From Empire to Independence, 1750–1776

CHAPTER SIX FROM EMPIRE TO INDEPENDENCE, 1750–1776

CHAPTER OVERVIEW This chapter covers the development of hostility between Britain and its colonies. While Britain became the dominant European power in North America, its very success and subse- quent attempts to centralize power brought resistance from its colonists. Through many types of organization, the colonies developed an “American” identity. This new community of interest was often encouraged by inept British actions. Eventually thirteen colonies decided to leave the empire and declare themselves independent.

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES After reading the chapter and following the study methods recommended, students should be able to:

1. Explain how overwhelming British success in the Seven Years War or French and Indian War led to an imperial crisis in their North American holdings. 2. Describe the changes in British policy toward the colonies from 1750 to 1776. 3. Trace the development of the sentiment of “American” community, the political ideas supporting it, and the organizational machinery to act in common. 4. Outline the events from the Sugar Act to the Boston Massacre in encouraging communities. 5. Summarize the developments from the Tea Party to the Declaration of Independence in establishing an American national community. 6. Discuss what the first Continental Congress demonstrated in regard to a national community of leadership. 7. Making Connections: Explain how the ideals of Protestant culture, the Great Awakening, and the Enlightenment inspired the American community in its move to independence.

CRITICAL THINKING/READING SKILLS

AMERICAN COMMUNITIES: The First Continental Congress Shapes A National Political Community. What was the Continental Congress and how did its members reflect a national political community? What divisions were there and how were they overcome? What were the accomplishments of the Congress? What ideas were reflected in their final declaration? How do the ideas and leadership of John Adams, Sam Adams, and Patrick Henry compare? (Follow this throughout the chapter.)

THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR IN AMERICA: What were the causes of the Seven Years War? What empire was being fought over? What colonial attempt at cooperation occurred at that time?

The Albany Conference of 1754: Who met at the Albany Conference and what was its purpose? Who convened it? What did it accomplish? What did it illustrate about possible intercolonial cooperation? What was Franklin’s Plan of Union? How did the Albany Conference react to his plan? The colonies?

72 Colonial Aims and Indian Interests: What was the Indian interest in French and British aims? What were the three areas of potential conflict between British and French? Why was the Ohio country their main focus of attention? What was the variety of Indian interest in this same area? How did they use the colonial stalemate between the British and the French? Frontier Warfare: How did the war begin and in what area of the frontier was it? What major war broke out the next year? What problem did the British have in colonial cooperation? What policy did the British enact against Acadia? The Conquest of Canada: Why did the British concentrate on Canada rather than the war in Europe? Who was William Pitt and what policies did he follow? What was the result? What happened to French positions at Louisburg, Ft. Duquesne, Quebec and Montreal? What was the settlement for Britain in the Treaty of Paris of 1763? Indians and Europeans Struggle over the West: What continued struggles did the British and Indians have over the West? Who was Amherst and why did his policies unite many Indians against him? What were the views and actions of Neolin, the Delaware Prophet, and Chief Pontiac? What long term pattern of Indian resistance is seen here? What happened to their efforts? What was the difference in view between British officials and the colonists on Indian relations? What areas did colonists expand into?

THE IMPERIAL CRISIS IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA: What policy of the British provoked a crisis? How did it encourage a sense of American nationalism?

The Emergence of American Nationalism: How did colonial experiences in the Seven Years War lead to a sense of American identity? How did the war help build a sense of intercolonial identity? What systems of communication helped link the colonists? Politics, Republicanism and the Press: What was the political expression of republicanism in the press? What uniformity of opinion and political assumptions were expressed by colonial newspapers? What were the assumptions of radical Whigs in England that were reprinted by the American press? The Sugar and Stamp Acts: What were the provisions of each act and what were the British trying to do? How and why did the Americans react to each? What impact did the Great Awakening ideas have here? The Stamp Act Crisis: Why did the Stamp Act create a greater crisis than the Sugar Act did? How did various colonial areas react? What were the various forms of protest in different cities? What views were expressed at the Stamp Act Congress? Repeal of the Stamp Act: Why did the British repeal the Stamp Act? What did they assert in the Declaratory Act?

“SAVE YOUR MONEY AND SAVE YOUR COUNTRY”: What was the origin of this phrase? What policies of the British was it aimed towards? Where was most of the early colonial resistance and where did it spread?

The Townshend Revenue Acts: Who was Townshend and why did he propose these new acts? What did they cover? How did the colonies respond? What measures did Townshend take to reinforce his Revenue Acts? Nonimportation: An Early Political Boycott: What was the extent of the nonimportation associations? How was the boycott enforced? Why was nonimportation a popular step in rural communities and why was it significant to community? What step did the Virginia House of Burgesses take in May of 1769? What were the effects?

