宇都宮大学国際学部研究論集 2014 第37号, 119−132 119

Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers

SUEYOSHI Ana

I. Introduction in their homeland. In Japan the number of South American workers This exploratory work based on a questionnaire and their families, most of them of Japanese ancestry and structured interviews to young South Americans or Nikkei, had steadily increased since the late who are studying or working in the Kanto area, eighties. However, the improvement of the economic attempts to identify the main common determinants in conditions in their homelands, the onset of the global continuing high school and post-secondary education. financial crisis by the end of 2008 and the triple The survey sample that is composed by subjects disaster of March 11th led to the massive decrease in who have been able to pursue further studies after the South American population in Japan. According completing compulsory education at elementary to the Japanese Ministry of Justice, by the end of school and junior high school in Japan, was asked 2012 there were less than 200 thousand Brazilians about their home and school environment, parents and and 50 thousand Peruvians living in Japan. These are teachers’ support, safety network, Japanese and mother the fourth and sixth largest foreign populations after tongue proficiency, entrance examination process to the Chinese, Koreans and Filipinos, and Vietnamese the next educational level, identity, and multicultural respectively. experience in Japan and its impact on their studies and The migration of Latin Americans to Japan was future career. It also provides with South American initially a household emergency strategy to face an youngsters’ voices and personal stories, which have adverse temporary economic scenario. This has since played an important role in choosing their path after changed to a permanent residence. In the last 15 years high school graduation, and therefore in building their family reunification process has brought a new agenda academic and working careers. of topics, being one of them the education of migrant The discussion will be focused on the determinant children, who have unique educational needs related factors for overcoming academic adversity, the role to parents’ work mobility, family members’ roles and of bi-culture on their career paths, parental and responsibilities, language difficulties, discrimination, institutional support, and the definition of career not marginalization, among others. Despite high levels only as a mere occupation or employment, but also as of school absenteeism and dropout rates, and low a individual-society relationship, in which they can education continuance rate, in absolute and relative make full use of their competencies, in this case by terms, have characterized South American children’s being bi-cultural or multicultural, and achieve personal education in Japan (Kojima, 2006; Miyajima, development and contribute to society. 2006; Tamaki, 2012 and 2013), there is a group of By drawing a portrait of high-achievers of South conspicuous but unfortunately still few unexpected American origin in the Japanese educational system, achievers, whose educational attainments have not this paper also aims at suggesting key factors that may always been singled out by the current literature. This help educators, related public officials and policy- second generation of South Americans are building makers find ways to better support young immigrants. their educational and professional careers in Japan or 120 SUEYOSHI Ana

II. Framing young migration studies supposed to be given to make a home for themselves Until the beginning of the nineties the mainstream in the receiving country, while whose government literature on migration studies had practically been and civil society make possible the provision of centered on adult migrants, while there had been scant opportunities for language learning, social inclusion in attention to children international migration and its education, training and employment. consequences for their psychosocial, physical and Besides other challenges that are also shared economic well-being (Geisen, 2012). by overseas posted families and asylum seekers and Many transnational children move around the refugees, such as cultural shock, lack of language globe mostly because of the household head’s job as proficiency of the destination country, nostalgia for they were overseas posted diplomatic corps, military, their homeland and their far-away beloved ones, and international business executive officers, or members family disruption; unsupported migration exposes the of missions (Pollock and Van Reken, 1999), or new comers to a different sort of social risks in the because they or their parents are asylum seekers and recipient society, such as downward mobility, poor refugees (Phillimore and Goodson, 2008). However, language learning, educational underachievement, and since the nineties the globalization process has had stigmatization. more significant impact on the size, destination, and composition of the flows, in which child ratio is larger. III. The challenges of the second generation It has sucked children of the most diverse household To the almost undiscussable benefits of education, backgrounds, in terms of social status, breadwinner and the learning process it entails, for the immigrant occupation and economic conditions into its vortex. In children’s lives in the recipient society, we can add the 2010, there were 22.1 million international migrants significance of school life. Often school becomes the aged 0 to 14 in the world, accounting for 10.3 percent only window the second generation (recipient-society of the 214 million international migrants worldwide born) and the 1.5 generation (homeland born but (United Nations, 2011). Adding the next age bracket, immigrate at very early age and spend most of their between 15 and 24 years old, the percentage rises to developmental years in the receiving country) can see 42. Consequently, the significance of young migration and experience the host society. has captured the interest not only of the academic Suarez-Orozco et al. (2008) focused on the community, but also the concern of central and local impact of formal education on the transition of governments, and civil society. immigrant youth from its homeland to the recipient After framing their household strategy in a society, emphasizing the fact that “worldwide, microeconomic analysis of costs and benefits and schooling has emerged in the last half century as the holding their hope for forging a better future in a surest path of well-being and status mobility.” Based foreign land, in contrast to the families described by on an interdisciplinary survey, they provide a very Pollock and Van Reken (1999), and Phillimore and comprehensive and detailed analysis of the different Goodson (2008), ordinary families decide to embark portraits of foreign children in American society, on the migration process without the institutional and and offer an explanatory conclusion on the different logistical support of either the sending or the receiving education outcomes or “varied academic journeys,” country. Pollock and Van Reken refer to the privileged by identifying the most important factors that lifestyle of diplomats, military, mission members and influence the success or failure of young migrants in international companies’ employees, and called them education. Engagement and performance, network of an elitist community, who enjoy some perks provided relationships, and language learning are identified as by the sponsoring agency. Phillimore and Goodson the most relevant factors for a successful educational emphasized the support and services the refugees are achievement.

Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers 121 percent in the same period. In 2008 the the international financial crisis. According to Suarez-Orozco et al. (2008), percentlatter werein the samealmost period. 60 thousand, In 2008 the but latter in were 2012 the population shrank to less than “schooling is particularly important for immigrant almost 60 thousand, but in 2012 the population shrank Figure 2 50 thousand (See figure 1). The reasons Foreign Population in Japan youth. For them, it is the first sustained, meaningful, tofor less this than demographi50 thousand (seec decline figure 1). can The bereasons and enduring participation in an institution of the new forexplained this demographic by 1) decline this canimmigration’s be explained by 1) 700 600 society…. It is in schools where, day in and day out, thisetnic immigration’s nature that etnicgrants nature a special that grants visa a asspecial 500 400 Japanese descendant up to the third 300 immigrant youth come to know teachers, and peers visa as Japanese descendant up to the third generation, 200 generation, 2) protracted economic 100 form the majority culture as well as newcomers from 2) protracted economic crisis in Japan, 3) South 0 crisis in Japan, 3) South America other parts of the world. It is schools in that immigrant America’spolitical politicaland economic and economic stability. stability. youth develop academic knowledge and, just as FFigureigure 11 important, form perceptions of where they fit in the BrazilianBrazilian andand PeruvianPeruvian PPopulationopulation social reality and cultural imagination of their new inini nJapan JapanJapa n(in (in(t thousands)h thousands)ousand) 2011 2012 Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan nation. Moreover, they learn about their new society 400 not only from official lessons, tests, and field trips, but 300 As it is depicted in figure 2, the also from the “hidden curriculum” related to cultural 200 relative number of South Americans idioms and codes-lessons often learned with and from 100 compared to other foreign groups in peers and friends.” Japan has decreased over time and 0 became the fourth and sixth, Brazil and In the following two paragraphs, Suarez-Orozco

1984 1988 1992 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Peru, respectively. These two groups (2008) emphasizes the reconstruction of an identity or were surpassed by two South East Asian Brazilians Peruvians the construction of a new identity, which is definitively countries, the Philippines and Vietnam. different from their parents’, because it has been built Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan The Lehman shock of after their interaction with members of the school September of 2008 had more significant The economic component plays impact on Brazilian and Peruvian community. This different identity causes a bifurcation The economic component plays an important role an important role on the household workers than on other immigrant groups in the experience path once they shared with their instrategy the household of Brazilian strategy sof andBrazilians Peruvians and Peruvians in in Japan, because South American parents. “It is in their interactions with peers, teachers, inJapan Japan (Tsuda,(Tsuda, 2003; 2003 and Tamashiro,and Tamashiro, 2000). Initially workers are highly concentrated in and school staff that newly arrived immigrant youth it2000). was a temporaryInitially householdit was strategya temporary for facing the certain sectors that were particularly will experiment with the new identities and learn to upshousehold and downs strategy of the South for American facing economy the ups during beaten by the economic crisis, such as and downs of the South American automobile and home appliance calibrate their ambitions.” “The relationships they the eighties. In spite of their prolonged stay, the economy during the eighties. In spite of industry. Besides, it is estimated that establish with peers, teachers, coaches, and others will economictheir prolonged factors are stillstay, determinant the economicto their decision more than 40 percent of Brazilians help shape their characters, open new opportunities, tofactors stay in Japanare orstill return de toterminant their countries. to their workers has lost their jobs in such areas, and set constraints to future pathways. It is in their decisionThe lack to ofstay capability in Japan for orrecovering return toof the consequently there was an immediate engagement with schooling most broadly defined Japanesetheir countries. economy after the bubble period and the so- impact on ethnic business and schools, The lack of capability for according to Akashi and Kobayashi that immigrant youth will profoundly transform called lost decade, the nineties, has been a significant recovering of the Japanese economy (2010). themselves.” factorafter inthe their bubble decision period to return and theto their so-called homelands. Since April 2009 until March Thelost onset decade, of the theglobal nineties, financial hascrisis been in 2008 a and 2010, the Japanese Government, IV. Second generation of South Americans in Japan thesignificant triple disaster factor in 2011 in weretheir thedecision final straw, to of a through the Ministry of Health, Labor In the last half a decade there has been changes decliningreturn to trend their that homelands. was observed sinceThe onset2007, one of year and Welfare, offered economic support the global financial crisis in 2008 and for the ones who wanted to return to in the demographics of South Americans in Japan. In beforethe triple the international disaster in financial 2011 werecrisis. the final their countries, but only 12% of the general it can be observed an absolute and relative straw, of a declining trend that was qualified households applied for this decline in their population. Particularly, the number observed since 2007, one year before one-time relocation allowance of Brazilians who peaked more than 300 thousand in 2007, in 2012 it did not even reach the 200 thousand. 4 In the last seven years, Brazilian population has registered 38 percent decline, while Peruvians 17

(Brazilians 93 percent, and Peruvians 4 percent). Between 2009 and the Figure 4 beginning of 2010 the number of Young Brazilians and Brazilians and Peruvians who returned Peruvians in Kanto Area

