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ISSN 0204–2061. KNYGOTYRA. 2010. 54

THE BALTIC BOOK CONTACTS: OF LATVIAN AND IN THE ESTONIAN BOOK PRODUCTION

AILE MÖLDRE

Institute of Information Studies, Tallinn University, Narva maantee 25, 10120 Tallinn, E-mail: [email protected]

In the light of differing views on the development of the common Baltic identity, based on analogous historical, political, economic and cultural features, the paper studies its manifestation through transla- tions from the Latvian and Lithuanian languages into Estonian. The analysis is based on a catalogue of translations, which has been compiled with the help of bibliographies and bibliographic databases. A statistical analysis of the data is used to establish the most active periods of publishing, the most popular authors and genres. The first book translation from Latvian dates back to the 18th century, whereas the first book translated from Lithuanian was issued in 1954. Until 1918 when all the three na- tions gained independence, cultural exchange in this region embraced only the historical Baltic prov- inces. emerged in the cultural space of more intensively since the 1930s. The most productive period in translating Latvian and Lithuanian literature was the Soviet period when the Baltic unity reached its peak. After regaining independence, the feeling of Baltic identity has diminished along- side with the decline in publishing of books translated from Latvian and Lithuanian. Key words: , Lithuania, Estonia, the , Baltic identity, translations, publishing, book production.

Introduction of the 20th century was quite different and Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania are often obtained clearly similar features only in 1918 treated under the geopolitical denominator when all of them became independent for “the Baltic states”. This concept is related to the first time. Since 1918, the similarity of other issues such as Baltic unity and Baltic historical development has continued up to identity. The latter is based on the shared the present time when Estonia, Latvia and elements of the general geographic-historic- Lithuania are facing similar problems and political-cultural experience [31, 12]. At share similar aspirations for the future. the same time, the historical development Nowadays, after regaining independence, of the three countries up to the beginning the concept of Baltic identity is sometimes

301 questioned and characterised as a ghost from language and is closest to the Livonian and the Soviet times [1, 21]. Arguments contrary Votic languages. to the idea of common Baltic identity make The historical development is divided the point that there is no such thing as the into several periods, mainly based on po- Baltic region and, as a consequence, there litical history and the development of book can be no Baltic identity. In the 1990s, production. From the 18th century till Estonia and Lithuania protested publicly 1918, the Baltic countries were all part of against labelling them as the Baltic states the . The first period under with the former aspiring to be considered study enfolds the end of the 18th century a Nordic country and the latter stressing its and the 19th century, when the first texts position as a Central European state. The were translated from Latvian and Lithu- unity of the Baltic states was called to be a anian, but their number was still very small mere fiction that only exists in the minds of (as was the general number of books issued Western politicians [5, 59–60]. in Estonian). The beginning of the 20th In the light of such controversial argu- century (1901–1917) was the period of ments, the paper aims at establishing the unprecedented development in all fields of key trends in the development of cultural life – industry, agriculture, political activity, exchange between these countries, repre- education and culture. Estonians made a sented in the publication of books translated significant step towards becoming a civi- from the Latvian and Lithuanian languages lised nation in the Western tradition. These into Estonian. It looks at the history and were also the years of a notable increase in structure of the translations: when the first the Estonian book production. While dur- translations from Latvian and Lithuanian ing the above-mentioned periods Estonia into Estonian were published, how extensive was part of the Russian Empire, the next the translating activity was, how the number period – 1918–1940 – includes the inde- of translated books has changed over time, pendent Republic of Estonia. During the whether there are any differences in the following first year of the Soviet occupation development of translation of Latvian and (in 1940–1941) and the German occupation Lithuanian literature, which genres and (in 1941–1944), translations from Latvian authors have been the most popular, or, and Lithuanian were published mostly in shortly, what we can find out about the con- periodicals; therefore, no special section is tacts among the Baltic states on the basis of devoted to these years, and the treatment of book production in the Estonian language. the topic continues with the period of the The Latvian and Lithuanian languages second Soviet occupation (1944–1990). belong to the Baltic group of the Indo- Estonia regained independence in August European languages, thus being close to 1991. The statistical analysis includes pub­ each other. Estonian is the Finno-Ugric lications of this year in the Soviet period.

