  Islam would become the religion of both the peo- Kandahar where two competitors place burning ple and the government. coals in their hands. The winner is the one who  The constitution should be based on Islamic is able to continue holding the coal until it burns Shari’a. out.  Choosing Muslim scholars for important govern- Internal and external factors that led to the prom- ment positions. inence of Taliban. The internal factors include: the  Destroying the roots of fanaticism and tribal civil wars, the chaos that took place after the de- nationalism. feat of the Soviet Union, corruption, lack of security,  Protecting the people of the Book (Jews, and the rapidly attained wealth of the war lords. Christians, and Muslims) and their properties.

98 Military Intelligence Preserving their rights which are given by the construction of oil and natural gas export pipelines Islamic Shari’a. through Afghanistan, which was under serious con-  Improving the political ties with all the Islamic sideration in the mid-1990s. The idea has since countries and organizations according to the been undermined by Afghanistan’s instability. Since rules of Shari’a. 1996, most of Afghanistan has been controlled by  Women should wear hijab (headscarf) in all sec- the Taliban movement, which the U.S. did not offi - tors of Muslim society. cially recognize.  Fighting crime as defi ned by the Taliban such John J. Maresca, Vice President for International as using drugs, and viewing forbidden pictures Relations of the Unocal Oil Corporation (USA), in and fi lms. testimony to the House Subcommittee on Asia and  Introduce the independent Islamic Courts which the Pacifi c on 12 February 1998, concluded his should oversee government institutions. Congressional testimony with the following state- ment: “Developing cost-effective, profi table and ef-  Establishing a trained Army to protect the fi cient export routes for Central Asia resources is a Islamic state against external aggression. formidable, but not impossible, task. It has been ac-  Political and international activities should be complished before. A commercial corridor, a “new” based on Quran and Sunna. Silk Road, can link the Central Asia supply with the  Development of the state economy based on demand–once again making Central Asia the cross- Islamic principles. roads between Europe and Asia.11 While the hope  Appeal to Islamic countries to help rebuild is that export pipelines could provide an economic Afghanistan. boost to the region, thereby bringing peace and  Collecting Zakat (Islamic taxes) and spending it prosperity to the troubled South and Central Asia, on the projects and public services.10 Caucasus and Caspian regions in the long run, the Pipeline Politics and its Regional fear in the short-term, is that the fi erce competition Implications for Afghanistan over pipeline routes and export options will lead to greater instability. During my diplomatic service in The strategic pipeline, Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan (BTC), Washington D.C. and Ambassador Maresca’s ten- was inaugurated in 2005. It was the fi rst major ure at the Department of State, we had numerous pipeline bypassing Russian territory, beginning in discussions on the issues of pipeline politics and Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, transiting through U.S. policy in the region. the territory of the former Soviet Republic of Georgia towards the Turkish Mediterranean port of Ceyhan. Other Challenges From there oil is taken by tankers to the world mar- Among other major challenges within Afghanistan kets. Having up to one million barrels per day ca- are corruption, criminal activity, and a huge illicit pacity, the pipeline has an even more important opium trade. The map depicted below shows the ex- strategic implication. It will strengthen the politi- tent of heroin fl ow from this relatively small country, cal and economic independence of the countries of making it a regional and global challenge. There are the region from possible resurgent Russian ambi- two main problems. The Afghan economy is heavily tions. But even before the completion, it had also marked the beginning of the new “Great Game” with global and regional powers such as the U.S., China, and Russia vying for infl uence in the area. Once again the region became very attractive for global geopolitics, enhanced by the discoveries of natural resources in Afghanistan such as natural gas, oil, marble, gold, copper, chromites, etc. But Afghanistan’s signifi cance stems from its geo- political position as a potential transit route for oil and natural gas exports from Central Asia to the Arabian Sea. This potential includes the possible

January - March 2011 99 reliant on opium cultivation, which does not allow 9. Tariq Mahmood, Durand Line: South Asia’s New Trouble Spot, other sectors of economy to normally develop, and it Army BSc (Honors) War Studies, Balochistan University, 1996. feeds the insurgency and contributes to instability of 10. Aljazeera.net (in Arabic) Report published in October 2004 based the country and region.12 its information on: Taliban: From the dream of Mullah to Emirate Almoamineen (State of Believers) by Malawi Hafi z Allah Haqqani, Conclusion Political Studies Institute, Islamabad, Pakistan, 1st edition 1997. The operational challenges in Afghanistan are ex- 11. Ambassador John J. Maresca, Vice President for International treme; the strategic implications for all of Eurasia Relations of the Unocal Oil Corporation (USA). Testimony to the House Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacifi c on 12 February 1998. are profound. U.S. fi ghting forces must understand and use the socio-cultural lessons learned from 12. United Nations Offi ce of Drug Control, 2008. Soviet history in Afghanistan; and, at the same time 13. Ibrahimov, 24. understand the strategic effects operations may have in the region in order to achieve success. This calls for military leaders and Soldiers to acquire a sophisticated set of skills that are different from the Cold War era. Leaders and Soldiers must under- stand the context of the factors infl uencing the JIIM operational environment. They must act within the contexts they fi nd them- selves, always assessing and adapting their actions based on the interactions and circumstances of the enemy and environment. The military must be able to fl uidly transition from one type of operation to another based upon the assessed circumstances while consolidating operational opportunities with the strategic enterprise.13

Endnotes

1. A. Marshall, Phased Withdrawal, Confl ict Resolution and State Reconstruction, Confl ict Research Studies Centre (Watchfi eld: Defence Academy of the UK, 2006. Accessed a: http://www.da.mod. uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/ca/06(29)AM.pdf/view. Mahir J. Ibrahimov is the Cultural and Foreign Language 2. Army Culture and Foreign Language Strategy, Culture and Foreign Language Gaps, December 2009. Accessed at https://secureweb2. Advisor at Fort Sill, Oklahoma. He completed his PhD at hqda.pentagon.mil/vdas_armyposturestatement/2010/ the Academy of Social Sciences in Moscow in 1991 and has information_papers/Army_Culture_and_Foreign_Language_ attended several post graduate programs at Johns Hopkins Strategy_(ACFLS).asp. University and other U.S. institutions. He also served in the Soviet Army and witnessed the break-up of the Soviet 3. Mahir Ibrahimov, “Operational Culture in the U.S. Army: the Union. As a former high-ranking diplomat he helped open Fires Center of Excellence Culture and Foreign Language Strategy Sets the Standard for the rest of TRADOC, Army”, Fires, January- the fi rst embassy of Azerbaijan in Washington, D.C. While February 2011, 23. working for the U.S. Department of State, he instructed U.S. diplomats in languages and cultures. He also provided vital 4. U.S. National Security Strategy, May 2010, 19. Accessed at assistance as a multi-lingual cultural adviser to U.S. forces http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/ during Operation Iraqi Freedom II and became the subject of national_security_strategy.pdf. a Department of Defense newsreel, “Jack of All Languages.” 5. The Department of Defense Report to Congress, April 28, 2010. Dr. Ibrahimov specializes in the cultural issues of the former 6. Aljazeera.net, 27 July 2009. Soviet Republics, south-central Asia and the Middle East. He is the author of “Invitation to Rain: A Story of the Road Taken 7. Ahmed Rashid, Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in toward Freedom,” and numerous other publications. His next Central Asia (New Haven: Yale University Press, February 2001). assignment is as the U.S. Army’s Senior Cultural and Foreign 8. Akbar Ahmed, Resistance and Control in Pakistan (Routledge Language Advisor, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. Dr. Ibrahimov Press,, August 2004), Chapter 5. can be reached at [email protected].

100 Military Intelligence by Clint Cooper

Introduction Traditionally, most rural Pashtuns have attempted One of the most challenging aspects of getting any- to avoid contact with state legal institutions and thing done in Afghanistan, and in particular Pashtun have preferred to make decisions and resolve con- areas, is trying to identify the one individual who fl icts by holding their own jirga (or shura). A jirga can make a decision and speak for the village as a is a traditional political mechanism for solving dis- whole. putes through a tribal council of elders and religious heads. It is strongly intertwined with the Pashtun “Who is that one individual who can get things tribal economy, social values and beliefs, politics, done? We need to start construction of the bridge and customary laws. A jirga is very communal and next Tuesday at noon; can you meet us with twen- democratic in nature, having elders arrive at deci- ty villagers who are willing to work so we can start construction?” sions through consensus.

Many times an unfortunate American patrol will arrive in a village with good intentions only to be frustrated with the seemingly complete lack of lead- ership and decisiveness on behalf of the Afghans. By doing this we forget the most important aspect of all. These fi rst engagements should focus on build- ing relationships and trust and trying to fi gure out the how the structure of leadership is functioning within the village. We as Americans like to make plans, set goals, and form a timeline to get things done. We want to meet with an Afghan counterpart who is like minded. Unfortunately, there is rarely an individual in any one village who can make an informed decision for Jirga (Shura) - A traditional mechanism of confl ict resolution in the village as a whole. At times there are many who Afghanistan, Ali Wardak, 2003. seem to be in charge and all will smile, make prom- ises, and tell you that they can make things hap- Village Power Brokers pen. But who are you actually talking to–a corrupt Even though you might identify a tribal leader or a land owner, a wealthy businessman, or the actual village elder, that individual rarely has the authority village leader? Finding that one true powerbroker to act for the village as a whole. There are three tra- can be elusive. You might fi nd a government ap- ditional roles of which to be aware. pointed offi cial, but if he is from another tribe or Mulik–The chief representative of the village. This another area, he will rarely have the trust of the lo- position, or offi ce, was created under King Zahir cals and may not have any more power than ex- Shah. It fell into disuse around the time the Soviets tends past his front porch. invaded and has not been resurrected. Sometimes

January - March 2011 101 these old political structures still function. You Afghanistan’s Upper House of Parliament is called could ask to see the Mulik and he might in fact show the Mesherano Jirga (Council of Elders). The mem- up. In many villages the Mulik is still there and is bers are appointed by the President. The Lower very much functioning in that capacity, at least in House of Parliament is called the Wolesi Jirga his immediate vicinity. Many times this is an indi- (Council of the People). The members are elected vidual with a title only who holds limited power or by popular vote. This is all based on the traditional authority. However, leadership can many times be way of making decisions by consensus, the way it is based on the charisma or the respect for a particu- done in the village. lar individual. So based on personal strength alone, Impact of Current History he might, after all these years, still hold a position To make things more frustrating, history has mud- of authority. died the waters even further. You can blame the Malik–Usually the richest person in the village, a failed interaction with the Soviets, the Taliban, and wealthy landowner. Malik can be a title or respect, even the U.S. Recent history has had a huge impact either real or demanded. A Malik has not necessar- on this traditional Pashtun leadership structure. ily been selected to represent the interests of the vil- When the Soviets or the Taliban walked into a vil- lage and may or may not have the interests of the lage and asked for a village leader, they might have village at heart. For example, under the Taliban, the had much differing intentions than those of a U.S. Malik was responsible for such unsavory tasks as patrol. An Afghan will think, “What do they intend providing children for the Army, or taking bribes to to do with the village elder: Kidnap him, kill him?” exempt them. U.S. Soldiers should be carefully aware of such If a patrol asks to speak only with the Malik, some things as non-verbal communication. If appro- villagers may think the U.S. Army is not interested priate, weapons pointed down, eye protection off, in their well-being, and only wishes to talk to people gloves off, simply smiling and using local greetings who are wealthy and powerful. This could reinforce can work wonders. Security is always the top pri- a sense of injustice and frustration among the peo- ority so certain Soldiers might want to leave things ple. In addition, if Taliban-era Maliks have main- like eye protection on to make themselves less ap- tained or regained their power, they are not likely to proachable while performing security duties. Overall be our best supporters. Maliks do in fact hold much Soldiers need to clearly explain their intentions, and power and at times can get things done. try to constantly alleviate the fears and concerns of the Afghans. But we need to ask ourselves whether this power comes from opium, criminal activity, political cor- “We are here on behalf of U.S. Agency for ruption, or possibly even worse. General Petraeus International Development with the intention of dis- wrote: “In situations where there is no alternative tributing wheat seed. This is a special insect and drought resistant variety particularly suited for to powerbrokers with links to criminal networks, it this area. Who can we meet with to better facilitate may be preferable to forego the project.” But, based the distribution of this wheat seed and make sure it on your needs this might be the only way to get your gets to the proper farmers?” This versus, “We need mission accomplished. It takes constant assess- to see the village Elder!” ment of possible cause and effect scenarios to de- Afghans have been described as opportunists, termine an appropriate course of action. but overall are survivalists. They consider the im- Mesheran–Elders. These are the people in the vil- plications of working with Americans today when lage who have traditionally held the authority and the Taliban might be there tomorrow. There is less respect or the villages. A Malik may or may not be a a sense of national identity, and more of a sense of Mesheran. Even though they should hold the power loyalty to the family, tribe, or ethnic group. This is in the village, often their infl uence has been un- where they owe their allegiance. If there is a wrong to dercut by those with their own interests in mind. be made right it is up to you and yours, and you and There is a great respect for age and experience in yours only, to make it right again. The only sense of Afghanistan and most of the time the village elders justice is what you can manage to put together on have the general respect of the village. your own. Hence, the Pashtun proverb: “I against

102 Military Intelligence my brother; my brother and I against my cousin; I, a huge waste of time to most Americans, but in fact, my brother, and my cousin against the stranger.” you are giving an Afghan time to evaluate you and There is another old saying about Afghans, “You fi gure out whether or not he wants to trust you and can rent an Afghan, but you cannot buy him.” work with you. Also, because of the many decades of warfare, Recommendations lack of security, and political vacuums, refugees  Patrols should understand and use all three coming back to Afghanistan after spending years terms: Mulik, Malik and Mesheran in reference in places like Pakistan or Iran may simply not have to leadership when asking about the village pow- the traditional structures in place. As well, often erbroker. It is important to fi nd out which terms more powerful and corrupt individuals have taken have the most relevance for the people in the vil- over their land and have completely ruined any pre- lage and why. If in existence, using the Mesheran existing power structures. would be the preferred avenue of approach. Afghanistan, like many countries with tribal so-  You can ask indirect questions such as, “If there cieties, is a high power distance society. Members was a dispute over water access for irrigation in do not see themselves as equals but as subject to the village to who would you go to get this is- those in power. Hence, there is a tendency to grav- sue resolved?” Always remember that this can itate towards powerful individuals such as kings, be a long drawn out process taking multiple vis- dictators, or warlords. Having an individual point its over an extended period of time. of view or opinion can be foreign to them. It is not  Patrols should keep in mind that Afghans use a uncommon to hear things like, “I don’t know how I collective decision making process. In addition, al- feel about President Karzai, but I know that we as a though it would be nice to have one “go-to guy” in tribe support him.” the village, this is probably not the best way to ob- tain accurate information about the village. It is In the many training scenarios that we as soldiers unwise to assume that there is one form or an- receive before being deployed overseas we all want other of functioning leadership within the village the correct answer after the training exercise is over. until it can be verifi ed with a little time and effort. The truth is that a correct answer simply does not exist. It takes time to map these power structures Conclusion to see what is in place and what is functioning. It Until villagers begin to trust the U.S. Forces oper- can take days, weeks, and even months to fi gure ating in their area and feel less threatened by insur- out how best to use these alternate leaders to our gent activity, they are not likely to volunteer much advantage. information. It is probably going to take multiple vis- As Americans, generally speaking, we trust an in- its, conducted over an extended period of time to gain dividual until that person proves that he is not to be the trust and confi dence of the people. Signifi cant trusted. In Afghanistan you are automatically not gains are not likely to be achieved in the fi rst couple trusted until you can prove that you can be trusted. of visits. These fi rst engagements should focus on Often you are not selling America or Americans, but building relationships and trust. yourself as an individual. Afghans need time to fi g- ure out what our motives are and need to develop Clint Cooper joined the U.S. Army in 1989 as a German the relationship of trust fi rst, well before business linguist and Counterintelligence Agent. His fi rst deployment can move forward. Afghans, unlike Americans, are was to Bosnia as a Tactical Humint Team Leader. He re- trained in 2002 as a Pashtu linguist at the Defense Language rarely concerned with a timeline. Institute and shortly thereafter deployed with the 25th Infantry A concerted effort needs to be made to clearly out- Division in 2003-2004 where he served as Senior Interrogator line the intentions of the patrol to alleviate any fears at Kandahar Airfi eld. He is a Master Instructor and taught or concerns, and to work on developing that all im- the Offi cer G2X Course at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. He joined the newly formed Human Terrain Team in 2008-2009 and portant relationship of trust. Hours of talking about spent the year working with the 1st Infantry Division in the trees, goats, and the weather woven in with gallons Maiwand district of Kandahar Province. Mr. Cooper is currently of Afghan black tea is really the only way to work to- employed at the TRADOC Culture Center, Fort Huachuca, wards getting things done. This can be perceived as Arizona training soldiers about to deploy to Afghanistan.