to their homelands without Japanese 12 Government’s support is higher 10 (Brazilians 20 percent and Peruvians 2 8 percent) (Jadesas, 2010). 6 % Likewise, in order to support the 4 ones who decided to stay in Japan, at 2 local and central government levels, 122 SUEYOSHI Ana 0 percent in the same period. In 2008 the the international financial crisis. financial aid was provided to latter were almost 60 thousand, but in emploment agencies so they could hire Figure 2 moreto emploment translators agencies and staffso they to couldsupport hire more 2012 the population shrank to less than Brazil Peru Foreign PopulationFigure 2 in Japan foreigntranslators jobseekers, and staff totraining support foreignprograms jobseekers, 50 thousand (See figure 1). The reasons Foreig (inn P thousands)opulation in Japan for this demographic decline can be fortraining foreign programs workers for foreignto improve workers their to improve job their qualifications were implemented as well. As well as the total Brazilian explained by 1) this immigration’s 700 job qualifications were implemented as well. 600 population, the group between 20 and etnic nature that grants a special visa as 500 400 V. Young population in Japan 29 are concentrated in the area of Tokai, Japanese descendant up to the third 300 200 V. YoungIn populationgeneral in Japanyoung foreign followed by Nagano and Gunma. On generation, 2) protracted economic 100 0 populationIn general in Japan young shows foreign an population increasing in Japan the contrary Peruvians are highly crisis in Japan, 3) South America concentrated in Kanto area, particularly political and economic stability. trend,shows becausean increasing there trend, is because an inflow there isof an inflow foreign students, and trainees from in Kanagawa, Saitama, Gunma and of foreign students, and trainees from China and South Figure 1 China and South East Asian countries. Tochigi. Brazilian and Peruvian Population East Asian countries. in Japan (thousand) 2011 2012 Figure 3 Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan Figure 5 400 Young ForeignersFigure 3 in Japan Young Foreigners in Japan Young Foreig (2012)ners in Japan (2012) 300 As it is depictedAs it is in depicted figure 2, thein figurerelative 2,number the (2012) 60 200 of Southrelative Americans number compared of toSouth other foreignAmericans groups 50 35 100 in Japancompared has decreased to other over foreign time and groups became inthe 30 40 Japan has decreased over time and 25 0 fourth and sixth, Brazil and Peru, respectively. These % 30 20 became the fourth and sixth, Brazil and % 15 two groups were surpassed by two South East Asian 20 1984 1988 1992 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 Peru, respectively. These two groups 10 countries,were the surpassed Philippines by and two Vietnam. South East Asian 10 5 Brazilians Peruvians The Lehman shock of September of 2008 had 0 0 countries, the Philippines and Vietnam. 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan more significantThe impactLehman on Brazilian shock and Peruvian of China South Korea September of 2008 had more significant Philippines Brazil workers than on other immigrant groups in Japan, Vietnam Peru The economic component plays impact on Brazilian and Peruvian because South American workers are highly an important role on the household workers than on other immigrant groups 0-14 15-19 20-29 strategy of Brazilians and Peruvians in concentratedin Japan, in certain because sectors Souththat were American particularly Following the general trend Japan (Tsuda, 2003 and Tamashiro, beatenworkers by the economicare highly crisis, concentratedsuch as automobile in FigureFigure 3 presents3 presents young young foreign foreign population among South Americans, younger 2000). Initially it was a temporary and homecertain appliance sectors industry. that Besides,were particularly it is estimated populationfor the six largestfor the groups. six largestBrazilians groups. and Peruvians groups between 20 and 29 year-old household strategy for facing the ups beaten by the economic crisis, such as Brazilians and Peruvians age bracket range have been also on the move, and that more than 40 percent of Brazilians workers has age bracket ratios are similar for each category, and and downs of the South American automobile and home appliance ratios are similar for each category, and returned to their homelands, Brazil and economy during the eighties. In spite of lost theirindustry. jobs in Besides,such areas, itconsequently is estimated there that was it itshows shows anan even distributiondistribution across across age ageranges that Peru. If we take a look at the outflow of their prolonged stay, the economic an immediatemore than impact 40 on percentethnic business of Braziliansand schools, rangescorresponds that to an immigrationcorresponds who hasto alreadyan settled Brazilians every year since 2007, the factors are still determinant to their accordingworkers to Akashi has lostand Kobayashitheir jobs (2010). in such areas, immigrationdown in Japan. who has already settled returning population gathers around the decision to stay in Japan or return to consequentlySince(Brazilians April 2009 93 thereuntil percent, Marchwas and2010,an immediatePeruvians the Japanese 4 down in Japan. 20 and 39 year-old brackets, because as percent). Between 2009 and the FigureFigure 4 their countries. Government,impact onthrough ethnic the businessMinistry ofand Health, schools, Labor The lack of capability for accordingbeginning to ofAkashi 2010 andthe Kobayashinumber of YoungYoung BraziliansBrazilians andand and Welfare, offered economic support for the ones PeruviansPeruvians inin KantoKanto AreaArea 5 recovering of the Japanese economy (2010).Brazilians and Peruvians who returned (2012) who wanted to return to their countries, but only after the bubble period and the so-called to theirSince homelands April 2009 without until JapaneseMarch 12 lost decade, the nineties, has been a 12% 2010,ofGovernment’s the qualifiedthe householdsJapanese support applied Government, isfor thishigher one- 10 significant factor in their decision to time throughrelocation(Brazilians theallowance Ministry20 percent (Brazilians of andHealth, 93 Peruvians percent, Labor and 2 8 return to their homelands. The onset of andpercent) Welfare, (Jadesas, offered 2010). economic support 6

Peruvians 4 percent). Between 2009 and the beginning % the global financial crisis in 2008 and for the ones Likewise, who inwanted order to supportreturn tothe 4 of 2010 the number of Brazilians and Peruvians the triple disaster in 2011 were the final theirones countries, who decided but toonly stay 12% in Japan,of the at 2 straw, of a declining trend that was who qualifiedreturnedlocal andto householdstheir central homelands governmentapplied without for Japanese levels,this 0 observed since 2007, one year before Government’sone-timefinancial support aid relocationis higherwas (Brazilians providedallowance 20 percent to and Peruviansemplo m2 entpercent) agencie (Jadesas,s so 2010). they could hire more translators and staff to support 4 foreignLikewise, jobseekers, in order totraining support programsthe ones Brazil Peru who decidedfor foreign to stay workers in Japan, to atimprove local and their central job As well as the total Brazilian population, the governmentqualific levels,ations financialwere imple aidm wasented provided as well . group betweenAs 20w elland as29 isthe concentrated total Brazilia in the narea population, the group between 20 and V. Young population in Japan 29 are concentrated in the area of Tokai, In general young foreign followed by Nagano and Gunma. On population in Japan shows an increasing the contrary Peruvians are highly trend, because there is an inflow of concentrated in Kanto area, particularly foreign students, and trainees from in Kanagawa, Saitama, Gunma and China and South East Asian countries. Tochigi.