302 The latest period starts from the regaining of the second half of the 19th century till 2007. independence in 1991 and studies the trends The publication includes also an article on of translation publishing until 2008. literary contacts between Latvia and Estonia The identification of the general trends is by Anneli Mihkeleva [19, 859–949]. This based on the statistical analysis of a catalogue work, however, does not study non-fiction of translations from the Lithuanian and Lat- publications. Translations of non-fiction vian languages. According to Anthony Pym’s have been identified with the help of the Es- terminology presented in his book “Method tonian national bibliography database ERB in Translation History” [28, 42], a catalogue (http://erb.nlib.ee/) and online catalogue is a list aiming at maximum completeness. ESTER (http://ester.nlib.ee/search/), which The compiling of catalogues is an aspect of is the union catalogue of the Consortium of translation archaeology, which in its turn Estonian Libraries Network. An overview of forms part of translation history. cultural contacts between Estonians and Lat- A catalogue includes translations pub- vians, including translations from Latvian lished as separate books and enfolds all types issued in the Estonian language, has been of literature, first and re-editions published presented in an article by Oskar Kuningas, in the Estonian language in Estonia as well as published in the literary journal Looming in the few publications published in Estonian 1983 [18]. O. Kuningas was himself active outside Estonia. Besides the analysis of the in translating Latvian fiction during the translated books, translations published in Soviet period. periodicals are also briefly discussed, mainly Major retrospective bibliographies cover­ while studying the earlier periods when ing the periods 1525–1850, 1851–1900, periodicals were a more important channel 1901–1917 and 1941–1944 have been for publishing translations. used as sources for identifying translations The translations have been located with from the [9; 10; 11; the help of different bibliographies and 7]. In addition to printed bibliographies, bibliographic databases. Among the most the above-mentioned national bibliography comprehensive sources is the list of fiction, database and online catalogue ESTER were poetry and drama translated from Latvian, used to obtain more specific data. Data on which is included in the book Latvieši, translations from Lithuanian, issued in pe- igauni un lietuviši: literārie un kultūras kon- riodicals during the 19th century and in the takti (, Estonians and : beginning of the 20th century (up to 1944), Literary and Cultural Contacts), which was have been identified with the help of the issued by the Institute of Literature, Folklore general analytical retrospective bibliogra- and of the in phy of Estonian periodicals of the Estonian in 2008 [19, 226–283]. The list is arranged Literary Museum. The systematic file of the by authors and includes publications from bibliography is preserved in the Bibliography

303 Department of the Archival Library of the production including the years 1961–1990 museum. [6]. Translations published in the indepen- The lists have been used to plot the dis- dent Republic of Estonia in 1918–1940 tribution of translations over time and for are presented in the bibliography included establishing the activity of various agents in in the exhibition catalogue of Latvian and the translation process. Additional data have Lithuanian literature in the Estonian lan- been obtained by analysis of articles from guage, published by the National Library periodicals and collections of articles. The of Estonia in 1990 [23]. latter have contributed to the explanatory Translations from Lithuanian, issued analysis of the statistical data. during the first decades of the Soviet period (in 1940–1975) have been listed in the di- The beginning of literary con- th th ploma paper by Mare Lohk [22], defended tacts during the 18 and 19 in the Tallinn Pedagogical Institute in 1979. centuries Data on later years of the Soviet period and Literary contacts between Estonia and Lat- the period after regaining independence in via date back to the beginnings of Estonian 1991 can be found in the bibliographies of prose at the end of the 18th century. The translations enfolding the years 1976–1980, book Juttud ja teggud (Stories and Tales) by 1981–1985 and 1986–1990 [25; 26; 8] as the Baltic German author Friedrich Wilhelm well as in the national bibliography database von Willmann (1782) was largely based on ERB. Translations issued in periodicals the translation from Latvian of Gotthard have been identified from the current ana- Friedrich Stender’s book Jaukas Pasakkas un lytical bibliography Artiklite ja Retsensioonide Stahsti (Pleasant Tales and Stories) issued in Kroonika (The Chronicle of Articles and 1766 [18, 1204]. It gained a wide popularity Reviews) of the Soviet period [3]. and was reprinted three times (1787, 1804, Translations of literature for children are and 1838) with nearly a third of its stories assembled in the bibliography Estonian chil- becoming a part of folk tradition. dren’s literature in Latvian and Lithuanian; Although contacts between Estonian and Latvian and Lithuanian children`s literature Latvian intellectuals were relatively frequent in Estonian compiled by Andres Jaaksoo and since the second half of the 19th century issued in 2008 [14]. It includes all transla- when many Latvian intellectual leaders stud- tions published as separate books as well as ied at the University, the number of translations issued in periodicals. book translations was quite modest. The first Statistical data on the translations of the translation from Latvian in the 19th century Soviet period (title output, share of different represented the popular genre of sentimental literatures) have been elaborated on the basis novels. Wagga neitsit Mai Roos (The Pious of the statistical yearbooks of Estonian print Virgin Mai Roos), issued in 1865, enfolds a