January - March 2011 103 by Fawzya Khosti and M. Yasin Khosti Introduction the U.S., Turkey, and India were among the fi rst Over the last three decades Afghanistan has taken donors. France, Germany, England, Japan, and a signifi cant cultural beating. Recently, the interna- Egypt, as well as a handful of others, contributed tional community has made various efforts to ad- by underwriting some of the educational expenses dress issues such as “economic impediments, social as well.2 Once Afghanistan joined UNESCO in 1948 expectations, and cultural dictates.”1 International the Afghan educational system became directly support for Afghanistan ranges widely. It includes linked to other international educational organiza- military support to provide short term and long term tions and bilaterally to various governments provid- safety and security; healthcare to address physical ing Afghans with new educational opportunities.3 and mental health issues; fi nancial assistance to Early in the second half of the 20th century, ensure economic development, and monetary sup- Afghanistan created a positive and thriving edu- port towards the development of Afghanistan’s ed- cational system. For example, in 1956 there were ucational system. As the international community 762 schools in Afghanistan boasting an enrollment attempts to salvage Afghan culture, elements of in- of about 121,000 students. Of these students, ap- dividualist culture emerge within a collectivist soci- proximately 111,000 (92 percent) were enrolled in ety, creating a shift in cultural orientation. Pressure elementary schools.4 Although the enrollment num- from the Taliban and Al-Qaida’s fundamentalist ap- bers were low, the number was refl ective of poverty proach imposes on Afghans the expectation that ed- rather than a negative attitude toward “modern” ucation will be extinguished. schooling. By 1975, the number of teachers was Impact of War on Afghanistan’s estimated to be 17,600, teaching a robust number Educational System of 650,000 elementary school students in an esti- Afghanistan’s history is rich, diverse, and expan- mated population of 15 million. sive. Its educational history is just as noteworthy. In the early seventies (1973-4), approximately 11 However, due to infl uences beyond Afghanistan’s percent of Afghans were literate (males 18.7 per- control, the educational system has suffered im- cent/females 2.8 percent).5 This included 2 percent mensely in recent years. This demolished educa- of males and 1 percent of females as high school tional system lacks appropriate funding and is graduates. Even though the numbers were low, the unable to provide appropriate and internationally relatively higher rates of return to investment in competitive education. schooling brought a great amount of pressure to bear Foreign assistance to Afghan education is not a on the government to expand educational places. new concept. In fact, the international community To reduce the pressure on the education system and provided assistance as early as the 19th century for the labor market the government instituted an exam- the early years of formal schooling. For example, ination at the end of the eighth grade to “select out”

104 Military Intelligence students. This examination, called the Concours, was Interestingly, children of Afghan refugees schooled modeled after similar achievement tests in France, in Pakistan found extensive coverage of Islam, al- and was initiated by a UNESCO-UNDP and the beit from the Pakistani point of view. In addition, Afghan Government educational reform program.6 the textbooks portrayed Russians and Americans Sadly, the primary aim of the Concours was to pre- as the enemy; thus creating an environment of dis- vent most children from entering the ninth grade, in trust and hostility in an already stressful situation. order to fulfi ll a political commitment with Iran. The The Russian atrocities in Afghanistan have con- pool of dropouts was to be captured by the vocational tributed to the idea that Russians are the enemy schools to provide the training necessary for devel- and this idea has received a stamp of approval in opment of a network of railroads that was to be fi - the refugees’ texts that is unprecedented in the his- nanced by the Shah of Iran. Ultimately, there was no tory of Islam or the Afghans. Thus, the Russians signifi cant funding from Iran. No vocational schools were portrayed as the enemy, and the belief was were built, and consequently, no railroads were built. fostered that they were in fact the enemy forever.9 This injustice later became one of the battle cries of In 1992, the Afghan resistance forces, referred to the Soviet supported coup in April 1978. as Mujahiddin, entered Kabul and since then most schools have remained closed in Qandahar, Kabul, and the eastern parts of the country, primarily be- cause of factional fi ghting among the Mujahiddin. Afghanistan has experienced a plethora of signifi - cant setbacks in the development of its educational system, primarily due to the Russian invasion in the early 1970s, and, consequently, the infi ltration of Taliban and Al-Qaida within Afghanistan. The re- sult has been the erosion in the quality of educa- tion due to wars, poverty, and population growth. In fact, in more recent years, education has focused primarily upon religion, and has become skewed to promote specifi c political views. In addition to the above, themes in textbook pro- Conclusion duction in Afghanistan became contentious. Several Prior to decades of war, Afghanistan’s educa- major themes emerged in textbooks produced during tional system gave rise to an expansion of interna- the 1960s and 1970s in Afghan history, as well as on tionally competitive professionals, for both men and the Dari and Pashto languages.7 There was, for ex- women. This trend created an atmosphere of suc- ample, an expectation that the language and dress of cess through dual-income families, a rising middle the culturally dominant Pushtuns (Pashto speakers, class with enough income to purchase homes and the ruling ethno-linguistic group in the country) were cars, improving standards of health, an increasing to be emulated by all the Afghan children. The for- interest in other cultures, and internationally com- mal code of conduct, the Pashtunwali, was promoted petitive professionals. Through education, an un- as the new norm. Those who ruled Afghanistan, the derstanding and appreciation of Afghan history, Mohammadzai clan of the Barakzai tribe, were cul- language, traditions, and culture created a renais- turally superior, according to the implicit message of sance of emerging national pride. these texts. Last, glorifi cation of pre-Islamic events and personalities and discussions implying supe- Therefore, just as war has diminished the many riority of the Western culture constituted the third educational resources focused on Afghanistan, theme within the texts. As a result, children at the fear and distrust has worked to destroy the pride end of their education knew more about Europe than and culture of the Afghan people. For various rea- Asia, the history of Islam, or Afghanistan’s neighbors sons, the international community has infi ltrated and the minorities within the country.8 Clearly, edu- Afghanistan with Russian, Pakistani, American, cation within Afghanistan lacked objectivity. and Saudi Arabian, and other cultures. Afghan cul-

January - March 2011 105 ture, as known in the pre-Taliban era, has become Majrooh, A. 1987. Education in Afghanistan: Past and Present-A nearly extinguished. With the re-establishment of Problem for the Future. Central Asian Survey, 6, 3: 103-116. adequate, internationally competitive education, Mojaddidi. H. September 1972. The Development of Higher Education in Afghanistan: Kabul University. Bulletin of the Afghanistan may have an opportunity for a revival UNESCO’s Regional Offi ce for Education in Asia 7,1: 17-22. of its culture, traditions, and national pride. Nakosteen, Mehdi.1964. History of Islamic origins of Western Education: AD 800-1350. Boulder: University of Colorado Press, Endnotes 1964. 1. Mark Eggerman and Catherine Panter-Brick, “Suffering, Hope, Shorish, M.M. Traditional Islamic Education in Central Asia Prior to and Entrapment: Resilience and Cultural values in Afghanistan,” 1917. In Lemercier-Quelquejay, Veinstein, and Wimbush edition Social Science & Medicine, 71, 1, (2010): 71-83. of Passe Turco-Tatar, Present Sovietique. 2. Ministry of Education, Education in Afghanistan during the Last Shura’i Muttahid-e Nisab-e Ta`alimiyi. 1987. Tanzimhayi Islamiyi Fifty Years, Volume I. Primary, Secondary and Vocational Education, Afghanistan, al-Lughat al-`Arabiyah Lilsinf al-Rabi`a. 140. Kabul, 1968, 218-258, Annex C. Tarzi, Mahmud. 1977. Maqalat-e Mahmud Tarzi dar Siraj al- 3. Payandah Zaheer and Yusof `Ailmi, D’ Afghanistan d’ Ma`arif Akhbar-e Afghaniya. Gardavarandah, Rawan Ferhadi, Kabul: Tarikh, Kabul: D’ Puhani Wazarat, 1960, 11. Byhaqi. 4. Ministry of Education. 1968. UNESCO. 1965. Long-term Projections for Education in Afghanistan. 5. USAID, National Demographic and Family Guidance Survey of the Bangkok: UNESCO Regional Offi ce for Education in Asia. Settled Population of Afghanistan, 1975, 73-92. UNESCO. 1952. Report of the Mission to Afghanistan, Paris. 6. UNESCO, Assistance to the Educational Reform (Report and Wilbur, Donald.1956. Afghanistan. New Haven: Human Relation Project Proposal of the Gvernment of Afghanistan/UNDP/UNESCO Area Files. Tripartite Review Mission), Kabul: Wazarat-e Ma`arif, 1977. Wimbush, Enders.1986. Passe Turco-Tatar, Present Sovietique: 7. M. Mobin Shorish, “Islam va Milligara’i dar Kutub-e Darsiyi etudes Offertes a Alexandre Bennigsen. Paris: Editions Peeters Afghanistan,” Roshd-e Mo`allim (Tehran: Jamhuri Islami Iran, Publishers, 1986, 316-343 Wazarat Amuzish wa Parwarish, No. 3 (1986): 24-28, 61-62. World Bank. 1977. Afghanistan: The Journey to Economic 8. Ibid. Development, Volume 1. 9. Muttahid Shura’i, Tanzimhayi Islamiyi Afghanistan, al-Lughat al- `Arabiyah Lilsinf al-Rabi`a, 1987, 61 and 140. Fawzya Khosti is currently a doctoral candidate and has worked for Western Governors University for over two years. Other References During this time she was part of the faculty for the College Afghanistan, Ministry of Education, Educational Reform, n.d., Kabul. of Business, managed the Teacher’s College and has been Anjuman-e Aryana Da’irat al-Ma`arif-e Afghanistan, Aryana Da’irat involved in developing new and innovative programs for al-Ma`arif, v. III, Kabul: 1956. WGU, including negotiating new learning resources for the Dupree, Louis. 1980. Afghanistan. Princeton. Teacher’s College. Her work has included writing specifi c and specialized curriculum for U.N. Offi ce of Projects Service Ghobar, Mir Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan dar Masiri Tarikh. (UPOPS) in Kabul, Afghanistan. Kabul: Davlati Matba`ah, 1346 S/1967.

Kabul University. 1973-1975 General Catalog, v. II, Kabul: M. Yasin Khosti, born in Afghanistan, came to the U.S. in Franklin Book Programs Inc., 1973. 1963 where he studied at Ohio State University and received a B.Sc. in Geodetic Science. He obtained his Master’s Degree in Organizational Management from the University of Phoenix. Mr. Khosti’s professional duties included working for the Government of Afghanistan with the Ministry of Mines and Industries and the Ministry of Public Health; UNICEF, Hoechst Pharmaceuticals, and Bristol-Myers Squibb. He is currently on the Boards of Directors with the World Affairs Council of Arizona and the Society of Afghan Engineers of America. He worked for the reconstruction of Afghanistan from 2002 through 2005. During these years he helped establish a new independent government offi ce (Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority) AACA to monitor, evaluate, and coordinate the international assistance for Afghanistan. He also served as Senior Advisor with the U.N. to the Minister of Public Works and the Minister of Transport. He is an Associate Professor in International Business Management at Western International University and an instructor at the TRADOC Cultural Center.

106 Military Intelligence by Anatole Balma, PhD

Introduction community and on the individual person. However, A good negotiator is one who knows when, where, and community comes fi rst and the individual comes how to endorse a compromise. The African Palaver second. The foundations of these communities are is a form of mediation-negotiation used to prevent dialogue and reciprocity. The group takes priority a crisis from erupting, or as a means of resolving over the individual, it must do so without harming a confl ict. It functions around consensus-building him and must allow him to prosper as a person. and long-lasting reconciliation of all parties involved. In this realm, an individual’s intrinsic qualities are It is a traditional method to avoid unresolved con- valued as he is valued within his own community. fl ict by means of a humanistic, liberating and em- The self in the Western hemisphere is perceived as powering approach. An African saying teaches that: something inside a person, a vase of mental proper- “There is no such thing as two individuals not get- ties and powers. From the African standpoint, the ting along well; all they have to do is to sit for a sin- self is conceived as something outside an individ- cere dialogue.” It is essential that such an endeavor ual, a strong bond to the natural and social envi- be conducted with fairness, open-mindedness, and ronment. The self has little determination outside transparency. The third party, therefore, is neither a the community. A person’s identity is defi ned by referee nor a facilitator; he is the active third party. It his ties to his family and community, yet it encom- brings in the fundamental values that are essential passes a comprehensible perception of himself as a to consensus-building and social cohesion. Thus, for distinct individual with volition. all these reasons, agreement, harmony, conciliation, There is an intrinsic sense of personhood and good understanding, and peace are the major pillars communal membership. “I am because we are and of the African Palaver. since we are, therefore I am.” In such a subtle set- There is an African culture as well as an African ting, discovering the proper way to endorse a com- identity, and the two combine to form “Africanness.” promise without compromising the individual or the People of African descent share unique and distinc- community is a complex interaction requiring the tive attributes characterized by friendliness, hospi- ability to disagree without being disagreeable. This tality, dignity, and consensus-seeking principles. article will explore the concept of African traditional Traditional African society is based both on the mediation-negotiation under the Palaver Tree.

January - March 2011 107 History As mentioned earlier, Palaver is a traditional Julius K. Nyéréré, former president of Tanzania, practice of social gathering aimed at creating new writes that the African Palaver is an exhilarating en- bonds, solidifying existing bonds, and reinforcing deavor, “the elders sit under the big tree and talk fairness, justice, and peace through dialogue, dis- until they agree.” But how does it work? A little bit cussion, respect of identity, esteem, and commu- of history to start with is in order. nity values that the parties hold very high. As such, it is a genuine social institution of which the en- Post-colonial African societies kept many of their tire community shares values, trust, and deference. social organizations and stratifi cation well after in- This traditional practice also aims at resolving con- dependence; one such system is the traditional way fl icts without any of the parties having to lose face. of rendering justice. The judicial system through- In Africa, this gathering takes place under and in out the continent is a dualistic one combining the the shade of a tree, the palaver tree. Throughout Napoleonic code (the imported European rule of the continent, quite often the palaver tree is a bao- law), and the traditional African judicial system bab tree, in the shade of which important decisions comprised of mysticism and orally passed down to dealing with daily life, special issues, and unfore- future generations. The meaning of the word pala- seen problems affecting the harmony of the commu- ver has changed through history. From its Spanish nity are discussed and resolved. roots, palabra, it meant discourse, speech, or con- fl ict during the colonial era. Today in post-colonial The baobab tree, “adansonia digitata,” is a revered Africa, it means dialog, discussion, a confl ict reso- personality that fi lls nature. Its life expectancy can lution instrument. Colonial masters called it con- reach up to a thousand years. Baobab is from the fl ict because most often when they wanted anything Arabic word, “buhibab”, meaning numerous grains. done they had to rely on the local chief through a The baobab tree embodies inestimable cultural and translator who was not always a professional and social values. It is full of symbolism and mysteries. therefore not always accurate in leading the ex- Griots and drummers in Africa used to gather under change between the colonial master and the local the baobab tree to pass on tradition and culture to chief, often resulting in heated arguments, conten- the younger generation through recitation and nar- tions, and misunderstandings. Palaver means dis- ration. The baobab is the ideal gathering place for cussion. Its main purpose is not to indicate who elders when they are faced with the unknown. The is wrong and who is right but to stop violence, ap- baobab tree is sometimes simply known as the pa- pease parties in confl ict, and restore peace through laver tree, the lie detector, the gardener, the watch a therapy of discourse. dog, the depository of the truth. Cultural and Social Values of the In Senegal for instance, drummers and griots were Baobab Tree buried inside the baobab tree. Griots play an impor- tant role in an oral society such as the Sere com- munity in this part of the world, but with regard to social stratifi cation and ranking, griots and drum- mers were at the very bottom of the social scale. Despised yet feared, griots and their family mem- bers were not supposed to be buried in the open in a fi eld because the soil would become barren and make plants and trees in that fi eld unable to bear forever. Upon their deaths, a very special ceremony was organized to bury griots and their family members. It consisted of dressing up the dead body and car- rying it out to a baobab tree. With the corpse by the baobab, a group of male youngsters would rush into the hole of the tree and start a fi erce fi ght inside A baobab tree. the hole until a winner was declared. The last two

108 Military Intelligence fi ghters standing would then take the corpse and tree were proactive enough to include specifi c guide- lay it inside the hole, while the other fi ghters gave lines alongside sacredness, mysticism, symbolism, a standing ovation. Those two would be regarded and imagery when conducting this kind of discus- as heroes and the young girls in their community sion under the palaver tree. would cheer and greatly admire them. Of course, In such a forum, consensus was achieved and the losers would be ashamed and would have to ful- all members agree to disagree without being dis- fi ll the demands of the winners until another simi- agreeable. Dialog was used as a favored means to lar ceremony was organized. long-lasting peace agreement and confl ict resolu- Similarly in the Dakoro region of Burkina Faso, tion. This approach is a judicial must. The scheme the Dogon people have the same practices to this was then agreed upon, structured, and institution- day with the difference that the central charac- alized as an assembly represented and symbolized ters are not the griots but people infected with lep- by a palaver tree. Each village, clan, ethnic group, rosy. In this instance, the ideal place of burial was or community would send representatives wholly a baobab hole that would let the sun in. The corpse vested with judicial powers and trusted to attend was then lowered vertically and stood up facing the the open forum and be the spokespersons of their west and the sunset, in the belief that they were respective groups. Those emissaries were chosen forever rid of the curse of leprosy. People infected and trusted for their sense of moral value, integ- with leprosy were not supposed to be buried in rity, and intellect. The forum was characterized by the open fi eld for they would taint the water from an absolute and public acceptance of differences in the rain and infest the crops and the drinking wa- opinion, perspectives, views, and beliefs. ter. Considering its size and life expectancy, the baobab tree in African imagery is fi lled with maj- Protection was guaranteed to stakeholders and esty, magnifi cence, and splendor; and that’s what so was freedom of speech. Constituents were al- makes it the ideal place for discussions and con- lowed to make their cases, defend their viewpoint, fl ict resolution. but all agreed to submit to the settlement that was to be rendered through the palaver under the tree. Modus Operandi and Mechanisms of One of the functions of the palaver was to convince the Palaver Tree through discussion and dialogue rather than by means of coercion. Through history and experience, Africans always seek to build consensus and una- nimity so that they avoid never-ending differences and unresolved disputes. As a matter of fact, una- nimity was not always guaranteed; merely reaching an agreement was celebrated so that harmony and peace would prevail. There were instances where there was no winner but constituents would always abide by the rulings. Palaver in Modern Africa  The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa). The South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was set up by Drummers, depository of orality. the Government of National Unity to help deal All societies and communities are subject to cri- with what happened during the apartheid era. sis and confl ict, and Africa is no exception. Whether The confl ict during this period resulted in vio- facing an identity crisis or a social or economic con- lence and human rights abuses from all sides. fl ict, it is essential to have a means of confl ict reso- No section of society escaped these abuses. lution and that is why people on this continent have The TRC was a court-like restorative justice come up with the palaver tree. Long before the ar- body assembled after the abolition of apart- rival of colonialism, the forefathers of the palaver heid. Witnesses who were identifi ed as vic-