Figure 5 Figure 3 Young Foreigners in Japan Young Foreigners in Japan (2012) (2012) 60 50 35 30 40 25

% 30 20 % 15 20 10 10 5 0 0 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 China South Korea Philippines Brazil Vietnam Peru

0-14 15-19 20-29 Following the general trend Figure 3 presents young foreign among South Americans, younger population for the six largest groups. groups between 20 and 29 year-old Brazilians and Peruvians age bracket range have been also on the move, and ratios are similar for each category, and returned to their homelands, Brazil and it shows an even distribution across age Peru. If we take a look at the outflow of ranges that corresponds to an Brazilians every year since 2007, the immigration who has already settled returning population gathers around the down in Japan. 20 and 39 year-old brackets, because as

5

part of the adult groups in their most stay. Eventually, they, who were born productive years, they are looking for or raised in Japan, could return to their the most profitable experience across parents’ country of origin, but after borders. pursuing tertiary education in Japan, they continuing their profesional careers Figure 8 Young Brazilians in Japan in Japan, few of them return to their 27 parents’ country of origin. 25 23

% VI. Pursuing tertiary education or (Brazilians 93 percent, and Peruvians 4 21 percent). Between 2009 and the Figure 4 19 not pursuing it: that is not the beginning of 2010 the number of Young Brazilians and 17 question Peruvians in Kanto Area 15 It is difficult to estimate the ratio Brazilians and Peruvians who returned 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 0‐19 20‐29 to their homelands without Japanese of young South Americans in Japan 12 Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan who enter high school or tertiary Government’s support is higher 10 education, because it is not possible to (Brazilians 20 percent and Peruvians 2 8 Both groups have a decreasing trend for have accurate statistics on the children percent) (Jadesas, 2010). 6 % the 20-29 year-old populations. Likewise, in order to support the 4 population who attend and who do not However, it is clear that while that ones who decided to stay in Japan, at 2 attend school. The existence of local and central government levels, 0 group ratio compared to the entire educational institutions that are neither financial aid was provided to Brazilian population in Japan has approved nor authorized by the Ministry emploment agencies so they could hire declined dramatically, from more than of Education, Culture, Sports, Science more translators and staff to support 25 percent to 16 percent, which means Brazil Peru and Technology of Japan; migrant foreign jobseekers, training programs more than 10 percentage points; the parents’ high mobility; and unexpected for foreign workers to improve their job same age bracket for the Peruvian transnational movements can explain As well as the total Brazilian qualifications were implemented as well. population has change only 2 the unavailability of those figures. population, the group between 20 and Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Buildingpercentage Educational points. and Professional Careers 123 29 are concentrated in the area of Tokai, Tamaki and Sakamoto (2012) V. Young population in Japan indicate that Japanese pupils who go on In general young foreign followed by Nagano and Gunma. On of Tokai, followed by Nagano and Gunma. On the to high school accounted for 98 percent, population in Japan shows an increasing the contrary Peruvians are highly Figure 9 contrary Peruvians are highly concentrated in Kanto Young Peruvians in Japan whereas it is estimated that compared to trend, because there is an inflow of concentrated in Kanto area, particularly 26 foreign students, and trainees from area,in particularlyKanagawa, in Kanagawa,Saitama, Saitama, Gunma Gunma and and 24 that ratio, the percentage of foreign Tochigi. 22 pupils who enter high schools in Japan China and South East Asian countries. 20 Tochigi. % 18 in much lower. They also mentioned 16 that as regional disparities persist Figure 5 14 regarding further schooling ratios for Figure 3 Young Foreigners in Japan 12 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 foreign population, it is difficult to Young Foreigners in Japan (2012) (2012) 0‐19 20‐29

Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan estimate a percentage all over Japan. 60 50 35 This difference between these two groups residing According to the results of their 30 40 research, in Tochigi prefecture, which is 25 in Japan, evidencesThis difference their expected between different behaviour.these

% 30 20 located in the North Kanto area, the % 15 twoDespite groups the residing declining inin the Japan, total South evidences American 20 ratio of entering high school is 58.6 10 populationtheir expected and in particular different in the behaviour. younger generations, 10 5 Despite the declining in the total percent for Portuguese speaking pupils, 0 0 there is a group of young South Americans who has while for Spanish speakers is 79.5 0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 population and in particular in the been able to endure the long economic crisis in Japan, percent. As a matter of comparison, China South Korea younger generations, there is a group of Philippines Brazil the sequels of the global crisis and the earthquake, other subpopulations’ percentages are as Vietnam Peru young South Americans who has been tsunamiable to and endure nuclear the disaster long economicimpact, and crisisthey are follow, pupils whose mother tongue is Chinese, 92 percent; and Tagalog, 75 0-14 15-19 20-29 Following the general trend among South inin Japan Japan, to stay.the Eventually,sequels of they, the whoglobal were crisis born or Following the general trend and the earthquake, tsunami and nuclear percent. The majority of Portuguese Figure 3 presents young foreign Americans,among youngerSouth groupsAmericans, between 20 youngerand 29 year- raised in Japan, could return to their parents’ country disaster impact, and they are in Japan to speakers were of Brazilian origin (34 population for the six largest groups. oldgroups range have between been also 20 on theand move, 29 andyear-old returned to of origin, but after pursuing tertiary education in Japan, Brazilians and Peruvians age bracket their range homelands, have b Brazileen al andso onPeru. the If move, we take and a look they continuing their profesional careers in Japan, and ratios are similar for each category, and at returnedthe outflow to oftheir Brazilians homelands, every year Brazil since and 2007, few of them return to their parents’ country of origin. 6 it shows an even distribution across age Peru. If we take a look at the outflow of the returning population gathers around the 20 and 39 ranges that corresponds to an partBrazilians of the everyadult yeargroups since in 2007,their themost stay. Eventually, they, who were born immigration who has already settled year-oldproductivereturning brackets, population years, because they asgathers part are of thearoundlooking adult thegroups for VI.or Pursuing raised tertiaryin Japan, education could or notreturn pursuing to their it: down in Japan. inthe 20their andmost most 39 productive profitableyear-old years, brackets, experience they are because looking across foras the thatparents’ is not the questioncountry of origin, but after mostborders. profitable experience across borders. pursuingIt is difficult tertiary to estimate education the ratio of youngin Japan, South 5 Americansthey continuing in Japan who their enter profesionalhigh school or careerstertiary Figure 8 in Japan, few of them return to their Young Brazilians in Japan education, because it is not possible to have accurate 27 parents’ country of origin. 25 statistics on the child population of South American

23 background who attend and who do not attend school.