304 tragic love story which took place in one’s word, dress nicely, eat healthy food, (contemporary Latvia). The plot is based on avoid gambling and borrowing money, the events described in legal records of the which all sound as universal and up-to-date court from the beginning of the 17th century recommendations. He also translated from [24]. It is noteworthy for enriching the the a story by the German books for common people with local topics, author Christoph von Schmid, issued in which fostered its success among readers. Tartu in 1868. The original text of the novel was written by Carl Robert Jakobson, one of the leaders the Baltic-German author Philipp Adalbert of the Estonian national awakening, translat- Cammerer under the title Jungfrau von Tre- ed two pamphlets on shipping by Krišjanis iden. The Estonian translation is based on Valdemārs, the leading figure among Young the Latvian version of this story (Turaidas Latvians, who had studied at the Tartu Uni- jumprava) adapted by Juris Dauge [11, 85]. versity. The texts were written in German Censorship prohibited the re-edition of this and Russian, and translations into Estonian book in the 1860s, but the intense interest of were issued in 1868 and 1878. readers led to a secret re-edition in the 1870s The rise in literary contacts between [24]. The great popularity of sentimental Latvians and Estonians occurred during literature based on “true stories” extended the when both Latvian and Estonian till the turn of the century. The unhappy authors moved towards critical realism love story of Mai Roos was published in six which reflected their joint social endeav- re-editions by four different publishers in ours. Eduard Vilde, then a young promising the end of the 19th and the beginning of author and later a classic of Estonian realis- the 20th century. For example, the text was issued twice in 1891, one of the publications tic literature, translated short stories by the being a retranslation. Latvian author Rudolfs Blaumanis, using Another example of the publications the . These texts were pub- of the 19th century, the pamphlet The Way lished as a separate book under the title Õlest to Happiness, or How to Get Rich by an un- katuse all (Under the Straw Roof) in 1892. known author from 1866, could be called This publication is noteworthy for being an early version of self-help. In the foreword, the first book by Blaumanis ever published. the translator Mats Grant, an Estonian He, like Vilde, later acquired the status of peasant who had studied in Salacgriva in the most distinguished national writer and Latvia, explains to a pious reader, who trusts playwright. in God and questions the necessity of any Altogether, six titles by Latvian authors “dishonest” measures, that all his advice is were published in nine editions in the sec- based on the fear of God. The reader is, for ond half of the 19th century, representing instance, encouraged to work hard, keep quite different types of content.

305 Since the 1890s, Estonian periodicals Twenty-four book titles, including two re- also started issuing translations of Latvian editions, were issued in the beginning of the poems and prose. The first translations from 20th century (Table 1). the Lithuanian language date back to the Works by Andrievs Niedra (eight titles) same years when two texts were issued in and Rudolfs Blaumanis (six titles) domi- periodicals. The first translation was a folk nated the selection. A. Niedra (written An- song issued in 1887. The next translation dreews Needra in the old Estonian spelling followed after ten years. It was a story by system) was the author of stories and plays the Lithuanian writer and lawyer Antanas as well as political pamphlets with an anti- Kriščiukaitis who published under the pen- revolutionary message, warding off riots in name Aišbė. His stories were quite popular countryside, factories and attacks against at that time, and he was considered an out- the church. Two of these publications were standing contemporary writer. issued by the author himself, and he asked the Committee of Estonian Nobility to help 1901–1917 – development of con- to distribute them [27]. tacts with Drama was the most favoured genre The contacts with Latvia intensified in the among the translations, and its share slightly socially fertile atmosphere of the beginning outweighs the share of fiction. In the gen- of the 20th century. According to the words eral book production, however, the share of of the well-known Latvian writer Janis Rain- drama was more modest. Fiction for adults is, the revolution of 1905 joined Latvian and formed 27% (285 titles) of all the publica- Estonian fighters into a united front [18, tions of Estonian belles-lettres, whereas the 1206]. After its suppression, many Estonian share of drama for adults was 14% (144 and Latvian participants of the revolutionary titles). The same applies to the proportions events met in the West where they had fled of translated literature: the share of fiction to avoid repression. The publishing of trans- was 68% (757 titles) and of drama 32% lations of Latvian literature also increased. (361 titles). The notable share of drama in translations from Latvian is due to the Table 1. Book titles translated from Latvian in popularity of plays by Latvian playwrights, 1901–1917 above all, by Rudolfs Blaumanis, one of the founders of Latvian drama. He was among Fiction 10 (42%) the favourite authors of the translator Mart Drama 11 (46%) Pukits who translated nearly all the books by Non-fiction 3 (12 %) Latvian writers published in Estonia at that time. It is noteworthy that in the beginning Total 24 (100%) of the 20th century, texts by Latvian authors Titles per annum 1.41 were translated directly from the Latvian lan-

306 guage, without using the German or Russian the turn of the century. The share of trans- languages as intermediaries. lations from English and French (together The demand in plays is connected with with French-language Belgian) literature the abundance of amateur theatre groups was 6% (both 68 titles). The literary move- which had been established by numerous ment Noor Eesti (Young Estonia), aiming at societies. The movement of societies became moulding Estonian culture upon European especially active in the 1880s–1890s. The patterns and reducing the German and the plays presented by amateurs formed an Russian influence, organised the translation important part of public evening parties of English and . The maga- organised by societies in order to earn money zines of this movement also included articles for their activities. Nearly a hundred amateur on the rising cultures of the neighbouring groups were active in the countryside around countries, including Latvia. It was notable, 1905, and there were several drama societies though, that most of the writers who were in the cities, all needing repertoire [29, 574]. discussed in the magazines had not yet been At the same time, the population of Estonia translated into Estonian. was only about 958,000 inhabitants [17, Thus, publication of Latvian fiction 245]. Part of plays for theatre groups were became regular in 1901–1917 when it was copied on a hectograph in small print run published both in books and in periodicals, (less than a hundred copies), but this was not and the range of translated authors became the case with translations of Latvian plays. broader. At the same time, there was no de- The share of translations of belles-lettres velopment in the publication of translations from Latvian in the general production of from Lithuanian neither book translations translations during this period was very nor translated texts in periodicals were issued small (2%), but it is equal to the translations during this period. of, for example, Scandinavian belles-lettres (translations from Danish 2%, Norwegian The tightening of ties during 2%, Swedish 1,5%). As a comparison, it independence (1918–1940) could be pointed out that the largest share In 1918, all the three countries became of translations was made from German independent. The common struggle for literature, forming 35% of all translations freedom and similar tasks in building the (390 titles). This is due to the long-lasting state formed the basis for future coopera- dominance of German culture in this area. tion. Due to the feeling of outside danger, Translations from Russian followed with the striving for political contacts was stron- 15% (168 titles). Russian culture was the ger at the beginning of the 1920s; later, the leading culture of the whole empire. The role relations weakened. In the field of culture, of translations from Russian was intensified however, the contacts gradually strength- by the reforms carried out at ened. Cooperation among intellectuals from