January - March 2011 109 tims of gross human rights violations were cumstances, factors, and context of such viola- invited to give statements about their experi- tions and abuses. It also had to determine those ences, and some were selected for public hear- responsible for the commission of the violations ings. Perpetrators of violence could also give and abuses and their motives, as well as their testimony and request amnesty from both civil impact on victims. The TRC Liberian style be- and criminal prosecution. Overall the TRC gave came a forum that addressed issues of impu- South African citizens a chance to express their nity, as well as an opportunity for both victims regret at failing to prevent human rights viola- and perpetrators of human rights violations to tions and to demonstrate their commitment to share their experiences in order to create a clear reconciliation and to a new kind of future in a picture of the past to facilitate genuine healing widely inclusive, inviting, welcoming, and ac- and reconciliation and long-lasting peace. cepting South Africa. The TRC sharply contrasted the Nuremberg Trials after World War II and other de-Nazifi cation measures. Because of the perceived success of the reconciliatory approach in dealing with hu- man rights violations after political change either from internal or external factors, other countries have instituted similar commissions, though not always with the same scope or the allowance for charging those currently in power. The success of the “TRC method” versus the “Nuremberg method” of prosecution (as seen used in Iraq) is open for debate.  The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Liberia). Securing peace and reconciliation in postwar Liberia was the task in which the Accra- Grass and Cows. brokered Comprehensive Peace Agreement of  The Gacacas in Rwanda. The traditional form 18 August 2003 sought the transitional jus- of decision-making in Rwanda is the gacaca, tice mechanism of a Truth and Reconciliation a Kinyarwanda word meaning “grass.” If your Commission for the country. The basis for cre- cows were eating my vegetables, both you and I ation of this mechanism is that key leaders, who would be called to a meeting of the village elders, dominated the recent past either in belligerent who would doubtless be sitting on the grass, un- capacities or for substantial supports to the cri- der the shade of “the big tree,” to quote Julius sis, would be given their day to reveal their ac- Nyerere. And they would talk and talk, until tions or knowledge about the ugly chapter in they came to a verbal consensus. To the African, Liberian history. “Majority rule was a foreign notion.” The objectives and purpose of the Commission Rwanda has now adopted this gacaca as the were to promote national peace, security, unity, means by which to overcome the legacy of the and reconciliation by investigating gross human genocide. The ringleaders of that atrocity still go rights violations and violations of international to the United Nations’ court in Arusha. But the humanitarian law as well as economic crimes, other suspected criminals, possibly as many such as the exploitation of natural or public re- as 100,000 people, are being asked to confront sources to perpetuate armed confl icts, during their victims or their families. Depending on the period January 1979 to October 2003. the severity of the crime, those guilty of lesser The Liberian Truth and Reconciliation crimes are sentenced to complete a community Commission had to determine whether these service order which benefi ts those aggrieved. were isolated incidents or part of a systematic In fact, the gacacas are like mini-Peace and pattern and to establish the antecedents, cir- Reconciliation Commissions in every village in

110 Military Intelligence the land, and each works on the basis of a ver- as a setting requires a clear grasp and understand- bal consensus. ing of African mediation-negotiation methods and The gacaca courts system has allowed the mechanisms as well as African thought, philoso- population of the the same area to work to- phy, and mindset. A Ghanaian proverb teaches us gether in order to judge those who have partic- that “you can bury a cadaver, but you cannot bury ipated in the genocide, to identify the victims, a palaver.” and to rehabilitate innocent people. The gacaca Courts system became the basis of collaboration and unity, mainly because when the truth was known, there was no more suspicion, the perpe- trator was punished, and justice was rendered to the victim. Innocent prisoners could be re- integrated into Rwandan society. The Rwandan genocide was orchestrated by Rwandans against their brothers. It is then the responsi- bility of all Rwandan–with no exception–to re- build their society, to settle the disputes related to that genocide, especially through the trials of the presumed authors and the reparation of the damage caused to the victims. Overall, the ga- cacas have been able to fulfi ll their mission, to References restore conviviality among Rwandans, and pre- Le Roy, Etienne. L’ordre négocié: l’oralité juridique et les mutations pare their hearts and minds to work for their techniques et socials. Cahiers Science, Technologie, Société, N° spécial 1986, Vol. 12. own and the country‘s development. Boulaga, Fabien Eboussi. The Topic of Change. African Philosophy Conclusion as Cultural Inquiry, Karp, Ivan and Masolo, D. A.(Eds). Culture provides a benchmark for beauty, good, and Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 2000. truth during the process of mediation, negotiation, Kaunda, Kenneth. A Humanist in Africa. New York: Abingdon self-regulation and peace. Any kind of peacemak- Press, 1966. ing endeavor ought to involve prevention, resolution, Bah, Thierno. Les mécanismes traditionnels de prévention et de reconciliation of heart and mind, and most of all, for- résolution des confl its en Afrique noire. Accessed at www.unesco. giveness of parties involved in a dispute. It is about org/cpp/publications/mecanismes/edbah.htm. long-lasting consensus building, preventing a confl ict U.S. Institute of Peace. Truth Commission: Liberia. February from bursting out, or avoiding unresolved confl ict. It 2006. Accessed at http://www.usip.org/publications/truth- commission-liberia. is important that such an enterprise be conducted with fairness, open-mindedness, and transparency. Widipedia. Gacaca Court. Accessed at http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Gacaca_court. Altogether the fi nal result is built on a compromise. Mediation can take place at any level of a confl ict res- South African History Online. Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Accessed at http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/governence- olution in order for facilitation and compromise to be projects/TRC/index.htm. effected. Dr. Balma is a Training Specialist with U.S. Army TRADOC Understanding the cultural standpoint of the con- Culture Center at Fort Huachuca, Arizona. He is a graduate of fl ict will provide the mediator with valuable tools in Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana where he taught managing the differences. Gradually inviting the par- French, ESL, and African-American studies. He holds a PhD ties to make concessions, benchmarking, organizing in Curriculum and Instruction, Teaching and Learning with the demands, ranking the priorities, highlighting the Information Technology (2005) and an MS in Education/ moral and ethical values, and coming to an agree- Language Acquisition (2001). His doctoral research dealt with language policy and culture in the Sub-Saharan Africa region ment and to a compromise without compromising and includes quantitative study of the issues raised in his oneself would be the path in the long road to a mis- qualitative dissertation. Before joining the TRADOC Culture sion success. The bottomline here is that one trusted Center, he served as a Department of Defense subject matter with a mediation-negotiation assignment with Africa expert in Sub-Saharan African Languages and Culture.

January - March 2011 111 by Zachary Angafor

His Royal Highness, Angafor Mombo-oh III, Introduction Paramount Chief of Bambui, Cameroon For several centuries before colonial rule, African Also, despite their positions as heads of state and traditional rulers were held in very high esteem as government, many leaders of African countries still custodians of African culture and heritage. Although pay full allegiance to tribal rulers from whom they colonial rule and now the pressures of modernism believe they can get the blessings, power and wis- and western approaches to government threaten their dom they need to be able to rule their countries infl uence, African traditional rulers are still the font well. It is, in fact, common practice in many African and bedrock of African culture. They are highly re- countries for the leaders and politicians to con- spected and are seen as the embodiment of wisdom, sult traditional rulers regularly for inspiration and power, and character. As custodians of their tribal guidance. Thus, in a good number of such coun- stools, cups, and shrines, African traditional rulers tries, kings or sultans are potent power brokers. are duty bound to uphold and enhance the values And in some other countries, they might be the ac- and beliefs of their communities. Some have consid- tual power behind the executive and/or the legisla- erable political and economic clout and play useful tive arms of government. Early in 2010 in Nigeria, roles in maintaining peace and security in their com- for example, the powerful Sultan of Sokoto, Sa’ad munities, brokering low level confl icts, and assisting Abubakar III and some infl uential northern emirs as auxiliaries of their governments with regard to se- reportedly stalled plans by the Nigerian Senate for curity and development. Chiefs and kings or sultans the removal from offi ce of ailing President Umaru and emirs are therefore potent forces in Africa. In Yar’Adua of northern origins.1 some countries such as Ghana for example, their in- Against this background, understanding and stitutions are recognized by the constitution. recognizing the central role of traditional rulers This article will take an introspective look at these in African culture as well as the power they wield rulers and the potential roles they might play in the in their kingdoms and at the national level could success of our military operations in Africa. (Sultans greatly enhance the success of the operations of our and emirs are the Muslim equivalents of kings and military personnel on the African continent. This chiefs.) I begin with the premise that Africans are should, however, not be construed to mean that culture bound and that in spite of modernism and all African traditional rulers wield enormous power the adoption of western life styles and systems of outside their tribes or that they are all regarded with government, Africans still have a strong and emo- equal esteem in the entire continent. The degree of tional attachment to their core values, beliefs, and authority and respect commanded by a traditional norms, as well as to the traditional rulers who in- ruler on the continent varies from one tribe to an- carnate them. To note just two examples, Africans other and from one country and region to the other. living in the West still maintain an emotional at- In this article, our discussions will be limited to tra- tachment to their culture. Here in the U.S, for exam- ditional rulers in some countries of the west and ple, some organize tribal Cultural and Development west central African coast. Associations where they meet regularly to re-live and revalorize their respective cultures and heri- Brief History tage. In fact, some Africans living in the West ac- The rise, and in some cases, the demise of chief- tually return home to canvass and take up nobility doms and kingdoms in Africa differ from one coun- title-ships in their tribes. try to another and from one region to the other.

112 Military Intelligence Generally speaking, most African chiefdoms and Another purpose of the symbols and decorations kingdoms pre-date colonial rule, and some have on the stools, as well as other possessions of the existed for several hundreds and, in fact, thou- king, is to distinguish him from his subjects. The sands of years. Examples include the Ashanti cups could be the horn of a buffalo or made from kingdom in Ghana that has existed since the ivory, gold, and wood. The cups also undergo simi- 15th century; the 17th century Sokoto Sultanate lar rituals like the stool. Both the stool and cup are of Nigeria; the 16th century Bamun kingdom and regarded as the spiritual powerhouse and unifying the six-hundred-years old Bambui chiefdom of force of the tribe. In a majority of African chiefdoms Cameroon. To date, the leaders of these kingdoms and kingdoms, the stool is taken out only on spe- and chiefdoms and several others in Africa have cial occasions, for instance, during an annual tribal been highly respected, consulted, courted, and dance or when the chief or king dies or is “missing” solicited for traditional “blessings” and nobility as most Africans refer to the death of a king. Still title-ships in their kingdoms by their respective in some other tribes, after the coronation of a new heads of state, politicians, and businessmen. The king, the stool is hidden deep in the palace and is Sultan of Sokoto in predominantly Muslim north- seen only by the king and his trusted advisers. ern Nigeria, the Asantehene of Ashanti in Ghana, Apart from the chief and king, the stool and cup the Zulu king in South Africa, and the kings of in many African tribes can never be touched by a Nso and Bamun in Cameroon are good examples “commoner.” They are only touched by designated of some African kings for whom politicians and noblemen who have undertaken some ritual initi- businessmen are at their beck and call. ation. The cup is used by the king who is also the A chiefdom is “an autonomous political unit com- chief priest of the tribe for performing libation dur- prising a number of villages or communities under ing important ceremonies such as invoking the pow- the permanent control of a paramount chief.”2 The ers of ancestors for the protection of the tribe and paramount chief is assisted in the administration of solemnizing relations between communities. the chiefdom by sub-chiefs, village councilors, no- There are many and varying stories about the ori- blemen, and probably a council of elders. Also re- gins of the stool. In the Ashanti kingdom in Ghana, ferred to as tribes, African chiefdoms, or emirates for example, the stool is said to have been conjured in the case of Muslims, have been the fulcrums of from the sky by a fetish priest.3 Regarded as the soul political power from time immemorial. Kingdoms and heart beat of a tribe, the stool, cup and shrines or Sultanates, on the other hand, are larger units. must never be violated or desecrated by anyone. They are made up of clusters of chiefdoms or emir- During his coronation, the new king vows to defend ates and are ruled by monarchs. Some monarchs, these valuable objects of the tribe. Thus, like the fl ag for example, King Mswati III of Swaziland exercise and constitution of a country, the stool, cup, and absolute power while others are assisted in their ad- shrines are held sacred and the king, together with ministrative work by paramount chiefs or emirs, no- his entire tribe, would fi ght and die in their defense. bles, and advisers. In fact, history has it that in the Ashanti tribe of The two most important symbols of authority and Ghana, the Ashantis allowed their king to be exiled culture in African chiefdoms and kingdoms are the in defense of their stool. In other African countries, royal stool and the cup. Most royal stools and cups kings who abuse the stool have been killed by their are as old as the chiefdoms and kingdoms themselves subjects. It was the case in Cameroon on January and are passed down through the generations from 19, 2006, when the king of Big Babanki, a village one king to another. The stools are often carved from in the north western region of the country was de- wood or made from bronze and embellished with gold. throned, bundled and burnt to death by his sub- In some cases, they are empowered with human or jects for allegedly abusing the stool. The late king animal blood, herbs and substances that are believed incurred the wrath of his people for allegedly de- to have magical powers. The stools also have visual stroying ancestral shrines, selling historic and cul- expressions of kingship and the forces, such as hu- turally valuable and priceless artifacts of the village, man and animal symbols of a leopard, lion, elephant and seizing and selling the lands of farmers with im- or python that are believed to sustain the king. punity. Our military personnel should therefore be

January - March 2011 113 aware that any person who desecrates a shrine or obliged to wear caps before entering some palaces, abuses a stool in an African village does so at his but forbidden to do so when entering other palaces. own risk and peril. In general, women must not wear pants when vis- Etiquette and Rapport Building iting an African king as this is regarded as a sign of disrespect for the king. However, female military The fi rst and perhaps the most important step for personnel might be tolerated in some palaces if the our military personnel to build rapport and good pants are part of their offi cial uniform. working relationships with African kings is for them to know and endeavor to put into practice some ba- It is traditionally obligatory in most African king- sic etiquette and do’s and don’ts of an African king’s doms to always have some gifts when visiting a interactions and relations with the public. Members king. Gifts usually include drinks, textiles, works of the U.S. Peace Corps are masters at this game of art and crafts, or money. When ushered into the and strategy. Before our Peace Corps volunteers palace, the visitor may be taken to a waiting room if take up assignments in Africa, and even during their the king is not sitting on his throne. Once the king stay there, they always take immersion courses in makes his appearance, the visitor or visitors must African culture and more specifi cally in how to in- stand up and remain standing until he sits down. teract with African traditional rulers. This partly ex- Although regarded as the father of the entire king- plains and accounts for the resounding success of dom, not everyone has direct access to the king. And the Peace Corps in Africa. apart from his wives, adolescent children, and some Royal etiquette varies from one African tribe to noblemen, no other person touches the king. He will another, but basically they are the same. African never offer a handshake to his subjects and may kings or sultans command a lot of loyalty and rev- only do so to non-natives if and when he is out of erence. They live in palaces that may have as many his palace and kingdom. Apart from their advisers as 40 or more buildings, some of which are exoti- and wives, some African kings do not talk directly cally decorated with works of art and crafts. In ad- to their subjects and visitors. They can only do so dition to the quarters of the king and his wives, the through a “linguist” or an intermediary even when palace also serves as the spiritual and cultural cen- the subject or visitor is sitting in front of them. ter of the kingdom. It is the pinnacle of all mysti- cal and ancestral worship and houses some of the In general, African kings do not eat in public, most powerful shrines and secret societies of the and they are forbidden to visit the weekly markets kingdom. In addition to his numerous wives (30 or in their kingdoms, which partly explains why it is more in some cases), the king also has servants in advisable to take along some gifts when visiting. his court. The servants are responsible for protocol, Before leaving the palace, it is recommended to give security, and running of errands for the king. They the royal protocol and security offi cials a tip. They are also his eyes and ears in the kingdom. As the will remain to sing their praises of the visitor to the supreme authority of the land, the king has access king. Diffi cult as these courtesies may be to a non- to all the secret societies in the kingdom and their native, an African king will truly appreciate it if the inner-workings. He personally knows all the heads visitor shows some knowledge and respect for them. of major lineage groups in his kingdom, and has A stronger bond and working relationship may also the power and authority to summon them for con- be built if the visitor can, for example, speak a few sultation concerning any issues, such as witchcraft words of the king’s language. Above all, never make or crime in their respective families. Thus, through promises that can never be kept. And avoid any con- the king alone, a visitor can have a good feel of a descending attitudes that might be the beginning of kingdom of several thousand people and the val- the end of a potential good working relationship. ues, beliefs, and norms that condition and infl u- Collaborating with African Traditional ence them. Rulers African kings generally grant audiences on most Before colonial rule and modernism, the activi- days of the week, but it is always advisable to make ties and authority of African traditional rulers were contacts with a palace representative or protocol mostly limited to their tribes. For example, they offi cer for preliminary arrangements. Visitors are acted as chief priests offering sacrifi ces to their

