258 THE VIRGINIA TEACHER [Vol. 11, No. 9

NOTES ON THE AMERICAN 4. English imperial policy formulated middle of 18th Century. REVOLUTION A. Independent executives and judges. Following are some teaching 1. To be paid from money collected at custom houses. notes on the American Revolution B. Defensive system improved. unit with partial bibliography ap- 1. Albany Congress of 1754. pended : 2. Pontiac rebellion. 3. Colonies pay part of expenses of late FACTORS MAKING FOR AMERICAN wars and up-keep of troops by Stamp Act and Trade Laws. NATIONALITY a. Reception of Stamps in America. 1. Character of settlers—individualistic. b. Stamp Act Congress. 2. Distance from Europe—distance only name c. Non - importation - consumption for time and effort. 3. Adequate natural resources sufficient to agreement. maintain large population. C. Enforcing trade regulations. 4. Rapid increase in population. 1. Writs of Assistance. 1700—275,000 2. Admiralty Courts. 1720-475,000 3. Revenue cutters to patrol coasts. 1740—900,000 a. Gaspee incident. 1760—1,600.000 b. Capture of ship Liberty 1768. 1775—2,500,000 4. Two regiments sent to Boston. 5. Experience in Colonial Wars. Resentment a. Boston Massacre. of British officers. Knew each other. b. Removal of troops. 6. Expulsion of France from North America 5. Government aid to East India Com- which took away desire for protection. pany. 7. Long practice in self-government. a. Allowed them to send tea direct 8. Indifference to English trade regulations. to colonies. English laws not enforced. b. Reception of tea in America. FACTORS MOVING TOWARDS UNION c. Boston Tea Party. 1. Same race—r e 1 i g i o n—consciousness of d. Five Intolerable Acts. kind—more alike than different. 1. Closing port of Boston. 2. Expansion of settlement which brought 2. Changing Massachusetts char- people nearer together. ter. 3. Geographically a unit. Near together after 3. Trial in England. all. All along same coast, etc. 4. Quartering Act. 4. Communication developed—roads built— 5. Quebec Act. postal union 1720. e. Committees of Correspondence. 5. Co-operation incident to Colonial Wars f. First Continental Congress. and Indian troubles. Inter-colonial meet- 1. Non-importation and consump- ings. Menace of Indian a unionizing fac- tion agreement. tor. 2. Provided for Congress follow- 6. Frontier conquered by Germans, etc. Peo- ing year. ple who do not have feeling of loyalty to g. Gage governor in Massachusetts. Colonial Government or English Govern- 1. Call for Assembly. ment. Without strong colonial ties. 2. Assembly meets at Cambridge. 7. Common religious interests. Church rela- 3. Ignores government of Gage. tions overswept borders. 4. Militia drilled and arms col- 8. Colonial sympathy against English prero- lected at various places—Con- gatives. Interchange of reports against cord, Lexington, etc. crown and governor. 5. Gage attempts to seize these FACTORS AGAINST COLONIAL UNITY stores, April 19, 1775. 1. Colonies had individual history. S. Fundamental question; Should Brit- 2. Difficulties of communication. ish Parliament rule Great Britain in 3. Boundary disputes. all its parts or should Parliament 4. Disputes as to commanders in colonial rule England, and colonial assemblies wars. rule Colonies, with only a federal 5. Ill feeling between different colonies. bond between. 6. Obstacles against solidarity within each a. English conception of representa- colony. tion. b. American conception of represen- POLITICAL CAUSES OF AMERICAN tation. 1. America populated by radicals and dissent- ers. BRITISH IMPERIAL PROBLEM 2. Act of Uniformity not extended to Col- Three distinct concepts of nature of Empire. onies. 17th Century a period of laxity in colonial 1. Theory of Colonial Dependency. affairs. Britain regarded as head and mistress of her December, 1930] THE VIRGH A TEACHER 259

dominions and the dominions as children, than from English West Indies. New England proper subjects for exploitation under the old traded with French. The French products were colonial system. Adherents to this view be- about 25% cheaper. England attempted to pro- lieved that the Parliament then existing at hibit this trade by a heavy tax, but the act was Westminster was in fact an imperial Parlia- not enforced at this time, and it only led to smug- ment, in the form it then had, i. e., that the gling, openly connived at, which in turn led_ to Lords and Commons of Great Britain were disrespect of law. England, by not enforcing adequate representatives of all the outlying her acts, helped to establish that disrespect of law portions of the Empire as well as of the con- which became a habit in the thirteen colonies. stituencies which they happened to represent on the island of Britain. They believed that CHANGE IN IMPERIAL POLICY this Parliament and political supremacy and ABOUT 1750 overlordship over all the Dominions wherever England now centralized the control of Indian situated. affairs and western