WE, THE UNDERSIGNED MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE, HAVE APPROVED THIS THESIS

REPRESENTATIONS OF AND INTERACTIONS WITH APOCALYPSE IN

FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER

BY

WILLIAM HELMKE

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Masters of Arts Division of Communication University of Wisconsin- Stevens Point

2017

THESIS APPROVED: '-/ /1 /11- Date

4/1:r/11: Date r~~Professor- Valerie~- Barske APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 1

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements 3

Abstract 4

Introduction 5

Literature Review 10

Why Study Video Games? 11

Media Representations of the Apocalypse in the U.S. and Japan 13

Hiroshima and Nagasaki-U.S and Japanese Atomic Apocalypses in Media 17

Video Game Content Analysis 21

Background of Cross-Cultural Analysis of Media Content 23

Video Game Cross-Cultural Analysis 25

Prior Study of Chrono Trigger and the Fallout Series 27

Foundations of Current Study 28

Theoretical Approach and Method of Study 30

Diegetic/Nondiegetic and Computer/Operator Actions 30

Neoformalism 33

Cross-Cultural Commmunication 37

Synthesis 41

Theory to Method 42

Chrono Trigger: The Future Refused to Change? 44

Opening: Establishment of Crono’s World 46

The First Apocalypse: Apocalypse of Human Civilization 49

Interlude: From Apocalypse Back to the Familiar 55

The Second Apocalypse: Apocalypse of a Species 58

The Third and Fourth Apocalypses: Apocalypse of a Nation, and

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 2

Apocalypse of Oneself 67

The Finale: Reversal of Apocalypse 73

Optional Apocalypse: The Apocalypse of Failure 76

Overall Analysis 78

Fallout: War Never Changes 82

The Story Begins: A Simple Problem of Parts 85

First Visit to Junktown; Back to the Abandoned Vault 88

End of the first Arc-Necropolis: A Series of Moral Dilemmas 91

One Story Ends, Another Begins: The Super Mutant Threat 93

Buildup: Gathering Information 94

Climax: Ending the Threat 96

Endgame: Returning Home 101

Overall Analysis 102

Comparison, Conclusions, and Limitations 106

Cause of the Apocalypse 106

Motivations of the Apocalypse 111

Inevitability of the Apocalypse 113

Limitations and Final Thoughts 114

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 3

Acknowledgements

First, I’d like to thank my thesis chair, Professor Alex Ingersoll, whose input, feedback, and guidance proved vital to the success of this thesis and my overall graduate career at UWSP. Thank you for giving me just enough space to explore my interests while keeping me grounded enough to create worthwhile research.

Second, I’d like to thank Professor Valerie Barske and Professor Cary Elza for their specific insights in the development and defense of this thesis. I appreciated the challenging and insightful critiques you provided both for the development process and for further research.

Third, I’d like to thank my parents for supporting my studies. I appreciate your understanding and encouragement throughout my studies thus far.

Lastly, I’d like to thank my ever-patient wife Kelly, who supported and believed in me even when I wasn’t sure I would succeed, and made me coffee on many a late night of writing! Your continued support means more than I can express.

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 4

Abstract

This thesis seeks to explore how differing experiences with apocalyptic events, both nuclear and non-nuclear, impact apocalyptic themes in video game media. This research explores the apocalyptic themes in two video games, Chrono Trigger from ​ ​ Japan and Fallout from the United States, taking into consideration the unique cultural ​ ​ backgrounds of both titles. The two titles were played through in their entirety, then the respective experiences of content and gameplay were viewed through a neoformalist lens, with an added focus on the importance of gameplay action to the video game experience. These two games are then compared, taking into account cross-cultural differences between Japan and the United States. Chrono Trigger represents a cyclical experience of destruction and recovery, which is finally broken at the game’s climax, while Fallout presents a post-apocalypse fueled by mankind’s tendency for violence, a violence that continues even after apocalypse. Chrono Trigger’s cycle of apocalypse ​ ​ resembles Japan’s experience with multiple kinds of apocalypse over time, while Fallout ​ presents a more pessimistic view, suggesting that humanity’s destructive nature will grow until it destroys civilization, and then continue to shape human history even after the apocalypse.

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Introduction

With the continued popularity of apocalyptic media, it would seem that the idea of apocalypse both horrifies and fascinates us. The idea of our entire society breaking down, destroyed by any number of natural or manmade disasters, is an event no one ought to desire—so why do so many films, television shows, books, and other media utilize themes of apocalypse as a central component of their narrative? Some suggest that it is our way of dealing with trauma such as, for example, the Japanese responses to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Edwards 2015, Dorsey and Matsuoka

1996). Others might suggest that it harkens back to “sacred narratives...about worldly cataclysm” from far earlier in human history (Wojcik 1997, p.1).

Many different works of popular media use themes of apocalypse. Recently, several popular video games have incorporated themes of apocalypse as either setting, narrative, or a component of gameplay, including the original Mass Effect trilogy (2007, ​ ​ 2010, 2012), Metro: Last Light (2013), and most recently, Fallout 4 (2016). This paper ​ ​ ​ ​ explores how these games use the apocalypse not only as a narrative focus or setting for the game, but also integrate apocalyptic themes into gameplay. Additionally, this paper asks: how might a video game from one culture represent the apocalypse differently from another through both the audiovisual as well as the interactive aspects of a video game? These questions drive this thesis, which analyzes two video games, one from

Japan and the other from the United States, in order to consider how the cultural differences from these two countries (including those related to experiences with apocalypse) shape the use of apocalyptic themes within those games.

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Justifying the Study of Apocalyptic Games

Video games are a major media industry, with many poeple actively playing video games and billions of dollars spent annually on games and game platforms (Essential

Facts 2016, Newzoo 2016). In the past decade, significant debate has arisen regarding the artistic merit of video games among critics, fans, and game developers (Ebert 2005,

Gibson 2006, Ebert 2010, Mirasol 2011). The growth of the industry combined with conflict about the medium’s place in today’s culture justify exploring video games

(Chrono Trigger and Fallout) as the focus of academic study. ​ ​ ​ ​ Also, the recent trend of apocalyptic themes in video games (which includes the examples listed above) also provides additional motivation for this study. A study of apocalyptic video games will help establish examples of how the apocalypse manifests within those games, not only in visual aesthetics or narrative, but also in the way that the games are played. Noting how players are able (or, perhaps, unable) to interact with the apocalypse within Fallout and Chrono Trigger can provide a framework for the ​ ​ ​ ​ study of other apocalyptic video games.

Lastly, video games are easily exported and localized to other cultures, at a greater rate than film and television (Andersen 2009). Given that these games’ apocalyptic themes might differ based on their cultural origins, a study exploring the cross-cultural meanings and differences would not only clarify these apocalyptic themes, but can also serve as a means of increasing the level of understanding of cross-cultural themes in video games that might otherwise literally be lost in translation. At the very

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least, the cross-cultural methods utilized here, once established, could serve as a template for other cross-cultural video game analysis.

Fallout and Chrono Trigger: The Context of Apocalypse

This thesis encompasses a study of how themes of the apocalypse manifest through the content of and interaction with two video games: Chrono Trigger (1995) ​ ​ and Fallout (1997). Two games released within two years of each other, each game as a ​ ​ lot to offer in terms of apocalyptic imagery, themes, and interaction. Fallout was created ​ ​ and produced in the United States by Interplay, a PC game software developer (Fallout:

A Post Nuclear). Chrono Trigger was developed and produced in Japan for the Super ​ ​ Famicom (Super Nintendo Entertainment System in the United States) by Square, a video game developer who are famous for their role playing video game series Final

Fantasy (CHRONO TRIGGER). Chrono Trigger was released in the United States later ​ ​ that year. Given the differing cultural origins of these two games, what cultural differences might manifest in the apocalyptic themes of these games? Additionally, how might differences in apocalyptic experiences between Japan and the United States including, but not limited to, experiences with the atomic bomb impact these themes in these two titles? This is the primary question this thesis will explore. These two titles were selected because of their close release dates, their levels of critical acclaim and notoriety, and their place within the genre of role playing video games. However, if these two games are to be analyzed, simply viewing and dissecting gameplay footage is not enough. Video games differ significantly from film or television in that interaction plays a central role in the experience. So in order to truly understand and analyze Chrono ​

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Trigger and Fallout, an analyst must first play the games to their narrative conclusion. ​ ​ ​ Additionally, the analyst should attempt to play these games in as close to the original form as possible. These concerns are addressed through the details of the methods employed in this thesis.

Theoretical Approach to the Apocalypse

Frankly, a study of this nature is unique-no other known academic work has attempted a analysis of a specific theme across two video games while considering their different cultural contexts. As the study is unique, any single existing theory would be an incomplete lens for analysing the apocalyptic themes in Fallout and Chrono Trigger. ​ ​ ​ Three theories create the necessary framework for this study: Alexander Galloway’s

(2006) theory of video game actions, Kristin Thompson’s (1988) neoformalism, and

Arthur Asa Berger’s (1992) cross-cultural approach to media analysis informed by Geert

Hofstede’s (2011) theory of cultural dimensions. These theories will integrate well into an overall framework for this study, and also serve to steer the methodological considerations of this thesis.

How does one Analyze the Apocalypse?

By necessity, both games were played, and this thesis will reflect that paradigm by considering the gameplay alongside the narrative and aesthetics. Much like a film study, much of the analysis of these two games will detail the narrative of the game, pausing briefly throughout to consider the game’s themes of apocalypse section by section. These themes will be connected to the game’s cultural roots, particularly the origin culture’s understandings, experiences, and existing representations of apocalypse.

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In addition, special care will be taken to point out when player choice and action provides a unique or compelling experience beyond what would be experienced if simply watching the narrative unfold. Once both games’ narratives have been fully explored, the two games’ themes of apocalypse are compared. Major differences are discussed, including differences in pessimism related to apocalypse as well as differing uses of gameplay to interact with apocalypse. Based on the outcome of this work, implications for the study of apocalyptic media, cross-cultural video game analysis, and the field of video game studies in general are discussed.

Fallout and Chrono Trigger are excellent case studies by which to compare ​ ​ ​ apocalyptic themes of video games between the United States and Japan. Released in the middle of the 1990s, the close temporal proximity of their releases combined with their common apocalyptic themes makes them ideal for this thesis. But first, an overview of prior research regarding the study of video games, apocalypse, and cross cultural media analysis will be explored.

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Literature Review

While video games are hardly a new topic for academic research, their position as a growing form of media content across a variety of criteria (including quantity, market share, and critical artistic potential) must first be established. Further, while a variety of video game research can be found in existing literature, cross-cultural analysis of video game content and gameplay is an unexplored gap within existing academic research.

Therefore, before exploring the theoretical and methodological approach utilized for this study, it is vital to establish the background of research regarding video games and media, establishing a lineage by which the application of this specific approach can be justified. In addition to the aforementioned gap within video game research, it is important to acknowledge that video game research focused on apocalyptic themes is also limited. However, cross-cultural and intercultural considerations have been a focus of other media content, as well as the focus of other types of video game research.

Within video game research, in addition to analysis focused solely on content, analysis of both content and gameplay has become an important method utilized for analysis of video games in current literature, as this method allows for the consideration of unique components unique to video game media. Also, apocalyptic imagery has been the focus within a great deal of media research, including a large body of work that reflects on the impact of Japan’s and the United States’ experiences with the atomic bombs on popular media. Finally, it is also important to acknowledge the limited existing research of both

Chrono Trigger and the Fallout series. ​ ​ ​

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Why Study Video Games?

Why are video games worthy of critical academic analysis? First, video games are an increasingly popular form of media content. According to 2016 data from the

Entertainment Software Association, “63% of U.S. households are home to at least one person who plays video games regularly (3 hours or more per week)” (Essential Facts

2016, p. 2). The ESA also revealed that video game sales in the United States alone totalled $16.5 billion in 2015, with total consumer spending on video games topping out at $23.5 billion (the additional $6 billion purchased in accessories and video game hardware) (Essential Facts 2016, P. 12-13). Globally, video game industry revenue totalled nearly $100 billion as of 2016 (Newzoo 2016). For comparison, total worldwide box office revenue for 2015 was $38.3 billion, (Theatrical Market Statistics, 2015).

Granted, these numbers fail to account for merchandising and home video sales for

Hollywood films; nevertheless, video games command a bigger market share than box office ticket sales, a major feat given the relative youth of the industry compared to film.

This sizable economic and cultural presence suggests that video games are deeply intertwined with today’s culture, and understanding how video games frame ideas and themes will help to better understand the cultures from which they originate. Also, understanding this process will benefit the industries and developers working to release games into different cultures, as this understanding will help improve localization and, by extension, improve worldwide appeal of a video game.

Second, video games are also involved in an ongoing debate among critics and journalists regarding their merit as an art form. While this debate is older than more

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recent controversies, it became a popular topic of conversation among the video game industry and critics alike after film critic Roger Ebert rejected the idea that video games are art, stating: “To my knowledge, no one in or out of the field has ever been able to cite a game worthy of comparison with the great dramatists, poets, filmmakers, novelists and composers” (Ebert 2005). This statement, which in itself created a fair bit of controversy, was later brought back into the conversation when Ebert doubled down on his assertion in 2010: “I remain convinced that in principle, video games cannot be art”

(Ebert 2010). Several journalists and academics have positioned themselves in opposition to this idea. Mirasol (2011) argues that the unique properties of video games make them art and may, in part, explain why film adaptations of video games usually end in failure. Another journalist suggests that not only are video games art but that the player is the artist in video games, that is, “the player is an active participant in the emergence of the form.” (Mellissinos 2016). On a similar note, Thomsen (2010) argues that video games must be played to appreciate the artistic merit they have. He criticized

Ebert’s assessment method for video games as too limited, noting that “(Ebert) reaches these conclusions by virtue of having streamed clips of each work online” (Thomsen

2010). On the other hand, some agree with Ebert’s sentiment, including notable game developers. Famed developer Hideo Kojima stated that he does not see video games as art, but as a museum, and that game developers “‘run the museum and also create the art that's displayed in the museum’” (Gibson 2006).

While this philosophical debate falls outside the scope of this analysis, it is important to acknowledge that this work will inevitably frame video games as works

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worthy of critical analysis. This framing of video games contributes to the larger discussion of the question of whether video games are art, and by extension, implicitly supports and accepts the affirmative answer to that question. And in a larger sense, the very question, “are video games art?” itself encourages deeper exploration of the medium to better understand what video games are, whether art or something else.

Also, many of the responses to Ebert reference the importance of action and gameplay in considering the artistry of a video game. Therefore, any study of video games ought to include gameplay as part of the theoretical and methodological approach.

Media Representations of the Apocalypse in the U.S. and Japan

Why focus on the apocalypse? Themes of massive destruction or the end of the world have been a popular topic of media in both the United States and Japan and a great deal of literature explores these works. However, the focus and scale of these apocalypses within their respective media differ significantly. Japan’s experiences with a variety of destructive natural disasters throughout their history is a significant factor in such work. In addition, while Japan lacks any native myth or religious narrative of

1 apocalypse , the cross-cultural nature of modern media results in many recent works borrowing apocalyptic references and ideas from western religions. The United States, on the other hand, is strongly influenced by the apocalypse detailed within the Christian

Bible concerning the end of the world, as well as secular fears of other apocalyptic events.