307 Table 2. Book titles translated from Latvian in had doubts about the economic success of 1918–1940 these translations [18, 1206]. Fiction 14 (35%) There is no comprehensive statistics on the translations of this whole period, but Drama 16 (40%) data from 1934–1940 [34, 45–46] demon- Children’s literature 7 (18%) strate that the English language dominated Non-fiction 3 (7%) as the source language of belles-lettres trans- Total 40 (100%) lations. Translations from English comprised 43% of all translations of literary texts. This Titles per annum 1.73 is in accordance with the general political and cultural orientation to . the three countries at non-governmental At the same time, quite a large share of level was quite intensive. Joint congresses these translations represented light reading and conferences of teachers, physicians and criticized fiercely in contemporary liter- representatives of other professions were ary press which was protesting against the organised frequently [5, 61]. flood of pulp fiction. The popular ideas of Publishing of translations from Latvian Balto-Scandian cooperation are reflected in became regular since the end of the 1920s. the growing number of translations of Scan- Forty book titles were published in all (Table dinavian literature, forming 14% of all the 2). These books included works by 21 writ- translations of belles-lettres. Close ties and ers; most of them were represented by one cultural cooperation with led to an or two titles. Rudolfs Blaumanis remained active translation of which the most popular Latvian author with five formed 5% of all the translations. The share publications of plays and the collection of translations from German was limited to of stories Surma varjus (In the Shadow of 8%. Estonian intellectuals had drifted away ; original title Nāves ēnā). from the German influence already since Plays continued to be the most favoured the beginning of the 20th century, but for genre, issued mostly by Taavet Mutsu’s political reasons the anti-German attitude Theatrical Publishing House (T. Mutsu increased, especially in the 1930s. The share Teatrikirjastus) and the Estonian Union of of translations from French formed also 8% Education (Eesti Haridusliit) which special- and from Russian 7%. Translations from ised in plays for school drama circles. Other Latvian comprised a much smaller share publishers, counting eleven publishing hous- with 2% of all the translations. Still, their es in all, issued mostly one or two titles. On selection included some noteworthy publica- the whole, the number of translated books tions. For example, Estonian readers had a was not big, which could be explained by a chance to get acquainted with the works by low interest of the publishing houses which Janis when his tragedy Joosep ja tema

308 vennad (Joseph and his Brothers; original 1934. The treaty was successful in stimulat- title Jāzeps un viņa braļi) was published by ing the cultural and economic cooperation. the Society in 1928. For example, the Estonian Year of the Book Rainis, the greatest Latvian , had been in 1935 was celebrated in the neighbouring famous in Latvia as far back as at the end of Baltic countries. This event also marks the the 19th century, but he remained practically turning point in the presentation of Lithu- unknown in Estonia. Karl Aben, the transla- anian literature in the Estonian press. The tor of this play,, became the other leading newspaper Uus Eesti (New Estonia) wrote in translator from Latvian beside Mart Pukits. 1935 that when one talked about the warm Mart Pukits translated the prose poem response to the Year of the Book, then Lithu- Straumeni by another great poet, Edvards ania had to be mentioned among the first. It Virza, in 1938. This remarkable work, pub- was added that so far Estonians havde been lished under the title Taevaredel (Ladder to very vaguely known in Lithuania and only Heaven), was quite different from Estonian now Lithuanians discovered us, Estonians, as rural literature and represented a new way of a small nation worth of interest [20]. seeing patriotism and traditions. The poem The same could be said about Estonians was labelled a tool of conservative propa- and their feelings about Lithuanians. A ganda in the hands of the Latvian authoritar- new era in cultural history of both nations ian regime immediately after its publication was proclaimed by the press. Many authors by the Latvian author Lucija Upite [32]. So stressed the need to expand the cultural Virza’s poem was naturally “ignored” during cooperation to enfold all the three Baltic the Soviet period and rediscovered in the be- nations. Mutual visits of writers and joint ginning of the 1990s when it was reprinted literary events were organised. One of the (in 1992). Fiction formed the majority of most enthusiastic agents in developing the translated titles; translations of non-fiction contacts with Lithuania, Aleksis Rannit, were limited to a handbook for fire-fighters even published his first collection of poetry and a religious pamphlet. in the Estonian language in the Lithuanian Although no books were translated publishing house “Sakalas” in 1937. The from Lithuanian, translations of Lithuanian collection included also translations of literature and articles on Lithuanian liter- poems by Lithuanian . Literary circles ary events and writers found their place in thought about the establishment of a joint Estonian periodicals. During the 1920s, the journal, which was considered especially number of publications was still rather mod- important in the political situation, but est. In an attempt to avoid international iso- this plan was not implemented. Thus, the lation, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia signed cultural exchange and feeling of Baltic unity the trilateral Treaty on Concord and Coop- started to strengthen towards the end of eration, referred to as the Baltic Entente in the 1930s.