73 The Massachusetts Circular Letter: What was the role of Boston and Massachusetts in the agitation? What was the essence of their letter? What was the British response and how did it help the protesters? Why did the British send troops to Boston? The Politics of Revolt and The Boston Massacre: What was the Boston Massacre and what led up to the incident? What happened afterwards?

FROM RESISTANCE TO REBELLION: What was the progression of events that led colonists from resistance to outright rebellion?

Intercolonial Cooperation: What activities and policies of the British and the colonial governors led to the foundation of committees of correspondence? What was the function of these committees? What were the general elements of the conspiracy theory and how did the British seem to reinforce it? The Boston Tea Party: What was the Tea Act and what was its purpose? How did the Committees of Correspondence react? What was the “Tea Party” and how did the British react to it? The Intolerable Acts: What series of measures did the British pass and why did the colonies call them intolerable? Since most measures were aimed at Boston, what prompted other colonists to sympathize with them? What was Virginia’s response? The First Continental Congress: What was the general tone of the First Continental Congress? Who were the important leaders? What resolutions did Congress pass? What were the Committees of Observation and Safety and how significant were they? What was the general impact of committee activity? Lexington and Concord: What led up to the violence at Lexington and Concord? What warning did General Gage give to his superiors? What was the attitude of King George III? William Pitt? Edmund Burke? What was the response of Patrick Henry? What losses were incurred by both sides and what problem was forecast for the British?

DECIDING FOR INDEPENDENCE: How did the sentiments for independence get mobilized? What actions did the colonists take?

The Second Continental Congress: How was the second Congress selected compared to the first one and what effect did this have? Why did Georgia join the second Congress? Were other British possessions in the New World interested and if so, why did they not join? What level of sentiment was there for independence in the spring of 1775? What actions did the Congress take? Fighting in the North and South: What other military incidents took place before Congress could respond with a Continental Army? How did King George react? What military actions took place and how successful were they? No Turning Back: What events moved things quickly to independence? What was the essence of Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, Common Sense? What effect did it have? What action did North Carolina take? The Declaration of Independence: From June 7 to July 2, what actions led to the Declaration of Independence? What was the vote on supporting it? What were the various ideas expressed in the Declaration?

CONCLUSION: While Britain was the dominant power in North America, what resistance did it face? What may the British have underestimated? How did the colonists build a sentiment of nationalism?

74 KEY TERMS/VOCABULARY Identify the following terms:

1. Seven Years’ War 30. virtual representation 59. Benjamin Franklin 2. Albany Conference 31. James Otis 60. East India Co. 3. Trans-Appalachian 32. Stamp Act 61. Boston Tea Party Region 33. Daniel Dulaney 62. Intolerable Acts 4. Halifax 34. Virginia Stamp Act 63. Quebec Act 5. Colonel George Resolutions 64. First Continental Washington 35. Patrick Henry Congress 6. Fort Duquesne 36. Samuel Adams 65. Declaration and Resolves 7. General Edward Braddock 37. Andrew Oliver 66. Committee of 8. colonial militia 38. Thomas Hutchinson Observation and Safety 9. Acadia 39. Sons of Liberty 67. minutemen 10. William Pitt 40. Stamp Act Congress 68. Lexington 11. Iroquois Confederacy 41. Lord Rockingham 69. Paul Revere 12. Fort Pitt 42. Declaratory Act 70. William Dawes 13. General James Wolfe 43. Charles Townshend 71. Concord 72. Second Continental 14. Marquis de Montcalm 44. Revenue Acts Congress 15. Treaty of Paris 45. John Dickinson 73. Thomas Jefferson 16. General Jeffrey Amherst 46. craftsmen 74. Continental Army 17. The Prophet 47. Daughters of Liberty 75. Olive Branch Petition 18. Chief Pontiac 48. Nonimportation 76. Declaration of Causes 19. germ warfare 49. Glorious Ninety-two and Necessities of Taking 20. Proclamation of 1763 50. John Hancock Up Arms 21. Paxton Boys 51. Thomas Gage 77. Ethan Allen 22. Green Mountain 52. Boston Massacre 78. Breed’s Hill 23. Treaty of Hard Labor 53. John Adams 79. Richard Montgomery 24. Dunmore’s War 54. Josiah Quincy, Jr. 80. Benedict Arnold 25. lobster 55. Tea Act 81. William Howe 26. John Peter Zenger 56. Committees of 82. Thomas Paine 27. John Lock Correspondence 83. Richard Henry Lee 28. George Grenville 57. Boston Pamphlet 84. Declaration of Indepen- 29. Sugar Act 58. Virginia Committee dence

STUDY SKILLS ACTIVITIES

1. After reading the chapter, read the complete text of the Declaration of Independence, located in the appendix of the textbook. The introductory paragraphs are in Chapter Six, but the document goes on to list many abuses. See if you can recognize which sections refer to specific British actions discussed in the chapter. 2. Have students divide into groups of three. Review Chapter Five and the Enlightenment. Answer the question: How did Jefferson’s introductory paragraphs to the Declaration of Independence give a summary of Enlightenment ideas?