1 J​ apan’s complex religious history and traditions, primarily involving native Shinto practices and specific sects of Buddhism, could itself inform an analysis of Chrono Trigger. While there is no “end of the world” ​ ​ myth common to Japan, depictions of natural apocalyptic destruction do appear in Japan’s creation myth. While outside the focus of this study, this could be a focus of further research regarding Chrono Trigger.

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To begin any reflection on representation of the apocalypse in Japanese and

American media, a brief comparison of established religious and cultural ideas of apocalypse is warranted. One major influence on the idea of apocalypse in the United

States is the apocalyptic narrative within the Christian Bible’s book of Revelation, and the various interpretations by Christians over the years regarding its narrative concerning the second coming of Jesus Christ and the end of the world (Wojcik 1997).

Wojcik (1997) also notes that, since the advent of the atomic bomb, interpretations of

Revelation’s religious apocalyptic narrative have been shaped by themes of nuclear destruction, themes which will be explored further later on within this literature review.

In the United States, a number of films demonstrate strong influences from the themes of apocalypse in John’s book of Revelation. Gerlach (2012) notes how Christian apocalyptic themes have influenced multiple Hollywood films featuring an “antichrist” character or figure. Leggatt (2015) discusses how post-9/11 films in the United States feature a resurgence of faith-based narratives in the midst of apocalypse. These post-9/11 apocalyptic films “challenge the value of faith in a world which is either threatened with annihilation or which has already experienced a global catastrophe”

(Leggatt 2015, p. 12). In a more direct adaptation of Biblical apocalypse, The Left Behind ​ book and film series has presented a fictionalized account of one interpretation of

Revelation’s end of the world in meticulous detail (Guest 2012).

Secular notions of apocalypse also manifest in American media. Wojcik (1997) argues that secular perceptions of apocalypse echo either hopelessness in the destruction of mankind, typically by their own hands, or occasionally a position of

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survival through preparation in the midst of such apocalypse. As for these secular representations of apocalypse, nuclear apocalypse is one major example of the trigger or cause of apocalypse, but many other causes can also serve as apocalyptic catalysts within narratives. Ostwalt (2016) points out how the film Waterworld (1995) presents the ​ ​ apocalypse as a result of global warming, framing the secular apocalypse as one being

“self-induced—our secular apocalypse in this case will be self-destruction, not divine destruction” (p. 6). Ostwalt (2016) further describes how 12 Monkeys (1995), an ​ ​ adaptation of the French film La Jetee (1962), also frames the apocalypse from a secular ​ ​ perspective, this time with a plot to release a virus that will wipe out mankind. Walliss and Aston (2011) describe how War of the Worlds (2005) frames the apocalypse ​ ​ through the concept of alien invasion.

Unlike Western Christianity, Japanese Shinto and Buddhist traditions have no specific stories or narratives of a worldwide apocalypse, so a religious association with apocalyptic imagery is far less prominent in Japanese works2. However, the nation is no stranger to apocalyptic natural disaster. Earthquakes as well as the tsunamis generated by them are one common example. Smits (2014) notes that the common occurrence of these earthquakes is due to Japan’s position along multiple fault lines. Smits (2014) suggests that, from a social standpoint, these frequent earthquakes are frequently accompanied by a “rhetoric of renewal” that “has sought to put a hopeful spin on otherwise tragic disasters, presenting the catastrophe as an opportunity for beneficial social change” (“Arguments”). This theme manifests in some reflections on earthquakes

2 See footnote on p. 11 regarding apocalypse and Japan’s creation myth. ​

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in Japanese media. The Namazu-e (“Catfish Prints”) that followed the 1855 earthquake in Edo (known today as Tokyo), which represented the quake in a folktale-based creature known as a Namazu, were utilized by Japanese commoners as a means to comment on the issues of modern Japan during a time of significant change (Smits

2006). In a more exploitative use of apocalyptic imagery, a variety of postcards featuring either photographs or artwork of destruction from the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923 were sold to those interested in “disaster sightseeing” in the days following the destruction (Wisenfeld 2012). Wisenfeld (2012) also explores a significant documentary film of the events, Actual Conditions of the Great Kanto Earthquake and Fire (Kanto ​ ​ ​ Taishin Taika Jikkyo, 1923), which uses film from the event itself alongside newspaper ​ clippings, maps, and other visuals to present and represent the destruction of Tokyo to the rest of Japan. However, even this documentary still attempts to reframe the event from the perspective of renewal, as the film is “designed to educate and mobilize the populace” (Wisenfeld 2012, p. 124).

It is also important to note that, while Japan does not have their own apocalyptic religious narrative, cross-cultural influence has led to the adaptation of themes from western Christian apocalypse as well as other religious apocalypse to apocalyptic media in Japan, as well. Broderick (2002) provides a brief overview of how Neon Genesis ​ Evangelion (1995-1996) utilizes a variety of western religious themes. “The series is ​ replete with apocalyptic references drawn directly from Persian (Zoroastra), Jewish

(Kabbal, Torah), Christian (Old and New Testaments) and Gnostic (Apocrypha) sacred writings,” he writes (Broderick 2002). Frohlich (2012) suggests that the anime series

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Death Note (2006) is filled with Christian apocalyptic references and religious imagery, ​ though it does not clearly adopt a Christian apocalyptic narrative.

For both cultures, the concept of apocalyptic destruction has been represented through a variety of media. American media has entertained both Christian religious themes as well as secular themes of apocalypse within media narratives, with notable crossover between those works. Lacking an apocalyptic narrative from their own religious beliefs, Japanese apocalyptic media focused on the destructive events of various major natural disasters, both through direct representation of the destruction and abstraction of the event and the forces that caused it. In addition, some apocalyptic media have utilized western ideas and themes of religious apocalypse. However, in both cultures, the horrific atomic destruction by the United States of two Japanese cities at the conclusion of World War II has surely shaped apocalyptic narratives since that event. Thus, it is important to acknowledge this particular influence, and identify examples of prior work focused on studying the influence of the atomic bomb on apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic representations.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki-U.S and Japanese Atomic Apocalypses in Media

For both Japan and the United States, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and

Nagasaki profoundly impacted both cultures, as can be witnessed in the ways that they have informed and influenced a variety of apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic media since

1945. Scholars have reflected on how the impact of the atomic bombings and their aftermath manifest and are observed in media content released by both countries since the end of World War II. One famous example of post-WWII reflection on the atomic

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bomb is Ishirou Honda’s Godzilla (Gojira, 1954). Brothers (2011) notes that the film ​ ​ both reflects Japanese perception of the war as a whole as well as fears of the continued threat of nuclear war. Brothers also notes that for its release in America, “the film was altered substantially (to tone down, intentionally or not, the Atomic Bomb connection)”

(p. 38). In the introduction to his translations of several Japanese plays about

Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Goodman (1994) describes how the experiences of atomic bomb survivors were adapted and represented in differing styles and narratives, both conventional and avant-garde, and also explores how those representations changed between the late 1950s and early 1960s. Goodman (1994) argues that the series of plays translated within his book provoked innovation in playwriting, as well as providing a space for both the playwrights and their audiences to make sense of the destruction of

Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He also suggests that, at the same time, these themes were also used as a backdrop for artistic political statements regarding the continuing nuclear threat during the Cold War. Dorsey and Matsuoka (1996) discuss how both the book

Black Rain and its film adaptation portray the destruction of Hiroshima and its impact ​ on a more personal level, as it follows the lives of a young woman and her family as they experience both the bombs and the effects of the radioactive fallout. In this, the focus on the apocalyptic imagery of the bomb differs between the two works: the book utilizes as a backdrop the destruction of Hiroshima for the entire narrative while the film quickly moves on to (seemingly normal) life a few years beyond atomic apocalypse, though both continue to wrestle with the impact of the atomic bomb on the lives of the main characters (Dorsey and Matsuoka 1996).

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Japanese animation (popularly known as anime) has also featured a variety of representations of apocalypse clearly influenced by atomic destruction. The anime film

Akira (1982) is one such example. In his metaanalysis of the film, Bolton (2014) notes ​ that the inspiration of the film’s opening moments as well as the overall themes of destruction are often attributed to the influence of the destruction of Hiroshima and

Nagasaki; in other words, Akira’s apocalyptic themes are “said to represent a fixation on ​ ​ destruction that supposedly lies at the heart of Japanese popular culture, a legacy of the atomic bombings” (p. 297). Studio Ghibli’s Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind (Kaze no ​ ​ ​ Tani no Naushika, 1984) is another example of atomic-influenced post-apocalyptic film. ​ Deamer (2014) notes that Nausicaa occurs in what could be construed as a sort of nuclear post-apocalyptic setting, as the world has been poisoned by the use of weapons of mass destruction in a great war. However, Nausicaa’s primary message seems to be while man continues to fight man even in the post-apocalypse, this cycle of destruction can be overcome by humanity working within nature rather than against it (Deamer

2014). Perhaps the most obvious and famous anime film treatment of the atomic bombing, Barefoot Gen (Hadashi no Gen, 1983, 1986), both portrays the event of the ​ ​ ​ ​ bombing in graphic detail as well as the experiences of the survivors, framed through the story of a boy in Hiroshima the day of the bombing (Deamer 2014). Teo (2013) notes the optimistic outcomes of Barefoot Gen in spite of its apocalyptic images, however, ​ ​ pointing out that in spite of his close proximity to the bomb, the title character Gen manages to recover from the effects of radiation and his life continues beyond the end of the film.

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Shapiro (1998) considers how American films draw from existing themes of the apocalypse in their reflections on the atomic bomb in an analysis of several American and Japanese films referencing atomic threats, while also noting that such work is a struggle for cultural power regarding the discourse regarding nuclear weapons. In a larger work focusing on the experiences of youth with atomic narratives, Scheibach

(2003) reflects on a variety of media released in the United States in the years immediately following the atomic bombings of 1945, framed by how these messages were directed at and consumed by American youth. Regarding Hollywood films,

Scheibach (2003) argues that in the 1950s, “even the most farcical or preposterous alien-invasion movie . . . contained elements of truth concerning the potential of atomic warfare” while containing “equally strong messages about protecting democracy and earth, and about the belief that the self sufficient, inner directed individual will survive to start again” (p. 151). Scheibach (2003) then further contrasts and compares film representations of the atomic bomb with those of broadcast and print media, noting these works emphasized the fear of the atomic bomb’s power while also promoting calm by assuring audiences that these terrible weapons could be controlled. Boyer (1998) reflects on a variety of nuclear apocalypses in American mass media of the 1980s and

1990s. Boyer (1998) notes how the imagery or nuclear apocalypse is utilized in the

Terminator (1984) and Terminator 2 (1991), in effect “joining nuclear terror to fears of ​ ​ ​ a computer dominated world” (p. 202). Also, several films in the 1980s presented hypothetical nuclear apocalypses resulting from a nuclear climax of the Cold War.

Shapiro (2002) reflected on three of these films-Testament (1983), The Day After ​ ​ ​

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(1983), and Special Bulletin (1983). Shapiro (2002) considers how these films differ in ​ ​ their representation of nuclear apocalypse; Testament and The Day After show “only ​ ​ ​ ​ the manifest text of apocalypse, life in a postnuclear dystopic future” (p. 169). In contrast, Special Bulletin’s narrative avoids focusing on the apocalypse itself, rather ​ ​ considering the events leading up to it, thus, it “respect the ambiguity and complexity of nuclear issues” (Shapiro 2002, p. 170).

It is clear from these examples that special consideration of the influence of atomic destruction as well as the cultural fears of such destruction is incredibly important when reflecting on apocalyptic themes in Japanese and American media.

Thus, reflecting on how these themes of atomic destruction manifest should not only be limited to analysis of Fallout (which, as its title suggests, it set in a nuclear ​ ​ post-apocalypse) but also Chrono Trigger, as the massive destruction wrought by Little ​ ​ Boy and Fat Man has shaped and continues to shape apocalyptic representations produced by both the United States and Japan. That influence, coupled with the influence other nuclear apocalyptic media may have had on these games, suggests that the apocalypses in these games ought to be examined with an awareness of the influence of the fears of atomic destruction and apocalypse.

Video Game Content Analysis

The broader field of video game research, following from its roots in prior media studies research, often utilizes established media content analysis techniques. One significant area of video game content analysis is the study of gender representation.

Female representation, in particular, is a major focus of such research. Lynch,

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Tompkins, Van Driel, and Fritz (2016) analyzed video games from 1983 to 2014 to measure the change over time of the role, prevalence, and level of sexualization of female characters. Downs and Smith (2009) compared male and female sexualization in a variety of 2003 video games. Martins, Williams, Harrison, and Ratan (2009) took a detailed look at the virtual measurements of female video game characters compared with average measurements of women. Video game content analyses have considered masculine representations, as well. For example, Martins, Williams, Ratan and Harrison

(2011) conducted a follow-up study concerning virtual dimensions of male characters, mirroring the earlier study of female characters. Williams, Martins, Consalvo and Ivory

(2009) took a broader approach in their content analysis, considering overall numerical representation divided by gender, race, and age across games in a given year.

Given that video games are often played by children and teenagers, potentially objectionable content in video games is another focus of content analysis. Video game violence, in particular, has been the focus of a number of studies. One study analyzed a number of video games to determine how the content of video games provides moral disengagement cues that encourage violence (Hartmann, Krakowiak, and Tsay-Vogel

2014). Thompson and Haninger (2001) considered the level and amount of incidents of violence as well as other content in “E” rated video games. Haninger and Thompson

(2004) conducted a follow-up that covered T rated games, and documented instances of violence, sexual content, profanity, and drug use.

Outside of these specific areas, several other studies have explored a variety of themes in video games through an analysis of their content. Bosman (2014) considers

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several recent video game titles to draw connections between dystopia and religious themes within their narratives. Several of these studies have also accounted for the impact on gameplay on top of content. For example, Bogost (2015) reflects on how both the visuals as well as the gameplay of Mirror’s Edge (2008) help provide both a sense of ​ ​ fluidity of movement and a sense of weakness. Galloway (2006) discusses how the gameplay of the Civilization series as well as its visuals both oversimplify and erase ​ ​ nuances within culture as well as promote a very specific notion of “civilization.”

Wagner (2013) argues that, in some games, gameplay structures as well as background narratives create a structure that mirrors negative impacts of religious binary divisions and other simplifications of the real world.

Analysis of video game content is well established as an effective approach in existing research. However, most of this existing research focuses on games without considering differences that may arise due to the games’ cultural origins and context.

Also, several key studies have also accounted for gameplay as well as content in their analysis of video games. This focus on gameplay as well as content is important to consider when moving forward in the research of Chrono Trigger and Fallout. ​ ​ ​ ​ Background of Cross-Cultural Analysis of Media Content ​ A variety of studies have utilized a cross-cultural focus when analyzing other forms of media content. Advertising is one common field of study for such cross-cultural analysis. For example, Chen (2015) explores how differences in cultural attitudes towards the elderly in Taiwan and the United Kingdom may correlate with differing depictions of aged characters in advertising. Many cross-cultural studies focus on topics

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of gender and sexuality in advertising. Tan, Shaw, Cheng, and Kim (2013) considered whether cultural differences could be noted in depictions of masculinity in magazine ads from China, Taiwan, and United States. Hetsroni (2007) sought to determine differences in both level and type of sexual content in television advertisements from the

United States and Israel. On a similar note, Nelson & Paek (2008) analyzed the degree of nudity of models in advertisements from seven different countries around the world.