lands. The support of troops 2. There were those who believed that there for the protection of the frontier was now shifted should be an Imperial Parliament, but that the in part to the colonies. She also started to en- Parliament as then constituted was not such an force her past acts in regard to the colonies. assembly. These men held that the British The English policy at this time must be thought Empire was in essence a federal state, and of in the light of the Hundred Years War, fought that as such it should have a Federal Parlia- over large areas of the earth's surface. The ment, representing all the dominions, with su- English had carried this burden until they could preme jurisdiction over all the empire and carry it no longer, and now asked the colonies to paramount over all subordinate legislatures. help defend themselves in the future. These were the advocates of "imperial feder- From 1754 to 1763 the British War debts, al- ation." ready heavy, increased five fold. Therefore, Eng- land did not feel that she was laying a burden 3. There were those who held to the theory that upon the colonies when she asked them to adhere the colonies in America were in fact states in strictly to the new British system and to stop the the political sense, that their local legislatures illegal trade with the French. were the supreme power over them, under the Crown; that their sole connection with Great A. The Congress which met in Albany in 1754 Britain lay in the Crown. "Commonwealth of wanted to: Nations." This view never carried to its logi- 1. Regulate Indian policy. cal conclusion." 2. Purchase Indian lands. ECONOMIC CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN 3. To raise and pay an army and navy. 4. To levy taxes in time of war. REVOLUTION 5. Make laws for union with consent of American Revolution was not a conflict caused Crown. This plan of union fell through by King George III, nor a spontaneous uprising because of particularism. on the part of the people of the colonies, neither does "Taxation without representation" cover the FORCES TENDING TO PULL COLONIES cause of the conflict. OUT OF EMPIRE The causes of the Revolution must be consid- 1. Feeling of individualism. ered from economic, intellectual, social, political, 2. Distance from England. psychological, and religious viewpoints. 3. Environment. A. Economic Viewpoint: Colonists came to New 4. Disrespect of English law. world because 1. Of the economic, religious, and social con- GREENVILLE POLICY ditions of the Old World. 1. Sugar Act. An act for revenue mainly. 2. Business men wanted England to expand. £40,000 a year from act at cost of £13,000 3. Government wanted source of supply in for collection. This act building up commerce and navy. Wanted a. restricted trade to confine exports of colonies to mother b. took specie out of colonies country. Would discourage industrial de- c. diminished industry in New England velopment in colonies if same could be d. caused unemployment and business de- made at home. Enumerated certain articles pression. , which had to be sent to England entirely, 2. Stamp Act. A revenue act supposed to get such as tobacco, indigo, sugar, rice, molas- £61,000 annually. No specie in colonies to ses, naval stores, copper, iron ore, ashes, pay it. beaver skins, whale products, and hides. 3. Mutiny Act. A defense act. Colonies to Also forbade farmers growing tobacco in pay for expense of about 10,000 troops. England. Southern colonies and West In- Business depression forbade more taxes of dies were more important to England than this type. the New England Colonies. The prohibi- 4. Proclamation of 1763. Closed the west and tion and navigations laws were for the cut off a cheap supply of land. The colon- most part ignored. ial governments were forbidden to grant lands west of the mountains, and the set- MOLASSES ACT OF 1733 tlers already there were told to get out. Molasses from French West Indies cheaper This act also proclaimed that all lands west 260 THE VIRGIN A TEACHER [Vol. 11, No. 9

of the Mississippi were reserved for the Patrick Henry: Virginia Resolves on Stamp Act. Indians. May 30, 176S. 5. Currency Act of 1764. This act forbade Resolved therefore, That the General Assembly the use of paper money and there was very of this Colony have the only and sole exclusive little hard money in the colonies at any one right and power to lay taxes and impositions time, so this act was bitterly protested by upon the inhabitants of this Colony . . . The the debtor class. inhabitants of this Colony are not bound to yield obedience to any law or ordinance what- POLITICAL THEORIES OF THE ever, designed to impose any taxation whatso- AMERICAN REVOLUTION ever upon them, other than the laws or ordi- All this time the colonists were spinning politi- nances of the General Assembly. cal theories to bolster up or rationalize their eco- nomic desires. The first protest against the Soame Jenyns: "Objections