75 3. Cause and effect themes flow through United States history. The American Revolution presents an opportunity to reinforce this theme. Have students compose a list (use page 77) of cause and effect of the American Revolution. The theme could be developed into an essay. 4. Study Tip: When the students have sequences of events, such as events leading to the American Revolution, it sometimes helps to compose a memory aid. There are no substi- tutes for understanding the material, but if the student cannot keep the sequence straight, it may be difficult to keep the cause-effect ideas in mind. One to use for the American Revolution to remember the order of British actions is “Your sugar stamp will declare your Townshend Tea to be Intolerable.” This way the student can remember the correct sequence of the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, Declaratory Act, Townshend Acts, Tea Act, and Intolerable Acts. 5. Cooperative Learning: JIGSAW - Divide the class into teams. Each member of a team chooses one of the reading assignments, in this case, the primary source documents for Chapter Six from the Documents Set (Selections 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, etc.). Provide time for each selection group to meet, read the selection, and discuss the main ideas. Then have the teams meet, and each team presents the material to the others, using the ideas from the reading selection. Finally, bring all the teams together to teach and reinforce the informa- tion. On a block-schedule class the time might be: 15 minutes Introduction to the assignment, organization of teams, distribution of readings 30 minutes Students meet in assignment like groups (all 6-1, all 6-2, etc.) to read and discuss the main ideas. 30 minutes Students meet in their teams to review each selection. Each member teaches the others the main idea from the assigned selection. 15 minutes The teacher convenes the entire class to review, reteach, and reinforce the main ideas. 6. Research Project: Assign students to research the lyrics to “Yankee Doodle.” Have students answer the following questions: What does the word “macaroni” mean? What are the sarcastic references to the size of Washington’s army, to the financial condition of the colonial forces, and the reference to the colonial forces that panicked? 7. Freedom of the Press—John Peter Zenger’s trial laid the legal foundation for freedom of the press and established truth as defense against libel charges. Have students read the activity sheet (p. 78) and conduct a class discussion on this case and its significance in United States history.

76 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

Cause Effect

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2. 2.

3. 3.

4. 4.

5. 5.

6. 6.

7. 7.

8. 8.

77 JOHN PETER ZENGER AND FREEDOM OF THE PRESS

Background: The Court’s Decision

New Yorkers for his random acts of power Chief Justice De Lancey declared that Hamil- disliked the royal governor of New York, ton could not give the truth of a libel in William Cosby. After the governor forced out evidence. Hamilton then appealed directly to Lewis Morris as chief justice of the New York the jury, and his summation, some say, is one Supreme Court and appointed a friendlier of the greatest speeches made in Colonial James De Lancey, without the required America. The main point of his closing speech permission of the council, Cosby’s opponents was to remind the jury that Zenger had began The New York Weekly Journal in 1733. simply printed the truth. The jury returned a They hired John Zenger to print and publish “not guilty” verdict and Zenger was released it. Zenger was arrested on a charge of libel for from prison the next day. Gouverneur Morris, printing a series of statements about William a grandson of Lewis Morris, and a participant Cosby. Zenger spent nearly nine months in at the Constitutional Convention later said jail before the trial opened in New York City, that the Zenger trial was the “germ of Ameri- Aug. 4, 1735. can freedom.”

The Trial Significance

Zenger’s lawyers, in April 1735, questioned The Zenger Case set the precedent for the the legality of De Lancey’s appointment as First Amendment and freedom of the press. chief justice and went on to dispute De 1. Why was John Peter Zenger in prison? Lancey’s right to preside at Zenger’s trial. 2. Who was the chief justice at his trial? The chief justice simply disqualified Zenger’s 3. What evidence is there that the chief lawyers and De Lancey appointed a lawyer to justice was prejudiced against Zenger? defend Zenger. But when the case came to trial in August, the court was surprised to see 4. What was the defense used by Hamilton? a famous Philadelphia lawyer Andrew 5. Why is this case important in United Hamilton announce himself as Zenger’s States history? counsel. What further startled the court was Hamilton’s defense strategy. Instead of deny- ing Zenger’s responsibility for printing the alleged libels, he stated that the matter before the court and jury was the truth or falsity of the printed material. He believed because the statements could be proved true Zenger was not guilty of libel.