In addition to advertising, news media content has been another common subject for cross-cultural analysis. A few examples of this research include a study by Dimitrova and Strömbäck (2010), that compared structural differences in television news across multiple networks in Sweden and the United States. Wang (2015) focused on specific coverage of the 2015 Hong Kong protests on the BBC in the United Kingdom and CCTV in China. Another study considered the level of emotionally arousing news elements in news broadcasts comparing a number of Chinese and Western European networks

(Hendriks Vettehen, Zhou, Kleemans, D'Haenens, and Lin 2012). Zhong, Sun and Zhao

(2011), meanwhile, compared newscasts from China and the United States to determine differences in on-screen attribution tropes.

While advertising and news media content have been significant areas of focus of cross-cultural content analysis, this approach has also been utilized to analyze media produced for entertainment. A study by Babini (2012) considered differences in portrayals of nurses in 1950s television dramas in Italy and the United States. In a similar vein, Weidauer (2015) contrasted “coming of age” films from the United States,

West Germany, and East Germany during the 1950s. Xu and Tian (2013) conducted a

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complex cross cultural analysis that considered how the story of Hua Mulan was adapted for Disney’s animated film Mulan (1998), and then reflects on the film’s ​ ​ translation for a Chinese audience.

Cross-cultural analysis of audiovisual media is a common method across multiple types of media content, including advertising, news, films, and television shows. While studies of video games have yet to adapt this approach for a study of video game content, the usage of this type of analysis for a variety of video and film media demonstrates its usefulness when applied to media content analysis. While video games also contain gameplay elements intertwined with content, cross cultural analysis will also prove useful in analyzing Chrono Trigger and Fallout. ​ ​ ​ ​ Video Game Cross-Cultural Analyses

Presently, cross cultural research of video games appears limited to video game effects research or the practices and structure of the video game industry, rather than content or gameplay. Several studies of video game violence, a significant topic in video game research, have incorporated a cross-cultural approach. For example, Colwell and

Kato (2005) conducted a study focused on differences between gamers in Japan and the

United Kingdom regarding the association between video game violence preference and aggressive behavior. Anderson et al. (2010) conducted a metaanalysis focused on differences between the effect of video game violence on gamers in Japan and the

United States. Brusching et al. (2015) compared the differing measures utilized to analyze video game violence in different cultures in order to clarify their level of validity.

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While the effects of video game violence is a major focus of cross-cultural research, the reception of video games by gamers and the gaming community is another significant area of study. One video game effects study explored the cross-cultural marketing impact of video games. Choi, Yoon, & Taylor (2015) compared reactions of players in Korea and the United States to the presence of an on-screen character in an advergame-that is, a game meant to promote a brand-and how the perception of that brand changed based on the presence of said character. Another study by Tsang and

Prendergast (2009) compared video game reviews and ratings published in China and the United States and considered how the differing cultural backgrounds might impact the final review scores. Lastly, Anderson (2009) considers the process of video game translation, and how in spite of the fact that game translation and localization obscure some content and meanings, it also allows gamers the opportunity to interact with cultural ideas and concepts differing from their own.

Aside from video game effects research, a few studies have compared the structure of the video game industry across cultures. Storz, Riboldazzi, and John (2015) found that while inter-firm job mobility is positively associated with innovation in video game companies in the United States, it has negative associations in Japanese companies. Darchen and Tremblay (2015) consider how the video game industries in

Montreal, Canada, and Melbourne, Australia differ. Izushi and Aoyama (2006) take a step back to the very foundations of video game industries in Japan, the United States, and the United Kingdom, and argue that differences in their cultural backgrounds led to very different structures in each country’s video game industry.

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While cross-cultural analysis focused on the content and gameplay of video games remains an untested approach, cross cultural research of video games is well established in several other respects, including video game effects research and the study of video game industry trends. Many of these studies also focus on a comparison between specific western and non-western audiences or industries.

Prior Study of Chrono Trigger and the Fallout Series

Before diving into the theories and methods utilized in this study, it seems sensible to conclude this literature review with an exploration of prior academic study of

Chrono Trigger and the Fallout series. Norman (2011) considered the narrative of ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Chrono Trigger through a lens of literary criticism. Norman argues that both the story ​ and interactivity of video games play important roles in understanding how Chrono ​ Trigger allows players to shape the outcome of the game’s story and thus “beckons the ​ players to play a narrative” (p. 40). This position of considering both gameplay and audiovisual content will prove key to understanding the larger concept of video game research. Also, this study demonstrates the potential of Chrono Trigger as a media text ​ ​ for critical analysis. Besides Norman’s work, however, no academic writing on Chrono ​ Trigger has yet been published. ​ Fallout, on the other hand, has yet to be chosen as a media text for academic ​ research. However, other games in the series (particularly more recent titles) have been utilized and considered within academic work. Fallout 3 in particular has been the focus ​ ​ of several significant studies. Weaver and Lewis (2012) chose the opening sequences of

Fallout 3 as the setting in which to analyze the impact of video game settings on moral ​

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choices. Devine, Presnell, and Miller (2014) focused on the moral choices within a specific mission on Fallout 3 and the implications for game design as an art form. ​ ​ Schulzke (2009, 2014) also explores Fallout 3’s moral choices as well as framing the ​ ​ game’s scenarios as an example of video games as thought experiments. While the first

Fallout title has yet to garner the level of interest as a research topic that Fallout 3 has, ​ ​ ​ the series still has a great deal of potential as a video game text worthy of study.

The fact that both Chrono Trigger and the Fallout series have been the subject of ​ ​ ​ ​ a variety of academic research further establishes these titles as worthy of analysis. Yet with only one study focused on Chrono Trigger, along with the reality that the first title ​ ​ in the Fallout series has not yet been the focus of academic study, this suggests that ​ ​ further study of these games will yield a fuller understanding of their content and interaction with the apocalypse.

Foundations of Current Study

Video games are an increasingly popular form of media and critical analysis of these works will help further understanding of video game narratives and conventions, both informing design of new titles as well as providing a basis by which to consider the artistry of video game media content. This variety of background research provides a loose outline that leads into the approach and methods that are utilized in this study.

The existing literature of cross-cultural content analysis in film, television, news and media advertising demonstrates that this approach provides unique insights in media analysis, insights that are lost when media content is analyzed outside of cultural considerations and differences. While research on video games has yet to incorporate

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both cross-cultural and content analysis approaches within a single study, both approaches have been used separately in current research. Prior research on both apocalyptic media in Japan and the United States as well as media influenced by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki provide a set of themes to consider when analyzing the apocalyptic themes in Chrono Trigger and Fallout. Also, with both ​ ​ ​ ​ Chrono Trigger and the Fallout series having been the focus of prior academic study, ​ ​ ​ this reinforces these titles’ merit for academic interest and further research. The ongoing debate regarding the artistic merit of video games has brought to the forefront of the discussion one key difference between video games and other non-interactive media: a video game must be played in order to fully appreciate the medium. Further, several significant studies have incorporated gameplay elements in addition to non-interactive video game components to provide insight into how the interaction of the player both communicates themes through that interaction as well as allowing the player to influence the narrative of video games. Keeping this foundation in mind, the following chapter will outline how the chosen theoretical framework provides the best environment in which to analyze Chrono Trigger and Fallout’s apocalyptic themes. ​ ​ ​ ​ This framework must consider all aspects of the video game medium (especially the importance of play) while providing a basis by which to contrast the two titles in light of their differing cultural origins.

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Theoretical Approach and Method of Study

Given the unique cross-cultural perspective proposed for this study, coupled with the unique characteristics of video game media, an approach developed from a synthesis of multiple theoretical approaches is necessary for this thesis. Three primary theories will be outlined, and then combined into an approach suitable for an analysis of Chrono ​ Trigger and Fallout’s apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic themes. The first, concerning the ​ ​ ​ role of action by the player in video games, establishes how analysis of games must consider the role of action, an element absent in most other audiovisual media.

Secondly, the theoretical approach of neoformalism will be outlined as an effective theory for considerations of the aesthetic elements of these two video games. Third, a review of cross-cultural approaches to media studies will also be explored to provide a basis for the comparison of Japanese and American cultural perspectives on apocalypse.

Following this, these theoretical lenses will be combined by connecting the concepts of player action and cross-cultural consideration into neoformalism, creating the overall theoretical framework for the analysis of these two games. From this framework, the methods of the study will then be extrapolated and outlined, providing a form of analysis that considers the elements at work within the apocalyptic themes in both titles.

Diegetic/Non-diegetic and Computer/Operator Actions

The first key theory focuses on what makes video games different from audiovisual media-that both the content and the actions within the confines of the game shape the impact and narrative of video games. In his book Gaming: Essays on ​ Algorithmic Culture (2006), Alexander Galloway goes one step further, arguing that ​

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“Video games come into being when the machine is powered up and the software is executed; they exist when enacted. Video games are actions” (p.2) Further breaking down this process, Galloway (2006) states that “The operator and the machine play the video game together, step by step, move by move” (P.2). Galloway’s argument is that all of the elements within a video game are either actions or the result of actions taken by either the player or the computer. Thus, any study of video games must consider both the actions of (as Galloway (2006) calls them) the “machine” and of the “operator” when analyzing video game content. Following this first division, Galloway (2006) then subdivides these actions, adding another differentiation of games compared with audiovisual media such as film. Galloway (2006) states that “in video games there are actions that occur in diegetic space and actions that occur in nondiegetic space” (p.6-7).

In other words, some actions are part of the narrative within the video game, while others happen outside and alongside it. This diegetic/nondiegetic split is very reminiscent of film.

From this, Galloway (2006) creates a grid within which any aspect of video games can be situated. For example, actions such as pausing the game are non-diegetic operator actions, while moving the game character or using an in-game tool falls under the category of diegetic operator actions. Meanwhile, computer actions such as a power up or game over (which typically has no diegetic explanation or acknowledgment) are nondiegetic machine actions, while actions Galloway (2006) calls “ambience act” and

“machinima” (p. 10-11) are classified as diegetic machine actions. These final two concepts demand further explanation and definition. An ambience act is the process the

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game undergoes to portray the game world as a living world: “The sun goes down, then it comes up. Trees stir. These acts are a type or perpetual happening, a living tableau”

(Galloway 2006, p. 10). However, Galloway notes that these actions only occur when the player is not taking action, writing: “Gameplay recommences as soon as the operator returns with controller input” (Galloway 2006, p.10). In contrast, machinima is when the video game takes over completely, with no player input. Galloway notes that these machinima take on a cinematic quality and that these “cinematic interludes transpire within the world of the game and extend the space of narrative of the game in some way”

(Galloway 2006, p. 11).

Galloway’s work regarding gamic action has been utilized in several considerations of video games and other similar concepts. Among them, Bradford

(2010) references Galloway in order to establish the importance of diegetic and nondiegetic action to the experiences of video games such as World of Warcraft (2004) ​ ​ and Bully (2006). In another novel example, Whitson (2013) utilized Galloway’s ​ ​ framework concerning interactions between the operator and machine in analysis of the digital gamification of life habits and workplace productivity.

While Galloway’s theory of action and video games is vital to understanding the difference between them and other forms of media, for the purpose of analyzing Chrono ​ Trigger and Fallout, there is one primary limitation to this approach. While all elements ​ ​ ​ of video games are indeed actions carried out by the machine or operator, they are not all experienced by the player as actions. For example, the audio and visual elements of a game are typically not perceived as actions by the player, but rather evoke a similar

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experience to film or video media. While Galloway’s (2006) action-centered approach to video games provides key insight into the role of player actions, it does not provide a basis for analysis of the aesthetic or narrative components of either ambience acts or machinima. Thus, while this theory is useful and necessary to establish the unique characteristics of video games, it is but one of several components of a necessary framework for this analysis. Given that Galloway himself compares the latter of the action of machinima directly to cinema, it seems appropriate to incorporate film theory into the framework for this study.

Neoformalism

While a variety of film theories could be utilized to consider the aesthetic and narrative elements of Fallout and Chrono Trigger, neoformalism is an ideal fit for this ​ ​ ​ ​ analysis. Developed and outlined by Kristin Thompson (1988), neoformalism sees art as

“a realm separate from all other types of cultural artifacts because it presents a unique set of perceptual requirements. Art is set apart from the everyday world, in which we use our perception for practical ends” (p. 8). From this premise arises the focal point of neoformalism: the idea of defamiliarization. Thompson (1988) describes defamiliarization as the process through which art engages the audience by reorienting familiar concepts in the different perceptual environment of art. This allows the audience to consider or reconsider the meanings, purpose, and value of these concepts.

In other words, art exists to provide a way for the audience to see their own world in a different way and it does this through creating a separate artistic world for the audience.

Thompson (1988) adds that this process of defamiliarization is achieved within art by

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utilizing existing meanings within society. She notes that “familiar meanings may themselves be defamiliarized by striking treatments,” or alternately, “they can help in defamiliarizing other elements” (p. 13). Additionally, Thompson (1988) also recognizes that meanings differ between films because the meaning is considered another tool alongside other formal film devices, such as framing, sound, or other components of the work. Thompson (1988) defines this concept of a device as “any single element or structure that plays a role in the artwork” (p. 15). Neoformalist devices acknowledge all of the various components of the medium, so adapting the concept of devices to consider Galloway’s operator and machine actions in this structure would be consistent with neoformalist analysis.

To analyse these devices, Thompson (1988) considers two main concepts: function and motivation. The first, function, focuses on the bigger picture of how these devices work. Thompson (1988) notes that “any given device serves different functions according to the context of the work” (p.15). Thus each device must not be assumed as having a static function but considered within the context to determine the function it may serve, which may differ between works. The second concept, motivation, is a bit more complex. Defined as “the reason the work suggests for the presence of any given device” (Thompson 1988,p. 16), Thompson divides motivation into four categories. First is constitutional motivation, which “justifies the inclusion of any device that is necessary for the construction of narrative causality, space, or time” (Thompson 1988, p. 16). In other words, constitutional motivation derives from the purpose of reinforcing the overall structure of the work itself. Realistic motivation is defined by Thompson (1988)

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as “an appeal to ideas about reality,” meaning that the use of the device taps into our understanding of the rules of our own world. The third, transtextual motivation, relies on conventions of the medium and genre of the work, which can change over time

(Thompson 1988). Lastly, Thompson (1988) explains artistic motivation, which deals with aesthetic purposes that drive the use of devices within the work—essentially, devices used for the sake of art. Thus, any device utilized within the work can be divided into one of these categories, allowing for a consideration of how these elements work within the process of defamiliarization.

Two additional concepts prove key in applying neoformalism to media, and both prove extremely relevant to the consideration of video game analysis, as well. The first is neoformalism’s focus on the background of the original work. Thompson (1988) describes three types of backgrounds: knowledge of the everyday world, conventions of art and artworks, and the separation of art from more practical media content.

Thompson notes that “the film’s adherence to and departure from its background norms are the subjects of the analyst’s work” (p.21). Considering how film (or in the case of this study, video games) play with, reinforce, or subvert the understandings of not only the world but also the medium, genre, and narrative setting is the focus of neoformalism.

This works well in considering the historical nature of apocalypse in analysis of Chrono ​ Trigger and Fallout, as the prior literature will provide a baseline to compare how these ​ ​ ​ games treat the apocalypse. The second key assertion of neoformalism is that neoformalism treats the audience as part of the process of defamiliarization.