309 During the first Soviet year, one book republics. In the field of book production, translated from Latvian, the story Ema which was a monopoly of the state, these (Mother) by Indrikis Lemanis, was pub- contacts were influenced by the communist lished in 1941. It had already been prepared party regulations. in the Noor-Eesti publishing house during The Soviet period brought along the independence. During the German oc- transfer to compulsory translations – the cupation in 1941–1944, translations from choice of authors and works was determined Latvian and Lithuanian were issued in by ideological considerations. Translations periodicals. were divided into categories: Russian litera- ture, literature of the so-called other Soviet The Soviet period 1944–1991: nations, and foreign literature consisting a boom of translations of books from socialist countries and from The following common experience of the capitalist countries. Publishing houses used Soviet occupation greatly influenced the this classification for planning their work concept of the Baltic unity. In the opinion and reporting its results. Dominant position of the Estonian historian Küllo Arjakas, was given to translations from the Russian closer ties between the three nations were language, which during the first post-war established in the Soviet prison camps [2]. decade outnumbered even the publications The feeling of sharing the same fate fostered of Estonian literature. For example, publica- contacts among people from the three Baltic tions of belles-lettres included 567 titles of translations from Russian (42% of all the Table 3. Translations from Latvian and Lithu- titles of belles-lettres) and 543 titles written anian in 1944–1991 (book titles)* by Estonian authors (40%) in 1945–1955. The share of translations of authors from From From other Soviet republics, including Latvia Latvian Lithuanian and Lithuania, started increasing since the 1944–1950 6 0 second half of the 1950s when the number 1951–1960 21 11 of translations from Russian decreased. 1961–1970 26 12 A notable leap, however, occurred in 1971–1980 38 27 the 1970s. If the period of the so-called Khrushchev thaw during the end of the 1981–1991 38 25 1950s and the 1960s had “tolerated” the Total 129 75 growing number of translations from the Titles per annum 2.68 1.57 literature of capitalist countries, then the strengthening of ideological pressure since * The data do not include two collections of po- etry translated from Latvian, which were published the beginning of the 1970s resulted in a outside Soviet Estonia. decrease of these translations. The share of

310 translations of foreign literature comprised number of titles. For example, the novel 52% of all belles-lettres translations in Kaluri poeg (Son of the Fisherman; original 1961–1970 and 42% in 1971–1980. The title Zvejnieka dēls) by Lācis was published gap was filled with translations by authors four times (1952, 1956, 1969, and 1987). of the other Soviet nations. The number of However, in general, the publishing policy these translations nearly doubled during that favoured diversity; thus, altogether 52 writ- time, their share increased from 13% of all ers were represented in the book production, literary translations in 1961–1970 to 20% translated by 18 translators. The dominance in 1971–1980. The increase of translations of drama gave way to translations of novels from Latvian and Lithuanian reflects this and stories. Translations from Lithuanian change in the publishing policy. numbered 75 and included works by 42 On the other hand, the above-mentioned writers. The first translation from Lithu- closeness of the Baltic nations during the anian, a collection of poetry, was published Soviet period formed the basis for a sincere as a separate book in 1954. Petras Cvirka and willingness to publish works by authors from Justinas Marcinkevičius were represented the neighbouring countries. The 1970s were by the biggest number of titles (5 and 4, the time of strengthening cultural and eco- respectively). Despite the special position nomic ties among the Baltic republics also of poetry in Lithuanian literature, mainly in a wider range (the movement of towns works of prose were translated into Esto- of friendship, mutual visits, student song nian (62% of all translations). Although 12 festivals, etc). translators participated in translating books Among Latvian authors, Vilis Lācis from Lithuanian into Estonian, more than and Andrejs Upits, both with communist a half of fiction titles were translated by one ties, were represented with the biggest professional translator Mihkel Loodus. In her article on the popularization of Table 4. Translations from Latvian and Lithu- Lithuanian literature in Latvia during the anian in 1944–1991 by genre Soviet period, the Latvian researcher Eva Eglāja-Kristsone points out the surprising From From Latvian quantity of satire translated from Lithuanian Lithuanian into Latvian [12, 134]. She compares this Fiction 80 (63%) 46 (62%) trend to Estonia, arguing that translations Poetry 3 (2%) 7 (9%) of Lithuanian satire in Estonian books and Drama 3 (2%) 4 (5%) periodicals were not as widespread. Actually, the genre was very popular in Estonia as Children’s 40 (31%) 14 (19%) well. Many of the sketches were published literature repeatedly in different periodicals. The Non-fiction 3 (2%) 4 (5%) most popular Lithuanian satirist in both