% 21 VI. Pursuing tertiary education or The existence of educational institutions that are 19 not pursuing it: that is not the neither approved nor authorized by the Ministry of 17 question 15 Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 It is difficult to estimate the ratio 0‐19 20‐29 Japan;of migrantyoung parents’ South high Americans mobility; and unexpectedin Japan Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan transnationalwho enter movements high can schoolexplain the orunavailability tertiary Both groups have a decreasing trend for the 20- of education,those figures. because it is not possible to Both groups have a decreasing trend for 29 year-old populations. However, it is clear that haveTamaki accurate and Sakamoto statistics (2012) on theindicate children that the 20-29 year-old populations. while that group ratio compared to the entire Brazilian Japanesepopulation pupils whowho go attendon to high and school who accounted do not However, it is clear that while that attend school. The existence of population in Japan has declined dramatically, from for 98 percent, whereas it is estimated that compared group ratio compared to the entire educational institutions that are neither more than 25 percent to 16 percent, which means more Brazilian population in Japan has to approvedthat ratio, the nor percentage authorized of foreign by the pupils Ministry who thandeclined 10 percentage dramatically, points; the fromsame age more bracket than for enterof highEducation, schools in JapanCulture, in much Sports, lower. TheyScience also the25 Peruvian percent population to 16 haspercent, change onlywhich 2 percentage means mentionedand Technology that as regional disparitiesof Japan; persist regardingmigrant points.more than 10 percentage points; the furtherparents’ schooling high ratios mobility; for foreign and population,unexpected it same age bracket for the Peruvian transnational movements can explain population has change only 2 the unavailability of those figures. percentage points. Tamaki and Sakamoto (2012) indicate that Japanese pupils who go on to high school accounted for 98 percent, Figure 9 Young Peruvians in Japan whereas it is estimated that compared to 26 24 that ratio, the percentage of foreign 22 pupils who enter high schools in Japan 20

% 18 in much lower. They also mentioned 16 that as regional disparities persist 14

12 regarding further schooling ratios for 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 foreign population, it is difficult to 0‐19 20‐29

Source: Immigration Bureau of Japan estimate a percentage all over Japan.

According to the results of their This difference between these research, in Tochigi prefecture, which is two groups residing in Japan, evidences located in the North Kanto area, the their expected different behaviour. ratio of entering high school is 58.6 Despite the declining in the total percent for Portuguese speaking pupils, population and in particular in the while for Spanish speakers is 79.5 younger generations, there is a group of percent. As a matter of comparison, young South Americans who has been other subpopulations’ percentages are as able to endure the long economic crisis follow, pupils whose mother tongue is in Japan, the sequels of the global crisis Chinese, 92 percent; and Tagalog, 75 and the earthquake, tsunami and nuclear percent. The majority of Portuguese disaster impact, and they are in Japan to speakers were of Brazilian origin (34

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124 SUEYOSHI Ana is difficult to estimate a percentage all over Japan. the subjects born to parents of different nationalities, According to the results of their research, in Tochigi being one of them from a South American country, prefecture, which is located in the Northern Kanto usually have a Japanese father or mother, and have Area, the ratio of entering high school is 58.6 inherited his or her Japanese citizenship. percent for Portuguese speaking pupils, while for As the sample universe is very variegated in terms Spanish speakers is 79.5 percent. As a matter of of nationality and place of birth of the parents and comparison, other subpopulations’ percentages are the subject, and its multiple combinations, it is very as follow, pupils whose mother tongue is Chinese, homogeneous in residence status and ethnicity. The 92 percent; and Tagalog, 75 percent. The majority of majority of the sample subjects are Nikkei permanent- Portuguese speakers were of Brazilian origin (34 out resident holders or eijyusha. As a result of the of 36), and all Spanish speakers had South American enactment of the New Japanese Law of Immigration background (30 from Peru and 4 from Bolivia). It is of 1989, Nikkei and their spouses were automatically also worth emphasizing that 83.7 percent of the entire granted a status of residence in Japan, as they have at surveyed population of 141 foreign pupils showed least one Japanese ancestor, who is related to within their aspiration for pursuing further schooling after the third generation. completing compulsory education. Other responses were: work (0.7 percent), return to their home country a. Quantitative Results (6.4 percent), undecided (5.7 percent), and no answer The interviewees were 14 female and 10 male, (3.5 percent). they were were in an age range of 17 and 28 years old, and the average age was 22. Only three of them were VII. The survey born in Japan and the remaining 21 in their parents’ The current survey was conducted between homeland. They arrived at a average age of 6, 14 December 2010 and March 2011 in the Kanto area by being the oldest age at arrival and 5 of them arrived using snowball sampling as a method for contacting when they were ten years old. In term of nationality, 1 24 interviewees of South American background, who of them was Bolivian, 4 Brazilians, and 19 Peruvians. have spent a significant period of their developmental Out of 24, 13 had already graduated from tertiary years in Japan. Pertaining to the selection of the education (university and profesional or technical target population, all subjects have at least one South schools), the other 11 are still studying. America-born parent, regardless of their current nationality. Mother Tongue vs. Japanese While only two (out of 24) said they still face 1. The results reading comprehension problems in Japanese, half of Although all the subjects are born either in South them (12) said they do in their parents’ language. Only America or in Japan and most of them had spent 5 said they have no problems at all regarding his or her more than the half of their lives in Japan, few of them Spanish or Portuguese skills. have had a transnational education. Only two have Most of them still talk to their parents in the experienced circular migration and studied between homeland language, or some sort of mix between this their parents’ homeland and Japan. and Japanese (19 out of 24). In the case of mono-cultural households, most A little more of half (13) of them have received of the interviewees hold their parents’ nationality, and Japanese lessons at Japanese elementary and junior few of them have become Japanese by naturalization. high school. However, some of them show their interest in acquiring the Japanese citizenship. On the other hand, Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers 125