“Neoformalism assumes that spectators are, to a large extent, active, and that they can

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cope with films to the degree that they have learned the norms appropriate to those films, and also the the degree that they have learned to be aware of and question those norms” writes Thompson (1988, p. 33). This stresses further why historical context matters for media, and also leads well into video game analysis, as video games welcome players to not only watch the game, but to interact it and directly shape the narrative.

The use of neoformalism for video game studies is not entirely unprecedented.

Van Vught (2016) utilized neoformalism as the primary lens in his thesis exploring video game violence in single player video games. Bender (2014) uses neoformalism as a lens through which to compare film and video game depictions of war violence. However, both of these approaches lacked a comprehensive approach to gameplay, as Van Vught

(2016) simply deemed analysis of gameplay less a study of the game and more of the player committing those actions, and Bender’s (2014) study focused only on video game footage. Informed by Galloway’s (2006) theory of gamic actions, however, neoformalism can also consider the element of gameplay as another device in its framework.

Neoformalism provides an excellent structure to consider how not only the aesthetic components but also meanings and narrative work as devices to focus on themes and ideas within film. In addition, the concept of devices works well in light of

Galloway’s concept of games as actions, as those action-based components can be incorporated as additional devices within a neoformalist framework. However, while neoformalism provides ample structure to consider the changes of meanings over time, it has no explicit approach for considering difference in meaning among cultures. Thus,

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further exploration into cross-cultural concerns in media is necessary, given the focus of this study and the origins of the two video games considered in this thesis.

Cross-cultural Communication

The final theoretical perspective in the approach for this study is that of cross-cultural communication. While no theory has yet been proposed regarding analysis of cross-cultural differences in video games, Berger (1992) suggests guidelines for an overall media analysis approach. Berger posits that “we, as individuals and as members of subcultures and cultures, read text through the prisms of our knowledge and understanding of the world” (p. 16). If this is the case, understanding different cultural perspectives is important to the analysis of Chrono Trigger and Fallout outside ​ ​ ​ ​ of an Americentric analysis. As this study seeks to explore the perspectives these games provide on the apocalypse, and how it reflects on larger cultural responses to apocalypse and apocalyptic themes, an understanding of both cultures and how they differ is essential to said analysis. Berger’s approach, put simply, is to add a cross-cultural perspective while analyzing the various aspects of media content, with the assumption that “some kind of comparison is being made between texts that are similar in nature, usually in terms of genres” (p. 16). Both Chrono Trigger and Fallout place their ​ ​ ​ ​ characters in apocalyptic worlds, and they both are considered part of the role-playing video game genre. These thematic and genre similarities provide the basis for comparison that Berger recommends. Berger’s list of different aspects for cross-cultural analysis include: character values, social class, or roles; plot construction; the characteristics of the protagonist; themes, stereotypes, and ideologies; the use of

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language and dialogue; visual style; and humor (Berger 1992). Many of these aspects mirror similar devices within the neoformalist approach, allowing for easier integration of these theories. Berger also notes that “it is useful to see what sociologists, cultural anthropologists, political scientists, and other scholars have to say about the countries, societies, and cultures being studied” (1992 p. 19). Berger then suggests drawing connections between these works on culture and the works being analyzed as a method to find common themes. Admittedly, the prior literature review provides ample background on apocalyptic media but very little regarding the fundamental differences between American and Japanese culture. If this study is to consider cultural differences that manifest in Chrono Trigger and Fallout, the differences between cultures in Japan ​ ​ ​ ​ and the United States must be briefly established.

While several different communication theories attempt to define and explore differences across cultures (Hall 1976, Trompenaars 1994 and Lewis 1996), Hofstede’s

(2011) theory of cultural dimensions has been selected because of its acknowledgment of multiple kinds of cultural difference. Hofstede proposes six dimensions of culture: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism versus collectivism, masculinity versus femininity, long term versus short term orientation, and indulgence versus restraint. Power distance is defined by Hofstede as “the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally” (2011, p. 9). In other words, how comfortable are the lower members of a culture’s structure with their position and the position of others? Uncertainty avoidance considers the extent a culture programs its members to

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feel either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. This impacts how much the culture as a whole values both individual and social stability. Individualism and collectivism are common foci of cross-cultural study. These two terms describe the level and scale of connections between individuals in a society (Hofstede 2011).

Hofstede suggests that individualist cultures limit the responsibility of individuals to looking after oneself and one’s immediate family, while collectivist cultures extend the responsibility of individuals in society to caring for extended family and others in

“strong, cohesive in-groups” (p. 11) The dimension of masculinity and femininity in a culture concerns whether stereotypically masculine or feminine characteristics are valued or promoted in society. Hofstede describes the masculine characteristics as

“assertive and ambitious,” while feminine characteristics are “modest and caring” (p.

12). Within a culture classified either as masculine or feminine, these characteristics will be more prominent in any gender, though it is notable that masculine characteristics are more likely in men than women in a masculine culture, a trait not shared by cultures classified as feminine (Hofstede 2011). As for short term versus long term orientation,

Hofstede defined short term orientation values as “reciprocating social obligations, respect for tradition, protecting one's 'face', and personal steadiness and stability,” while long term values included “perseverance, thrift, ordering relationships by status, and having a sense of shame” (p. 13). The final dimension, indulgence versus restraint, focuses on whether a culture values easy satisfaction of need and desires or values self-control and delaying gratification (Hofstede 2011). Through these dimensions, a

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rough picture of how cultures differ can emerge, providing an important component for this analysis.

Of course, a direct comparison of the United States and Japanese cultures following this approach could easily become a thesis in itself. However, this framework will need to be applied to both cultures in order to effectively apply it to the overall framework. Thankfully, Hofstede previously applied this framework to data from a variety of countries and from this data overall differences between Japanese and United

States cultures can be more clearly defined. Hofstede (1997) compiled data from a survey of the values of IBM employees in over 50 countries with other studies that replicated its structure in other countries to determine the varying importance of cultural dimensions. According to Hofstede (1997), Japan’s culture ranks near the middle in power distance, high in uncertainty avoidance, straddles the middle between collectivist and individualist, is extremely masculine, ranked near the top among countries in long term orientation, and near the middle regarding indulgence versus restraint. America, in contrast, ranks lower in power distance, first in individualism, high in masculinity (though significantly lower than Japan) low in uncertainty avoidance, low in long-term orientation, and relatively high in indulgence (Hofstede

1997). The details provided here allow for a rough overview of overall cultural differences between Japan and the United States, differences which may manifest in both media content creation and interpretation.

This thesis is centered on how both cultures respond to apocalyptic themes and realities, rather than a larger reflection on how cultural values as a whole manifest in

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video game content. That said, it is important to filter out differences in Chrono Trigger ​ and Fallout due to differences in apocalyptic experience and perspective from what is ​ ​ likely due to other cultural differences. Additionally, this background will prove crucial for discerning differences in meanings when considering the defamiliarization processes of each title.

Synthesis

Using Thompson’s (1988) theory of neoformalism as a central component, these three theoretical approaches will blend well for this analysis. While this study acknowledges Galloway’s assertion that all components of a video game are either player or computer action, it remains that many components (or devices, to use the neoformalist term) of video games are not recognized by the player as action, but instead are understood in a similar manner to earlier film and television media content.

For the purposes of this study, Galloway’s (2006) concept of video game action will be considered an unique device when it manifests outside other filmic devices within video games. This will include both diegetic and non-diegetic actions of both the player and the machine. As for cross-cultural communication, noting the importance neoformalism places on historical context for understanding the background of the work, as well as that the audience is seen as an active participant in the process of defamiliarization the work provokes, it stands to reason that any analysis comparing works across cultures should also supplement historical context with cultural context. It is here that Berger’s

(1992) framework for cross-cultural media analysis will be applied. Informed by the differing cultural dimensions of Japan and the United States as well as their differing

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experiences and prior representation of apocalypse in other media, the individual backgrounds of each work must be considered. With neoformalism as its centerpiece, the primary exploration of this study will be to determine how both works defamiliarize the idea of apocalypse to the player and how this is achieved through the variety of devices with the games. Following this, further reflections can be made on the differing uses of apocalypse within the two games in terms of setting, narrative, and gameplay.

Theory to Method

Applying this framework, a method was devised to study the two video games.

Given Galloway’s (2006) focus on the importance of action, simply watching playthroughs of the titles would not provide a complete understanding of the various devices at work within Chrono Trigger and Fallout. Thus, both titles were played ​ ​ ​ ​ through in their entirety one time, with gameplay recorded for later reference. These recordings also allow for a second viewing of these experiences focusing on the other non-action related devices at work in the two titles. Each game was played with the same controls as the titles were originally developed for (for Chrono Trigger, a Super ​ ​ Nintendo controller, and for Fallout, a keyboard and mouse). Notes were also taken on ​ ​ significant events or gameplay-related experiences as the titles were played. Then, each game was analyzed within their own cultural context.

The analysis focused on three key questions. First, how does the game use existing meanings, visuals, sounds or even actions related to apocalypse within the context of video game environments to defamiliarize the player’s understanding of apocalyptic events and narrative? Second, how does the game utilize other meanings

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within their respective cultures of origin to further defamiliarize the meanings of apocalypse? Third, is the game utilizing meanings of nuclear apocalypse, natural apocalypse, or some combination of both? Once both titles are analyzed, comparisons are drawn between them, noting significant differences in meanings that emerge from the analysis, as well as comparing how the two titles defamiliarize the player with the meaning of apocalypse, and whether a significant difference exists in that process.

Finally, the question of how these two games frame the apocalypse differently, and the implications of the answer to said question for both media studies as well as cultural studies of the United States and Japan is discussed.

While cross-cultural video game analysis is a largely unexplored subfield of video game studies, the framework outlined here provides a theoretical lens through which to conduct an analysis of the apocalyptic themes in Chrono Trigger and Fallout. The ​ ​ ​ ​ marriage of neoformalism and the theory of video game actions as the basis for video game analysis allows for incorporation of existing film theory in video game analysis while also acknowledging the unique elements of video game media. With the previously established growth and scale of the video game industry, video games will continue to garner both popular and academic attention for years to come. The approach outlined here could be utilized for further study of other video games. Also, this thesis contributes to the continuing debate on the artistic merit of video games, as utilizing an analysis based in film theory implicitly accepts the premise that video games are worthy of similar analyses as films. Indeed, the very existence of this work will reinforce video games as worthy of critical analysis and, by extension, artistic merit.

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Chrono Trigger

Chrono Trigger (1995) is not simply a game about an apocalypse, but rather, it is ​ a game about many apocalypses across time. This is less surprising given that the game places time travel at the center of its narrative, allowing the player and their characters to witness historical events in their world in multiple eras. While these apocalypses occur across these different eras, clear similarities connect them together. Additionally, considering the larger narrative reveals a clear cyclical pattern of apocalypse. Both of these trends suggest significant implications for Chrono Trigger’s assumptions and ​ ​ framing of the apocalypse. This analysis will explore the answers to three key questions:

First, what is the significance of the cycle of apocalypse in Chrono Trigger? Second, ​ ​ does Chrono Trigger frame the apocalypse as man-made? And third, according to ​ ​ Chrono Trigger, is the apocalypse inevitable? ​ Before jumping into an analysis of Chrono Trigger, it is important to establish ​ ​ several key conventions of the genre. First, it is important to recognize that most role-playing video games of the time, due to limits of technology, divided the world into two portions-the world map and area maps. The world map is a zoomed out view of the game world, which creates a sense of scale and distance between places in the game world. When the characters enter a town or other area on the world map, the game transitions to an area map that allows for more detail of characters and terrain. Both

Chrono Trigger and Fallout make use of this technique to give their world a sense of ​ ​ ​ scale. Second, both titles utilise turn-based battle systems that can, to varying degrees, trace their lineage back to TSR’s tabletop role playing game Dungeons and Dragons ​

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(1974). Player characters and enemies take turns attacking each other until one group or the other is defeated. Though both titles experiment with this formula, they still both use turn-based systems. Finally, it is key to note the controls utilized for the player. Any player action, save for turning the game system on or off, is carried out by these controls. For Chrono Trigger, it was released on the Super Nintendo Entertainment ​ ​ System and thus used that system’s eight button controller with a directional pad.

- - I

Figure 1. U.S. Version of Super Nintendo with controller (Evan-Amos 2013). ​

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Opening: Establishment of Crono’s World

Figure 2. The Millennial Fair (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ The first few hours of Chrono Trigger give no impression that the game focuses ​ ​ on the apocalypse. Opening on a bright morning, with seagulls chirping and the sea softly resonating, the player is greeted with the sight of Crono, the main character, waking up for the day. He is off to the millennial fair3, a celebration of a one thousand year reign in his home kingdom of Guardia, to meet his friend Lucca. The player is given control of Crono, then allowed to explore the fair. A number of mini-games can be found there, including a drinking contest, timing-based bell-ringing game, and a racing betting game, alongside a battle against a training robot. The bright, cheerful opening and fun

3 Millennialism, a Christian religious belief regarding the return of Christ at specific 1000 year ​ increments, may play a role in the time periods represented in Chrono Trigger, particularly given the rise of millennialist sentiments during the 1990s. Whether these specific eras were chosen for millennial symbolism could be explored in further analysis.

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atmosphere presented through gameplay and aesthetics produce a sense of a peaceful era.

However, Crono’s adventure truly begins when he bumps into a young girl named

Marle at the carnival. After a series of events, she volunteers to participate in the demonstration of a teleportation device, created by Crono’s friend, the inventor Lucca.

Marle falls through a portal through time because of a reaction between the machine and her pendant, and Crono bravely agrees to follow Marle through the portal.

Figure 3. Lucca’s Teleporter opens a time gate (Chrono Trigger 1995). ​ ​ ​ After exiting, he and the player discover that they have traveled 400 years into the past, to a period in which Guardia is in a war with the mystics, a group of monsters led by a powerful wizard. The dialogue of the characters about the war, as well as the thin fog covering the world map, communicate that this is a darker time for Guardia

Kingdom.

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Figure 4. The World of 1000 A.D. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​

Figure 5. The World of 600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ After Marle is mistaken for the era’s queen (herself being a descendant of the queen, the princess of Guardia Kingdom in Crono’s time) Marle disappears because of a time paradox. Lucca appears, having devised a way to follow Crono, and explains that in order to save Marle and the future, they must rescue the real queen themselves. After rescuing the queen with the help of a knight-turned frog from the current era, Marle

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reappears, and she, Crono, and Lucca return to their own time. However, upon returning to their own time, Crono is charged, tried, and convicted of kidnapping the princess, and to escape being executed, Crono flees along with Marle and Lucca, eventually escaping through another portal in time.

This opening section of the game serves two main purposes. First, it gently introduces the player to Chrono Trigger’s core narrative and gameplay component of ​ ​ time travel alongside familiar fantasy tropes (such as saving the princess and defeating the evil army) present in many role playing games. Within this familiar framework,

Chrono Trigger introduces a key rule of its time travel: the future can be changed, for ​ good or for ill. This will prove central to the overall narrative. Second, this introduction provides a baseline of civilization across both peaceful and wartime periods, providing a point of comparison with other time periods within the game and with later apocalyptic imagery and events.

The First Apocalypse: Apocalypse of Human Civilization

It is here, after Crono and his allies jump into the second time portal, that Chrono ​ Trigger begins its apocalyptic narrative. The group finds themselves in the far future, ​ 1,300 years after their own time. At first, they appear in a run-down bunker of some sort, and as they exit to the surface, the reality of the time they find themselves in becomes apparent. The world map of this time is barren, with dirt and particles blowing through the air. The only sound other than the wind is eerie ambient music, further reinforcing the desolation of this future.