114 Military Intelligence tribal ancestors to appease and plead with them to Conclusion intercede for the welfare of their people. Over the In a continent where over 70 percent of the popula- years, and more specifi cally since colonial and post- tion lives in rural areas, the importance of traditional colonial rule, their roles as mere custodians of the rulers in the administration of an African country culture and heritage of their communities have un- cannot be overemphasized. As leaders in their re- dergone signifi cant changes. spective tribes, African traditional rulers know bet- During British rule in Nigeria, for example, power at ter than anyone else the terrain, its people, and the the local level was left in the hands of kings and chiefs values, beliefs and norms that motivate their behav- in a system of “indirect rule.” In practice, indirect rule iors. Also, they are better disposed to know the var- was known as “Native Administration,” with the king ious groups or networks operating in the clan, tribe or chief at the top, and a core of local offi cials below or region that are, or may be, threats to peace and him.4 During the decades of centralized one party rule security. In light of the foregoing, it is evident that in on the continent, kingship was comparatively unpop- addition to mainstream government offi cials, African ular, but since multi-party democracy has not proved traditional rulers could play a vital and determin- itself a panacea for Africa’s political problems, kings ing role in the success of our operations on the con- are now making a major come back. tinent if our military personnel leverage their power and knowledge of the African terrain. Africa is a ‘basket case’ of failed states, from Somalia on the east coast to the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the center to Mauritania on the west Endnotes coast of the continent. “In sub-Saharan Africa, the 1. Sunday Punch (Nigeria), 7 March 2010. widely hailed wave of democratization that washed 2. R. L. Carneiro, “The Nature of the Chiefdom as Revealed by Evidence over the region in the early 1990s has ended up from the Cauca Valley of Colombia”, Profi les in Cultural Evolution, producing dominant-power systems in countries A.T. Rambo and K. Gillogly, eds. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan such as Mauritania, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Press, 1991), 167-190. Tanzania.”5 3. www.info-ghana.com/ashanti_empire.htm. 4. Toyin Falola, Culture and Customs of Nigeria (Westport: Greenwood Indeed, western democracy and style of govern- Press, 2001). ment have, to a large extent, failed in Africa. And as 5. Thomas Carothers, Critical Mission: Essays on Democracy Promotion the continent tries to reinvent itself politically, tra- (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution Press, 2004). ditional rulers have once more taken center stage. At the continental level, for instance, a Forum has Other References been formed of kings, sultans, princes, sheikhs, UNAFAS: CVP publication, promoting Cameroon’s Cultural and mayors of Africa. Working hand-in-hand with heritage, Yaounde, Cameroon. the African Union (AU), a regional organization that Cameroon Post, 23 January 2006. promotes peace, stability, and the economic devel- opment of the continent, the Forum of Kings and Mr. Angafor is originally from Cameroon. Prior to joining the Sultans is unequivocal in the role it intends to play AFRICOM Team of the U.S Army TRADOC Culture Center in present day Africa. “The fate of the African peoples as a Senior Training and Development Specialist, he was is in the hands of traditional leaders and the heads Founder and Executive Director of African Confl icts Response Foundation, a non-profi t organization incorporated in Texas of states and governments of the African countries that worked to sow seeds of peace in marginalized and post- who are called today to move forward to achieve confl ict communities in Africa. He has also been a journalist, progress and adapt to the changes that characterize editor, and assistant chief of programs at Cameroon Radio the world,” the Forum said in its declaration during and Television. Mr. Angafor studied at the London School of the 13th session of the AU summit meeting in Libya Economics and the University of Lancaster in the UK, and the on July 1, 2009. At the national level, Associations Johns Hopkins University’s School of Advanced International of Traditional Rulers have mushroomed in countries Studies. He holds two Master Degrees in International Public Policy with a focus on Confl ict Management and African like Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon. African tradi- Studies and in International Relations and Strategic Studies. tional rulers and governments are thus once again He has traveled extensively in Africa and Europe and also working hand in glove to pull the continent out of its speaks French in addition to four African languages. He may political, economic, and security quagmires. be contacted at [email protected]

January - March 2011 115 by Hugh M. Lewis, PhD

Introduction resilient to many changes as a result of moderniza- A motorcycle accident occurs in a crowded inter- tion and westernization. Many of these traditions section in downtown Bangkok and the bystanders are centered in the family and kinship system, as immediately step in to diffuse blame and pressure well as in religion and religious values that reinforce mutual apologies to keep tempers from fl aring up. these central social institutions of the family. One of A white-gloved traffi c cop in a similar context in the central roles of traditional culture has been to downtown Tokyo merely points to an errant driver provide means of confl ict mediation and stress res- who pulls politely over to receive a courteous traf- olution upon multiple levels of social existence in fi c ticket. A group of school children in downtown which the outcomes of events might otherwise be Jakarta cross a busy intersection amidst a stream uncertain and potentially dangerous. of cars, trucks and motorcycles without traffi c lanes Such tradition provides in this sense a security and cross-walks, and though cars whiz by within net and safe haven for those whose feelings of angst inches, the kids arrive safely on the other side, as and insecurity might otherwise threaten to be- they do each day. What do all these incidents share come overwhelming. This sense of tradition in the in common? Asian world is not fundamentally different from tra- A policeman in South Korea is distraught over losing ditional cultures world round, but there are com- his job, being discovered for taking bribes, and goes mon themes, and it seems, common outcomes that berserk on the streets with hand grenades and an are representative of Asian civilization, whether of assault rifl e, killing and wounding scores of innocent Hindu or Sinitic or of some other origin. bystanders. Old women in Georgetown, Malaysia, Except for mainland China, where trance perfor- sit around and poke and pester a half-senile senior mance and shamanism has disappeared since the compatriot, known to suffer from latah (hyper-startle advent of communist party control in 1949, Great refl ex syndrome), in order to laugh at her and pub- Asian religions and societies that embrace these reli- lically embarrass her mercilessly as she swears and gions have not detached themselves from indigenous dances uncontrollably. Factory women in Indonesia precursors, but have largely sought to amalgamate suddenly develop mass hysteria and run amok until these other systems of belief into the larger tradition. the factory has to be temporarily closed down. How Hence, in Chinese tradition, Taoism and Buddhism do we reconcile these kinds of erratic events with are often indistinguishable in practice from spirit- the former incidents that seem aimed foremost at animism and spirit-mediumship that appears to de- maintaining social control and preservation of social rive from precursory customs and belief systems. dignity? Similarly, we fi nd such widespread religious syn- Asian cultures and societies share a long stand- cretism with other religious traditions throughout ing set of traditions many of which have remained Asia—Islam, Christianity, or Hinduism—and even

116 Military Intelligence between these great religious traditions that overlap itual and supernatural worlds and the role of reli- in the same areas. gion in regulating practical affairs in everyday life. We may explain the role and function of religion in a In fact, we may say that in Eastern religious phi- society in many different ways, but we must in every losophy, practical means often serve spiritual ends, case or instance recognize the social consequences and spiritual means often serve practical ends. We of religious practice and belief. Spirit medium-ship may say that in Greater Asia there is an overall ten- involving shamanistic performance and including dency for there to be no clear rational demarcation spirit-possession and trance is a common means by symbolically between the sacred and the profane, which people sort out social or personal problems, between the esoteric and the public, or between the and deal with underlying issues in a manner of rit- mystical and the commonplace. ual expression and mutual expectation that is on one One consequence of this is that religion largely hand dangerous, but in another sense becomes “safe” serves a jural role in regulating relations between by means of highly ritualized contexts. In trance, sha- people, and also, simultaneously, becomes used as mans may behave in an expressive manner normally a mechanism for justifying and maintaining social taboo, and may elicit from their clients responses that and psychological harmony in everyday group life. would in any other context be deemed inappropriate. Eastern religious traditions therefore play a critical Female shamans in village Korea engage in lewd sex- role in mediating potential confl ict in everyday life ual postures and may joke and taunt the men in a at all levels of social organization. This function is manner, language and behavior that would normally served ceremonially and ritually, as well as in the be obscene and unacceptable in everyday Korean vil- ordering of the vernacular world of the practical and lage life. We may extend this function to embrace re- necessary. ligion in a wide variety of forms and contexts, both We see this function of eastern religious philoso- formal and informal, across the entire arc of Greater phy and theocratic practice in the exceptional and Asia, including those nations and cultures of Western noticeable cases when it breaks down. We can iden- and Central Asia. tify a set of factors under which such breakdown The Role of Traditional Culture in can be expected to occur: Conflict Mediation in Greater Asia  For purposes of clearer defi nition, Greater Asia Political factionalization and decentralization encompasses those cultures that are indigenous to and political competition within a society, due the Asian continent, and that are extended out into in the main to parties or clan groupings or tribes the Pacifi c and into the Indian Ocean, less the in- competing for political control, often precipitated trusion of European cultures into Russia. Within by a crises of succession of power. this entire compass there is a general trend towards  Temporary suspension of normal religious order patrilineal descent groups (or alternatively, bifur- in everyday life and the advent of religious anti- cate merging or “Iroquois” systems in South Asia structure, often due to economic depression or or “Hawaiian” or generational ambilineal descent collapse, natural disaster or tragic life events. groups throughout the Pacifi c). The role of religion  Social-psychological reaction to acculturation, is in reinforcing cultural tradition and in regulating particularly, from the standpoint of eastern tra- relations between people and between people and ditions, of westernization and modernization the natural and supernatural worlds. It is conso- that threatens to rend the basic social fabric of nant with traditional descent groups, kin-based vil- social tradition that is defi ned and regulated by lage structure and clan-based social organization religion. upon multiple levels.  Invasion by a foreign people or nation, or at least the perceived threat of some out-group Unlike western cultures, that have largely been coupled with relative economic deprivation or infl uenced by the Greco-Roman tradition of rational insecurity. philosophy as well as by Judeo Christian doctrine, in eastern cultures there is generally no clear dis- Historically, throughout Greater Asia, when these tinction between the functions of church and state, sets of events occurred, a breakdown of the normal or between the role of religion in regulating the spir- religious function in ordering society resulted. It

January - March 2011 117 can be argued that these kinds of event structures would adversely affect any society or people. While this statement is in general true, it is the nature of how it tends to affect Greater Asian societies, and the social and psychological consequences in terms of religious response and reaction, that renders the problem interesting anthropologically and worthy of further critical consideration. Traditional Religious Systems and Kinship Organization of Greater Asian Societies This relationship between religion, social structure and structural dynamics of Greater Asian societies refl ects the history and origin of Asian civilizations and the consonance of the role of religion in the integration and or- ganization of social life throughout the larger region. In clan organized society, religion is used to create mythologies and associated ritual practices that serve to symbolically and ideologically legitimize hierarchical king- ship and fi ctive relationship of descent (sibs or clans) that tie together otherwise separate and potentially competing lineage descent groups. In turn, religion serves to defi ne in- dividual identity within this class organized system as an assemblage of statuses, as an extension of identity in the extended family or descent group. The kin-group or descent group is corporate in structure, larger in life than that world encompassed biographi- cally by the individual, and religious worship tends to reinforce this larger corporate iden- In theory, the principle of integration of the soci- tity as well as the individual’s identity in re- ety is that all of these levels become expressed at the lation to it. same time in every relationship or activity—people Common identity is reinforced through an- thus become stratifi ed within a complex web of rela- cestor worship and veneration of the earth, tionships that are non-identical and non-reciprocal, constituting a common ethno-cultural ba- usually hierarchically arranged. Personal identity sis of religious identity. These ritual insti- becomes an assemblage of statuses, and the indi- tutions preclude reciprocal social relations vidual owes a divided sense of allegiance across a with people outside of one’s own corporate groups, number of intersecting networks and organizations. in which kinship becomes a model for defi ning and There occurs as a consequence of such social in- sanctioning a personal fi eld of social relationships tegration a complex process of social stratifi cation for the individual. Other institutions, social, politi- in which “members of the society are distributed in cal, economic or religious, within which the individ- different, non-identical schemes of allegiance and ual may have multiple roles, may interconnect in a mutual dependence in relation to administrative, 1 hierarchical manner and serve to tether together at juridical and ritual institutions.” a higher level the otherwise divisive and horizontally Individual allegiance within a number of inter- stratifi ed system of corporate descent groups. secting organizations serves to reinforce the overall

118 Military Intelligence structure. Personal identity becomes conceived as morality” and “relational identity” and the kind of “an assemblage of statuses” and moral obligation be- familial amoralism that occurs as a consequence of comes situationally defi ned and relative, based upon state organization of kin-based systems. a sense of perceived social shame and an emphasis In this sense we may refer to Clifford Geertz’s def- upon collective conformity of the individual.2 inition that: “Religion is a system of symbols which One consequence of this kind of structure is that acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting individuals participate in gemeinschaft type social moods and motivations in men by formulating con- relationships in which social capital, reciprocity and ceptions of a general order of existence and clothing status-honor play large roles in the defi nition of one’s these conceptions with such an aura of factual- (and one’s group) social identity. Kinship becomes a ity that the moods and motivations seem uniquely defi ning organizational principle of society that per- realistic.”3 meates all levels and all areas of social organization. From this standpoint, religion in Greater Asia is Kinship takes on a jural function in everyday life and taken seriously to the extent that its symbolisms social structure, valorized and sanctioned by reli- and mythologies are rarely questioned for their ex- gious belief and practice, expressed in interpersonal istential veracity or ideological legitimacy. Instead, relationships as relative rights and obligations, sit- they are taken at face value as de facto true and uationally defi ned, and owed between different role- real. In this sense, worldview in Greater Asia does states between people. One’s place is fi xed in society not draw a clear boundary between the natural incontrovertibly on the basis of one’s parentage, and world and the world of the supernatural, but that descent organization serves to disambiguate and these worlds interpenetrate one another and these regulate over the reproductive rights of women and, boundaries are defi nitionally, symbolically and be- thus, of the reproduction of the social body overall. haviorally fl uid more than solid, and are regularly In this case, religion provides a central system of mediated through customary ritual and sanctioned symbolization that serves the ends of kinship and practice on a daily basis. descent as fundamental organizational principles of society, in which the family as descent group pro- New Nationalisms and Traditional vides an arrangement by which the individual in Civilizations society achieves a legitimate identity, by which gain- One moral consequence of this general kin-based ing a living, setting up a family and preservation of orientation in Greater Asia has been the lack of health and well-being is achieved. Many of the con- widespread development of democratic social insti- fl icts found within family and kin-based organiza- tutions, or of a high degree of social egoism or in- tion become expressed through religious symbolism dividualism as is typical in western societies. Nor and ritual activity. Health and well being become ex- what can be referred to as formal secondary legal pressed symbolically and maintained through reli- institutions that might be said to be the foundation giously based traditional medical systems as well as of rule of law and of rights based and highly individ- through shamanistic healing rituals. Gaining a liv- ualistic societies. Instead, what we have in Asia, be- ing becomes the pursuit of one’s familial interests in fore the rise of modern nation states within the last alignment with larger state identity, without a sense half century, has been the predominance of hierar- of religious or moral contradiction or “corruption” chical societies bound by religious traditions that that we, as Western outsiders, prefer to label it. extended back millennia, and an emphasis upon ar- bitrary and autocratic authority as well as upon val- Because religion reinforces the kinship princi- ues emphasizing social responsibility and collective ple, kin-relations come to embody a moral impera- identity over that of the individual. Individual inter- tive and sense of obligation that tends to preclude a est becomes expressed via group identity and ritu- moral identity upon a higher level of social organi- alized social interaction. zation. Instead, higher level corporate identity is a symbolic projection, religiously and ideologically le- A challenge of nation building across Asia has been gitimized, of one’s own kin-based relations. We may in overcoming generally authoritarian ethos and dom- refer, in state societies, to the moral relativity of kin- ination by a single ruling party, usually controlled by based societies, what has been called “situational a single ruling individual or faction. Another chal-

January - March 2011 119 lenge is the cultivation of a broad-based system of organization in the articulation of state authority as law and order regulating relations between people, well as in the everyday dynamics of these societ- instead of warlordism, praetorian authoritarianism, ies. It matters little whether the predominant reli- and the coercion of traditional customs, mostly based gion of the state is Islam or Buddhism or Hinduism upon deep-seated and deeply rooted religious tradi- or Confucianism or Christianity imported from the tions and tribal village customs. While we fi nd across West—the developmental dynamics and outcomes contemporary Asia transplanted models of political remain similar in most if not all cases. and governmental organization, mostly modeled af- The role of religion in these nations has only grad- ter the West, we also fi nd social-structural patterns ually become eclipsed by the structural develop- still deeply entrenched and bound by religious and ment of these systems as a result of modernization, kin-based traditions urbanization and industrialization, and by the rapid Development of modern nation states throughout displacement of the majority of its population from Greater Asia has meant a prolonged period of struc- hinterland and rural regions into rapidly growing tural instability and infi ghting for power, and usu- metropolitan areas. We fi nd this trend occurring in ally the ascendancy of a single dominant party or even relatively remote and underdeveloped nation- coalition with an authoritarian military regime dur- states, as, for instance, in Mongolia. A tremendous ing which normal democratic processes are all but role in shifting consciousness away from traditional suspended. When the state is seen as but the exten- religion has been that played by modern media, even sion of the family, as but a larger model for the re- if in most of these nation-states much programming alization of a sense of paternalistic ego at the center remains devoted to religious themes, myths and the of a large kin-ship system, or as symbolic child, par- dissemination of religious based doctrine and tradi- ent, sibling, cousins or aunts and uncles, then the tional cultural values. expectations of familial obligation and reciprocities We can speak therefore of a socio-structural dia- are transferred and projected, perhaps diluted but lectic between things modern and things traditional, more or less intact, upon the offi ces, representatives, between the rise of new nationalisms and the pro- titles and expectations of larger state authority. clivity of Asian peoples far and wide to cling to cher- In fact, by and large, modern nation states in ished and tried and true traditions. This dialectic has Greater Asia have achieved national integration and often been expressed in different regions of Greater ascendancy over other institutions in large mea- Asia, in terms of separatist movements, millenarian sure by the ideological displacement of the symbolic and syncretistic movements, cult religious move- function of traditional religions, and in general the ments and political struggles between competing cooptation or usurpation of the authority and le- parties, in terms of riots and demonstrations, and gitimacy of these religions by the secular and ideo- strong-armed police reactions to riots. It can proba- logical interests of the state. In communist nations, bly also be found to permeate the different forms of this transition was accomplished more or less in a media and to constitute a central mythological theme violent manner by the destruction of temples and that becomes dialectically reiterated again and again the persecution and execution of priests. Even in a through song and dance performance, the arts, the few anti-communist nations we fi nd the targeting movies, through television and radio, through news of religious institutions and authorities as a poten- articles and book publications. tial threat to the autocratic power of the state (The Polythetic Classes of Nationally Republics of South Korea and Taiwan). In many Dangerous Things modern states, religious minorities become tar- It might come as a surprise to most westerners geted for systematic discrimination, repression and that Mao Zedong, Zhu De, Chiang Kai-shek and Dr. persecution. Sun Yat-sen were all believed to have been mem- Today we fi nd no true theocratic states in Greater bers of Chinese secret societies, possibly through- Asia (with the exception perhaps of modern Iran out their life-times. Secret society membership and former or provisional Tibet) though in almost all provided them all, at least during the early phases nations in Greater Asia we still fi nd the strong role of their careers, the access and opportunity to mo- played by religion, religious ideology and religious bilize resources to their respective party causes that