78 MAP SKILLS/CRITICAL VIEWING ACTIVITIES

1. The War for Empire in North America, 1754-1763 a. What were the three principal areas of conflict? b. Locate: Quebec, Montreal, Louisburg, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Ft. Necessity, Fort Niagara, Ft. Duquesne.

2. European Claims in North America, 1750 and 1763 a. What fundamental transformations occurred between 1750 and 1763? b. How did the sizes of empire compare? c. Where was the Proclamation Line of 1763? d. What two empires took over most French areas in North America?

3. Demonstrations Against the Stamp Act, 1765 a. Why were most of the demonstrations against the Stamp Act in port cities? b. What were the results of demonstrations?

4. The Quebec Act a. What were the provisions of the Quebec Act? b. How far south did it extend? c. How did this affect many colonial charters? d. Why did the Quebec Act anger colonists?

5. The First Engagements of the Revolution a. Where were most of the first engagements concentrated? b. Why was this the case? c. Locate: Lexington, Concord, Bunker Hill, Boston

6. Cartoon Analysis Worksheet Political cartoons are also primary source documents that students need to analyze. Instruct students that there is a difference between analysis and description of items. An example is the American flag. Ask students to describe the flag. They will usually state it is red, white, and blue and has fifty stars. Now ask the students to analyze the significance of the colors and the stars. This exercise assists students in distinguishing analysis and description. The same exercise helps in analyzing political cartoons, posters, advertise- ments, etc. Locate the cartoon in Chapter Six that depicts the British tax man tarred and feathered. Use the Cartoon Analysis Worksheet (p. 80) to evaluate the illustration. 7. Writing Skills: Use the essay prompt in the textbook. Discuss with students the definition of the word “revolution.” Students will evaluate the validity of the term revolution in connection with the American Revolution and compare it against historical facts and docu- mentation. 8. Use the Motion Picture Analysis Worksheet from Chapter One. As an enrichment activity, have students view the movie The Last of the Mohicans. Suggest students do this as a group or offer this as another “Brown Bag” activity during lunch if it is convenient for the teacher. The movie will reinforce events of the Seven Years’ War and events that led to the colonial revolt against Great Britain.

79 CARTOON ANALYSIS WORKSHEET Visuals Words (not all cartoons include words)

1. List the objects or people you see in 1. Identify the cartoon caption and/or the the cartoon. title.

2. Locate three words or phrases used by the cartoonist to identify objects or people within the cartoon. Step One

3. Record any important dates or numbers that appear in the cartoon.

2. Which of the objects on your list 4. Which words or phrases in the cartoon are symbols? appear to be the most significant? Why do you think so?

3. What do you think each symbol 5. List adjectives that describe the emotions

Step Two means? portrayed in the cartoon.

A. Describe the action taking place in the cartoon.

B. Explain how the words in the cartoon clarify the symbols.

C. Explain the message of the cartoon. Step Three D. What special interest groups would agree: disagree with the cartoon’s message? Why?

Designed and developed by the staff of the Education Branch, National Archives, Washington, DC 20408

80 READING QUIZ

MULTIPLE CHOICE:

1. At the First Continental Congress, fifty-six elected delegates from twelve colonies met to support this colony: a. Massachusetts c. Virginia b. Quebec d. North Carolina

2. One of the first divisions expressed at the First Continental Congress but overcome was the a. backcountry versus the tidewater. b. animosity toward any Indian allies. c. variety of religious groups. d. questions of virtual representation.

3. Patrick Henry expressed one of the results of the First Continental Congress when adjourned: “I am not a Virginian, but a(n) a. Englishman. c. revolutionary. b. individual. d. American.

4. While the Albany Congress was originally called by the British Board of Trade to consider a collective response to conflicts with New France and the Indians of the interior, Benjamin Franklin took the opportunity to propose a. a common colonial postal system. b. an alliance with France. c. a plan of union for the colonies. d. a trade and taxation system more favorable to the colonies.

5. The frontier war between the British and the French began in this area in 1754, a primary focus of British and French policy in North America: a. Ohio country c. New Orleans and the West Indies b. Quebec Province d. St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes

6. Besides gaining all French areas east of the Mississippi except New Orleans in the Treaty of Paris of 1763, the British gained this area from Spain: a. Guadeloupe c. Cuba b. Florida d. Texas

7. Nemattanew was to Opechancanough as ______was to Pontiac. a. Pope, the Pueblo Priest c. Tammany, the Praying Indian b. Hiawatha, the Iroquois Prophet d. Neolin, the Delaware Prophet

8. The Zenger case provided a. precedent for a greater tolerance of religions. b. no taxation without representation. c. greater freedom of the press. d. legislative power of colonial assemblies.