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Figure 6. The Desolate future of 2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ Crono and those with him visit a nearby shelter called Trann dome, which is home to a group of human survivors. Dressed in ragged clothing and looking almost zombie-like, these survivors comment about the scarcity of food and relate to the party that none can be found here. Even as the party uses a surviving piece of technology to heal themselves, the game reminds the player that even this machine can’t solve the problem of hunger for those living there. As the party heads north to find a way home, they journey through a ruined city. From the world map, collapsed skyscrapers can be seen, and the area map features familiar components of a modern city, such as mangled stop lights and wrecked cars. Strange mutant creatures hostile to the characters harass them at every turn.

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Figure 7. The ruined city, overworld (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

Figure 8 (Bottom). The Ruined City, local map. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

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Finally, they pass the city and find a second shelter, Arris Dome. Here, the humans are also struggling to get by, as their only food supply is protected by a security system that prevents them from accessing it. Informed that anyone who tries to pass the security never returns, Crono, Marle, and Lucca nevertheless head below, both to try and find the food as well as to discover a way back to their own time. They defeat the robotic security system, only to discover that the food has long spoiled due to the refrigeration failing, with only some seeds still intact. Deeper inside, they finally discover the location of a nearby time gate, and also discover a visual record of the cause of this barren future. Something named Lavos (which appears as a spiky form) emerges from beneath the planet’s crust, and rains down fire onto the entire planet, a world depicted as not far removed from our own contemporary reality, with shining cities and green plains. (indeed, that the year of the apocalypse is 1999 is significant, given that the game released in 19954). Stunned, Marle concludes, “There's only one thing we can do!

We must change history! Just like Crono did when he saved me” (Chrono Trigger 1995).

After she encourages Crono and Lucca, they return to the surface and give the seed to the humans, encouraging them to plant it and keep fighting for survival.

4 Also, see footnote on page 44 regarding millennialism. ​

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Figure 9. The “Day of Lavos” (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ This is the first of several apocalypses and post-apocalypses of Chrono Trigger. ​ ​ Thrown into their distant future, the player is given a glimpse of a world similar to their own, but devastated beyond recovery by a force of nature, the creature Lavos. However, it is fascinating to note how much of the imagery evokes nuclear apocalypse. The bunkers that the remaining humans survive in seem to have some sort of ventilation reminiscent of fallout shelter designs, though the fogginess of the air suggests that these systems have either failed or no longer function as intended, as would be expected several hundred years after the end of civilization. Mutant creatures roam the land, perhaps implicitly suggesting some sort of radioactive contamination. The dimness of the world map suggests a sky darkened by the effects of Lavos’ attack, referencing the impact of nuclear winter. But the narrative leaves open the cause of this apocalypse, as no information is given as to the origin of Lavos or even what it is. Additionally, Chrono ​

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Trigger positions the player, along with the characters the player controls, as being the ​ sole force capable of stopping this catastrophe. Reminded of the prior experience of changing history and saving Marle, the player is encouraged to use their ability to travel through time to stop Lavos’ apocalypse.

Interlude: From Apocalypse Back to the Familiar

Journeying through one more ruined city, the team finds themselves at yet another dome, where the time portal is said to be located. However, given that it is behind a door that they are unable to open, Lucca elects to repair a robot at the dome to find out how to pass. The robot, which the party nicknames Robo, helps the party infiltrate a factory where they can turn on the power to the dome, allowing them to return to their own time and also joins the group trying to prevent the apocalypse.

However, rather than landing back in their own time, the four now emerge at the End of

Time, a place beyond any known time period that serves as a means to jump through various time gates to different eras.

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Figure 10. The End of Time (Chrono Trigger 1995). ​ ​ ​ After the player selects three members of the group to continue the adventures, they return to Crono’s time, though this time they find themselves in the village of the

Mystics, Guardia’s old enemy. Bitter from the last war, many of the mystics attack Crono and his friends on sight. It is here that the party is told by some of the mystics that Lavos was made by the wizard Magus, the Mystic leader in the year 600. Energized by hearing this, the party decides to return to that period so that they can attempt to stop Magus’ creation of Lavos and save the world. After speaking with Frog, their ally from the year

600, they learn that several relics will be needed in order to defeat Magus, and that only if these relics can be found will he assist them. After finding both an amulet called the

Hero’s Medal and half of a legendary sword, Frog allows them to take the other part of the sword in his possession, though he states that no one alive can reforge it. A legendary swordsmith in Crono’s time acknowledges that he could fix the sword if he

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had a dreamstone, which only existed in the distant past. Crono and his allies travel to an era of prehistoric humanity, and the leader of a human tribe named Ayla helps them secure the stone. These allies that Crono makes in the past prove important later on. The sword is reforged, and after Frog reveals his history with Magus (specifically, that his friend was killed by Magus, and that his current form is due to Magus’ curse), the group journeys to Magus’ castle to defeat him. After a climactic battle in the midst of his lair,

Magus is beaten, only to reveal that he is not Lavos’ creator but only attempting to summon Lavos. After this, Magus’ summoning goes awry, and the party is drawn into yet another time gate.

Figure 11. The Battle With Magus (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ This rather convoluted interlude takes a step back to the familiar fantasy narratives common in many role playing games, with the added motivation of stopping

Lavos and preventing the dark future just experienced by the player. At the same time, this interlude serves a practical purpose in reinforcing the time-travel mechanics at

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work within the title. The task of retrieving and reforging a legendary sword for defeating a great evil references many prior fantasy narratives, among them Arthurian legend as well as J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings (1954, 1955). However, Chrono

Trigger places time travel as central to the process of reforging the sword, requiring the player to use the time-travel mechanic to find the swordsmith as well as the materials to fix it. This interlude serves as a bridge to connect to the second apocalypse of Chrono

Trigger.

Figure 12. The Legendary Sword Found. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

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Figure 13. The Masamune Reforged (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ The Second Apocalypse: Apocalypse of a Species

After falling through the time gate at Magus’ Castle, Crono and his team find themselves back in the prehistoric past. This period emphasizes its ancient nature not only with the dinosaur-like creatures encountered in battles, but also oversized plants in the forests as well as the background music having a primal quality due to its heavy percussion and limited melody. The humans in this era resemble stereotypical cavemen, wearing only hides as clothing. Ayla, the human tribe’s leader, carried them to safety in her village after she found them unconscious. Their foe, Magus, is nowhere to be found.

Finding out that Ayla is trying to unite the human tribes to fight against the Reptites, the party agrees to help after the reptites burn one tribe’s forest to the ground.

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Figure 14. The Aftermath of the Reptite’s Attack (Chrono Trigger 1995). ​ ​ ​ They secure the help of some pterodactyls, and ride them to the Reptite’s Castle.

Fighting their way through, they eventually meet Azala, the leader of the Reptites, who was previously responsible for the theft of the party’s time gate key. Fighting Azala and his fire-breathing tyrannosaurus, the party bests him in battle, only to discover that the

Reptites were always doomed—a meteor is about to fall upon them, and that meteor is

Lavos itself. The party barely escapes before the meteor falls into the castle, obliterating it and the surrounding area in a massive explosion, leaving a sizable crater. Entering the crater in the hope of fighting Lavos while it is weaker, the party discovers that it has already burrowed deep underground, but left yet another time portal in its wake. With no other way to fight Lavos, the party enters this new portal: Ayla joining Crono and his friends in their adventure.

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Figure 15. The Crater left by Lavos (Chrono Trigger 1995). ​ ​ ​ The reptites’ end is the focus of the second apocalypse of Chrono Trigger. Like ​ ​ human civilization millions of years later, the Reptites are destroyed by the power of

Lavos, in their case the arrival of Lavos on the planet. Clear nuclear parallels can be seen here, as the impact creates an expanding explosion that obliterates anything nearby. The explosion itself is reminiscent of one depicted at the opening of Akira (1988): a glowing ​ ​ half-sphere that destroys as it expands.

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Figure 16. Explosion caused by Lavos’ Fall. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

•I I .... I ,.. ' .... , ...... ___, .. .. ,..,.,. ...-·. Figure 17. Opening of Akira. (Akira 1988) ​ ​ ​ ​ Even the humans are not spared completely from Lavos’ destruction, as the

Reptite leader Azala notes that “the burned out plains will slowly freeze, ushering in a long, cruel ice age” (Chrono Trigger 1995). Through the speciocidal apocalypse of the ​ ​

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Reptites, the player witnesses alongside Crono and his friends that Lavos is not simply the bringer of a single apocalypse, but of several throughout history. As Azala comments

“we fought bravely to the bitter end” or, in the original Japanese, commenting that “We

Reptites fought fate and die proudly” (Chrono Trigger 1995, author’s translation of ​ ​ Japanese version; Chrono Trigger 1995). This entire sequence is a cinematic sequence, ​ ​ meaning that the player has no control over the ultimate outcome. Thus, the player is left wondering if Crono and his friends can succeed in preventing Lavos’ destruction or if, like the Reptites, they too are in an ultimately futile struggle against apocalypse.

Interlude: Dark Power to Energy Source; Finding a Time Machine

Entering the gate created by Lavos’ fall to earth, Crono and company find themselves in yet another new era, later identified as 12,000 B.C.. Exiting a cave, they find themselves in a frozen wasteland. Upon entering a small building, they find a teleportation device that transports them to an inhabited floating island in the sky.

Unlike the blowing snow and cold below, these islands above the clouds appear to be a virtual paradise in comparison, with green hills and beautiful structures.

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Figure 18. One of the Floating Islands of Zeal. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ The humans there inform Crono that they have entered the kingdom of Zeal, an advanced magic society. However, several conversations with the people there suggest that perhaps not all is well in this kingdom. One young boy with pointed ears even prophesies that one of Crono’s party will die soon. The party also discovers that those without the ability to use magic are condemned to eke out a living in the icy lands below, while the magic users above live in luxury. Also, a mysterious prophet has recently arrived, and is now a trusted advisor of the queen.

Arriving at the palace, it is clear something is terribly wrong, as ominous music plays in the background while exploring the castle and talking to the subjects of Zeal

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Kingdom. Those at the castle speak of a device called the Mammon Machine5, the primary source of power for the kingdom which draws its power from Lavos itself.

Further, whisperings among the people indicate that those opposing the queen’s use of Lavos’ power simply vanish without a trace. The kingdom also intends to move the machine closer to Lavos, deep under the ocean, in order to obtain even more power.

After powering up Marle’s pendant (which is implied to be the same pendant as that of the queen’s daughter) they are able to open the magic door to the throne room.

Confronting the queen, the team is captured, but freed by Schala and Janus, the queen’s daughter and son. Schala begs them to find the guru Melchior, who was banished by the queen to the Mountain of Woe. However, the queen’s prophet catches them mid-escape, and forces the party to return through the time gate. He then seals it behind them, preventing them from returning through the gate.

Figure 19. The Way back to 12,000 B.C. is Sealed (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

5 N​ ames such as the “Mammon Machine” as well as the names of the sages (Melchior, Belthasar, and Gaspar) reference Christian concepts and traditions. Such references suggest an avenue for further research regarding Western religious themes within Chrono Trigger’s apocalypses.

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A number of different issues arise within the kingdom of Zeal. While Lavos seems to be providing power to the kingdom of Zeal, its power seems to have corrupted the queen, based on the comments of her subjects. Additionally, the disparity of magic users and non-magic users results in one portion of humanity being relegated to a position of servants and second-class workers. These two issues, themselves referencing familiar cultural struggles in our own society, inform the player that, in spite of its beauty and advanced magic, Zeal is a dystopian society, not a utopian one. Another key comparison for the story segment is the juxtaposition of Lavos as a power source, when all previous references have portrayed it as only a force of destruction. In doing this, the narrative sets up clear parallels between Zeal’s use of Lavos through the Mammon Machine to generate magical energy, and our own society’s use of nuclear energy as a power source.

This is especially relevant to Japan, given that the only country to experience a nuclear attack during war also derives a significant amount of their power from nuclear power plants (Nuclear Power in Japan 2017).

Remembering that other doors had been sealed by magic like the one in Zeal

Palace, Crono and his allies again journey to the post-apocalyptic future to open several of these doors. Behind one of them, they find a series of memos regarding Lavos left by the guru Belthasar, who was stranded in the future. Balthasar explains that Lavos is a parasite that has fed off the planet for millions of years, slowly killing it. He adds that only by mastering time can he be defeated and leaves behind a time machine for those who find these memos.

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Figure 20. Discovering the Time Machine (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ With this machine, Crono and company can travel to any of the time periods they have visited previously, allowing them to return to 12,000 B.C. and attempt to stop the kingdom of Zeal from using Lavos’ power and defeat the creature.

While this portion of the narrative finally explores the nature of Lavos, its primary function seems to be to provide an opportunity to give the player access to the time machine. The motivation is a mechanical one—create an narrative excuse, beginning with the sealed time portal, as to why the party would be forced to find a time machine. That said, the added information regarding Lavos reinforces the idea that using Lavos as a power source is a dangerous and foolish idea, and that it must be stopped. In addition, this time machine allows for easier use of Chrono Trigger’s time ​ ​ travel mechanic, enabling the player’s actions later on in the game.

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The Third and Fourth Apocalypses: Apocalypse of a Nation, and Apocalypse of Oneself

Returning to 12,000 B.C., the party finds that they are no longer able to enter

Zeal through the teleporter. Finding a settlement with the “earthbound ones” (Zeal’s term for those banished because they lack magic) there they discover a way to climb the

Mountain of Woe, a floating mountain tethered to the ground by a chain. They defeat the guardian at the mountain’s peak, then free Melchior, the guru of life, whom the party met on their own time (but later on in the guru’s own life).

After noting that Melchoir is freed (given that the mountain collapses after his prison is broken), Schala returns to speak with Melchior and Crono but is kidnapped after informing the party that the Mammon Machine is operational in the ocean palace.

Melchior notes that if the machine is activated then the world is doomed, so he sends

Crono and his friends to destroy it with a knife forged from the same material used to make the machine. Following the teleporter Schala activates, the group returns to the palace, and teleports to the ocean palace. After fighting their way to the center of the ocean palace, Crono uses Melchior’s knife to damage the Mammon Machine but it backfires. As a result, Lavos is summoned to the era.

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Figure 21. Crono and His Allies Face Lavos (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ Lavos easily defeats the party. At this point Zeal’s prophet reveals himself to be none other than Magus, who returned to this time to fight Lavos and save Schala, his sister. In other words, the young boy Janus and Magus are the same person. Himself unable to defeat Lavos, the creature prepares to absorb Both Magus and Schala as energy, but is blocked by Crono. In response, the creature attacks Crono with its full power, killing him and vaporizing his body.

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Figures 22, 23, and 24. Crono is Killed by Lavos (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ Schala recovers long enough to use her magic to send the others away, as Lavos begins a rampage that destroys the floating islands of Zeal, causing them to crash into the sea and triggering a massive tidal wave.