120 Military Intelligence they may not otherwise have gained. It is written that with the collapse of the Ching Dynasty, and the establishment of the Republic of China, the Chinese secret societies lost their reason for being and be- came eclipsed as potent political forces, to become mere underground criminal organizations devoted to prostitution, gambling and racketeering. During its early stages of development at least, evidence sug- gests that the Chinese People’s Communist party depended heavily upon secret societies for their re- cruitment and their underground organization, as did most warlords, as well as, somewhat later, the formation and consolidation as effective military or- ganizations of both the early Kuomintang and the fi rst Red Army. Contemporary mainland China fears more than anything else the unbridled spirits of its own teem- ing masses. A totalitarian and single-party system, it relies upon the extraordinary but quite ordinary Chinese characteristic of cooperative solidarity to recalcitrantli ghosts h iin order d to usher h iin good df fortune achieve conformity and a sense of normality to its in welcome for the new year. And of course, it has party platform in the world. It has adapted to its own probably dawned on the proper paramilitary author- means the Confucian worldview and ethos, rooted ities within the Chinese government that it would be in the model of kinship relations and ancestor ven- a short stretch of the imagination from obtaining eration. Nevertheless, in the everyday world of the and shooting off fi reworks to making and planting Chinese, contradictions arise on a daily basis that real bombs that might do signifi cant damage to an tend to disrupt and rend the uniform and seemingly offi ce, a car or a railway, in the modern day “rectifi - complete Chinese communist worldview. I have had cation of names” between heaven and earth. many a midnight conversation with angry young Spirit animism, shamanism, spirit possession and Chinese men whose family home had been violated trance, witchcraft and sorcery, mysticism and ascet- by authorities in search and seizure over religious icism remain grassroots traditions found throughout texts (Falung Gong or Christian literature), or the Greater Asia, and these complexes of belief, ritual bulk of whose family’s peasant production had been and performance have gone hand-in-hand with offi - regularly confi scated by higher authorities. cial state religion and religious ideology and serve to The restless spirit of the masses is made evident both validate and provide anti-structural reinforce- during Chinese New Year, when all families return ment for the normative and normalizing function of home and for weeks at a time virtually the whole of these major state religions. Many of these practices China closes down for holiday season. It is partic- form the basis of cult and millennial movements ularly expressed, I believe, in the Chinese love and that are often glove-in-hand with underground se- obsession with fi reworks and fi recrackers, which cret society organization, which organizations in tra- can be heard on a continuous basis, day and night, ditional kin-based society can be seen as providing in increasing frequency throughout Chinese New lateral reinforcement, or complementary fi liation to Year holidays. I do not believe there is any contain- the horizontal cleavages of such societies or where ing the Chinese, of all ages, during this season, with the principle of kinship and lineage structure are fi reworks exploding willy-nilly anywhere and at al- not strongly expressed. most any time, and otherwise poor families appear It is interesting that these organizations in turn to spend almost an entire year’s savings in a few have become transformed as modern global corpora- iterations of these fi rework displays that are sym- tions, and have become some of the main purveyors bolically intended to drive away errant spirits and in the world of trans-national contraband (human

January - March 2011 121 traffi cking, drug smuggling, black marketing oper- This is no less the case in contemporary social set- ations, copyright and patent/trade secret theft and tings in Greater Asia, except that there are proba- espionage, and weapons bartering.) While no lon- bly intermediate levels of kin-based or kin-extended ger having a direct political goal expressed through social organizations and corporate institutional set- organized rebellion or indirectly through support of tings that we would have to contend with and take such political movements, Chinese secret societies into our account. Also, the motivational factors and have connected to other underground organizations predisposing discriminators may be fundamentally in the world and continue to operate covertly within different in profi le than if drawn from a western so- many economic, political and social arenas upon cial framework. Religion and religious motivation, local, regional and international levels, to advance shading into ideological (political party) frameworks, their interests, and to have a mostly adverse infl u- can be expected to play a greater role with fewer ence upon the developmental outcomes of these so- idiosyncratic (individualistic) factors compared to cial institutions in various nation states. similar kinds of profi les from western frameworks. One consequence of globalization and develop- Global Prospects for a Greater Asia ment of post-industrial state societies is that ur- It is doubtful that there will be a radical shift of ban areas, particularly, whether we are in mainland patterns of social stratifi cation and organization, or China, Japan, or in the Middle East, feature a com- of collective consciousness or cultural traditions or plex form of social stratifi cation tending toward the worldviews in Greater Asia at any time in the near nuclearization of the family and the atomization of future. No amount of inundation of western media the individual (with attendant alienation and ano- or the Internet will change the cultural life-ways of mie.) This complex stratifi cation might be called these regions overnight. We should expect the chal- “holothetic” in the sense that one fi nds information lenge of familial amoralism in Greater Asia, and its about the whole contained in the specialized parts infl uence in widespread corruption within and be- or pieces. There is a sense that traditional labels and tween nation states, to remain core problems for a distinctions (classes, castes, ethnocultural group- very long time. ings, or religious differences) no longer adequately Greater Asia may be said to comprise almost one convey suffi cient information about the composite half of the human population of planet earth. The and rather heterogeneous nature of most social or- nation states of Greater Asia constitute a mosaic ganizations and ethnocultural groupings. We fi nd of continental puzzle-pieces across the southern within modern nations broad polythetic classes or reaches of the Asian continent, and extend thence labels representing ranges of different people across eastward and southward to many far fl ung island entire spectrums of difference based upon key dis- nations. Each of these nation-states has a unique criminators of age, education, ethnicity, gender culture, a unique history and society, and a unique identity, etc., and we fi nd different classes overlap- structural “situation” in the world that must be un- ping and to some unknown degree, isomorphic with derstood primarily in its own terms. There in fact one another, albeit in indirect and complex ways. seems very little in common between, on one hand, If we seek profi les of individuals, who for instance Arabian and Central Asian societies and East or may be predisposed to join terrorist organizations Southeast or South Asian societies. Hindu civiliza- or who may be inclined to become true believers in tion and politics of the Asian subcontinent is noth- a radical cult movement, we may fi nd a suite of sim- ing like Japanese civilization and politics or Korean ilar traits, but distributed across a relatively wide civilization and politics. And yet, a valid claim can spectrum of people coming from a range of differ- be made that in almost all cases, with but few note- ent backgrounds. In other words, we might fi nd a worthy exceptions, all of these nation states, as well surprising number of different people coming from as most ethno-linguistic or ethnocultural groupings wholly different cross sections of society, yet drawn within these states, share similar social features in to the same kind of membership in a party or club terms at least of the relationship of their respective or other organization, at least in part measure due religions to the kin-based organization of their tra- to a similar set of shared but seemingly disparate ditional societies, and the social-structural patterns and otherwise unrelated discriminators. of interference that these relational complexes have

122 Military Intelligence entailed for the modern development of these na- Greening the Military with Semi-Soft tion states. Value Strategies With modernization and economic development We may distinguish between general strategies that comes from increased participation in the global of force, of power and value. Strategies of force are economy, we see several trends in the gradual but what are used in wartime, and involve conventional dramatic shift in the societies involved. Increase in and traditional military deployments to achieve economic security leads to less reliance upon polit- a desirable outcome through the threat or use of ical or military solutions, with values of economic weapons. Power strategy is a strategy of control and achievement increasing with the realization of in- political change that is normally achieved in peace- creasing economic opportunities, along with the time, but which may involve at times the resort to rise of rational risk-taking behaviors associated war. Value strategy can be generally thought of as with this realization. These patterns in turn lead a socio-economic strategy that is focused upon the to a sense of greater political stability (no need for problem and challenges of human development, strong-arm police protection from others who would which, if successfully met, at least in theory would steal one’s wealth or take one’s life in the night) and obviate the need for more violent measures. in turn begetting increasing democratization of the Mainland China has been in the last decade pur- society in political pluralism, increased involvement suing globally a strategy called “soft power” (in im- in the democratic process and increasing stability plicit contrast to the “hard power” strategies of the of succession by democratic process. Paradoxically, Western states, involving the concept of “walking with this enhanced and widespread economic se- softly and carrying a big stick.”) Not to equivocate curity and opportunity we fi nd associated as well over terms or their propaganda potential, what is lower birth rates and lower rates of infant mortal- critical to apprehend is that mainland China has ity, longer term rates of education, and higher rates become increasingly involved in global politics, of- of literacy, etc. ten intimately, all around the globe, and has been Associated with these kinds of trends in develop- very aggressive in pursuing its strategic interests, ment, we fi nd the rise in Asia of family based or kin- part of which involves critical resource acquisition based or kin-modeled business corporations that (including critical knowledge as a resource.) While achieve international standing (for instance, South the China experts debate the capacity for China to Korean Chaebols, historical progression of Japanese extend itself beyond its own borders, or even its own Zaibatsu, Keiretzu, and Sogo shosha, Chinese Big current state or capacity for developmental growth, Business Families, Hongs and Kong Si’s.) We fi nd what is clear is that China has a powerhouse global similar descent group “clannishness” of many sec- economy and has become a major player on the tors of the Indian economy, including Bollywood, International chess board with stakes in many dif- the government, medicine, the military and busi- ferent nation-states around the world. ness. In the rise, development and articulation of Mainland China is certainly not the only nation these corporate business organizations, we see a of Greater Asia that we need to be paying atten- close association and involvement in politics and a tion to—all the nations of Asia, and even the tiny large degree of nepotism. states of the Pacifi c, need to be attended to, each It is perhaps a misunderstanding to apply in un- in their own unique situation and manner. A fl ash- modifi ed form across the board David McClelland’s point can come in almost any remote area, and can notion of achievement motivation developed in west- cascade to catastrophic consequences if unchecked ern societies, focused upon the aggressive individu- and unmonitored. alism of the independent ego, to societies of Greater It has become time to turn swords into plough- Asia in which the ego is part of a larger kin-based shares and bullets into computers and cell phones. corporate entity.4 This takes us back to the distinc- Modern warfare is, by virtue of its lethality, its ex- tion of Max Weber between the capitalism of west- pense, and its destructiveness, obsolete in human ern societies founded upon the Protestant Ethic and systems. This is especially the case when it comes the collectivism of eastern societies founded upon to the development, deployment and destructive- Confucianism.5,6 ness of weapons of mass destruction.

January - March 2011 123 Increasing socio-political security of human sys- thinking and military worldview. It would also en- tems leading away from patterns of authoritarian- tail, I believe, a revolutionary paradigmatic shift in ism and towards increased democratization can Training and Doctrine, as well as in fundamental mil- only be gained through enhanced socio-economic itary organization. Each dollar spent in such a man- stability that is defi ned primarily and substantively ner, would, in the long run, entail many development in the socio-cultural terms of the society and people dollars of economic security and political stability in in question. The fastest and best road to the solu- return, and a priceless peace bought through en- tion of the chronic human problems of poverty and hanced international and global security. The global overpopulation is through effective and appropriate alternatives may well soon prove to be unaffordable development programs that are based upon the fol- for all humankind, military and civilian alike. lowing factors:  The availability of a cheap and abundant (virtu- ally unlimited) supply of functional energy. Endnotes

 Food-production that makes available and abun- 1. Meyer Fortes, “The Structure of Unilineal Descent Groups,” dant enough food to feed a population at ade- American Anthropologist, I (3) 1953: 166. quate levels of healthy nutrition. 2. Ibid., 171.

 Universal education that carries on from early 3. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic childhood into adulthood, and that crosses so- Books, 1973), 90. cial boundaries of age, gender, class, or ethnic 4. David McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: Free Press, or religious identity. 1999).

 Suffi cient mixed economies that entail wide- 5. Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New spread employment and productive labor for a York: Penguin Classics, 2002). population. 6.Max Weber, The Religion of China (New York: Free Press, 1964). What is most critical about any such development program is that it is primarily the responsibility of the people of the host nation to undertake in their Hugh M. Lewis is a training instructor with the TRADOC Culture own way, with the help of outsiders who may under- Center. He is a professional teacher as well as a cultural write and provide critical direction at least to part of and general anthropologist, having conducted fi eldwork in the undertaking. To merely dump aid upon a foreign Southeast and East Asia as well as in the U.S. His theoretical interests have been in natural and general systems, and his people without a developmental program or plan of methodological and applied interests have been in problems action in place, or to superimpose alien and cultur- of human development and alternative human civilization. ally superfi cial frames of reference, is to invite an in- curable form of coca-cola cargo culture, of learned dependency, and a widespread collective syndrome of secondary gain of the internally colonized other, that precludes any hope or possibility of initiative or entrepreneurial motivation or adaptive innovation on the part of the host people. Any strategy adopted as a matter of foreign policy, to combat the ills of terrorism and insurgency, would best focus on long-term development programs that would be viable in a decade or in several decades and that takes into close account the socio-cultural dy- namics of the host (“target”) people. The role of any military force in such a context would be to support, protect and promote such development programs and strategies, and, if greened enough, possibly ini- tiate and undertake such development. This entails a fundamental strategic-to-tactical shift in mission

124 Military Intelligence by Marion Margraf

Introduction Cross-cultural competence–acquiring critical, use- ful understanding of an alien culture–encompasses practice in various kinds of involvement with people in the target environment, language profi ciency, and regional knowledge. Well informed is well armed in cross-culture contact. Even the most junior soldier today understands that enhanced culture knowl- edge and capabilities increases the effectiveness of forces supporting readiness in the contemporary operating environment, and knowledge of the sta- tus of Muslim communities worldwide will be an on- News media reporting has especially centered on going priority regardless of the current threat level the way that the Muslim faith is professed in Iraq for a particular country. and on the Arabian Peninsula. Most of us are fa- We cannot afford to neglect areas that are not ex- miliar with reports on the confl ict between Sunnis periencing attention-getting confl ict at the moment, and Shiites in Iraq, and aware that Islam in Saudi or those not demanding immediate engagement. Arabia, where the Prophet was born and died, is very Military readiness in cultural competence is the in- conservative. We have read about Somali youth re- surance that enhances favorable outcomes and goes turning to Somalia from the U.S., and we follow al- hand-in-hand with battle preparedness. A working Qaeda stories wherever they lead us, from Yemen to knowledge of subcultures in a potential area of op- the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan. We keep up eration is essential to the planning and execution of with the regulation of Muslim female garb in vari- any mission. ous countries, even to include France, or to reac- Islam as a basis for action fi gures prominently in tions to the Danish cartoon representation of the our current areas of military engagement. It is the prophet Mohammed. religion rightly associated with Arab peoples, al- We search for relevant connections between the though not all Arabs are Muslim adherents. At least role of Islam and events in our own country from 5 percent of Arabs are Jews or Christians, and while the motivations of the detainees at Guantanamo to the remaining 95 percent of Arabs are Muslim, this the Fort Hood shooter and the Christmas bomber. population of approximately 300 million people in We debate the advisability of a mosque near Ground 25 countries constitutes only 25 percent of the total Zero in New York City, trying not to give the appear- number of Muslims in the world. ance of linking religion with terrorist culpability, but

January - March 2011 125 also trying to offer all religions the same status and populations, even if only transnational groups at protections that our Constitution decrees. present, but the historical and contemporary pop- The status of Islam in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, ulations represent unique profi les. In terms of and even in India, with its fairly recent high pro- numbers, Islam (mostly Sunni) is the most widely fi le bombings in 2006 and 2008 in Mumbai, has practiced religion in Southeast and Maritime Asia, received robust news coverage. Less well known although adherents account for majorities in only among the general public is the history and pres- three countries–Brunei, Indonesia, and Malaysia. It ent status of groups that profess Islam farther east. is the offi cial religion of Malaysia and Brunei. Muslim communities stretch north and east through The strength of Muslim communities in Far Eastern Central Asia from Turkmenistan to Kyrgyzstan, fol- Asia owes much to topography. In Burma, traders lowing the Old Silk Road. News reports from these from India populated the western coast of present- areas are few, not because they are unimportant to day Myanmar, but because the Irrawaddy Valley the global audience, but because more vivid news runs along a north-south axis, as do mountain overshadows them. And even less well known ex- chains, further eastern settlement was hindered. cept to specialists is the history and current status However, opportunities for trade lured Muslim sea- of Muslim communities east and southeast of the men and mullahs farther south, leading to the es- Bay of Bengal—in the Far East and Southeast Asia. tablishment of Muslim communities in southern These societies display a wide disparity not only in Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. The loop of sea- strength of numbers but also in the cultural and faring trade routes wended through the islands of political positions they occupy in their home coun- the Pacifi c, moving up through the Philippines, and, tries, and each has its own history. with waning effect, to Taiwan. In the centuries following the death of Mohammad Mainland Muslim Communities in 632 CE, Islam spread north and east out of the One should keep in mind that many Asian Muslim Arabian Peninsula by conquest into empires that populations are, in fact, ethnically mixed. Households had long competed for control of the lucrative trade denoted as Muslim might represent legacy faith, but routes between the Mediterranean and Pacifi c. This it might also be the case that one spouse adopted trade has always been a key impetus to the spread Islam upon marriage, or both might be converts to of Islam. Although these empires eventually suc- the faith. Muslim populations in Southeast Asia are cumbed to conquest, Islam penetrated not just the generally diverse and multicultural due to steady Middle East, but also west to Africa and Spain, and migration of peoples along the coasts and intermar- east to India and island nations in the Pacifi c. In riage. Once in a country, there is also a tendency fact, “[a]s merchants and teachers, Muslims were for Muslims to settle in urban areas, even inland even more persuasive than they were as soldiers”– cities, because of trade opportunities. This is rein- especially in the East.1 forced by Islamic dietary restrictions which require Demographics sanctioned ways to butcher meat, prohibit the con- Indonesia and India are home to the greatest con- sumption of pork, and to allow market preparation centrations of adherents. Indonesia has a popula- of other halal (permitted) foods. As numbers grow, a tion of more than 240 million people, of whom 85 sense of community develops naturally, which leads percent (204 million) profess Islam. Of India’s nearly to construction of mosques and schools, and cre- 1.2 billion people, 150 million are Muslim. ation of formal ties to government. Islam in Burma Muslim adherents in Myanmar, which struggles with ethnic tensions, represent only 4 percent of the country’s population, where the overwhelming ma- jority religion is Theravada Buddhism mixed with The majority of remaining Muslims in the world persistent elements of animism (traces of which lives in the Near East, Central Asia, and in the Far persist in the Muslim community, too). They are East. All countries in the Far East have Muslim concentrated in Northern Arakan State along the