to the Taxation of British economic system came from the assem- our American Colonies Briefly Considered" blies, the second from the pamphlet writers, and 1765. the third from mobs. Argument: Many English communities such The colonists first took refuge in the theory of as Manchester and Sheffield are taxed without rights of Englishmen under the British Consti- sending representatives to Parliament so that tution. Driven from this, they turned to the the English colonies are represented as much natural rights philosophy, i. e., their rights not as as these communities. Either Manchaster is Englishmen, but as human beings. not represented in Parliament, in which case Parliament can, and does, tax Englishmen SUMMARY OF THEORIES OF without their consent, or else Boston is repre- INDIVIDUALS sented in Parliament, in which case she has no Stephen Hopkins: "The Rights of the Colonies grievance. Virtual representation. Examined" 1764. Daniel Dulaney: "Considerations on Raising Argument: All colonies in ancient and modern Revenue by Act of Parliament" 1765. times have always enjoyed as much freedom as Argument: Refuted doctrine of virtual repre- the mother state and it could hardly be sup- sentation. The non-electors, the electors, and posed that the British colonies were an excep- the representatives residing in Great Britain tion to that rule. Hopkins does not define the are individually the same. The security of the rights of the colonies—he merely raises ques- non-electors against oppression is that their op- tions about them. Have we not rights? We pression would fall also upon the electors and have always enjoyed rights and privileges; why the representatives. If non-electors should not should we not continue to enjoy them? etc. be taxed by Parliament, they would not be James Otis; "The Rights of the Colonies" 1764. taxed at all. The colonies pay taxes levied by Argument; All British colonies are subject to their own legislatures and, therefore, would not and dependent on Great Britain. The Parlia- be exempt from taxation if not taxed by Par- ment of Great Britain has an undoubted power liament. The influence from Dulaney's argu- and lawful authority to make acts for the gen- ment is that the colonies should send represen- eral good which are binding upon the subjects tatives to Parliament, or Parliament has no of Great Britain. The power of Parliament is right to tax. Colonists objected to sending rep- uncontrollable but by themselves and we must resentatives to England. Parliament had al- obey. They only can repeal their own acts. ways imposed certain duties, the Sugar Act for There would be an end of all government if example. Writers now drew a distinction be- one or a number of subjects or subordinate tween internal and external taxes. The Stamp provinces should take upon themselves to judge Act Congress drew this distinction in sub- of an act of Parliament and to refuse obedi- stance. Thus at the time of the repeal of the ence to it. If Parliament has a right to tax Stamp Act in 1766, the colonies did not deny our trade, it has a right to tax anything else. that Parliament possessed of general legislative Parliaments are in all cases to declare what is jurisdiction over them. They maintained only for the good of the whole, but there is in all that this jurisdiction did not include the right cases a higher authority, t. e., God. Should an of laying taxes upon them without their con- act of Parliament be against any of His natural sent, and that direct internal taxes were a vi- laws it would consequently be void. Taxation olation of constitutional rights. without representation is tyranny, but we have John Dickinson; "Farmers Letters" 1767-8. to obey. Argument: Distinguished between duties laid for the regulation of trade and duties laid for Townshend: bringing in revenue. Since a tax might be for Argument: Distinction between external and both, the real intention of the framers of the internal tax, nonsense. He was willing to lay law must be considered. His countrymen would only external taxes to be collected at ports of have sufficient understanding to discover the in- entry. The colonists now agreed with Pitt that tentions of those who rule over them. Parliament had no power to take money out of Question: Could the British Government by their pockets without their consent. administrative order suspend or abolish the co- Hutchinson, Thomas : 1764, Contents of a letter. lonial assemblies? Governor Colden of New Argument: Every interest in England is rep- York had suspended the New York Assembly. resented in Parliament, but the colonies have To meet this emergency a theory which denied an interest distinct from the interests of Eng- the jurisdiction of the British Government in a land. particular matter, such as the taxing power, December, 1930] THE VIRGH A TEACHER 261