The twin apocalypses in these moments of Chrono Trigger resonate with the ​ ​ audience on two different levels. The first apocalypse is the apocalypse (that is, the death) of the main character, Crono. Given that the writers for Chrono Trigger give ​ ​ Crono no lines of dialogue up until this point and centers the entire plot and gameplay around his adventures, the player is eased into making Crono an extension of themselves within the world. While many narratives make a provocative move to kill off a major character, the death of the main character is a rare narrative choice and usually is only done as a final sacrifice at the story’s climax. In Chrono Trigger, not only is ​ ​ Crono killed before the game’s end, but the player controls Crono directly, placing him

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between Schala and Lavos. The player sacrifices themselves, in a sense. Crono is killed before the final battle, and given the gameplay frames Crono as the player’s character, it also, in a sense, narratively kills the player, though we are allowed to continue the narrative with those left behind. This death makes the apocalypse that Lavos brings much more personal.

The second apocalypse, while it can easily be lost in the context of Crono’s death, is the destruction of Zeal. While the other apocalypses of Chrono Trigger are framed as ​ ​ beyond human cause or control, the destruction of Zeal is clearly implied to be the result of the kingdom’s own hubris regarding their use of magic and technology. One interpretation of this (with clear connotations regarding nuclear technology) is an admonishment of humanity to avoid relying upon dangerous and destructive means to advance civilization and society, suggesting that like Zeal, we could lose everything to that power we have come to rely on. This message seems highly prescient given the events involving Fukushima in 2011, and is even more eerie considering that the destruction Lavos brought to the world because of Zeal incorporates imagery of a tsunami.

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Figure 25. Lavos Attacks Zeal (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​

Figure 26. The Tsunami Caused by Zeal’s Fall (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

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The Finale: Reversal of Apocalypse

After a brief interlude fighting the remnants of Zeal, the party, minus their departed friend Crono, secures their time machine, which was modified by a mad scientist to add flight capability. At this point, Chrono Trigger allows for a great deal of ​ ​ freedom in how to progress, providing hints as to a way to revive Crono as well as several other lives to save. Here, the narrative turns to stopping apocalyptic events, and the promise of using time travel to save the world is finally fully realized. First, the party searches for and secure an artifact necessary to stop time and a doppleganger doll of

Crono. After that, the party travels back to the moment Crono was killed and put the doll in his place, saving Crono’s life and allowing him to continue to fight against Lavos.

Figure 27. Chrono is Saved (Chrono Trigger 1995). ​ ​ ​ Meanwhile, a woman’s failed efforts to save a dying forest in the year 600 are bolstered by defeating a monster terrorizing the area, allowing the player to lend this

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woman the mechanical Robo’s labor, resulting in a beautiful forest thriving in Crono’s time. Of course, the largest apocalypse, the destruction of the world by Lavos in 1999, must still be confronted.

Figure 28. Barren Desert Before History Changes (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

Figure 29. Lush Forest After the Party’s Intervention (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​

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The battle with Lavos potentially follows three possible routes. First, the player can use a special time gate at the end of time (which, while not typically possible to complete prior to the end of the story, has been available for some time). Second, the party can fly their time machine directly to 1999, and fly their time machine into Lavos, weakening it. The third option is to enter the Black Omen, a floating version of Zeal’s

Ocean Palace that exists across time due to the reality-warping effects of Lavos.

Figure 31. The Enemy Within the Shell of Lavos. (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ Regardless of the method chosen, the party eventually fights to the very heart of

Lavos (perhaps literally) and defeats him, stopping the apocalypse of 1999 and saving the future. Afterwards, Crono and his companions each return to their own times, save for Magus, who journeys through time to find his missing sister. The world has been saved, and now they can rest and return to a normal life.

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The final act of Chrono Trigger frames the apocalypse as something that can be ​ ​ averted; something that can be defeated. Even Crono’s death, a seemingly irreversible event, is changed through the careful use of time travel. Beginning with a single life, then a forest, and finally the entire world, Crono and his friends stop one apocalyptic event after another. This is accomplished through the player’s action: using the game’s mechanic of time travel, Crono is saved, and other minor apocalypses are averted, before finally flying the time machine to Lavos and defeating it. The game even allows the player to choose the time and place where the player fights Lavos, each with advantages and disadvantages. After witnessing a cycle of apocalypse spanning millions of years, Lavos’ destruction is finally stopped, preserving the future and allowing the characters to live in peace.

Optional Apocalypse: The Apocalypse of Failure

While not technically existing in the “official” narrative, there is one more apocalypse to consider within Chrono Trigger, one only discovered if the player fails to ​ ​ defeat Lavos and their characters die in battle against the creature. Unlike any other game over in Chrono Trigger, where the game simply returns the player to the title ​ ​ screen to reload the save, this game over provides greater detail of the apocalypse of

1999. The player is shown the fire falling from the sky onto the great cities of the future, and watch as the people of the era are helpless to stop the end of the world. Finally, the game shows a view of the entire planet as it burns, followed by the text “but the future refused to change.”

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Figure 32. Ending when the party loses to Lavos (Chrono Trigger 1995) ​ ​ ​ This apocalypse serves to raise the stakes of the final battle with Lavos. While the player is already quite familiar with the destruction following the 1999 apocalypse, witnessing the destruction as occurring immediately following their defeat (even though

Lavos may have been fought centuries prior to the 1999 apocalypse) relays a sense of personal responsibility to the player. It reminds the player that they are the only ones who can prevent the apocalypse, and failing to destroy Lavos means that the futuristic world of 1999 will be destroyed all over again.

Overall Analysis

Considering Chrono Trigger as a whole, three major themes emerge from the ​ ​ analysis. First, Chrono Trigger features a clear cycle of apocalypse, ended only with the ​ ​ climax of the game’s narrative in the destruction of Lavos. Second, the force behind

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apocalypse (Lavos) is portrayed not as a man-made horror, but rather simply a malevolent force of nature, albeit one that mankind must avoid attempting to use for their own ends. Finally, although Chrono Trigger does portray apocalypse as a ​ ​ continuing experience throughout human history, it promotes the idea that apocalypse can and should be prevented when possible, and positions the player as the catalyst for stopping the apocalypse.

Chrono Trigger’s narrative draws inspiration from Buddhist concepts. The ​ Buddhist concept of nirvana revolves around breaking the cycle of death and rebirth, an adaptation of prior Hindu ideas of reincarnation (Leeming 2001). The planet experiences continuing cycles of destruction and rebirth, experienced out of order by the party and the player. First, the player interacts with the “final” apocalypse by exploring the ruins of 2300 A.D.. Then, they witness the “first”apocalypse at 65 million B.C..

Finally, Crono and the player experience the apocalypse directly in the midst of the end of the kingdom of Zeal in 12,000 B.C., both in Crono’s death and in failing to prevent the destruction of Zeal. Each of these apocalypses (save for perhaps the last) is followed by a rebirth-the prehistoric apocalypse is followed by the rise of humankind, culminating in the great kingdom of Zeal, and the fall of Zeal is followed by Guardia Kingdom several thousand years later, which culminates in the advanced future of 1999. Even Crono’s death is followed by a sort of rebirth, as he is rescued at the moment of death from

Lavos’ attack. But Chrono Trigger is not complacent in its treatment of this cycle of ​ ​ apocalypse-it posits that it can and should be ended, bringing peace to the world.

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Chrono Trigger seems to insist that apocalypse can be prevented, given that ​ lessons are learned from previous apocalypses. From the very beginning, the apocalypse of 2300 A.D. is framed as the motivation for Crono and his friends’ adventure, even though for much of the story they can do little to change it. It is only at the very end of the adventure that they, and the player by extension, begin to change the future for the better. Crono is saved from death, and a woman’s efforts to save a forest are successful through the player’s actions. Indeed, these late-game side quests, optional from completing the game, that help empower the player in their ability to change the future.

This culminates in the final battle, which hinges saving the future on the player’s skill and choices in battle, thanks to the unique “game over” ending. Finally, the ultimate realization of changing the future and avoiding the apocalypse is achieved, and the dark future averted. Both the player and the characters that they control are positioned as having the power to reverse the apocalypse. This reframes the very idea of apocalypse not as something inevitable, but rather something to be avoided and prevented.

In spite of initial hints to the contrary, Lavos, the source of apocalypse throughout the narrative of Chrono Trigger, is a natural force of destruction, not a ​ ​ man-made weapon. This is important to note, given its juxtaposition with nuclear power during the Zeal era, as well as the prevalence of nuclear imagery and narratives (nuclear explosions, mutated creatures, and so on). Why is Lavos at times portrayed as a clear allegory for nuclear destruction, yet not given a human origin? Japanese perspectives on the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki may provide some insight. In the essay

“Mono No Aware: Hiroshima in Film,” Richie (2013) wrote one of the first major works

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regarding representations of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in film. He notes regarding the earliest Japanese perspective of the bomb: “The bomb, at first, was thought of as just another catastrophe in a land already overwhelmed by them” (Richie 2013, p. 20).

Rather than blaming the Americans for the attack, many Japanese citizens in the first years following the attack saw the event as beyond human control. Another perspective

Richie notes is reflected in the monster films from Japan, including Gojira (1954). It ​ ​ promotes a message of “never again” while also refusing to attribute responsibility for nuclear destruction to any particular party (Richie 2013).

These two perspectives seem to inform the destructive nature of Lavos. Lavos is not the fault of either Magus or of Zeal, but both of them are, in different ways, provoking further destruction by messing with an unknown power they don’t understand. Again, the parallels to nuclear power and nuclear technology are noted here, as it serves as an evolution from seeing apocalypse has having no human involvement whatsoever. But Chrono Trigger does seem to follow the pattern of earlier ​ ​ monster films-Lavos is portrayed as an embodiment of the force of (nuclear) destruction and it falls to our heroes to stop them. Apocalypse is not seen as man-made, but is still seen as something man can prevent and something man can play in role in hastening.

In terms of preventing the apocalypse, Chrono Trigger slowly enables the player ​ ​ to avert the apocalypse of 1999 A.D., progressively providing the skills and tools by which to do so. Beginning with saving Marle by restoring the past in 600 A.D., the game demonstrates that time travel can change the present and the future. When the player witnesses the Lavos’ apocalypse alongside Crono and his friends, it is clear that time

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travel will be the key to stopping that destruction even if the exact method to do so is unclear. For much of the game, the player’s attempts to prevent apocalypse meet limited success by design. The party’s first battle with Lavos ends with the party beaten, leading to the powerful moment of Crono’s sacrifice, acted out by the player with the in-game proxy for the player in order to save Schala. Because she survives, she is able to save the rest of the party. From this point, the player is finally able to effect change with their actions in the game world, first in smaller, yet significant ways, (most notably reversing

Crono’s death) then finally through facing Lavos a second time and defeating it, preventing the apocalypse and bringing peace to the world.

Thus, Chrono Trigger’s take on the apocalypse can be summed up in these three ​ ​ points: apocalypse is part of a cycle of destruction and reconstruction, apocalypse is primarily due to natural forces rather than human ones (though mankind can contribute to such apocalypse) and the apocalypse is something that can and should be averted by human action. This framing of apocalypse and preventing apocalypse through the actions available to the player as well as the overall narrative and visuals of Chrono ​ Trigger stands in stark contrast to the version of apocalypse presented in Fallout. ​ ​ ​

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Fallout: War Never Changes ​ The greatest challenge of analyzing a title such as Fallout is that, like many ​ ​ western role playing video games, the game provides much greater freedom and flexibility in terms of player choice shaping and changing the narrative. Players can barter, scavenge, or even kill to find the resources needed for survival in Fallout’s post- ​ ​ nuclear wasteland. Because of this, analysis of this game will inevitably shaped by the ethical choices made within the game by the player (in this case, this thesis’ author).

Therefore, the specific approach of playing Fallout for this analysis must be explained ​ ​ prior to detailed analysis. The player character was played as someone who considered violence a last resort, particularly against other intelligent life, but still willing to kill if absolutely necessary.

Again, like with Chrono Trigger, a brief detour to define conventions of the genre ​ ​ will prove helpful, both to reinforce similarities between the two titles while also delineating key differences. Like Chrono Trigger, Fallout also utilizes a gameplay ​ ​ system of a world map and area maps to increase the game’s sense of scale. However,

Fallout’s map is even more zoomed out and abstracted, appearing as a topographical ​ map with a simple “X” marking the player character’s current location. In area maps, character’s facial features are limited unless the player talks directly to them, and then only if they are one of the major characters of the plot. More attention is given to the post-apocalyptic environments. The turn-based battle system, while similar at its core to

Chrono Trigger, has an additional layer of tactical depth added due to the importance of ​ character position. Characters and enemies are unable to shoot at or attack someone

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behind a wall, and long-range weapons, such as guns, have reduced accuracy the further the user is from their target. Another difference within this system is that, unlike

Chrono Trigger, which assigns all characters specific stats, Fallout allows the player to ​ ​ ​ customize the main character’s statistics and abilities at the start of the game. The last key difference is in control. Fallout was originally released on PC, so the default controls ​ ​ are designed to use a standard keyboard and mouse.

Fallout wastes no time before informing that player that the game is about ​ apocalypse. Indeed, even the title can be considered a dead giveaway! Upon starting the game, an opening cinematic sequence centers on a television showing news reports about American annexation of Canada along side advertisements for futuristic appliances, automobiles, and war bonds. The camera dollies out and pans to reveal the

TV sitting in the midst of a ruined living room, its left wall torn away to reveal a destroyed, bombed-out city.

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Figure 33. The Ruins of Fallout’s Post Apocalypse (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ A narrator begins explaining the game’s setting with the line “War. War never changes.” After reminding the player of mankind’s history of war, (paired with imagery of World War II) the narrator explains that resource shortages led to all-out nuclear war in 2077, and it is revealed that humanity managed to survive in large underground shelters known as vaults. It is here, within one of these vaults, where the main character

(afterward referred to as the Vault Dweller) was born, and where the story starts. After the player makes a character to their liking, the game begins.

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Figure 34. The Vault Door protecting its inhabitants (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ This opening cinematic utilizes a variety of images and video, combining existing images of war with images created for the game. Alongside this, the narration recounts the struggles for resources at the core of many major conflicts throughout human history, connecting those conflicts to the one portrayed as bringing Fallout’s nuclear ​ ​ apocalypse. From the outset, Fallout establishes its apocalypse as not only the result of ​ ​ human action, but the culmination of trends of human warfare tracing back thousands of years. Fallout assumes that mankind causes the apocalypse as the logical escalation of ​ ​ a long, bloody entanglement with warfare and the struggle for resources.

The Story Begins: A Simple Problem of Parts

Perhaps appropriately, given the game’s opening, the initial motivation for the player’s character to begin their quest stems from a lack of resources, specifically the most important human resource: water. The vault the Vault Dweller lives in is running

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out of water due to their purification system breaking down. Lacking the necessary part to repair it and facing a deadline of 150 days before the vault’s reserves run out, the vault overseer sends the Vault Dweller out of the vault to find a replacement water chip to repair the system and save everyone in the vault, with only a hint regarding one nearby vault that may have the necessary part. Leaving the vault, the Vault Dweller encounters his first real threat-mutated oversized rodents in the cave outside the vault door, before heading out into the post-apocalyptic wasteland.

Upon heading for the vault, the Vault Dweller soon stumbles on a settlement of survivors called Shady Sands. This settlement is suffering from several significant threats, including attacks by mutated radioactive scorpions, and the player can choose to help them. Helping the settlement will earn the goodwill of the settlers. The settlement leader Aradesh also relays the location of the nearby settlement of Junktown to the south.