Continuing further Studies culture and the word “international” is not in their 9 out of 24 entered high school under fields of specialization. Their homeland language recommendation schemes. skills are low, and they graduated from technical high 12 out of 18 who pursued tertiary education, have school (machine operator), technical or professional entered thanks to recommendation admission policies. schools (preschool teacher, dental technician) or Faculty of Engineering. Usually they do not b. Quantitative Results participate in volunteering activities aimed at helping 9 subjects said they have no interest at all in foreigners or foreign children. The second group their parents’ culture, and even if some said they do, are the internationally active. 16 who are interested they feel ashamed, because they cannot fulfill others’ in their parents’ culture and the word “international” expectations. is definitively in their fields of specialization. Their “I feel proud of having Brazilian ancestry, but I homeland language skills vary, and they graduated don’t speak even the language, don’t you find it funny, or still studying at international related faculties strange, it is a shame! Yes, of course I would like to go (7), English teacher graduated from the faculty of there (Brazil), but just to visit friends and relatives.” (18 education (1), language schools (2), engaged in year-old Brazilian male, Tochigi) international exchange work (4), tourism (1), as “There was no ijime at school. Sometimes I was translator in a publishing company (1). Most of them thought to be Japanese, and I didn’t know whether have already participated in volunteering activities to feel good or bad about it, because it was like my aimed at helping foreigners or foreign children or being Peruvian-ness was fading away.” My first name work directly in these sort of events. The third group is not a Japanese one (i.e. Luis), but my second is (i.e. composed by the passively international and others. Kenzo), my father’s last name is not of Japanese origin There are 2 who are timidly interested in their parents’ (Garcia), but my mother’s is (Saito), so in Japan my culture and the word “international” is not necessarily name is Kenzo Saito, while in Peru is Luis Garcia.” (22 in their fields of specialization. Their homeland year-old Peruvian male, Tokyo). language skills vary and after completing high school, Less interactions with co-nationals brings one of our interviewees is devoted to religious work, beneficial outcomes in terms of educational and the other who studies social welfare, would like achievement. to participate in international volunteer work in the future. Choosing their Career Path According to Arthur (1989) “The evolving VIII. Conclusions sequence of a person’s work and all that work can The entrance examination process at high mean for the ways in which we see and experience school level and university level, and the educational other people, organizations and society.” (Arthur, et environment provided by Japanese universities that al.) under a framework that fosters multiculturalism, For these young South Americans, the cumulative has impact on Latin American students’ academic experiences striding two cultures in the same spatial achievement and job-hunting success. and time dimension, provides them with a rich All interviewees live, study or work in the background for their interaction with the sending and Kanto area. Following the recent trends toward receiving societies. It is not a mere job, it is a mean of a multicultural co-existence in Japanese society, self-realization and social mobility. educational institutions have been able to favorably Three groups can be identified. First group: 4 accommodate foreign students. “Favorably” means respondents who are not interested in their parents’ that among other positive factors that benefit them, 126 SUEYOSHI Ana such as foreign-culture receptive attitudes and lessons relatively lenient primary education with almost for keeping up with Japanese learning and mastering no grade repetition, very competitive examination- their mother language, foreign students are motivated admission process for high school, and a wide gap to participate in different events that are related to between primary and secondary education, foreign their own foreign communities in Japan. Their mother guardians are often misled, realizing their children language ability does not seem to be a hindrance. On low Japanese proficiency only when they fail the high the contrary, it becomes an asset, as the acquisition school entrance exam. Foreign parents’ ignorance of any other language should be, broadening their regarding their children performance into the Japanese range for future studies and working possibilities. It is educational system is a result of their language interesting to point out that those students have already limitations and consequently, of their unawareness engaged or have expressed explicitly their willingness of the society they are living in. Generally speaking, to pursue international-oriented careers or serve as once foreign children overcome this first hurdle - the a bridge between their own countries and Japan, in high-school entrance examination - and after 3 years which they can make full use of their language skills of hard studies in high school that include preparation and their parents’ culture knowledge. for the university-admission exam, the way for tertiary However, there is even a smaller group which education is already paved. although has been educated into the Japanese system, The high-school entrance examination consists was also able to preserve their mother language at on an interview and a written exam. However, there certain level that eventually allows them to resort to it is a chance that the secondary school can recommend as an asset when they have to proceed to the next stage a student for his or