was inadequate. Some theory had to be found and which the inferior is bound to obey. Wil- defining the jurisdiction of the British and son denies the idea of a superior state existing Colonial Governments. Dickinson assumed for people. The colonies arc connected with that the British were one people, the Ameri- Great Britain in the person of the King. cans, another, and each free. An Englishman Thomas Jefferson: "A Summary View of the would have maintained that they were not free, Rights of British America" 1774. but subject to Parliament. Parliament had al- Argument: Our ancestors left England and ways exercised jurisdiction over them. established new societies in the wilderness. Samuel Adams: That settlement having been made, the emi- Argument: All legislature are subject to the grants thought proper to adopt that system of British Constitution and the Constitution is laws under which they had hitherto lived and founded in the law of God and nature. The to continue their union with England by sub- power of any legislative body stops where the mitting themselves to the same common sov- natural rights of man begin. Adams found ereign who was thereby made the central link one of their rights; every man had the sole connecting the several parts of the Empire. disposal of his property. The British Parliament had ursurped the power NATURAL RIGHTS PHILOSOPHY of legislating for the colonies, and these unjust encroachments in late years had so multiplied This philosophy commonplace in the I8th cen- as to be no longer tolerable. These views not tury. There is a natural order of things in the accepted by the Virginia Convention. world designed by God and that they can be dis- covered. John Adams: At First Continental Congress, Compact theory of government: Miedieval 1774. philosophers had conceived of the authority of Argument: A member of the Committee to princes as resting upon a compact with their Prepare the Declaration of Rights. Notes on subjects to rule righteously, failing which their the debates in the Committee. Becker; "Dec- subjects were absolved from all allegiance. laration of Independence," P. 119-21. Who was to judge? In early history the Pope THE DECLARATION OF INDE- later by revolution. Subjects are not bound to PENDENCE obey a king who commands what is contrary to the will of God. How was one to know the June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee on be- will of God? In the 18th century nature had half of the Virginia Delegation submitted stepped in between God and man. You could three resolutions to the Continental Congress only know God's will by discovering the laws of which the first declared that "These united of nature. I think, therefore I am, and if I Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free can think straight enough and far enough I can and independent states, that they are ab- identify myself with all that is—that is nature. solved from all allegiance to the British Crown, Reason is the only sure guide which God has and that all political connection between them given man, therefore, reason is the only foun- and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to dation of just government. Governments de- be, totally dissolved. This resolution of in- rive their powers from the consent of the gov- dependence was voted by Congress, July 2, erned. Locke justified the Revolution of 1689 1776. This is the official Declaration of Inde- on this basis; American philosophers attempt- pendence. June 10 it was voted to appoint a committee to prepare a declaration to the effect ing to justify the American Revolution on the of the said first resolution. The committee ap- same basis. Locke's statement of case, Becker, pointed was Jefferson, John Adams, Franklin, P. 56. Roger Sherman, and Robert Livingston. On Benjamin Franklin: Letters, 1768. June 28 this committee reported to Congress a Argument: Questioned reasoning of Dickin- draft of the Declaration which, after being son and Adams. "I know not what the people modified, was agreed to by Congress on July 4. of Boston mean by the subordination they ac- This is known as our Declaration of Independ- knowledge to Parliament while they deny its ence, although the document has no such title. power to makp laws for them." "No middle Jefferson called it a Declaration by the Repre- ground can be maintained. Parliament has the sentatives _ of the United States of America. power to make all laws for us or it has the Its final title was "the unanimous Declaration power to make no laws for us, and I think the of the thirteen united States of America." arguments for latter more weightier than those This document incorporates the resolution on for the former." By 1770 Franklin assumed July 2. that the Empire was composed of separate TREATY OF PARIS, 1783 states all subject to the King. Political conditions in England during Revolution. James Wilson: "Considerations on the Nature George III—attitude towards America. and Extent of the Legislative Authority of the Lord North—resigned, March, 1782. British Parliament." 1774. Rockingham—New prime minister. Took office Argument: Parliament has no legislative juris- on condition that peace be made. diction over the colonies. What is the ultimate Fox—Minister for Foreign Affairs. end of all government? All lawful government Shelburne—colonial department. Quarrelled is founded in the consent of those who are sub- with Fox over handling of peace negotiations. ject to it. The happiness of the society is the American representatives—John Adams, Frank- first law of every government. Law is a rule lin, Jay, Laurens, and Jefferson. of action which is prescribed by some superior English representatives—Oswald and Strachey. 262 THE VIRGIl IA TEACHER {'Vol. 11, No. b