81 9. Which one of the following was NOT a radical Whig principle of eighteenth century English leaders that inspired colonial editors? a. extension of the vote to more numbers of men b. the belief in a monarchial, aristocratic, and Catholic conspiracy against liberty c. representatives are responsible to their constituent population d. colonial assemblies should have greater powers

10. Which one of the following is the CAUSE of the other three? a. Declaratory Act c. Stamp Act b. Sons of Liberty d. idea of actual representation

11. Which one of the following members of the British government would have been the LEAST likely to be sympathetic to compromise with American colonial demands? a. Charles James Fox c. William Pitt b. Edmund Burke d. George Grenville

12. The text authors argue that this particular incident in 1773 seemed to be the “smoking gun” of conspiracy theory: a. Hutchinson’s letters to the ministry in Britain b. the proposed English trial of colonists who sacked and burned the Gaspee c. British seizure of John Hancock’s sloop, Liberty for nonpayment of duties d. the provisions of the Quebec Act

13. The Intolerable Acts, so named by the colonists, were a series of acts the British Parliament passed to punish: a. Williamsburg and the Virginia House of Burgesses b. Philadelphia and other Atlantic ports that restricted imports c. Ben Franklin and other popular colonial leaders d. Boston and the colony of Massachusetts

14. Which one of the following was enacted and passed by the First Continental Congress? a. the Galloway Plan of Union inviting all North American British colonies to unite b. creation of committees of observation and safety c. George Washington is appointed Commander in Chief of all Continental forces d. declaring independence from Great Britain

15. The other British possessions in North America did not join the revolutionary camp of the thirteen colonies because a. the Continental Congress delegates did not want that large a body. b. there was little sympathy for the thirteen colonies. c. British army and navy presence was decisive in blocking involvement. d. they feared stirring up their Indian populations and allies if they joined.

16. Which one of the following was NOT a military engagement that took place before the Continental Army was created and the Declaration of Independence passed? a. Lexington and Concord c. Breed’s and Bunker Hill b. Ethan Allen at Ticonderoga d. Fr. Moultrie and Moore’s Creek Bridge

82 CHRONOLOGY AND MAP QUESTIONS:

17. Which one of the following lists the correct chronological order of these events? (1) Committees of Correspondence (3) First Continental Congress (2) Albany Congress (4) Stamp Act Congress a. 2,4,3,1 c. 2,1,4,3 b. 2,4,1,3 d. 4,2,3,1

18. Which one of the following is NOT an event that happened in 1763? a. Treaty of Paris c. Paxton Boys Massacre b. Pontiac’s Uprising d. Boston Massacre

19. In 1774, the Intolerable Acts were a response to this 1773 event: a. Boston Massacre c. Dunmore’s War b. Boston Tea Party d. Sugar Act

20. Which one of the following lists the correct chronological order of these events? (1) Lexington and Concord (3) Second Continental Congress (2) Paine’s Common Sense (4) Americans invade Canada a. 1,3,4,2 c. 1,2,3,4 b. 2,1,4,3 d. 2,1,3,4

21. Which one of the following was NOT a principal area of conflict in the Seven Years or French and Indian War? a. New Orleans and the Mississippi River Gateway b. the Maritime province c. the New York-New France frontier d. upper Ohio River

22. Between 1750 and 1763, this European claimant lost control of their North American areas: a. Russia c. England b. Spain d. France

23. The Proclamation Line of 1763 extended from the a. Great Lakes down the Mississippi to New Orleans. b. upper Ohio River to the Mississippi. c. St. Lawrence down the Appalachians to East Florida. d. Hudson Bay to Texas.

24. The Quebec Act covered an area that extended as far south as a. the Mississippi River. c. British West Florida. b. the Ohio River. d. Maine and New Hampshire.

25. The earliest military engagement of the American Revolution took place in 1775 in a. Virginia. c. Massachusetts. b. the Ohio River Valley area. d. Canada.

83 SHORT ESSAY:

26. Why was the Albany Conference held? 27. What did nonimportationists hope to achieve through their boycotts? 28. Describe the goals and results of the Quebec Act.

EXTENDED ESSAY:

29. Describe the development of American nationalism. 30. Describe the role of newspapers in the colonies. 31. Why did the wealthy delegates to the Continental Congress emphasize a concept like equality?