311 Latvia and Estonia was Vytautė Žilinskaitė. After regaining independence: Her humorous sketch The Ideal Woman in the conditions of the mar- was published in eight different Estonian ket (1991–2008) newspapers in 1961–1971. The Latvian After becoming independent again in Au- satirist Calis Melameds could be called her gust 1991, the three Baltic states turned to “competitor” with comparably numerous democracy and market economy. In these publications. Humour helped to overcome new conditions, the general structure of the abundant problems of Soviet everyday translations by languages changed consider- life and provided a moment of self-irony. ably, and the number of book titles translat- The Baltic nations evidently shared a similar ed from Latvian and Lithuanian decreased: taste in it. in 1992–2008, 27 translations from Latvian Among translations of belles-lettres of all were published in Estonia, and translations the Soviet nations, translations of Latvian from Lithuanian numbered 16. literature occupied the second place after Translations from Latvian have been translations of , followed published annually. The publication of by translations from Lithuanian. But, for books translated from Lithuanian proceeded example, the number of translations from with intervals. A statistical analysis of the Russian was ten times bigger than that of publications demonstrates changes in the translations from Latvian in 1961–1990 typological structure of the translated litera- (1205 titles and 100 titles). Translations ture compared to the previous period. The from Russian formed 39% of all translations share of fiction and especially of children’s of belles-lettres of these years, translations literature has decreased. Neither Latvian nor from English reching 9.5%, from German Lithuanian dramas have been published in 7%, from French 5%, from Finnish 4%, from Latvian 3% and from Lithuanian 2%. Table 5. Translations from Latvian and Lithua- The range of languages of the Soviet nations nian in 1992–2008 from which books were translated was large, enfolding 47 languages, most of them rep- From From Latvian Lithuanian resented by a small number of books. How- ever, many of them represented compulsory Fiction 10 (37%) 7 (44%) translations which were published pro forma Poetry 5 (19%) 2 (12%) and never attracted the attention of readers. Children’s 3 (11%) 1 (6%) Foreign fiction, which largely consisted of literature older literature, was popular among book- Non-fiction 9 (33%) 6 (38%) buyers and helped to increase sales – even in the socialist economy the publishing sector, Total 27 (100%) 16 (100%) in general, was expected to make profit. Titles per annum 1.58 0.94

312 1992–2008. More collections of Latvian On the whole, the number of translations poetry have been issued in 1992–+2008, from Latvian and Lithuanian is small, where- whereas the translation of Lithuanian poetry as the number of translations from Latvian has, on the contrary, decreased from seven outweighs translations from Lithuanian. The titles during the Soviet period to two titles. long-lasting traditions in translating Latvian Poetry has been issued by the publishing literature and stronger historical ties have houses that are oriented to high-quality preserved its slightly more notable position literary works from various literatures of in Estonian book-market. Quite like in the world. Among these publishing houses, the pre-war Republic of Estonia, publish- for example, is Tuum which has issued a ers are rather unwilling to publish Latvian collection of poetry by the Latvian writer or Lithuanian literature, fearing low sales. Uldis Bērzinš in 1997 and the long poem Translators have repeatedly pointed out the Carmina minora by the Lithuanian poet difficulty of finding a publisher for transla- Justinas Marcinkevičius in 2003. tions of Latvian fiction in Estonia [13; 30]. But the most notable change has oc- Another similarity with the years 1918–1940 curred in publishing non-fiction. If publica- lies in the dominance of translations from tions of non-fiction were rare and marginal the English language. Their share reached during the earlier periods, now they are 65% of translations in 2003, while the share issued more regularly and include various of translations from Russian decreased to topics. Among translations from Latvian 4%. Translations from the German language there are many notable books on Latvian comprised 10% and from French 6% of all history and culture, for example, The Path translations in 2003 [33, 783]. of Life of Latvian People by Uldis Germanis There are also relatively few translators and The War of Independence in Latvia by from the Latvian and Lithuanian languages Peteris Radzinš, both translated by Dzintars in Estonia. The most productive translator Sprivulis. The same topics are treated in the from Latvian during the 1990s was Ita Saks two books by Anna Žigure who has trans- (1921–2003), one of the leading translators lated Estonian books into Latvian and acted during the Soviet period. Translations of fic- as an ambassador of the Republic of Latvia in tion from Lithuanian, published since 1991, Estonia and Finland. However, non-fiction have been translated by Mihkel Loodus which has been translated from Latvian is (1937). The lack of demand has hindered not limited to books on history and culture; the forming of a new generation of transla- it includes also, for example, a book on the tors. This development has been further salutary effect of sauna, advice on public intensified by scarce possibilities to learn the speaking, etc. Translations from Lithuanian Latvian and Lithuanian languages. are represented by three atlases for schools, The problems of publishing the Baltic which have all been reprinted. literature are further illustrated by the fact