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Figure 35. The Entrance to the Settlement of Shady Sands (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ It is here in the village that a second potential party member can also be found, a drifter named Ian who will join the Vault Dweller in exchange for allowing him some of the spoils of your exploration. Heading east, will lead to the other vault, long abandoned and now infested with irradiated creatures. However, without a rope, the Vault Dweller is unable to climb down to the lower levels. Returning to Shady Sands for rope, the Vault

Dweller discovers that Tandi, the settlement leader’s daughter, has been kidnapped by local raiders. After either tense negotiation or a fierce battle (the author’s playthrough followed the former), Tandi can be rescued, though this still leaves the Vault Dweller in need of rope. An honest character will need to find shops in order to buy the necessary supplies, so next the adventure carries them south to Junktown.

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The opening moments of the game proper provide a sense of the world after apocalypse. The water shortage connects back to Fallout’s commentary on warfare for ​ ​ resources which, depending on whether the player chooses violent or peaceful means to achieve their ends, can be either seen as a justification for those violent methods or an encouragement to avoid following that path. Shady Sands, while peaceful, is a simple agrarian community, evidenced by the rows of corn and mutated cattle they care for.

Threats of violence from both mutated creatures as well as opportunistic tribes of raiders mean that the settlement inhabitants face a bleak existence with the risk of death a constant one. The wasteland is not a friendly place, and your character’s quest a long one.

First Visit to Junktown; Back to the Abandoned Vault

Arriving in Junktown, the player and their Vault Dweller witness the struggle between law and lawlessness of the post-nuclear wasteland. Junktown’s name is apt, given that much of the town is built from scraps, with the city’s wall reinforced by the derelict remnants of automobiles. The Vault Dweller is greeted by a heavily armed, armored guard, who cautions the Vault Dweller to avoid making trouble. However, trouble quickly finds them, as they get caught in the middle of a firefight shortly after entering Junktown’s general store when a man attempts to kill the shop owner. There is more going on here, but the player has no obligation to find out what. After returning to the abandoned Vault and reaching the bottom, they discover that damage to the vault has destroyed anything useful as far as the water filtration is concerned, making the trip a bust.

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Figure 36. Junktown Entrance (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ Asking the drifter Ian will reveal the location of a larger settlement further south,

The Hub. The Hub appears to be a ruined city with many run-down, but still useable buildings. Here, a variety of trading companies operate, and many shops are available.

There, a water merchant provides the Vault Dweller with important information-given that they do not trade with the caravan, the merchant assumes that they must have their own supply, suggesting that they may have a water chip. Additionally, the merchants can be hired to provide additional water for a time. With the location of Necropolis in hand and additional water secured for the vault, the Vault Dweller continues their search for the water chip.

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Figure 37. One crossroads in The Hub (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ The sudden violence in Junktown suggests that law and order is difficult to maintain in the midst of this post-apocalyptic world. Coupled with the heavy presence of security for many traders in The Hub, it reinforces the ruthlessness of the wasteland and humanity’s continued preference for resolving disagreements with violence. The post-apocalyptic setting is further reinforced by the appearance of Junktown and The

Hub, with the former being cobbled together from junk and the latter operating out of ruined city buildings. Additionally, the scarcity of as simple an item as rope lengthens the Vault Dweller’s quest significantly, requiring them to travel to a larger settlement to find a place to purchase the item. This reinforces the post-apocalyptic setting, and suggests that civilization has not recovered from the great nuclear apocalypse of 2077.

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End of the first Arc-Necropolis: A Series of Moral Dilemmas

Upon arriving in Necropolis, the player encounters their first ghouls-humans horribly mutated by radiation. These first ghouls have been altered to the point that they no longer are able to interact with others, and attack the Vault Dweller on sight. After making it further into the city, using the sewers to bypass streets blocked by debris, the

Vault Dweller encounters a group of ghouls in an old, decrepit church. The ghoul leader,

Set, requests for you to kill a group of super mutants—another type of mutated human—who have taken over the ghoul’s water shed, offering information in exchange for help. Attempting to negotiate with these super mutants usually ends in failure, leading to their attacking the Vault Dweller. After a difficult battle, the player will discover that deep underground is another vault, with the water chip inside. The player can choose to either take the chip and do nothing, leaving the ghouls to die of dehydration, or if their repair skill is high enough, repair the ghoul’s water pump to provide an alternate source of water.

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Figure 38. Set, the Leader of the Ghouls (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ The time in Necropolis is where Fallout first begins to throw heavy amounts of ​ ​ moral ambiguity at the player. Forced to kill formerly human ghouls who had lost their minds, along with killing intelligent super mutants in order to pass by and secure the water chip, meant that even the relatively peaceful character in the author’s playthrough was unable to avoid killing. Furthermore, a less skilled character might be forced to leave the ghouls without water, saving their vault but condemning an entire city to death instead. Fallout actively prompts the player to make these hard moral choices, often ​ ​ providing violence as an easy way out while also providing a peaceful solution only if the character has the right skills and the player makes the right choices.

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One Story Ends, Another Begins: The Super Mutant Threat

Upon returning to the vault, the overseer is grateful for the Vault Dweller’s help, but adds that a new threat to the vault has been found. The vault’s reports indicate that these “super mutants” are not a natural occurrence, and that they seem to be coming from somewhere. The overseer sends you back out into the wastes to find the source of these mutants and eliminate it. Returning to Junktown, the Vault Dweller speaks with

Gizmo, the owner of a casino in the settlement, who offers you a job assassinating

Killian, the owner of the general store. Alternatively, the player can choose to betray

Gizmo and report him to the town guard once finding the necessary evidence, which leads to Gizmo dying when he resists arrest.

Figure 39. Gizmo Resisting Arrest (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​

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The player’s return to the vault, which is the culmination of their initial quest to save the Vault Dweller’s home, becomes not a triumphant return, but simply a marker on a much longer path. Now the top scout for the vault, the overseer conscripts the Vault

Dweller (and by extension, the player) on another quest. This time, the quest clearly one of violence: destroy the source of the mutants, which are seen as a threat to the vault as well as the rest of the wasteland. In this, Fallout further reinforces the bleak realities of ​ ​ its post-apocalypse. The Vault Dweller is not even given a moment’s pause but is expected to once again face the struggle for survival outside the vault. The Vault Dweller and the player, though still allowed a degree of freedom, now have been assigned to a straightforward “kill or be killed” mission on behalf of the vault. Additionally, many outcomes of other interactions, such as those with Gizmo in Junktown, have no non-violent outcome, with either Killian’s murder or Gizmo’s resisting arrest leading to his death. In this shift, Fallout seems to imply that in its post-apocalypse, violence is not ​ ​ only common, but necessary for human survival, reestablishing its opening line- “War.

War never changes.”

Buildup: Gathering Information

After some exploration, the player will find a ghoul in The Hub, who reveals that he was once a part of an expedition to find the source of the super mutants, and while his group was unable to destroy it due to fierce resistance, they traced the source to an old military base in the west. Based on this, it quickly becomes clear that ending the mutant threat will require some serious firepower. A singer in a bar tells the Vault

Dweller about the Gun Runners, purveyors of advanced weapons, as well as a group that

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calls themselves the Brotherhood of Steel. The player may choose to visit the Gun

Runners in their headquarters in the settlement of Boneyard (within the ruins of Los

Angeles) to purchase better guns from them. Nearby, lies the Followers of the

Apocalypse, who study pre-war history to try and avert future disaster. They inform the player that a group called the Children of the Cathedral are not what they appear, and imply that they have sinister plans for the wasteland. Traveling south to the group’s headquarters, the Cathedral (a large church in reasonable shape) reveals very little information about the group, other than add to the sense that they are not what they appear, and are tied to the super mutant threat, with both being under control of someone called the “Master.” Having established the threats from the military base in the west as well as the Cathedral in the south, the player can secure additional equipment and information from other sources.

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Figure 40. The Cathedral (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ In building up these threats, the game leads the player to seek out stronger armaments and find allies. Having established that the wasteland is a dangerous place, and the source of the super mutants even more dangerous, the Vault Dweller is seemingly left with little choice but to arm themselves to protect their vault. This escalation continues to follow a trend of Fallout’s narrative in support of the idea that ​ ​ fighting and war are central to human nature. This starts a trend that will continue into the climax of the narrative.

Climax: Ending the Threat

Traveling to the Brotherhood of Steel, The Vault Dweller is told that they must secure a disk left behind from an expeditionary force to The Glow, a radioactive area that originally housed a military research facility. Upon securing the disk from the base

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using methods to mitigate the effects of The Glow’s radiation, the Vault Dweller is admitted to the Brotherhood of Steel. The Brotherhood of Steel, descended from U.S. soldiers from a nearby military base, continue to seek military technology to protect their underground base from attack.

Figure 41. The Brotherhood Bunker Interior (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ Having heard the rumors of the super mutants, the Brotherhood of Steel ask the

Vault Dweller to scout out the base and report back, promising help if the player finds proof of the base’s existence. Additionally, they provide the player access to superior armor and weapons unavailable outside the Brotherhood. After finding the base, guarded by super mutants, the Vault Dweller returns to the Brotherhood, reporting on the base and opening up the possibility to enlist their help in assaulting it.

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At this point, Fallout allows two main options for handling the final ​ ​ confrontation with the super mutants. The first, more obvious method is to assault the base, then break into the Cathedral (which also leads to major fighting). Alternatively, if the Vault Dweller can obtain a disguise as a member of the Children of the Cathedral, they are able to infiltrate both locations without fighting the super mutants or the other children.

Figure 42. The Vault Dweller disguised in Children of the Cathedral Robes ​ (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ The Vault Dweller discovers that the Master is attempting to revive civilization by capturing unirradiated humans and transforming them into super mutants, using a virus discovered at the military base which now serves as the super mutant. However, regardless of the method used to reach the center of the base and infiltrate the Cathedral

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(with leads to yet another underground vault), both the base as well as the the vault along with the church above it are obliterated by either the player’s use of the facilities’ self-destruct or, in one possible outcome, the villainous Master’s own decision to destroy himself and his followers, should the Vault Dweller prove persuasive.

Figure 43. The Cathedral moments before Destruction (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​

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Figure 44. The Military Base Destroyed (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​ This destructive climax of Fallout cements the necessity of conflict and ​ ​ destructive actions in the midst of its post-nuclear apocalypse. The structure of the narrative creates a sense that violent solution will be the only means to end the super mutant threat. Additionally, gameplay enables the player to outfit their team to mount attacks on both the Cathedral and the super mutant-controlled military base, as equipment provided by the Brotherhood of Steel makes an violent solution more viable.

Non-violent options, while still available, are much less obvious and require a significant amount of subterfuge and creative thinking. However, even a non-violent approach to stopping the super-mutant threat results in the player’s choices leading to the deaths of many people alongside the super mutants, not all of which are complicit in the Master’s

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 101 plot. In spite of the initial level of choice Fallout provides, its conclusion is always a ​ ​ violent one.

Endgame: Returning Home

After successfully destroying both the Base and the Cathedral, the game reveals via a cinematic sequence the various outcomes in the communities the Vault Dweller visited, explaining how these places were impacted by the player’s choices. Following this, the game transports the Vault Dweller back to the vault. After thanking the Vault

Dweller, the overseer regretfully banishes him from the vault, stating that his continued presence will lead to others wanting to leave the vault. The game concludes with a brief cinematic sequence of the Vault Dweller walking back out into the wasteland, before transitioning to the credits.

Figure 45. The Vault Dweller Exiled to the Wastes (Fallout 1997). ​ ​ ​

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Overall Analysis

Fallout’s post-apocalypse is a grim setting in which the violence of humanity both ​ destroyed the world and continues to shape the remnants of society that has survived the destruction. Fallout’s catchphrase, “War never changes,” guides the game’s ​ ​ ​ ​ narrative and gameplay throughout with the added implicit statement that war is also inevitable. Though much of the game presents a great degree of player freedom, even allowing for the possibility that non-violent solutions are possible in the wasteland, the ultimate outcome for the Vault Dweller is a path of violence, even if that violence is for the good of their home and the rest of the wasteland. Raider attacks on settlements, trade convoys, and the Vault Dweller themselves reinforce Fallout’s premise of humanity’s continued struggle for resources, while at the same time businessmen within settlements jockey for position and control. As the Vault Dweller becomes more embroiled in the conflict with the super mutants, revelation of the threat of these mutants alongside the options provided for arming the Vault Dweller for battle continue to pave the road for a violent outcome, while a non-combat solution becomes less obvious. Even if the player avoids violence, their choices will inevitably lead to violent ends. In the playthrough for this study, an attempt to steal the robes necessary for infiltrating the Cathedral and the military base led to a violent confrontation where multiple people were killed, some of which were innocent bystanders at the Children of the Cathedral’s branch in the Hub. Even if the efforts of the player manage to avoid violence, the final outcome will still be both bases of operation for the super mutants

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 103 and the Children of the Cathedral exploding in spectacular fashion, leading to dozens of deaths.

Additionally, in spite of the game being set nearly a century after Fallout’s ​ apocalypse of 2077, few signs of recovery from apocalypse are seen. Cities still lie in ruins, with communities either utilizing what buildings are still accessible to live in, or cobbling together new structures from junk and debris. While some trade has resumed, these traders are prone to attack. The only real surviving portions of pre-war culture can be seen in what are traditionally considered vices, with brothels, casinos, and instances of substance abuse maintaining a significant presence in several wasteland settlements.

Only two glimmers of civilization’s revival in the wasteland can be found within Fallout. ​ ​ The first lies in the continuing efforts by the Followers of the Apocalypse to learn as much as possible to avert another apocalypse like what befell the world. The second, depending on player choice, is a hint of a larger, organized government in the ending cinematic—the New California Republic—founded by Aradesh and Tandi in Shady

Sands. Fallout’s apocalypse is not one that civilization has come back from, and only ​ ​ hints at the possibility that progress might be made after the end of its narrative.

Interestingly, Fallout spends very little of its time depicting its apocalypse, ​ ​ instead focusing most of its time in the post-apocalypse one hundred years later. The degree to which the apocalypse itself is depicted is in the intro, where it is described as an escalation over dwindling oil and uranium resources which led to a 2 hour civilization destroying nuclear war. Visually, the only representation of apocalypse is a single image of a mushroom cloud, and another image of a leveled city. This may serve to direct the

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 104 player’s focus the post apocalypse, or it may have been due to a lack of cultural background (media or otherwise) with such an apocalypse.

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Comparison, Conclusions, and Limitations

While both titles center their narratives on apocalyptic events, Chrono Trigger ​ and Fallout frame the apocalypse as well as the individual’s role in the midst of such ​ ​ apocalyptic or post-apocalyptic settings very differently. Fallout frames its apocalypse as ​ ​ a symptom of an endless, inescapable human tendency for war and violence and in the end forces the player to follow that same path for their own survival. Chrono Trigger’s ​ ​ multiple apocalypses, caused not by man but by a force beyond man or even nature, become part of a continuing cycle of destruction and rebirth, finally broken at the game’s climax. Four main differences can be outlined between these two titles: the cause of the apocalypse, the depiction of the apocalypse, the motivations of the apocalypse, and the implied inevitability of apocalypse. These differences connect well with established understandings of previous nuclear depictions and cultural differences in

Japan and the United States.