her studies at certain high school. of education, either secondary or tertiary, and later on This recommendation and the interview can be means to the job market. by which students’ cultural background can be taken In migration studies it is said that there is no into account. Pertaining to higher education, in several Japanese immigration policy, particularly if the universities there is an entrance exam modality with Japanese government stance toward immigration issues high-school recommendation, in which student’s extra- is compared with its OECD peers. In consequence academic assets are considered. In the case of the there are few attempts from the central government foreign children, their lack of competence in Japanese to properly accommodate foreign children into the can be justified by their knowledge of a different Japanese educational system, while their conserve language. their own cultural legacy. This is how the Japanese In the context of globalization, it can be government, rather than making full-use of these stated that regardless of the field of specialization, children’s potential, disregards this possibility, which bilingualism and multilingualism become definitively just become an unfortunate waste of human resources assets for students who enter the job market. However, not only at individual, but also at national and global it is important that as previous step, students during levels. Concerning local governments, prefectural their universities studies improve their mother and municipal governments have been more receptive language competence and adequately understand their and flexible in their response to migrant children’s multicultural background, a task not always easy to educational needs related basically to the lack of perform in Japanese society. proficiency in Japanese language, awareness of In spite of being stigmatized as academic Japanese culture and school rules, and education in underachievers, a conspicuous but unfortunately still their mother tongue. limited second generation of South Americans are Due to the peculiar characteristics of the building their professional careers in Japan or in their Japanese public educational system, such as a homeland. This paper has show that almost 40 percent Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers 127 has entered high school under recommendation Phillimore, Jenny and Lisa Goodson (2008) New schemes (9 out of 24), and this ratio is higher for Immigrants in the UK, education, training and university entrance examination. More than 60 percent employment, Trentham Books. (12 out of 18) has cleared the admission process thanks Pollock, David C., and Ruth E. Van Reken (1999) to recommendation admission policies. Therefore, Third Culture Kids, Growing Up Among Worlds, the entrance examination process at high school level Nicholas Brealey Publishing. and university level, and the educational environment Suarez-Orozco, Carola, Marcelo M. Suarez-Orozco provided by Japanese universities that under a and Irina Todorova (2008) Learning a New Land, framework that fosters multiculturalism, has impact on Immigrant Students in American Society, Harvard South American students’ academic achievement. University Press. Sueyoshi, Ana (2011) “Nikkei Peruvian Children References between Peru and Japan: Developing a Dual Akashi, Junichi y Masao Kabayashi (2010) Impacts of Frame of Reference,” The International Journal the Global Economic Crisis on Migrant Workers of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, Vol. 5, in Japan, Paper prepared for MISA Project-Phase Number 12, 45-59. 2 and presented at the ILO/SMC Conference on Sueyoshi, Ana（2010）“Nihon kara peruu ni kikoku Assessing the Impact of the Global Economic shita kodomotachi no kyouiku seikatsu Crisis on International Migration in Asia: jyoukyou,” Matsuo Tamaki (ed.) Tochigi ni okeru Findings from the MISA Project, Ortigas Center, gaikokujin jidou seito kyouiku no ashita wo Manila, Philippines, 6 May 2010. kangaeru, Vol. 2 Leading Research Project, Arthur, Michael B., Douglas T. Hall and Barbara S. Utsunomiya University, 50-72. Lawrence (1989) Handbook of Career Theory, Sueyoshi, Ana（2008）“Changes in Immigration Cambridge University Press. Pattern among South American Workers in Geisen, Thomas (2012) “Understanding Cultural Japan,” Matsuo Tamaki (ed.) Foreign Students’ Differences as Social Limits to Learning: Education in Tochigi Prefecture: Thinking about Migration Theory, Culture and Young Migrants,” their Future, Leading Research Project, Zvi Bekerman and Thomas Geisen (eds.) Utsunomiya University, 152-163. International Handbook of Migration, Minorities Tamaki, Matsuo (2013) “Tochigi ken ni okeru and Education, Understanding Cultural and gaikokujin seito no shinro chousa,” Journal of the Social Differences in Processes of Learning, Faculty of International Studies, Utsunomiya Springer. University, No. 36, 17-26. Miyajima, Takashi and Haruo Ota (2005) Gaikokujin Tamaki, Matsuo and Sakamoto Kumiko (2012) no kodomo to Nihon no kyōiku fushūgaku mondai “Tochigi ken ni okeru gaikokujin seito no to tabunka kyōsei no kadai, University of Tokyo chuugako sotsugyougo no shinro chousa,” Press. Journal of the Faculty of International Studies, Kojima, Akira (2006) Nyu-kama- kodomotachi to Utsunomiya University, No. 33, 63-71. gakkoubunka – nikkeiburajirujin seito no kyouiku Tamashiro, Satomi (ed.) (2000) Realidades de un esunogurafii, Keisoshobo. Sueño, Convenio de Coooperación – Kyodai. Hirabayashi, Lane Ryou, Akemi Kikumura-Yano and Tsuda, Takeyuki (2003) Strangers in the Ethnic James A. Hirabayashi (eds.) (2002) New Worlds, Homeland: Japanese Brazilian Return Migration, New Lives, globalization and people of Japanese Transnational Perspective, Columbia University descent in the Americas and from Latin America Press. in Japan, Stanford University Press. Tsuda, Takeyuki (1999) “The motivation to Migrate: 128 SUEYOSHI Ana

