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How-Computers-Work-Software vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction XII Part 4: Data Storage 146 Chapter 10 Part 1: Boot-Up How a Computer's Long-Term Process 2 Memory Works 154 Chapter 1 Chapter 11 Getting to Know the Hardware 10 How Disk Drives Save Information 166 Chapter 2 Chapter 12 How Circuits Juggle Data 20 How Little Things Make Drives Faster and Bigger 176 Chapter 3 How a PC Comes Alive 30 Chapter 13 How PCs Use Light to Remember Data 184 Chapter 4 How an Operating System Controls Hardware 36 Part 5: Input/Output Devices 194 Part 2: How Microchips Chapter 14 are the PC's How Data Gets Into Your PC 202 Brain 46 Chapter 15 Chapter 5 How Scanners Capture Words and How Transistors Manipulate Data 52 Images 212 Chapter 6 Chapter 16 How a Microprocessor Works 62 How Computers Use Power 220 Chapter 17 Part 3: How Software How Serial Ports Triumph 228 Works 80 Chapter 18 Chapter 7 How a Computer Display Works 242 How Programming Languages Work 94 Chapter 19 Chapter 8 How Digital Photography Works 252 How Windows Works 104 Chapter 9 How Software Applications Do Your Work 118 .. TABLE OF CONTENTS VII Part 6: Games and Chapter 30 Multimedia 260 How the World Wide Web Works 366 Chapter 20 Chapter 31 How Multimedia Sound Works 266 How Internet Security Fights Off PC Invaders 378 Chapter 21 How Multimedia Video Works 278 Part 8: How Printers Chapter 22 VVork 398 How Game Hardware Puts You In the Action 286 Chapter 32 How Black-and-White Printing Works 404 Chapter 23 How Games Create 3D Worlds 296 Chapter 33 How Color Printing Works 414 Par 7: How the Internet Index 426 VVorks 306 Chapter 24 How Local Area Networks Work 314 Chapter 25 How PCs Connect to the Internet 324 Chapter 26 How the Internet Moves Data 332 Chapter 27 How We Reach Each Other Through the Net 338 Chapter 28 How Wireless Sets PCs Free 350 Chapter 29 How the Net Provides Video and Audio on Demand 360 29 pixels 1614 1679 1804 1854 1854 John Nopier builds Gottfried Leibniz introduces Joseph-Morie Jocquord progroms 0 weoving Gearge Boole develops Augustus DeMorgon, in Nopier's Bones, binary arithmetic, showing loom that uses a series of punched cords to form a system of mathematics conjunction with Boole, for- rods that are used that every number can be patterns in the woven fabric. This inspired a series called Boolean algebra, malized a set of logical as mechanical aids represented by the symbols of computers (even well into the 20th century) that which uses binary oper- operations now known as to calculation. o and 1 only. received their data from punched cards or tape. ations. DeMorgon transformations. 1 1621 1 1890 William Oughtred invents the The u.s. Census Bureau faces its first data-processing crisis due to surging population growth. Herman slide rule, which does not Hollerith's electric tabulating system helps them solve the numeric nightmare. Before the adoption of this become obsolete for nearly 350 punched-card system, the census took eight years to complete; with Hollerith's machine, it takes just two years, when it's supplanted by the years. Hollerith goes on to form the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896, which later merges with two pocket calculator in 1970. other companies to become International Business Machines Corporation, popularly known as IBM. p A R T How Software Works ( H A p T E R s CHAPTER 7 HOW PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES WORK 94 CHAPTER 8 HOW WINDOWS WORKS 104 CHAPTER 9 HOW SOFTWARE APPLICATIONS WORK 118 1903 1936 1943 Nikola Tesla, a Konrad Zuse, a German, creates a The u.s. Army Ordnance Department commissions the ENIAC (Electronic Numericallntegralor Yugoslavian scientist/ programmable, digital computing Analyzer and Computer) to produce missile trajectory tables for World War II. ENIAC can per­ inventor, patents electrical machine that introduces important form 5,000 additions per second and later is used in artillery calculations. ENIAC weighs 30 tons logic circuits called concepts such as the use of the and is 100 feet long, 8 feet high, and contains 17,468 vacuum tubes. Programming ENIAC is "gates" or "switches." binary system and valves. anything but user friendly; it takes two days to set up problems that ENIAC solves in two seconds. 1 1904 1 1937 1 1945 John Ambrose Fleming experiments with Edison's Alan Turing invents the Turing Test, John von Neumann writes the first draft of a diode vacuum tube (an invention Edison did not which determines whether some­ report on the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable pursue), developing the first practical radio thing is human. Questions include Computer), in which he describes a general pur­ tubes. The vacuum lube's application to comput­ things such as "Do you have feel­ pose electronic digital computer with a stored ers was not exploited until the late 1930s. ings?" and "Do you feel pain?" program. It does not get built until 1952. 