126 Military Intelligence western coast of the Bay of Bengal in fi ve neighbor- provide a formal connection to the government of ing townships close to the border with Bangladesh. Thailand. A number of banks, schools, and food Ethnically, this community is primarily Rohingya, companies cater to the Muslim population. and their language is similar to the Chittagonian Violence in the last decade from an ethnic sepa- spoken across the border in Bangladesh. ratist insurgency in the south has threatened na- Like all minorities in Myanmar who struggle with tional security. The causes of discontent range from ethnic tensions, the Rohingya do not enjoy full cit- historical ethnic resentments between Malay and izenship. Not only do they suffer human rights vi- Thai peoples, charges of human rights abuses per- olations within their own country, they suffer as petrated by local police, and accusations of cultur- well as refugees in Bangladesh and Thailand, coun- ally insensitive practices in matters of language or tries to which they have fl ed. At least a half-million business practices vis-à-vis Muslims. The govern- has left Myanmar in the last thirty years; the fi rst ment and the insurgents accuse each other of cor- wave occurred in 1978 during the persecution ex- ruption and criminal activity, but specifi c demands perienced at the hands of the Myanmar Army dur- on the part of the latter have not been forthcoming. ing the Nagamin (Dragon King) Operation. At that It is true that levels of educational and economic time, most people fl ed to Bangladesh, but there attainment in the south are lower than the rest of are approximately 110,000 in refugee camps along the country. The precise sources of this confl ict the border with Thailand, too. Indonesian authori- are not clear, but at least when the guerrilla activ- ties have reported on several occasions in the past ity started, the impetus seemed to spring from local two years rescuing Rohingya at sea, refugees evi- animosities. Connections to foreign Islamic groups dently towed out to sea and abandoned by the Thai such as Al-Qaeda or the Indonesia-based Jemaah military. Islamiyah were not identifi ed, although it is unlikely Muslims in Thailand that Islamic separatist organizations have not in- fi ltrated the Thai movement. Suspicion that drug Of Thailand’s nearly 66 million people, about 4 money funds the insurgency is also well-founded. million are counted as Muslim, which is almost 6 percent of the population, and it appears that the Muslims in Laos and Vietnam number is growing due to high fertility rates. This The number of Muslims in neighboring Laos, population is made up of native Thai people who where the majority religion is Buddhism, is fewer speak Thai in the home, but also includes other lan- than 2,000, less than one percent of the country’s guages and many other ethnicities, a result of mi- total population. Residence is primarily in the capi- grations from the north, west, and south. In the tal, Vientiane. Most are merchants, or managers of mountainous north and in certain urban areas meat shops, a natural choice, so that they can con- there are enclaves of Muslims of Chinese origin. trol their dietary obligations. Ethnically mixed Chinese-Burmese and Pakistani- Population fi gures are similarly low in Vietnam. Burmese are dispersed throughout the northern About two-thirds of the 157,000 Muslims are Cham provinces. As noted above, Burmese Rohingya refu- (of Malay origin) who emigrated from Cambodia in gees cluster in camps in the south. the 1800s and settled in the Mekong Delta area. The We commonly think of the southernmost border remaining Muslims identify themselves as being of provinces as the home of most of Thailand’s Muslims, mixed ethnic background. In 1976, after the fall of but in fact, populations exist throughout the coun- Saigon and the establishment of the Socialist Republic try, with large concentrations in Bangkok. People of Vietnam, many Muslims migrated to Malaysia, oth- in the south, where in the 1800s the Malay Pattani ers to Yemen. Because there are no religious schools kingdom was established, are predominantly of for Muslims in Vietnam, and because command of Malay heritage, speaking a dialect of Malay. In all of Arabic is weak or absent, Islam here retains or has Thailand’s Muslim groups, and in the south partic- taken on practices from other religions. In general, ed- ularly, Islam exhibits syncretic elements from pre- ucational attainment is low. The government of Saudi Islamic religious practices, indigenous cultures, and Arabia contributed to the building of Vietnam’s larg- Buddhism. Provincial councils for Muslim affairs est mosque, in Xuan Loc, in 2006. (Saudi support of and a fi ve-member National Council for Muslims mosques is widespread in the East.)

January - March 2011 127 Cambodian Khmer The majority of Muslims in China today are Sunni The other small country in mainland Southeast and follow the Hanafi (or gedimu in Chinese; qadim Asia is Cambodia, where close to 250,000 Muslims in Arabic) school of Islamic jurisprudence (fi qh). live among 15 million people. As mentioned in rela- Hanafi jurisprudence is known for its openness and tion to Vietnam, Cambodia is home to the Cham, or tolerance of other Islamic sects. Hanafi teaching em- Khmer Islam. The religious practices of these tradi- phasizes belief over practice, and should be differ- tional Muslims are overwhelmingly syncretic, being entiated from the fundamentalist Salafi (Wahhabi) heavily infl uenced by indigenous beliefs in the su- School. The Indo-European-speaking Tajiks of pernatural and the powers of magic. Xinjiang province, however, constitute a small mi- nority of Shi’a (of the Ismaili sect). There are approx- It is claimed that although they observe Muslim imately 41,000 Tajiks living in Xinjiang, according festivals, they do not follow other customary prac- to the 2000 national census. tices, such as praying fi ve times a day nor show- ing much interest in making the Hajj to Mecca. Sufi sm has been practiced in China since the Muslims in Cambodia who have intermarried with 17th century. It profoundly infl uenced the Hui and Malays, on the other hand, are conservative adher- Uyghur communities, presenting a direct challenge ents. Friction erupted between the two groups in to the established Sunni practice. Still infl uential in the second half of the 1900s. Muslims in Cambodia China today, particularly within the Hui communi- suffered losses during the Pol Pot persecutions of ties, Sufi sm represents an experiential attempt to the 1970s. directly interact with the godhead through practices Islam in Mainland China such as meditation and chanting. The experien- tial nature of Sufi sm dovetails neatly with pre-ex- In the upper left quadrant of the fl ag of China a isting Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, and mystical large yellow star appears, bracketed on the right Christianity. Sufi tenets elevate belief over practice. by four smaller yellow stars. The large star rep- Practitioners are even known to forgo adherence to resents the Han majority ethnicity, and the other the fi ve pillars of Islam in their attempts to directly stars stand for the Manchus, Mongols, Tibetans, interact with Allah. Informal Sufi networks have and Hui. The Hui are one of ten distinct Muslim been credited with providing an avenue for personal groups that China offi cially recognizes. The Muslim Islamic practice within a sometimes harsh, offi cially population of the People’s Republic of China num- atheist, communist state. bers 21.5 million in a country of 1.4 billion, 1.6 percent of the total. However, fi gures from Chinese Today Islam is professed by the Hui, Uyghurs, census data, which confl ates ethnic identity with Kazakhs, Uzbek, Tajik, and Dongxiang. The ma- religious practice and does not take into account jority of Chinese Muslims reside in the northwest, converts to Islam, indicate that the population is which includes the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous probably closer to 50 million. There are currently Region and the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. over 30,000 mosques in the country, the majority Muslims living in Han areas are mostly Hui. They of them (over 23,000) in the province of Xinjiang have a very similar life style and appearance as their alone. There are many halal (qingzhen, or pure, Han neighbors, and they are the only Muslim group clean) restaurants throughout the country that do which speaks Chinese as its native tongue. In con- not serve pork. trast, the Uyghurs are culturally and linguistically Islam has been present in China for over 1,300 much different from the Han Chinese and speak years. It was fi rst introduced at ports on China’s Turkic languages. southeast coast. Later, overland trade along the Silk Some Uyghur Muslims state that they have faced Road contributed to an exponential increase in con- various levels of restrictions on their religious prac- verts. Historians note that an infl ux of Persians, tices. Imams are required to attend political training Arabs, Central Asians and Mongols by land, and every year to retain their licenses, and religious texts subsequent intermarriage with locals, was instru- and sermons are censored. In 2005, Uyghur activ- mental. However, it should be noted that locals also ist Rebiya Kadeer was released from prison after a converted for the economic opportunities and ac- fi ve-and-a-half year sentence. She created a trading cess to new alliances the new religion provided. company in northwestern China and has been very

128 Military Intelligence open about her criticism of human rights issues. choosing to wear the hijab (veil) as markers of an in- The Chinese government believes she is involved in creasingly pan-Islamic identity. Within the Uyghur the Eastern Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM), a community, Islam is promoted as an identity marker Uyghur separatist organization, by rallying and pro- that distinguishes them from the majority Han. As viding fi nancial support to it. Though Kadeer de- tensions increase between the two communities, it nied this accusation, the meeting between her and should be expected that a stricter Islamic identity President George W. Bush in 2007 was blasted by will be promoted. the Chinese government. Islam in China, like elsewhere in the Muslim world, The Chinese government recognizes the ETIM as has undergone periodic episodes of reform, in which a terrorist organization. This decision was offi cially new practices have supplanted old ones, usually in endorsed by the U.S. in 2002. China maintains an attempt to introduce a “purer” strain of religion. that Osama Bin Laden and al-Qaeda have provided The Chinese government has repeatedly stepped in training and funding to Xinjiang separtists. Critics to arbitrate, and as the offi cial sponsor of all reli- maintain that China is using the U.S. led War on gions, has consistently acted to determine norma- Terrorism as a pretext to repress the ethnic and tive practice. However, as economic and political ties culturally distinct Uyghur. It should be noted that to the Arabic Islamic world intensify, Muslim com- the areas where the Uyghur live are not only rich munities are feeling themselves empowered, and in natural resources but also border several unsta- the central government’s ability to regulate religious ble Central Asian nations (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, practice is weakening. The contemporary era of glo- Pakistan, and Afghanistan.) Recent attempts on the balization has produced a new generation of trans- part of the government to relocate Han peoples to nationals studying and working abroad. Record the northwest have escalated ethnic tensions. numbers of pilgrims are making the hajj, and scores The Chinese Communist Party maintains over- of Chinese Muslims connect to the global ummah sight of the nation’s Muslims through offi cial arms (faithful) via the internet and satellite media, thus of the party, the Religious Affairs Bureau and the ensuring that China’s Muslim populations will be of Islamic Association of China. The Religious Affairs continuing critical interest outside China. Bureau appoints every imam in the country, de- Islam on Taiwan cides who leads Friday prayers, and has set a The present-day population of Muslims in Taiwan quota of 2,000 annual hajjis (those who make the is extremely small in the island nation of 23 million. annual pilgrimage to Mecca). The number of an- First introduced at maritime ports on China’s south- nual hajjis is rising (recent estimates range from east coast 1,300 years ago, Islam in Taiwan can be 7,000 in 2004 to over 10,000 in 2007), as Chinese traced back to the 1600s. This is when Muslim ad- Muslims are able to maintain visas to Saudi Arabia herents from the southern Chinese coastal prov- via neighboring countries such as Thailand and ince of Fujian joined the rebel Koxinga against the Pakistan. Manchu-ruled Qing Dynasty, and his military cam- Religious orthodoxy is on the upswing within paign to drive the Dutch from Taiwan. Despite the Chinese Muslim communities. The Chinese govern- fact that Islam was not well developed on the island ment actively supports relations between certain at that time, some historical traces of Islamic ac- communities (particularly the Hui) and the Middle tivities can be found in Lugang and Tamsui, where East. This links into China’s overall energy pol- most of the descendants of these settlers resided. icy, which hinges on friendly relations with oil-rich Interestingly, many of these people still observe Middle Eastern and African Islamic nations. A cor- some Islamic doctrines such as the prohibition of relate of this is an increase in formal religious edu- eating pork, even though they do not regard them- cation among Chinese Muslims. Between 1,000 and selves as Muslims. 1,500 Chinese Muslims are currently studying at Over the years, some descendants of these early Islamic universities abroad. Thousands of Hui have Muslim settlers converted to other religions, while pursued higher education in Arab countries and others maintained contact with Muslim commu- have returned with a stricter interpretation of Islam. nities on mainland China, up to the beginning of More Hui are growing beards, and more women are Japanese colonial rule. The colonial government’s

January - March 2011 129 strict control over religious activities resulted in the Taipei Cultural Mosque as well as by mosques in severing of ties between Muslims across the Taiwan Taoyuan, Taichung, Tainan, and Kaohsiung. Strait and was a factor in shrinking the island’s Muslim population. Islam in Mongolia Just north of China lies Mongolia. Of the coun- Another major infl ux of Muslim followers into try’s population of 672,000, about 33,000 (5 per- Taiwan came during the Chinese Civil War in cent) are identifi ed as Muslim. Most Muslims in 1949 when 20,000 Muslims fl ed China with the Mongolia are Turkic speaking peoples, primar- Nationalist government to Taiwan. Even with dif- ily Kazakhs, found predominantly in the western- ferences in custom, contact between these Muslim most provinces of Bayan-Ölgii and Khovd. They followers and locals became more frequent through operate Islamic schools and receive assistance from the ummah with whom they met regularly in Lishui Kazakhstan and Turkey. Street, near the Taipei Grand Mosque. Islam was introduced to Mongolia in the 1200s By the 1960s, there was more frequent contact CE, during the time of the great nomadic empires. among locals as well as ongoing efforts to create dip- After Genghis Khan conquered Afghanistan, he re- lomatic ties with Muslim countries. Recognizing that turned to Mongolia through Transoxiana, where he the meeting site on Lishui Street was inappropri- encountered Islamic mosques and was exposed to ate for holding religious and diplomatic events, the the teachings of Islam. Traditionally, the majority of Director General of the Chinese Muslim Association the Mongol elite during the post-imperial period fa- Bai Chongxi and the Minister of Foreign Affairs vored Islam over other religions. But after the fall of George Yeh suggested the construction of an Islamic- the Yuan Dynasty, most Mongols returned to tradi- style mosque, a proposal which was later approved tional shamanistic worship, even though trade re- by the Chinese Nationalist Party (the Kuomintang, lations with Muslim peoples remained important. or KMT) government. With funding from the Shah of Muslim Kazakhs began entering western Mongolia Iran, the King of Jordan, and the KMT government, in the late 1800s, many escaping persecution from the Taiwan Grand Mosque was completed in 1960. the Russian Czarist government. Mongolia’s newly Currently, the Muslim faith has more than 140,000 formed Bogdo Khan Government of 1911 CE, gave followers in Taiwan, including 80,000 foreign labor- patronage to the Kazakhs and admitted them into ers from Indonesia and as many as 53,000 local western Mongolia. However, many Kazakhs were Muslims. One point worth noting is that some lo- forced back into China in 1932 after they attacked cal Muslims are descendants of KMT soldiers who Mongolia at the behest of the Nationalist Chinese in migrated from Burma and Thailand to Taiwan af- an attempt to wrest Mongolia from Soviet control. ter the Communists took control of China. In recent Muslim populations in Mongolia began increasing years, the Muslim community has expanded with in the second half of the 20th century through high the arrival of thousands of Indonesian workers and birth rates, and were tolerated by the Communists foreign students studying in Taiwan. of the Mongolian People’s Republic under the new In Taiwan, both male and female followers can reform government of 1940. However, the Muslim attend religious services on the ground fl oor of a population decreased somewhat in the 1990s fol- mosque. This stands in contrast to the custom in lowing the collapse of the Soviet Union, when many other Muslim countries where only male Muslims Kazakhs of western Mongolia sought repatriation to can join the service, while females are allowed to Kazakhstan. There are small Muslim populations in pray only on the second fl oor of a mosque. the capital Ulaan Baator, among other cities. Taiwan Muslims have formed several organiza- Korean Muslims tions to help resolve issues resulting from the needs Muslim communities in the Koreas represent less of religious practice. Primary among them is the than one percent of each country’s total popula- Chinese Muslim Association, which has also played tion. The history of Islam in the present Democratic a helpful role in the nation’s diplomacy with Muslim People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the countries. Besides the Taiwan Grand Mosque, Republic of Korea (South Korea) up to July, 1950 is Taiwan’s Muslim community is also served by the the same.