313 that there are hardships even with the trans- small and limited to six titles. Their publica- lating of the works that have won the literary tion is concentrated in the 1860s and 1890s. prize of the Baltic Assembly, although the The content of translations issued during the statute of the prize provides the publica- 1860s varied – a sentimental novel, a hand- tion of the winning works in all the three book on getting rich, a brochure on shipping Baltic states. At the same time, the literary by one of the leaders of Latvian national magazines publish overviews on Latvian and awakening K. Valdemārs, etc. Otherwise, the Lithuanian literature, introducing authors intellectual impact of who and works that have not been translated into studied at the Tartu University was not reflect- Estonian, and express their dissatisfaction ed in book production. The 1890s brought with this situation. Here we can observe re-editions of a popular sentimental novel, a contradiction of cultural aspirations and but also the first book by the future Latvian commercial calculations, well known of the classical author R. Blaumanis. He was also market economy. The typical alleviation to the most favoured Latvian writer during the the problem lies in grants and financial sup- next period, 1901–1917, when especially his port by the state and various institutions. In plays enjoyed wide popularity. The increase of Estonia, translators and publishers can apply translations from Latvian during this period for support to the Fund for Fostering Cul- is partly due to the activities of translator ture. For example, the collection of poems Mart Pukits who specialized in translating by the Latvian poet Juris Kronbergs, issued Latvian literature. Pukits contributed notably in 2007, received support from this source. to the regular publication of translations from A special Latvian–Estonian and Estonian– Latvian during this and later periods. Latvian translation prize was established in Apart from a couple of translations is- 2009 in order to emphasize the importance sued in Estonian newspapers in the end of cultural exchange among these nations of the 19th century, no translations from and foster the professional development of Lithuanian had been published in books both Latvian and Estonian translators [4]. or periodicals until 1917. Thus, up to the beginning of the 20th century the cultural Conclusions contacts enfolded only the historical Baltic The first contacts with Latvian literature date provinces, including Livonia, back to the 18th century, but no translations and Estonia, but not Lithuania. Estonians, followed during the first half of the 19th Latvians and some other nations were native century. Since the middle of the century, inhabitants of this historical Baltic cultural the title production of books in Estonian space, but the ruling class consisted of the increased considerably – from 40 titles in Baltic who had conquered this area 1850 to 444 in 1901 [21,88]. The number of in the 13th century. Although Estonia and books translated from Latvian, however, was Livonia became part of the Russian Empire

314 as far back as in 1710, the Baltic German During the Soviet period when the Baltic nobility maintained its privileges and domi- unity was based on the hostile policy of a nated the local cultural life for centuries. It great power, the literary ties became more was only in the last decades of the 19th cen- intensive. The Estonian reader could get to tury when the Russification reforms brought know both classical and contemporary writ- along the more extensive use of the Russian ers of the other Baltic republics, omitting, language in administration and education. naturally, the banned works and authors. It Lithuania in its turn belonged to the Polish– is characteristic of the era that ideological Central European cultural space. considerations and genuine interest in the The following period of nation/state other Baltic nations intertwine – the official building, a new and similar experience to requirements to translate the authors of the Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, brought other Soviet nations served the promotion them closer together and fostered cultural of cultural exchange with the Baltic neigh- cooperation. The already established liter- bours. ary contacts with Latvia led to a continu- After regaining independence in 1991, ous increase in the number of translations, the number of translations from Latvian although, for commercial considerations of and Lithuanian started decreasing. A com- publishers, their share in the general output parison of the study periods by the output of translations was modest. Translations of translated books per annum demonstrates from the Lithuanian language appeared in that in 1992–2008 even less books were periodicals, but were not published as sepa- translated from Latvian per annum than rate books. Lithuania still remained cultur- in 1918–1940. Similarly to publishers of ally distant, and publishers were obviously pre-war years, the contemporary publishing even less willing to take a risk of publishing houses have doubts as to publishing Latvian Lithuanian authors unknown to Estonian and Lithuanian literature, fearing the indif- readers. Towards the end of the 1930s, the ference of book buyers. These arguments situation started to change. Both official could be justified by the attitude of the policy and non-governmental initiative public towards the neighbouring nations. paid more attention to this country, and the According to the Bachelor’s thesis by Irma publication of Lithuanian texts in periodicals Kaljulaid on mutual stereotypes of Estonians increased considerably. In conclusion, the and Lithuanians, the ordinary citizens of years 1918–1940 demonstrate the formation both countries recognize the existence of a of the Baltic identity in its contemporary rather wide mental distance between the two meaning. Beside other manifestations, this countries. The expert interviews revealed the development can be found in the growing indifference of Estonians towards Lithuania number of translations from Lithuanian, and things connected with this country which were published in periodicals. [16, 57, 61]. The results of this study are

315 similar to the findings of the Master’s thesis At the same time, the established ties by Katri Aivare on mutual stereotypes in with the small cultures of similar historical, Estonia and Latvia, who concluded that economic and political features, sharing the young Latvians and Estonians associate less common Baltic memory, should be worth and less with each other in the mutual Baltic preservation. Promotion of book contacts identity [1, 95]. The feeling of closeness is with Latvian and Lithuanian culture, as well mainly based on the common historical ex- as with other smaller cultures, is a prerequi- perience, emotional events of the past, and site for sustaining the cultural diversity and the Baltic identity is widely considered an enriching the mental horizon of Estonians. identification used by the rest of the world Grounded on the ideas by Czesław Miłosz, [1, 96]. The changes in political regimes and the Lithuanian researcher Aušra Jurgutienė economic conditions, access to the cultural draws attention to the purposes of the heritage of the world and global media as regional conception of cultures – to resist well as increased opportunities to travel have cultural globalization and cross the line of led to cultural re-orientation. The search classical [15, 31]. for identity has become wider, embracing Some recent developments present en- the Nordic countries, the states around the couraging examples of the growing valuation Baltic Sea or the whole . of the cultural contacts among the Baltic Research on the change of spatial relations countries, including, for instance, the above- in the Baltic region demonstrates the domi- mentioned Estonian–Latvian translation nance of , the USA, , , prize and the fact that since 2009 it is possi- Finland and in the cultural space of ble to study both the Latvian and Lithuanian Estonia [33, 783, 793]. languages at the Tallinn University.