The Ethnic and Sociocultural Constitution of the Japanese-Brazilian Return-Migration System,” Economic Development and Cultural Change 48:1, Octubre 1-31. United Nations (2011) “International Migration in a Global World: The Role of Youth,” Population Division, Technical Paper No. 2011/1, New York. Jadesas, retrieved from http://jadesas.or.jp/ consulta/03seminar.html, on February 3rd, 2010. Immigration Bureau of Japan, retrieved from http:// www.immi-moj.go.jp/toukei/index.html, on August, 16th, 2013. Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers 129

資料 2010- 2011 アンケート 日本におけるラテンアメリカ出身の学生の進学調査 I．個人情報 1．名前： 2．年齢： 3．性別： 男 女 4．出身国： 町： 5．現住所（区）： 6．何歳に日本に来ましたか。これまでにペルーに帰ったり、日本に戻ったりしたことがある場 合は、時期・期間を全て教えてください。

7．兄弟姉妹がいる はい いいえ 8．どのような構成ですか。兄弟姉妹の年 齢も書いてください

II．教育 ．あなたは日本語がどのぐらいできますか ．日本語能力試験を受けた 受かったことがあ

9 10 / 1 科目の中で、日本語で理解できない科目がありますか 2 授業で、日本語で理解できない部分がある 受けた： はい 級取得 いいえ 3 ほとんどの授業が日本語でわかる 受かった： はい 級取得 いいえ。 11．日本語指導受けたことがありますか はい いいえ 期間 12．通信教育受けたことありますか はい いいえ 期間 13. 小学校名： 県： 市/町： 14. 成績： 15. 学校では母国の文化の紹介の場を作ってもらったことがある はい い いえ 16. 具体的には 17. 中学校名： 県： 市/町： 18. 成績： 19. 学校では母国の文化の紹介の場を作ってもらったことがある はい い いえ 具体的には 20. 外国人であることによるクラスメートの扱いは 1. 普通よりいい方 具体的に 2. 普通 3. 普通より悪い方 具体的に 21. 高校への進学について、（複数回答可） 1. 当たり前だと思っていた 2. 自分自身は進学したかった 3. 周りの学生が皆進学するか ら 4. 両親に言われたから 5. 教師に言われたから 22. 高校への進学について、誰から情報やサポートを受けたか（複数回答可） 1. 両親 2. 担任教師 3. 日本語の教師 4. 学校（校長、他の先生） 5. 友人 6. その他 22. 中学校で卒業して仕事を探そうと考えたことがあった はい いいえ 仕事内容・職種： 13

130 SUEYOSHI Ana

23. 高校学校名： 県： 市/町： 24. 入学試験方式 一般 推薦 25. その学校を選んだ理由は 1. 自分のレベルと合っている 2. 実は別の高校に入試したか 3. 家に近い った 4. 県内/市内で一番質がいい 5. 憧れている高校である 6. その他 から 26. 成績： 27. 学校では母国の文化の紹介の場を作ってもらったことがある はい い いえ 具体的には 28. 外国人であることでクラスメートの扱いは 1. 普通よりいい方 具体的に 2. 普通 3. 普通より悪い方 具体的に 29. 大学/短期大学/専門学校への進学について、（複数回答可） 1. 当たり前だと思っていた 2. 自分自身は進学したかった 3. 周りの学生が皆進学するか ら 4. 両親に言われたから 5. 教師に言われたから 30. 大学/短期大学/専門学校への進学について、誰から情報、サポートを受けたか（複数回答 可） 1. 両親 2. 担任教師 3. 日本語の教師 4. 学校 5. 友人 6. その他 31. 高校で卒業して仕事を探そうと考えたことがあった はい いいえ 仕事内容・職種： 32. 同じ国籍の方と関わるボランティア活動に参加していますか。 はい いいえ 内容： 33. 大学/短期大学/専門学校名： 県： 市/ 町： 34. 入学試験方式 一般 推薦 35. この学校を選んだ理由は 1. 自分のレベルと合っている 2. 実は別の大学に入試したか 3. 家に近い った 4. 県内/市内で一番質がい 5. 勉強したい分野があったか 6. その他 い、 ら 36. 成績： 37. 学校では母国の文化の紹介の場を作ってもらったことがある はい い いえ 具体的には 38. 外国人であることでクラスメートの扱いは 1. 普通よりいい方 具体的に 2. 普通 3. 普通より悪い方 具体的に 39. 退学して、 仕事を探そうと考えたことがあった はい いいえ

14

Second Generation of South Americans in Japan: Building Educational and Professional Careers 131

どういう仕事： 理由： 40. 同じ国籍の方と関わるボランティア活動に参加していますか。 はい いいえ 内容：

III．家族・母国語 41．あなたは母国語がどのぐらいできますか

1 全然できない 2 あいさつや数字、時間、月日、曜日などが言える 3 聞いたり話したりすることが少しできる 4 聞いたり話したりすることがだいたいできるが母国語の文章を読めない 5 母国語で理解できない文章がある 6 ほとんど母国語でわかる 42．日本語と母国語のどちらの方が話しやすいですか 日本語 母国語 両方 43．誰と住んでいますか 父 母 兄弟 祖父母 親戚 両親の職業について： 44．日本に来る前 父 母 45. 日本に 父 母 46. どの言語で父親と話していましたか。 日本語 母国語 どちらでも ミック ス 47. どの言語で父親はあなたと話していましたか。 日本語 母国語 どちらでも ミックス 48. どの言語で母親はあなたと話していましたか。 日本語 母国語 どちらでも ミックス 49. どの言語で母親はあなたと話していましたか。 日本語 母国語 どちらでも ミックス 50.両親は日本語がどのぐらいできますか

1 全然できない 父 母 2 あいさつや数字、時間、月日、曜日などが言える 父 母 3 聞いたり話したりすることが少しできる 父 母 4 聞いたり話したりすることが十分できるが読めない 父 母 5 聞いたり話したり読んだりすることがでる 父 母

IV．その他 51．母国について懐かしく思いますか はい いいえ 52．どのようなことを懐かしく思いますか（記述）

53．あなたの将来について書いてください（仕事、帰国、別の国に行く）

15

132 SUEYOSHI Ana

Segunda Generación de Sudamericanos en Japón: Forjando Carreras Educativas y Profesionales

SUEYOSHI Ana

La trayectoria académica de los jóvenes sudamericanos en Japón, la mayoría de origen brasileño y peruano, ha estado desafortunadamente asociada con altas tasas absolutas y relativas de ausentismo y deserción escolar, así como con bajas tasas de continuación de estudios terciarios. Sin embargo, un grupo aun reducido de jóvenes que culminan sus estudios secundarios superiores en escuelas japonesas se destaca y muestra sus logros académicos que están estrechamente relacionados con sus logros profesionales. El presente estudio, basado en una encuesta y entrevistas realizadas a jóvenes residentes en el área de Kanto, analiza cómo cierta población de la segunda generación de sudamericanos en Japón ha sido capaz de vencer los obstáculos educativos en la sociedad de recepción, cómo sus experiencias personales como hijos de inmigrantes tiene relación con los caminos profesionales escogidos y hasta qué punto los diversos mecanismos de admisión existentes en las escuelas secundarias superiores e instituciones de educación terciaria en Japón han coadyuvado a dicho éxito académico.

（2013 年 11 月 6 日受理）