130 Military Intelligence Seafaring Islamic traders made contact with the Nusantera are Sunni, following a relatively relaxed Kingdom of Silla in the 600s CE. Some of these trad- form. Islam in this region is considered moderate, ers settled in Korea and established Muslim commu- gauged by the traditionally strong roles played by nities. Korea is referenced in Islamic geographical women in positions of authority and power. Islam surveys from the 800s. Muslim traders over the en- spread from west to east generally, and followed suing centuries periodically entered, settled and es- lines of least resistance among the islands. tablished families in Korea, and at least one Korean Islam in Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore is very clan–the Chang family from Toksu village–claims de- similar to the Islam of Indonesia, particularly in the scent from a Muslim. It is known that Uyghur trad- eastern coastal regions of Sumatra where the eth- ers who accompanied invading Mongol armies set nic Malays have settled. (A different colonial history up vast trade networks, and at least two settled in under the British prevailed in the area of present- Korea to found surviving lineages there. The Deoksu day Malaysia, in contrast to the Dutch policies of Jang clan traces its lineage to a Central Asian Sumatra and Kalimantan.) In 1963 the British es- Muslim sent as an aide to a Mongolian princess. He tablished the United Federation of Malaya, which settled in Korea and married a local woman, from originally comprised peninsular Malaya, Sabah and which union over 30,000 Koreans today claim de- Sarawak, Brunei and Singapore. Brunei did not scent. The Gyeongju Seol lineage of about 2,000 de- wish to be a member of the Federation, and later scendants also traces itself back to a Central Asian Singapore separated as well, leaving only the state of settler, presumably Muslim, who was originally a Malaysia a federal republic. The fi rst several years of part of the Mongol empire. All traces of Muslim cul- the country’s history were marred by a communist ture or religious infl uence from these early contacts insurgency, but during the 22-year term of Prime are thought to have disappeared during the Joseon Minister Mahathir bin-Mohamad from 1981 to 2003, Dynasty (1392-1897 CE), although Islamic infl u- Malaysia was successful in diversifying its economy ence in Korea began again during the 1800s with from dependence on exports of raw materials to ex- Korean settlement in Manchuria. pansion in manufacturing, services, and tourism. Islam was reintroduced to South Korea as a re- Peninsular Malaysia borders Myanmar and sult of troops of the Turkish Brigade serving with Thailand, and the insular portion of the country is the U.N. command during the Korean War. This re- along the northern coast of Borneo in the Indonesian sulted in the establishment of the Korea Muslim Archipelago. Its population is nearing 30 million, of Society in 1955 and the Korea Muslim Federation in whom more than 60 percent are Muslim. As men- 1967, consisting nowadays of about 45,000 adher- tioned before, Malaysia’s constitution designates ents who converted during the Korean War. There Islam its offi cial religion. The other religions are is a mosque in Seoul and smaller mosques in other Buddhism (about 20 percent), Christianity (9 per- major cities. This population has been recently aug- cent), and Hinduism (6 percent). mented by approximately 100,000 Muslim foreign Islam in the Nusantera and Maritime Southeast workers mainly from Bangladesh and Pakistan, but Asia is complex and multifaceted. Traditionally, it also from nations in the Middle East and Central has been characterized by syncretism with local Asia (Iran and Iraq) as well as from Malaysia. It is spirit-animism and Hindu-Buddhist religions tra- estimated that there may be currently as many as ditions, and has followed a relaxed practice. In lo- 200,000 Muslims in Korea. cal village life in Java, Sumatra and Malaya, the Muslim Malaya law and customs of the village, or adat, tended to Islam was introduced to the Indonesian Archipelago hold equal or greater importance to the law of the in the 11th century by seafaring Muslim traders Koran. In Malaysia and the northeastern coasts of from the Indian subcontinent and the coasts of Sumatra, daily life for the Malays was centered on Africa and Arabia. Islam had spread throughout the rural or fi shing villages under the authority of a lo- region of the Nusantera (Indonesian Archipelago) cal leader. A number of villages were associated with by the 1200-1300s. Sufi missionaries carried the a mosque whose imam held authority. faith to northeastern and eastern Sumatra, and With Malaysian nationalism came a signifi cant then to Java. Ninety-nine percent of Muslims of the shift in Islam, from a more relaxed and mixed form,

January - March 2011 131 with relatively high rates of intermarriage between cause an eruption of ethnic violence throughout the Muslim and non-Muslim populations particularly country. in the countryside, toward an increasingly funda- Abangan and Adat in Indonesia mentalist interpretation in response to the stresses The history or culture of Indonesia cannot be ad- of modernization in Malaysia. equately grasped without an understanding of the Deep interethnic cleavages between the Muslim roles that religion has played in the development majority and the non-Muslim minorities, and pros- of modern Indonesian identity. Religion has long elytizing by Saudi-backed mullahs at Arab-fi nanced served as the basis for social organization of many mosques contributed as well. This has led to a groups in Indonesia, and has critically infl uenced tendency among Muslim populations of Malaysia the interactions between the different groups and to an increasingly strict call for the institution of their identities. Sharia Law and a Sharia court system as the na- tional political authority. Religion has become a pri- The central challenge of modern Indonesia has mary marker of ethnic identity and solidarity for the been to integrate and unify a religiously and cul- Malays vis-à-vis the non-Muslim minorities (Chinese turally diverse nation, permitting religious freedom, and Indians) who compete economically and politi- but separating religion from politics. This is a chal- cally with the Malays. lenge in a majority Muslim nation where it is inher- ent to the orthodox Islam worldview that religion is At the time of independence, nationalism in an integral part of law. Malaysia was dominated by the Muslim Malay majority. They controlled all facets of the govern- Indonesia is a secular state that offi cially rec- ment—education, the military, the paramilitary, po- ognizes fi ve major religions: Islam, Christianity lice organization, and health systems. Then as now, (in the forms of Catholicism and Dutch Reformed two signifi cant minority groups, the Chinese and Calvinism), Confucianism, Buddhism and the Indians, comprised almost 40 percent of the to- Hinduism. Other religious groups must register tal population. They represented a threat to Malay with the Ministry of Culture as non-religious social dominance, particularly in most economic sectors, organizations. No person, except some exempt hill because these minorities had controlled most of tribes, the Batak and other orang asli (“people with- the economy of the area, though they have become out religion”) are permitted to be outside of a re- increasingly disenfranchised from political par- ligion. Interdenominational intermarriage requires ticipation. The ethnic divisions between the three one or the other spouse convert to the same reli- groups–the Malays, the Chinese and the Indians– gion, unless the marriage vows are taken outside of became most pronounced by religious-based differ- Indonesia. ences, and for the Malays, their pro–Malay national Religion has always been a vital and construc- identity (Malaysia for the Malays, not for Malaysians!) tive part of the traditional Indonesian ethnocultural Islamic identity in the public arena became associ- framework. The early state-civilizations that arose ated with Malay ethno-national identity. Markers of in the Indonesian archipelago gained their symbolic ethnic identity (the head-dress for women, in partic- legitimacy by means of the religious sanctioning of ular) became the basis for defi ning ethnic solidar- a state priesthood. Prior to this, a complex spirit- ity and political-ethnic unity vis-à-vis the Chinese animism formed the symbolic basis of traditional and Indians, who were, and by and large who re- ethnocultural identities throughout the Indonesian main, more open and more relaxed about their reli- archipelago. gious practices. This traditional spirit complex underlies all of From the late 1960s until now, Islam in Malaysia Indonesian ethnocultural identity, and forms a has grown increasingly fundamentalist and modern- foundation for the development of religious life ist in orientation, with a strong trend toward tradi- throughout the country, regardless of the other re- tionalism and Santri Islam. There has been greater ligious identities that may overlay and interact with ethnic separation, particularly as defi ned along reli- this complex, resulting in the syncretization of dif- gious lines. To replace the current dual legal system ferent religious symbologies and traditions through- for Malays and non-Malays with Sharia law would out the region.

132 Military Intelligence As a result, religious orientation throughout ist versus customary village practices. Generally, Indonesia, regardless of ethnic differences in lan- modernists advocate an orthodox view of Islam, guage and custom, and degree of Islamic or Western observing the Five Pillars of Islam and uphold the infl uence, shares a similar profi le that can be char- authority of the local imam. They support modern acterized as “synthetic” and “syncretistic” in orienta- secular education for their children, while conserva- tion and function, borrowing and integrating beliefs tives tend to advocate a traditional Muslim educa- and practices from different religious frameworks tion. Fundamentalists believe in a non-secular state and traditions and mixing these together in everyday based upon Sharia law, while those who are more life with multiple levels of understanding and prac- closely tied to village practices often do not even tice. Another way of looking at this is to see that the practice all of the Five Pillars of Islam, and read- boundaries between religious groups are tradition- ily integrate local animistic spirit beliefs, including ally fuzzy and overlap considerably. Religions may magic, witchcraft, and spirit-possession, into their interact in complex and unexpected ways in every- daily lives. In understanding these dimensions, it day life, organized as it is around calendrical rites. must be realized that there is much overlap between the categories. It is not surprising to fi nd Muslim Though Indonesia is expressly a secular state con- Indonesians in some public aspects quite conser- stitutionally and offi cially, the predominant religion vative and fundamentalist, and in other, more pri- is, almost without exception in the many islands that vate aspects, often quite modern or village-centered constitute the Indonesian archipelago, Islam. More in orientation. than 85 percent of Indonesians, or about 204 mil- lion people–more than in all other Muslim nations Modernist: Five Pillars of combined–profess Islam, mostly a relatively moder- Islam/Modern Westernized ate form of Sunni Islam. Only a small minority prac- Education & Organization tices Shi’a Islam, (about 1 million or 1 percent of the Islamic population of Indonesia). Santri & Fundamentalist Abangan Muslims represent the majority populations on Sharia Law & Non-Secular Adat Law: State Animistic Syncretism the islands of Java, Sumatra, West Nusa Tenggara, Sulawesi, coastal Kalimantan and North Maluku. They represent the minority populations in Papua, Traditionalist Conservative: Five Pillars of Islam/Sharia East Nusa Tenggara, parts of North Sumatra, in- for Muslims, Traditional land Kalimantan and North Sulawesi, as well as on Islamic Education minor islands and Bali.1 Multiple Dimensions of Islam in Indonesia Recent trends in Indonesia, under the infl uence Aceh, long the stronghold of orthodox Islam in of Arab-funded conservative charities, have been Indonesia, remains a special state in which Sharia toward a more orthodox and conservative interpre- law is specifi cally authorized by the semi-auton- tation of Islamic doctrine. A 2006 poll showed that omous state. Hence Aceh is the only province in 58 percent of people surveyed believed that adul- Indonesia with Sharia courts, even if Acehnese cler- terers should be stoned compared to 39 percent ics have taken a rather moderate approach in the in 2001. Fundamentalist orientations have been application of Sharia punishments. politically active since the founding of modern Islam in Indonesia is considered moderate in part Indonesia as an independent republic, and have because women are generally accorded a greater periodically advocated, sometimes quite strongly, public role, both domestically and outside the home, for the founding of a non-secular Sharia based compared to most other Muslim nations. It has not state. This advocacy was outlawed under President been unusual to have Indonesian women assume Suharto’s New Order, but has re-emerged with public leadership roles, as well as to manage house- modernization and democratization trends, espe- hold affairs. In addition, otherwise conservative or cially in the last decade. fundamentalist Indonesian groups reckon kinship Islam is expressed in Indonesia along two axes: and residency pattern through the female, rather modernist versus traditionalist, and fundamental- than the male, line.

January - March 2011 133 The national government holds an exclusive mo- way through complicated trade, political and social nopoly on the organization of pilgrimages to Mecca, networks eastward, eventually coming into compe- under the Department of Religious Affairs, setting a tition with Christianity, which had actually been es- quota on the number of pilgrims at any one time. tablished under the Dutch and the Portuguese, and The fi rst Islamic state in the Indonesian archipel- tended to work from eastern Indonesia westward. ago was the Kingdom of Pasai, founded in about Dutch colonization of Indonesia brought a form of 1267 CE. From Pasai in Sumatra, Islam spread protestant Christianity (Dutch Reformed Church); by intermarriage of a princess to the Sultan of this coming into competition and frequent confl ict Malacca, who quickly came to control the Straits of with Islamic communities. In response, by the late Malacca, and hence monopolized the spice and pep- 19th century, Islamic reform movements began that per trade. Islam became established in the Straits played a key role in the formation of modern na- by the 15th century, as well as along the coastal re- tional Indonesian identity. gions of the Malay Peninsula. The Hindu Mahajapit Transmigration programs, begun with the Dutch empire of central and eastern Java was in decline and continued by the Indonesian Republic until the th by the late 15 century, and was eventually con- late 1990s, served both to decrease the relatively quered by the Sultanate of Demak in 1520. At this high population densities in heavily Muslim areas, point Islam began to spread throughout Java, infl u- and to increase the number of Muslims in tradition- enced by the Nine Saints (Wali Songo: Wali meaning ally non-Muslim areas of Indonesia. This often po- “Trusted Ones” or “Guardians” or “Friends of God” litically displaced the local communities by making and Songo, number nine in Javanese). Most of these them into voting minorities. This sense of cultural, men were of royal families, called “raden” or “su- political, religious and to some extent economic nan” (honored). The original Muslim mystics came displacement, has served to fuel inter-ethnic con- to Java from India via present day Aceh, and date fl ict between transmigrant and indigenous com- to 1419 AD. Many of the Wali Songo had Chinese munities, especially in Maluku, Central Sulawesi, ancestry, and though credited with the founding of Kalimantan and Papua, with the religious cleavage Islam in Java, Chinese traders and Islam were long being the most salient dimension of the confl ict. present before their arrival. People make local pil- grimages to their grave sites today. In general, the moderate and diverse versions of Islam found throughout Indonesia refl ect the com- th By the end of the 16 century, Islamic principali- plex history of the founding, spread and development ties came to replace Hindu and Buddhist states and of Islam in Indonesia. Early introductions of Islam to populations in most of Java and Sumatra, largely Java, the central region of power in the Nusantera, through policies of amalgamation and assimilation probably took the form of Islamic mystics of the Sufi involving conversion with marriage. Only the island tradition, gaining ready acceptance and local inte- state of Bali and neighboring areas remained as tra- gration with Adat and local ethno-culture. While ditionally Hinduized kingdoms in the Indonesian both elites and common people adopted Islam uni- Archipelago. Outlying or Ulu Islands would remain formly along the coastal regions of Sumatra, largely largely animistic in tribal religious orientation un- in contradistinction to the Hinduized kingdoms, til conversion to either Islam or Christianity by the Islam in the interior of Java was adopted gradually th 18 century. fi rst by the elite, and largely as a formal context for Historical evidence of the founding and spread of the incorporation of Javanese spirit culture. These Islam in the Indonesian archipelago is sketchy and processes resulted in the kind of dimensional ten- fragmentary. The manner and dominant mode of sions that occur in Islam in modern Indonesia, yet conversion remains an issue debated by scholars of still expressed in Javanese society as the contrast the subject. In Indonesia, even today, the process of between Santri and Abangan Islam. The Santri are Islamization is gradual and continuous within each not just people devoted exclusively to Islamic doc- population and region. Conversion of a potentate or trine, but literally Muslims who removed themselves leader does not necessarily entail conversion of the from a secular world to focus exclusively upon devo- entire community. In general, Islam spread from tional activities in Islamic schools called pesantren, Western and Northern Indonesia, and worked its or “place of the santri.”

134 Military Intelligence Muhammadiyah is the main “modernist” social formal Islamic organizations. Conservative Islamic organization, with a constituency of about 30 mil- organizations streamlined and merged into a sin- lion Indonesians. It has branch offi ces throughout gle Islamic political party, the United Development Indonesia, and runs mosques, prayer houses, clin- Party (PPP) which actually served to further split ics, orphanages, poorhouses, schools, libraries and the Indonesian Islamic community along political universities. They have recently politicized, endors- lines. The Islamic Defenders Front was a radical ing a member candidate for the national presiden- group based in Jakarta that staged raids on night- tial elections. clubs and bars, and attempted to barge into for- Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) is the largest “traditionalist” eign-owned hotels to expel Americans and Israelis. organization, with about 40 million followers, as well Though not offi cially recognized, many Indonesians as being Indonesia’s largest organization and possi- secretly support such organizations. bly the world’s largest Islamic organization. It con- The Bangsamoro of the Philippines ducts activities similar to those of Muhammadiyah, Muslims represent 5 percent of the population of as well as running a majority of Indonesia’s board- the Philippines. Often designated as Moros, they ing schools. It has offi ces throughout Indonesia, but are a multilingual ethnic minority in the southern is most strongly represented in rural Java. Many of Philippines. The term Moro came from the Spanish its followers practice a form of Islam infused with word for moor, denoting a Muslim people of Berber or traditional Javanese culture, rejecting a liberal or Arab descent in North Africa. This term is resented dogmatic interpretation of Islamic doctrine. The or- by some Muslim Filipinos because they feel it has ganization strongly advocates religious moderation the negative implications of being pirates, repulsive, and communal harmony, and shows great defer- and sinister. Currently most Moros reside in south- ence to the teachings of senior NU religious lead- ern and western Mindanao, southern Palawan, and ers, or ulama. the Sulu Archipelago. There are many other Islamic organizations that During the period that the Philippines were under run the gamut in representing the diversity of control of the U.S., the Bureau for Non-Christian Islamic views and orientations found throughout Tribes was set up to deal with ethnic and religious Indonesia. The Islam Liberal Network (JIL) promotes minorities, especially the Muslim population in the a pluralistic and liberal interpretation of Islamic doc- south. This bureau dissolved at the time of inde- trine. At the other end of the spectrum are funda- pendence in 1946, but the government realized that mentalist groups like Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) an agency similar to it was necessary to handle the and Indonesian Mujahedeen Council (MMI) advocat- Muslim minority. So the Commission for National ing a pan-Islamic caliphate or the implementation Integration, the predecessor of the Offi ce of Muslim of Sharia law in a non-secular Indonesian Islamic Affairs and Cultural Communities (OMACC), was State. These fundamentalist organizations tend to- set up. The functions of the OMACC include acting ward the radical and sometimes violent extremes as the bridge between the central government and like the Front Pembela Islam or Jemaah Islamiyah Muslim communities, addressing various issues (Islamic Congregation) dedicated to the founding facing the Muslim communities, ensuring the par- of a pan-Islamic state across Southeast Asia in- ticipation of Muslim population in national build- tegrating Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and the ing, and preserving and developing the culture and Southern Philippines. well being of the Muslim Filipinos. Every year, the Besides Islamic organizations, there remains a OMA helps Muslim Filipinos to go to Mecca for the small Islamic minority practicing the Ahmadiyah hajj. However, many Muslim Filipinos see the OMA interpretation of Islam. It maintains 242 branches as merely a government institution set up to control throughout Indonesia. In 1980, the Indonesian and assimilate Muslim population. Council of Ulamas (MUI) issued a fatwa declaring In most Muslim communities there is at least that this sect of Islam was heretical. There remain one mosque where the muezzin calls out fi ve times as well other messianic Islamic groups active in daily at certain hours to summon Muslims in town Indonesia, which tend to be syncretistic in orienta- to prayer. However, not all Moros follow all fi ve pil- tion, largely also considered heretic in Indonesia by lars of Islam as strictly as others. The less ortho-