Cause of the Apocalypse

For Chrono Trigger, the apocalypse is caused by Lavos, a planetary parasite from ​ ​ space that warps time. Many of its apocalyptic actions feature clear nuclear parallels, from the explosions caused by its attacks as well as the mutated creatures that arise following the apocalypse of 1999. However, unlike Godzilla, which according to Brothers

(2011) was the threat of nuclear destruction made monstrous flesh, Lavos is never suggested to be atomic or nuclear in nature, and a number of apocalypses it causes utilize images and understanding of non-nuclear disasters. Rather, like the Namazu

Smits (2006) discusses, Lavos is a representation of destruction. However, Lavos is not

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 106 simply a symbol of one apocalyptic event but rather the embodiment of apocalypse throughout history, with his presence across time reinforcing the ever-present threat of destruction.

These is one notable exception to Lavos’ representation of apocalypse as a whole, which may suggest a nuclear connection. The use of Lavos as a power source, one that ultimately leads to the destruction of the civilization that tried to harness its power, draws an obvious parallel to the increasing use of nuclear power in the late 20th century. Chrono Trigger was released in Japan less than a decade after the Chernobyl ​ ​ disaster, and Japan was and is known for embracing nuclear power as a solution for their energy needs. This cautionary narrative about trying to harness the power of destruction seems almost prophetic, given the aftermath of the incident at the

Fukushima Daiichi nuclear plant in 2011.

Other than this single exception, however, the destruction Lavos brings is without human cause. For Chrono Trigger, apocalypse does not have a culprit, at least not from ​ ​ a person or a nation. This resembles a Japanese attitude observed by Richie in the 1950s regarding the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: seeing them “not as an atrocity but a tragedy” (2013, p. 22) . According to Chrono Trigger, the apocalypse is an ​ ​ event that happens, not a crime committed by humanity either in part or as a whole.

In contrast, Fallout assumes from its outset that humanity is not only the cause ​ ​ of the apocalypse but that the apocalypse is the natural outcome of their warlike nature.

Referencing the conquests of Rome, Spain, and Nazi Germany (an intriguing

Eurocentric selection that may reflect a predominant American perspective on human

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 107 history), Fallout’s opening narrative suggests that a continued human struggle for ​ ​ resources led to the destruction of civilization. While mentioning multiple nations in its introduction, it places no blame as to who fired the first shot. Of course, in the aftermath of nuclear destruction, is such a question relevant?

Fallout’s story suggests that humanity’s struggle for resources has continued ​ beyond the end of civilization, as the survivors vie for control of water, weapons, and territory in the ruins of California. Fallout fully embraces and preaches the ​ ​ self-destructive version of secular apocalypse Ostwalt (1998) observed in films such as

Waterworld (1995) and 12 Monkeys (1995). Fallout’s narrative and gameplay suggests ​ ​ ​ that humanity is its own worst enemy, and given our current path, we will destroy ourselves and continue the spiral of violence and war even after that self-destruction.

There are also religious references within the narrative of Fallout, though the ​ ​ game features no direct reference to any Biblical apocalypse. We see several pseudo-religious organizations within the game, including the malevolent Church of the

Cathedral and, in contrast, the peace-promoting Followers of the Apocalypse. However, both of these organizations within the game promote secular post-apocalyptic ideologies utilizing a veneer of religious symbolism and practice. The Children of the Apocalypse seek to bring a post-human utopia, while the Followers of the Apocalypse hope to remind humanity of their history to avoid further apocalyptic events.

Fallout’s apocalypse is a secular, human-caused apocalypse, which blames no ​ particular party for the world’s destruction. Rather, it blames humanity’s very nature for the nuclear destruction of civilization, and further reinforces that nature as continuing

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 108 the struggle for resources in the post-apocalypse. Chrono Trigger avoids blaming ​ ​ humanity for its apocalypse, instead presenting Lavos as a force of destruction beyond human control (even when humans try to do so). Though both games feature fighting and violence (sometimes against other people), only Fallout connects that violence back ​ ​ to its apocalyptic narrative, whereas Chrono Trigger’s violence is simply a part of that ​ ​ world as well as included because it is a convention of the role playing game genre.

Depiction of the Apocalypse

Like other apocalyptic media from the United States and Japan, these two titles differ greatly in their portrayals of their respective apocalypse. While some of this is likely due to differences in story style, the difference in detail parallels ofter kinds of apocalyptic work. These two titles also utilize gameplay differently in the player’s interactions with the title’s apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic settings.

For Chrono Trigger, apocalypse is a cyclical event occurring repeatedly ​ ​ throughout history. Beginning with Lavos’ arrival in 65 million B.C., repeating in 12,000

B.C., and recurring in 1999 A.D., Chrono Trigger establishes a cycle of destruction ​ ​ throughout the game world’s history. Each apocalypse is somewhat unique, with the first resembling a meteor impact, the second featuring both fiery destruction and a massive tsunami, and the final apocalypse revolving around Lavos’ raining “fire from the heavens” (Chrono Trigger 1995). With the exception of the apocalypse of 1999 A.D. the ​ ​ player interacts with the world immediately before, during, and after each apocalypse.

However, these apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic environments have very little impact on the gameplay of Chrono Trigger. Items and shops selling weapons and armor ​ ​

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 109 are just as easy to find post-apocalypse as they are before, and there are virtually no statistical disadvantages of fighting in the post-apocalypse. Most of the indications of apocalyptic scarcity or struggles is communicated through the conversations between

Crono and his friends and the other characters they encounter. The only interactive apocalyptic event within the game concerns the death of Crono, which prompts an effort to attempt to save him and change history. Other than that single exception, however, the apocalypse is seen and heard, but not truly played, in Chrono Trigger. ​ Both by virtue of its setting and slightly different genre, Fallout features only one ​ ​ apocalypse-a nuclear war in 2077 A.D.. Very little is shown of the apocalypse itself. The opening features the only depiction of anything resembling the apocalypse, providing a brief narrative coupled with imagery of bombed out WWII cities, alongside images of the Trinity device (the first atomic bomb) and the mushroom cloud its detonation created. Fallout leaves the player to imagine, rather than witness, the nuclear ​ ​ apocalypse that predated the events of the game.

However, Fallout’s post apocalyptic setting means that almost the entire ​ ​ remainder of the game provides a sense of the world after 2077. The grim struggle of this world manifests in both the aesthetic as well as the interactive elements of the game. Settlements are built not of new materials but scraps, or occasionally founded in ruined, crumbling buildings. The mutated creatures of Fallout’s wasteland can quickly ​ ​ overwhelm an unprepared player, while even simple resources such as ammo and weapons are difficult to come by outside of major trading centers. Even such a simple

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 110 commodity as rope proves difficult to find early on. While Fallout avoids detailing its ​ ​ apocalypse, it shows its version of post-apocalypse in great detail.

Chrono Trigger and Fallout present their apocalypses from vastly differing ​ ​ ​ perspectives. Chrono Trigger provides a setting in which the player experiences its ​ ​ apocalypses in great detail primarily through non-interactive devices, including the cinematic sequences of destruction and the text responses of characters within the game. Fallout does little to clearly illustrate the apocalypse within the game but places ​ ​ the player in the midst of the post-apocalypse that follows with interactive and non-interactive devices. The approaches of these two titles mirrors earlier apocalyptic work from the two respective cultures. Chrono Trigger, like in works such as Black Rain ​ ​ ​ (1989) and Barefoot Gen (1983), prompts the player to consider the suffering of those ​ ​ who have experienced apocalypse after illustrating that apocalypse visually in vivid detail. But these works function as a mirror into the apocalypse, rather than a doorway.

Fallout embraces the potential of interactivity to place the player within the ​ post-apocalypse, following in the footsteps of works such as Special Bulletin (1983) ​ ​ which presented apocalypse as a docudrama-styled newscast. However, it is important to note that differences in the level of interactivity may simply be an artifact of differing genre norms in Japanese and American role playing video games, rather than a specific difference in the treatment of apocalypse in these two games.

Motivations of the Apocalypse

Why and how do Fallout and Chrono Trigger utilize the device of apocalypse in ​ ​ ​ ​ their respective works? For Fallout, it is clear that the post-apocalypse is chosen ​ ​

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 111 specifically as a setting for the title. In a video interview, Fallout producer Tim Cain ​ ​ admitted that the developers were directed to avoid using a typical fantasy setting, in order to avoid competing with the studio’s ongoing Dungeons and Dragons licensed ​ ​ video game series and this led to the selection of a post-apocalyptic setting (Barton

2010). Thus, based on both the game’s content as well as the author’s word, the apocalypse in Fallout justifies the world in which the game is set. However, Fallout ​ ​ ​ presents this idea using existing images of World War II to tie the player’s understanding of the apocalypse to existing understandings of war and conflict. Further,

Cain also adds that the game played on existing fears of nuclear war from the cold war and utilized its setting to undertake social commentary (Barton 2010). While the setting may have been chosen initially for practical reasons, Fallout utilizes the apocalypse both ​ ​ to relate back to our own world (a realistic motivation) as well as to justify the narrative of the game (a constitutional motivation).

Chrono Trigger utilizes the apocalypse not to justify setting, but as the event that ​ drives Crono’s quest. The game’s first apocalypse portrayed in the narrative prompts

Crono and his allies (and the player that controls them) to travel through time to stop it, while the later apocalypses remind the player of the destructive nature of Lavos.

Additionally, these apocalypse establish a repeating a cycle of apocalypse that the player must break by defeating Lavos at the game’s climax. In addition to the narrative, these apocalypses also reference both nuclear and non-nuclear destruction experienced by

Japan, as well as frame a veiled commentary about utilizing nuclear power to advance

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 112 civilization. Like Fallout, Chrono Trigger utilizes the apocalypse for both constitutional ​ ​ and realistic motivations, though in different ways.

Inevitability of the Apocalypse

Lastly, it is important to explore the greatest difference between Fallout and ​ ​ Chrono Trigger’s apocalypses: Are they inevitable? For Fallout, the answer is a regretful ​ ​ ​ yes. The opening cinematic establishes that mankind’s continued involvement in war and conflict culminated in apocalyptic atomic destruction and suggests no alternative path that mankind could have followed in its narrative. In addition, the actions of the player and the character they control ultimately continue this cycle of conflict even after the nuclear apocalypse. Fallout’s grim post-apocalypse suggests that the only way ​ ​ apocalypse could have been prevented in its world would be if humans had changed their tendency for war. However, in spite of an illusion of choice providing the player opportunities to try and avoid violent outcomes, the game’s narrative forces an ending where the player ultimately continues that trend. Thus, Fallout suggests that ending ​ ​ humanity’s cycle of violence might prove difficult, if not impossible.

Chrono Trigger, having first established apocalypse as a force beyond nature, ​ posits that the apocalypse should be confronted, and that its apocalyptic cycle can (and in the game’s climax, is) broken. Having first established the capability of time travel being able to change history through the rescue of Marle, Chrono Trigger then leads the ​ ​ player on a time-hopping adventure narrative to save the world from Lavos. Along the way, the player (alongside Crono and the other player controlled characters) witnesses the cycle of apocalypse that Lavos brings to the world throughout its history, reinforcing

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 113 the need to destroy Lavos and end that cycle. Chrono Trigger also allows the player to ​ ​ avert apocalypse and change the future through their actions, enabling time travel as a tool to change the future. The climactic battle sees Chrono and his allies defeat Lavos, stopping the apocalypse of 1999 A.D. and ending Lavos’ apocalyptic cycle.

While these two titles differ in their assertion about the inevitability of the apocalypse, they both caution humanity about the risk of toying with apocalyptic power.

Fallout suggests that nuclear power gave humans the ability to destroy their civilization, ​ while Chrono Trigger showcases the kingdom of Zeal as an example of the ​ ​ consequences of abusing apocalyptic power for advancing society. According to both games, apocalyptic power is something humanity should not pursue, as it will end up destroying us. However, Fallout is more pessimistic than Chrono Trigger as to the ​ ​ ​ ​ potential to reverse the trends leading to apocalypse. Indeed, while Fallout provides the ​ ​ player a great deal of freedom of action throughout, it allows no alternative to continuing the cycle of war and violence the narrative established as the cause of the

2077 apocalypse. In contrast, Chrono Trigger uses a linear narrative to slowly empower ​ ​ the player to change the game world in positive ways, leading to its primary apocalypse being averted.

Limitations and Final Thoughts

By design, this thesis undertook only a single, beginning-to-end playthrough of the title’s primary storyline and a number of additional sidequest plots, to emulate the typical player experience on an initial playthrough. While this study undertook a comprehensive playthrough of both video game titles, the nature of video games,

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 114 particularly these two titles, may warrant additional playthroughs for additional analysis. Chrono Trigger is famous for providing multiple endings on subsequent ​ ​ playthroughs, allowing for differing endings depending on when within the narrative

Lavos is defeated by the player. However, the ending in this analysis is the ending most players reach on their initial playthrough. While the final outcome of Fallout is more or ​ ​ less the same regardless of player choices, many individual encounters differ greatly depending on the play style of the player and the abilities chosen for the Vault Dweller.

Multiple playthroughs might prove useful for thorough analysis of video games, particularly those with multiple endings.

Also, this thesis acknowledges that Japan’s and the United States reactions to the atomic bomb are not culturally monolithic experiences, and that many different responses have manifested in the decades since the destruction of Hiroshima and

Nagasaki. In Japan, many responses to the attacks are heavily intertwined with the complex discourse regarding the consequences of World War II-era Japanese nationalism, which at times may gloss over Japanese responsibility for the war (Kal

2008, Allen & Sakamoto 2013, Hammond 1995). Discourse about American use and stockpile of nuclear weapons has shifted in the decades since World War II and remains a topic of debate (Moore 2005, CNN Poll: Public Divided 2010, Stokes 2015). This thesis does not claim to represent the only or the ideal responses to Hiroshima and Nagasaki, only to draw connections between themes of nuclear apocalypse in other Japanese and

American media to ones observed in Chrono Trigger and Fallout. ​ ​ ​ ​

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 115

Apocalyptic events and the consequences are a challenging subject to represent in any media form. Fallout and Chrono Trigger each present the apocalypse through the ​ ​ ​ ​ various elements of the games, both interactive and noninteractive. Fallout adapts the ​ ​ model of a secular apocalypse, representing its nuclear apocalypse as the inevitable end of humanity’s current course. It further augments this narrative by leading the player through the post- apocalyptic wasteland on a track that, in spite of any efforts to the contrary, end in the player continuing the same destructive process that caused the apocalypse in the first place. Chrono Trigger utilizes a variety of apocalypses ​ ​ reminiscent of both nuclear and non-nuclear causes, and centers its narrative on Lavos, a creature that embodies the power of destruction. Setting up apocalypse as a cyclic event happening time and again throughout history, it empowers the player to take control of Chrono and his allies to defeat Lavos and end that cycle, bringing peace and harmony in an almost buddhist-inspired narrative. At the same time, the use of Lavos as a power source becomes an allegory for the dangers of nuclear power, which has even greater significance given the 2011 accident at the Fukushima Daiichi Power Plant.

Video games, like other media, can not only represent themes to players, but also allows a player to interact with those themes and experience in-game consequences. Fallout ​ and Chrono Trigger each achieve this in different ways, shaped by the different ​ ​ understandings of apocalypse that the two games embrace. This thesis also establishes a neoformalism-based theoretical model for considering aesthetic, interactive, and thematic aspects of a video game while also acknowledging the significance of cultural differences in these titles. Looking at these two titles, each provide an interactive

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 116 experience with apocalypse which reflects the cultures that they originated from, and ask hard, honest questions about how humanity makes sense of the apocalypse.

APOCALYPSE IN FALLOUT AND CHRONO TRIGGER 117

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