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BALTIJOS ŠALIŲ KNYGOS RYŠIAI: LATVIŲ IR LIETUVIŲ LITERATŪROS VERTIMAI ESTIJOS KNYGŲ LEIDYBOS PRODUKCIJOJE AILE MÖLDRE Santrauka Estija, Latvija ir Lietuva dažnai apibūdinamos bų į estų kalbą, leidyboje. Į vertimo istoriją ir vienu geopolitiniu bendravardikliu kaip Baltijos struktūrą žvelgiama per verstinių knygų pavadi- valstybės. Ši sąvoka siejama su Baltijos vienybės nimų skaičių, žanrus ir populiariausius autorius. ir Baltijos tapatybės sąvokomis. Pastaroji grin- Vertimų katalogai, sudaryti įvairių bibliografijų džiama bendrais geografinės, istorinės, politinės ir bibliografinių duomenų bazių pagrindu, tapo ir kultūrinės patirties elementais. Šiuo metu po statistinės analizės pagrindu. nepriklausomybės atgavimo Baltijos tapatybės Nors pirmasis vertimas iš latvių kalbos siekia sąvoka kartais kvestionuojama ir apibūdinama XVIII a. pabaigą, pirmoje XIX a. pusėje nepasi- kaip sovietmečio šmėkla, fikcija, egzistuojanti rodė nė vieno vertimo. Vertimo veikla gerokai tiktai Vakarų politikų protuose. pagyvėjo antroje amžiaus pusėje, ypač didelio Atsižvelgiant į tokius prieštaringus argumen- populiarumo sulaukė sentimentalus romanas tus straipsnyje siekiama nustatyti pagrindines Pamaldi mergelė Mai Roos, verstas iš J. Dauge šių šalių kultūros mainų plėtros tendencijas, at- Turaidas jumprava. Pirmieji vertimai iš lietu- spindėtas knygų, verstų iš latvių ir lietuvių kal- vių kalbos buvo keli apsakymai, išspausdinti

318 XIX a. pabaigoje Estijos periodiniuose leidi- Bendra sovietinės okupacijos patirtis smar- niuose. 1901–1917 m. ryšiai tarp Latvijos ir Es- kiai paveikė Baltijos vienybės sąvoką. Tos pačios tijos intelektualų tapo aktyvesni, o drama, ypač lemties pojūtis sustiprino ryšius tarp visų trijų R. Blaumanio pjesės, buvo mėgstamas žanras, Baltijos respublikų žmonių. Kultūros mainai, nes daugybė saviveiklinio teatro trupių ieškojo įskaitant vertimus iš regiono kalbų, suintensy- naujo repertuaro. Tačiau tuo laiku nepasirodė vėjo dėl nuoširdaus domėjimosi vienas kito kul- vertimų iš lietuvių kalbos nei atskiromis knygo- tūra ir ideologinių sovietinės literatūros skatini- mis, nei periodiniuose leidiniuose. Kultūriniai mo sumetimų. Pirmoji knyga iš lietuvių kalbos mainai su kaimyninėmis tautomis apsiribojo buvo išversta 1954 metais. istorinėmis Baltijos provincijomis. Atgavus nepriklausomybę, Baltijos tapaty- Kai 1918 m. visos trys Baltijos šalys tapo ne- bės jausmas susilpnėjo dėl politinės santvar- priklausomos, jos atsidūrė panašioje valstybės kos, ekonominių sąlygų pokyčių, prieigos prie kūrimo situacijoje, kuri skatino bendradarbiauti. pasaulio kultūros, galimybių keliauti. Visa tai Kultūriniai ryšiai suintensyvėjo, ypač ketvirtojo pakeitė Baltijos tautų kultūrines orientacijas. dešimtmečio antroje pusėje. Latviškos knygos Vertimai iš latvių ir lietuvių kalbų pasirodo re- buvo bemaž nuolat verčiamos, bet pavadinimų tai, o vertimų iš lietuvių kalbos skaičius ypač skaičius buvo gana kuklus (40 pavad.). Leidėjai sumažėjo (16 pavadinimų per 1992–2008 m.). nepasitikėjo šių vertimų ekonomine sėkme. Ver- Tačiau reikėtų išlaikyti nusistovėjusius ryšius timai iš lietuvių kalbos buvo skelbiami periodi- su Baltijos šalimis, kad būtų išsaugota įvairovė, niuose leidiniuose. Susidomėjimas lietuvių kul- plėtotųsi regioninė kultūrinė tapatybė ir būtų tūra paplito ketvirtojo dešimtmečio pabaigoje. apribota globalizacija.

Įteikta 2010 m. vasario mėn.

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