January - March 2011 135 dox Moros neglect performing daily prayers, offering and by continuing to research and compile relevant alms, or keeping fast during Ramadan. Strict ad- information about these regions in a way that is herents or not, Filipino Muslims do observe all fes- useful to military planning. tivals and holy days of their religion, and celebrate extravagantly. In common with Muslim societies in the Pacifi c is- Endnote lands, but in contrast to orthodox Islam, the com- munity in the Philippines provides women with 1. Desmond Stewart, Early Islam (New York: Time, Inc., 1967). relatively more freedom. Many Moro women go to work and socialize with people outside of their homes daily. The only obvious restriction is that Muslim References women usually stay in the back of mosques, behind men, during prayers. Aiyar, Pallavi. “Islamic Revivalism of Muslims in China.” ImamReza.net. 22 September 2006. At http://www.imamreza. Since the Republic of the Philippines is a pre- net/eng/imamreza.php?print=6557 (accessed 25 October 2010). dominantly Roman Catholic nation, laws prohibit Asad, Talal. Genealogies of Religion. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins polygyny and divorce. In consideration of Islamic University Press, 1993. customs, and to mitigate tensions between the cen- Esposito, John L. The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford tral government and Muslim community, Muslims University Press, 1999. are exempt from these proscriptions. Although now- Mapping the Global Muslim Population. 8 October 2009. At adays a Muslim man rarely has more than one wife, http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1370/mapping-size-distribution- he is allowed to have up to four wives as long as his worlds-muslim-population (accessed 10 October 2010). wealth is suffi cient to support all of them. Neumann, Klaus. “Refugees on Our Doorstep: West Papuan Refugees in Papua and New Guinea, 1962–69.” National Archives Islam in the Philippines has absorbed indigenous of Australia, 2002: 12. elements. Most Moros believe that malevolent or be- nign spirits have an effect on one’s life. To avoid evil TRADOC Culture Center. Democratic People’s Republic of Korea Student Reader, 2010. spirits and attract good fortune, they make offerings to various spirits and carry out rituals that are not TCC. Indonesia Student Reader, 2010. abiding to Islam on important events. TCC. Mongolia Student Reader, 2010. Summary TCC. People’s Republic of China Student Reader, 2010. This survey of the Muslim populations of East Asia TCC. People’s Republic of China Student (Taiwan) Student Reader, 2010. clearly shows that the practice of Islam outside the Middle East and Africa is not unitary, but instead TCC. Republic of Korea Student Reader, 2010. rich, diverse, and complex, a fact which should dis- TCC. Republic of the Philippines Student Reader, 2010. pel the tendency to make facile universal charac- Yardley, Jim. “China Brands Muslim Groups as Terrorists.” terizations of the faith or its adherents. Islam is as NYTimes.com. December 16, 2002. At at http://www. nytimes. diverse as the communities which profess it. com/2003/12/16/world/china-brands-muslim-groups- as-terrorists.html?scp=1&sq=December+16%2C+2003%2 C+ Received in East Asia as Islam has been, by peo- Xinjiang+separatists&st=nyt (accessed 25 October 2010). ple following autochthonous practices and subject to political vagaries and a variety of infl uences from other religions, major and minor, not to mention the extremely diverse topography, this summary jour- Marion Margraf serves the TRADOC Culture Center as a Senior ney is not meant to be exhaustive, but gives an in- Training and Development Specialist. She completed her BA dication of the high degree of diffi culty of making in anthropology at the University of New Mexico and MA in generalizations about Islam as a basis for action. English at Arizona State University. Her professional interests have been in anthropology, with a focus on linguistics and Instead, it underscores the urgency to keep our cur- language acquisition. Ms. Margraf has taught English as a rent regional knowledge of the faith up to date by Second Language at many levels, from secondary to university engaging in meaningful contexts with people in the and has enjoyed over twenty years teaching and learning target environment, by acquiring their languages, with people from other cultures.

136 Military Intelligence by Yale M. Needel Buddhism has been an integral part of the life and interactions between the tangible and intangible com- society of Thai Buddhists, it is the root of Thai cul- ponents. In order to maintain the society’s function- ture and way of life for the people. In order to appreci- ality and structure, there must be an interdependent ate the importance, role, and infl uence of Theravada and supportive relationship of different compositions Buddhism on the life of the Buddhist populace, it is of Buddhism.4 Lacking any of them would cause im- necessary to understand other structures or fabrics balance in society. For example, the village commu- that are integral parts of Buddhism. Important com- nity without a monastery and monks to teach the ponents are the Buddha, Dhamma (San: Dharma; people would result in low morality and spirit of the teachings and methods of the Buddha that lead to inhabitants. Similarly, if the monks in the commu- Enlightenment), Sangha (community of monks), wat nity do not strictly adhere to the Dhamma and keep to (monastery), and upasaka (lay disciples).1 their duties and to the Code of Disciplines (Vinaya), 5 Dhamma has always been the most infl uential the people’s morality and spirit will become lax. teachings for guiding the life of Buddhists. The Social relationships in the community would also teachings are found not only in the Pali Canon or become weak, unstable, and in confl ict if there was the Tipitaka (San: Tripitaka; “Three Baskets,” the en- no religious institution to instruct and guide them. tire collection of Buddhist writings and scriptures) Social relationships are not always in harmony and and Sutta Pitaka (Discourses of the Buddha), but confl icts may arise from time to time. Resolution of also in such religious literatures as the Jataka Tales such confl icts is achieved by means of adaptation (chronicles and myths of the Buddha’s previous in- and adjustment of the existing social structure and carnations). The Dhamma component is an abstract function in order to maintain society. Alternatively, aspect and serves as the heart of Buddhism. The there might be a replacement of the structure and Sangha and the wat are in close proximity with the function of the old society by a new one. 2 people and interact with society in daily life. Interaction and the interdependent relationship of The close association and continuous relationship the Sangha and lay society is another aspect of the re- between Buddhism and society is based on the con- lationship between society and religion. The Sangha cept that a society is a conglomeration of tangible is the most important and traditional Buddhist in- composition and such abstract elements as virtue, stitution that is closely interacts with the people; it goodness, morality, and ethics.3 There are continuous plays an essential role, both religious and secular,

January - March 2011 137 practices adopted from other faiths, as heresy. The followers of Doctrinal Buddhism are few but generally highly educated.  Popular Buddhism refers to a Buddhism that is permeated by other religions and belief systems. It includes animism, Brahmanism, and beliefs in ghosts and spirits. The practices and teach- ings of Buddhism and other belief systems are so well interwoven that only the highly educated among the faithful can distinguish Buddhism from the others. Despite the conviction among several scholars that Redfi eld’s concept is antiquated and too basic for modern analytical application to the academic in the life of the people. It provides spiritual sanctu- study of Thailand and Southeast Asian in general, ary for the people when they need comfort.6 In the it is nevertheless quite relevant to the interpreta- secular sphere, monks render services to rural and tion and discussion of modern Thai society, specif- remote communities. They help in teaching the chil- ically the social structures found in large cities and dren, healing the sick by traditional methods, and urban communities which exhibit a unique form of leading the villagers in various development efforts. Buddhist beliefs and practices known as “Popular Reciprocally, the lay community provides the Thai Buddhism.”9 This form of Buddhism indicates monks with necessities for their well being so that the ever-changing domestic economic, religious, the monks do not worry about earning a living. Such and social environment in modern democratically an interdependent and mutual relationship contrib- ruled Thailand while still maintaining deep-rooted utes to a situation in which each party has to be beliefs and practices that in the past, was common fl exible and adaptable to change. An accommodat- only among villages and small rural communities. ing and adaptive ability is an indispensable quality Religious rites, an important structure and func- of the structures within a society that makes possi- tion of a religion, can differentiate between the ble maintenance of the society. The structural and complexity of Doctrinal and Popular Buddhism. functional defi nition of Thai social order is main- Followers of Popular Buddhism tend to rank rituals tained through the regulation of offi cial governmen- high. Their rituals are a combination of Buddhistic, tal bodies such as the Sangha, Ministry of Religious animistic, and Brahmanical elements. On the con- Affairs, and Ministry of Education (to an extent.) trary, followers of Doctrinal Buddhism are more Every component of Thai society is inter-reliant, in- concerned with Buddhist ritual and less with the teracting, and contributing to the system mainte- importance of non-Buddhistic ones.10 nance in a given situation. The majority of Buddhists in Thailand follow Following Robert Redfi eld’s concept of “Great and Popular Buddhism to some extent. This phenom- 7 Little Tradition,” Thai society’s appreciation of enon can be explained in the context of the belief Buddhism can be divided into two broad categories: system at every level of society. Even in the most 8 Doctrinal and Popular Buddhism. primitive societies, human beings could hold on to a  Doctrinal Buddhism refers to the teachings of belief system. Such a belief system may be animism the Buddha and practices contained in the Pali in various forms, including beliefs regarding natural Canon sutta (San: sutra; “discourses”) and re- occurrences. By the time that Theravada Buddhism lated literatures. Doctrinal Buddhism is thus was introduced to Southeast Asia, there already ex- believed to be original. Its followers will refuse isted indigenous belief systems and religions among principles, practices, and teachings that are not the people. When they accepted Buddhism, they contained in the Pali Canon. They perceive belief also kept their old beliefs and practices. Because of in magic, supernaturalism, spirits, deities, and its fl exible quality and liberalism, Buddhism easily other forms of animism including beliefs and absorbed certain elements of existing belief systems

138 Military Intelligence into its mainstream practice. What developed from including the level of appreciation of the people’s this process is known as Popular Buddhism.11 individual needs. Therefore, there are levels in The teachings of the Buddha display variety in the teachings of the Buddha, (i.e. basic truth, their levels of sophistication, purpose, content, and middle and sophisticated truth, both in every- 15 specialties. For example, the Cattari Ariya Saccani day and supermundane states.) (Four Noble Truths) explain natural phenomena The dissemination of the teachings of the Buddha that will be with every person from birth to death. to people at different levels of appreciation requires It describes the nature of dukkha (suffering), in- specialized methods to suit each group. Preaching cluding sorrow and frustration of every kind; the Dhamma to intellectuals and educated people origin of problems and suffering by way of paticca who are keen on Buddhism and wanting to apply samuppada (causality); the extinction of suffering Dhamma to improve their lives, the monks and prop- (Nibbana, San: Nirvana); and the path leading to agators have to select and transmit a sophisticated the extinction of suffering (Ariyo Atthangiko Maggo; Dhamma.16 The Dhamma for the followers of Popular the Noble Eightfold Path).12 There is even a teach- Buddhism was simplifi ed and made easy to under- ing that guides people to live comfortably without stand. Simplifi ed laws of Kamma (San; Karma; the sacrifi cing the accumulation of wealth and suc- law of cause and effect) and stories from the Jataka cess called the Dittdhammikattha Samvattanika Tales and sutta are an effective means to educate Dhamma (virtues conducive to benefi ts in the pres- them. However, Phra Rajavoramuni points out that ent). It teaches the people to be energetic, industri- “whatever the teaching methods are, all teachings ous, and “watchful” concerning their properties, to are related, for [the essence of] the teachings de- associate with good people and live effi ciently.13 The rives from the same truth and the ultimate purpose Buddha also encouraged people to follow the path is identical. In fact these teachings are identical in to success. This appears in a particular teaching purpose but given different labels. The truth is dis- called the Iddhipada (basis for success).14 seminated selectively and in different forms.”17 However, the overall purpose of the teachings of While the future of Buddhism depends on the good the Buddha can be summarized as follows: and proper education of the monks and novices, cur-  To enlighten the lay[man] about the nature of life rently most of the Thai monks and novices, the great from birth and existence to death. This includes majority of whom are in rural areas, count among an explanation of the origin of life, existence af- the less overall educated people in the country. ter birth, and survival until death. The teachings Moreover, the traditional system of monastic educa- also deal with ways to lead one’s life happily in tion under charge of the Sangha has been in a state harmony with nature and how to minimize and of rapid decline. Many large Pali language schools cope with suffering arising from illness, death, have closed, while those that continue, suffer from disappointment, separation [anxiety], and other sharply decreasing numbers of students, a majority misfortunes one could encounter. of which are Western. By contrast, modern schools  To explain and prescribe ways for people to live together mutually on the individual level, as well as on national and global levels. The teachings to achieve this purpose deal with the prescrip- tions for social relationships between individual and individual, social relationship within the family, between teacher and students, between employer and employee, between religious per- sonnel and the people, between government and subjects, and between state and state.  To give guidance as how to apply the teachings of the Buddha to improve daily life. The pre- scriptions are designed to be understood and workable according to the nature of problems,

January - March 2011 139 for monks and novices, both those unrecognized and Donald K. Swearer, Ph.D., Steven Heine, Ph.D., and Erik Cohen, those passively recognized by the Sangha, includ- Ph.D. in 2002 and 2003-2004 respectively. ing those which teach exclusively secular subjects 3. Samsopheap Preap, A Comparative Study of Thai and Khmer Buddhism, unpublished MA Thesis in Buddhist Studies and those run by outsiders, lay parties, and even at Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, (Bangkok: businessmen, enjoy a rapidly increasing number of Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2005), 10. monks and novices as their students to the dissatis- 4. Phra Rajavoramuni, Buddhism and Thai Society (Bangkok: Komol faction and out of the control of the Sangha.18 Kreamthong Foundation Press, 1982), 21-22. The Sangha in Thailand, in comparison with eccle- 5. Samsopheap Preap, 10. siastical institutions in other countries, is well orga- 6. Ibid., 11. nized. Thousands of monasteries and over a quarter 7. Robert Redfi eld, Peasant Society and Culture (Chicago: The of a million monks and novices are unifi ed under the University of Chicago Press, 1956), 41. same administration. With this national organization 8. Samsopheap Preap, 12. of the Sangha, the Thai monkhood enjoys the full 9. Donald K. Swearer, The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia (Albany: recognition and offi cial support of the state and the State University of New York Press, 1995), 5-7. uniformity of all ecclesiastical affairs and religious ac- 10. Samsopheap Preap, 13. tivities including education, rituals, and observances. 11. Ibid. With a religious organization and hierarchy parallel- 12. Conversation with Phra Sanong Taew, Wat Chakkawat (Bangkok, ing that of the secular government, full cooperation Thailand), August 2002. Also see Melford Spiro, Buddhism and and agreement between the Sangha and the state are Society: A Great Tradition and Its Burmese Vicissitudes (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1977) 37-42. secured. Under these circumstances, the monks have 13. A.T. Ariyaratne, “A Buddhist Approach to Social and Economic been able to play several important and necessary Development: An Experience from Sri Lanka.” Socially Engaged roles that contribute to the unity of the people. Buddhism for the New Millennium (Bangkok: The Sathirakoses- Thai Buddhism is increasingly individualized; ev- Nagapradipa Foundation and The Foundation For Children, 1999), 22-24. eryone practices and adapts it arbitrarily for his/ 14. Phra Rajavoramuni, Buddha Dhamma: Law of Nature and her own benefi t with less and less intervention from Virtues for Life (Bangkok: Sukapharbjai Press, 1983), 11-2 and Paul the state, Sangha, or even one’s family and commu- Carus, The Gospel of the Buddha (New Delhi: National Book Trust, nity, as was previously the norm. With such an at- 1971), 155-156. titude, Buddhism is easily used to please oneself or 15. Somboon Suksamram, Buddhism and Political Legitimacy dissolve one’s personal desire without concerns for (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Printing House, 1993), 20-21. others, nature, and the spiritual dimension.19 16. Samsopheap Preap, 14. It is highly likely that Buddhism will continue to be 17. Phra Rajavoramuni, Buddha Dhamma, 11-12. reduced to a personal level of teaching, particularly 18. Phra Dhammapitaka, Thai Buddhism in the Buddhist World (Bangkok: Buddhadhamma Foundation, 2001), 152-154. in Thailand. However, this is nothing new. In the past, the benefi ts of the Five Precepts (Pancha Sila), 19. Conversation with Phra Paisal Visalo, Wat Pak Sukato, Chaiyaphum, Thailand, September 2005. for example, were always explained only on the per- 20. B. J. Terwiel, Monks and Magic: An Analysis of Religious sonal level, contributing to a peaceful and happy in- Ceremonies in Central Thailand (Bangkok: White Lotus Press, Ltd., dividual life, while the benefi ts to society were rarely 1994), 161-171. mentioned.20 Though there are several teachings on one’s obligation to society, they were less emphasized Yale M. Needel is a Training Specialist and member of the PACOM Team for the TRADOC Culture Center at Fort Huachuca, than teachings on person-to-person practice. Arizona. He is also an Adjunct Instructor of Anthropology Endnotes and Sociology at University of Maryland University College. 1. Somdet Phra Nyanasamvara, What Did The Buddha Teach? He has conducted research throughout South and Southeast (Bangkok: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2000), 6-7. Asia. His recent publications include a study on the Indian- Jewish communities of Bombay, India as well as several 2. This study was conducted partially through informal discussions literature reviews. His current research involves an in-depth and interviews beginning in 2002 initially with Phra Sanong Taew (Wat Chakkawat) and Phra Sugandha (Wat Bovornives), but has ethnographic study of Buddhist-related amulets, charms, votive extended to random subject questioned in Bangkok. They, and tablets, and tattoos and the roles they play among a group of the resident monks at their temples, provided all discussions and motorbike taxi drivers in Bangkok’s Klong Toey market and translations of Buddhist commentaries, texts, and canon in Pali and slum district. The study will explain the current trend towards Thai. Additional information was provided by B.J. Terwiel, Ph.D., the commodifi cation of religion as observed in Thailand.

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