82 HOW SOFTWARE WORKS Sa-Ia-ga-doo-Ia Men-chic-ka Boo-Ia Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo. Put them together and what have you got? Bibbidi-Bobbidi-Boo. -Walt Disney's Cinderella THE language programmers use to create software sound a lot like the fairy godmother's incantation: grep, mov, end if, cur_x, and selField. And software really is magical. You slide a DVD into your PC , or you invoke your PC-maybe with a touch, maybe at the sound of your voice-or you point at a little picture with a mouse and click, and suddenly all these things begin to happen that could only be witchery. Beautiful color images and voices and sounds emanate from your Pc. The software looks at a few numbers and predicts banana futures in three months. Ask for information on a person, a country, or a date, and the soft­ ware responds like a crystal ball. You ask the software to take you to another computer on another continent, and in seconds you' re there; magic carpets really can't compete. Software's abracadabra needn't be a mystery to those of us who don't speak BASIC, Java, Pascal , C, C++, C#, Lisp, and other curiously named software languages. Even if you've never touched a computer before, you've used software. Software doesn't include only things like WordPerfect and Microsoft Excel. Software is also music recordings and videotapes. A recipe for Aunt Hattie's chocolate pie, a dress pattern, and a telephone num­ ber are programs. A program is simply any set of instructions for an ordered series of actions. A program can exist as a printout of computer code or as a recipe in a cookbook. And you're already a programmer, even if you've never touched a computer. Have you played the latest Stones' CD? That's software! Can you program your VCR? You 're creating software. A computer software program-not really redundant, trust me-is simply a recipe, no less, no more than a recipe for Aunt Hattie's chocolate pie. Think of what you do when you use a microwave. You press buttons in a certain order to make the microwave work at a specific power level for a certain length of time, then change to a different power level, and so on until your program produces beef stew. That's programming---a set of instructions in a particular order, created on the fly. But if you press a button that's preset for microwave popcorn, you're using software-a preconfigured set of programming instructions that, in this case, are recorded permanently in a microchip inside the microwave . .---- 1945 1951 1960 1960 1962 First computer "bug" reported. The Although promised for delivery in 1948, UNIVAC is Digital Equipment LISP makes its debut MIT students Slug Russell, "bug" was a moth that was caught delivered to the U.S. Census Bureau three years late. Corporation introduces its as the first computer Shag Graetz, and Alan up in the computer. It was discov- It's a sensation, nevertheless, with revolutionary fea- first minicomputer, the language desired Kotok write Spacewar, ered by naval officer and mothe- tures such as mercury delay lines for memory and PDP- 1, priced at a rela- for writing orti iciol considered the first inter- moticion Groce Murray Hopper. magnetic tape for input instead of punched poper. tively modest $120,000. intelligence programs. active computer game. 1 1948 1 1956 1 1960 1 1960 1 1962 Britain's Manchester Mark I is At MIT, researchers A team drown from several ERMA (Electronic Werner Fronk co-founds the first computer that can begin experimen· computer manufacturers Recording Method of Informatics, the compony store a program electronically totion on direct and the Pentagon develops Accounting) replaces that sells Mark IV, the first rather that requiring progrom- keyboard input on COBOL, Common Business 2,332 bookkeepers at million-dollar software mers to set switches manually. computers. Oriented language. the Bonk of America. product, in 1962. OVERVIEW 83 Hardware is capable of doing a variety of tasks, but without programming and soft­ ware to control it, hardware can't do much of anything. By itself, for example, a claw hammer is useful only as a paperweight, but used by a carpenter, it can drive nails, pullout old nails, and even crack walnuts. The carpenter swinging the hammer is pro­ gramming it on the fly. A home entertainment center is a complex system of hardware capable of generating a variety of sights and sounds, but it can't whisper a peep on its own. It needs software in the form of a compact disc, videotape, or at least a basic cable connection.
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