Instructions to American delegates by Congress. Morrison—Select Documents of American Rev- Make the most candid and confidential com- olution. munications upon all subjects to the ministers Channing—History of United States, Vol. III. of our generous ally, the King of Frances; to Merriam—American Political Theories. undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace Tyler, M. C.—Literary History American Revolu- or truce without their knowledge and concur- tion. rence ; and ultimately to govern yourselves by Lecky—American Revolution. their advice and opinion. Trevelyan—American Revolution. Fisher—American Independence. Peace negotiations. Van Tyne—American Revolution (American Na- 1. Jay suspicious of France and desires sep- tion). arate treaty with England. Marbois letter. Howard, G. E.—Preliminary of American Rev- France desired part of Mississippi Valley olution. for Spain, another part for England, and Bancroft—History of United States. the rest an Indian state under American Windsor, J.—Narrative and Critical History. protection. Force, Peter—Archives of American Revolution. 2. Oswald's commission authorized him to McDonald, W.—Select Documents of American deal with commissioners of colonies or History. plantations. Jay refused to deal with him Niles, H.—Principles and Acts of American Rev- unless he dealt with representatives of the olution. United States. Putnam—Writings of American Statesmen. 3. Boundary question. Adams, John—Writings. a. Northeast boundary (Maine). Not cor- Locke—Second Essay on Government. rectly drawn. Finally settled in Web- Laski, H. J.—Political Thought from Locke to ster-Ashburton Treaty. Bentham. 4. Fisheries. Enjoy fisheries in common with Dunning—Locke. British subjects. Paine, Thomas—Common Seme. 5. Case of tories. England desired that they Becker, Carl—Declaration of Independence. be indemnified for loss of property. Friedenwold—Declaration of Independence. Americans recommended this to States, Hildreth, R.—History of America. who did not carry it out. Van Tyne-—Loyalist of American Revolution. 6. Navigation of Mississippi River. Free to Beer, Louis—British Colonial Policy. England and U. S., although Spain con- Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 7 trolled it. American Statesmen Series. Treaty signed November 30, 1882, incor- American Nation Series. porated in general treaty September, 1783. Vale Chronicle Series. ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION John N. McIlwraith Maryland, last state, signed March 1, 1781. Organization. TRAINING AND VOCATION A congress of one house—each state to have one vote. A considerable number of students do not Powers. follow the vocation or profession for which a. Decide peace and war. b. Manage diplomatic affairs. they prepare themselves while attending c. Built and equip a navy. college. According to a recent survey of d. Borrow money. e. Make requisitions on states for men and land-grant colleges, 45 per cent of the stu- money. dents who registered in agriculture took up f. Regulate post offices. g. Determine alloy and value of coin. some other occupation after leaving the in- h. Final authority in disputes between stitutions. Of the students who specialized states. Any measure of importance to have in engineering, there were 32 per cent that nine votes to pass. When Congress not went into some other vocation in later life. in session a committee to sit. Approximately 80 per cent of the women B. Weaknesses of articles. a. No power to raise money. Could bor- students who studied home economics in row money, but not repay it. college became either home makers or en- b. No power to regulate commerce. c. No executive department. tered home economics positions after leav- d. No judicial department. ing college, while 20 per cent entered into e. Could make laws, treaties, etc., but not enforce them. some other field of endeavor. In the case f. Laws operated on states not individuals. of students who registered in education, the BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AMERICAN returns indicate that 43 per cent abandoned REVOLUTION teaching after graduation, going into some Adams, R. G.—Political Ideas of American Rev- olution. different occupation.