CO NTENTS

PART A .

PART B .

O RESSION 1 7 6 - 1 6 1 . 7 8 5 B PP , RE ONSTR TI N RE RES I 1 - 1 B2 . O S ON 865 900 C UC P , B3 REKINDLIN CIVIL RI TS 1 900 -1 94 1 . G GH , B4 IRT OF THE IVIL RI TS MOVEMENT 1 4 - . 9 1 1 954 B H C GH , B MODERN IVIL RI TS MOVEMENT 1 955 - 1 5 . 964 C GH ,

B THE SE OND REV L I N 1 - 1 6 . O T O 965 976 C U ,

PART C .

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

ART D DETERMINATIONS OF SITE SI NIFI AN E P . G C C

EVALUATING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF SITES

T E I LIO RAP Y PAR . B B G H

SOURCES CONSULTED RECOMMENDED READIN G

ONS LTIN I STORIANS PART F . C U G H

LIST OF TABLES

NATIONAL ARK SERVI E IV IL RI TS RELATED INTER RETATION TA BLE 1 . P C C GH P BY MINORITY GROUP

2 NATIONAL ISTORI LANDMARKS AND NATI ONAL ARK NITS BY TABLE . H C P U CIVIL RIGHTS ERA S

EXAM LES OF LA ES A SSO IA TED WIT IVIL RI TS EVENTS AND TABLE 3 . P P C C H C GH

LIST OF APPENDICES

DIX RONOLO Y OF IVIL RI T IN AMERI A APPEN 1 . CH G C GH S C

2 RONOLO Y OF AMERI AN INDIA HT o A PP ENDIX . CH G C N CIVIL RIG S EyENgS

EXECUTI VE SUMMARY

I ntroduction

C r r - In 1 999 the US . ong ess autho ized the National Park Service to conduct a multi state study of civil ri ghts sites to determine the appropriateness of including these sites in the A s rt f t N l P r S m . a o i s N H r L m r ur r r m ationa a k yste p ational isto ic and a ks S vey p og a , the N P r S r r r r ofAm r H r OAH ational a k e vice in pa tne ship with the O ganization e ican isto ians ( ) , prepared this civil rights framework study to assist the National Park Service in identifying r r r r The and p io itizing those a eas of histo y significant in illustrating the civil rights story . framework Should assist planners in evaluating proposals by Congress and others for t m The r rt o r r r r r . additions the pa k syste , histo ic t ails , and he itage a eas epo will also assist in the identification ofsites for National Historic Landmark designation and help nominating r r I r r r autho ities in states , fede al agencies , and ndian t ibes identify p ope ties that should be nominated and listed in the National Register of H istoric Places .

M ethodology

’ N P r r m r B r S t r . The eginning the p ocess , ational a k e vice staff developed the s udy s pa a ete s — study used a period ofsignificance beginn ing in 1 776 when the Decla ra tion of “ — Indep endence declared that all men are created equal and ending in 1 976 to encompass the civil ri ghts movement of minority groups following adoption of the 1 964 Civil Rights t T r r r m r r r r x r Ac . he se o scope cove ed the ight to equal t eat ent unde the law ega dless of ace, , r Pr Act r m T sexual o ientation . ovisions of the se ve as subthe es within the study . hese include r mm m m the ight to vote, access to public acco odations , public education , and equal e ploy ent opportunity .

Q AH scholars worked with the National Park Service to produce a historical overview f r i o U S . r for m A r Am r N placing civil ights w thin the context histo y wo en, f ican e icans , ative Am r A s r r Am r La A . e icans , tinos , sian e icans, and gays and lesbians the wo k p oceeded the r m mm r r r m Overview identified othe the es such as i ig ant ights , c i inal justice, and the ’ r r r The I r r r . American ndian nations st uggle to etain thei sove eignty, lands, ights, and cultu e r m histo ians also identified exa ples of nationally Significant people, places and events

‘ m r ri ht v nt r s e e s . U associated with civil ights , and co piled a ch onology of civil g sing this rm N P r S r r r rm r r info ation , ational a k e vice histo ians and planne s dete ined how well ep esented B on r r f these sites are within the country . ased the histo ical ove view and an analysis o m r . existing civil ights sites , the study akes the following findings and conclusions

St udy Findi ngs

The findings concentrate on which themes and minority groups need further intensive study to assist with the preservation and interp retation of sites that convey how the civil rights r movement influenced both national and eve y day life .

'

c i il r h re a e sites ha ve bee de ifie a n d er re e . The rr 1 . M a ny v ig ts l t d n i nt d int p t d cu ent status ofthe National Park Service c ivil rights story is most readi ly sem ifi ndividua ls are of r m r M r L r K , Jr. who p o inent statu e such as a tin uthe ing, , and well known events like ‘ ' 1 965 S m V R m r M the el a oting ights a ch . ost sites represent pivotal moments in civil rights r or m r of t histo y the lifeti e wo k activists . Of heNational Historic Landmarks identified in T 2 24 r , a e Afr Am r 1 3 m able associated with ican e icans , with wo en , 3 with Am eri can I 1 A Am r ndians , and each with sian e icans and the gay/lesbian movement.National Park

“ Service units and National Historic Trails that interpret civil rights include 8 associated A r Am r 3 m 2 with f ican e icans , with wo en , and each with Asian Am ericans and American T f I . o r r Am r W r W r ndians opics inte p etation include Japanese e ican o ld a H internment , , m 5 r Am r In wo en histo y in voting , e ican dian expulsion and the American Indian M m A fii can Arnerican r f r ove ent , and civil ights ef o ts in voting, public school

r . r r deseg egation , and civil ights gene ally .

A numb er ofci il ri ht related ites ha e not been identified a nd in r r v g s s v te p eted . The r r m histo ians cont ibuting to this study list any events , places , and people in the overview

are m rt ri hts ‘stor that i po ant in the civil g y that have not been recogn ized . This list is not m r or m r N P co p ehensive definitive, but e ely assists ational ark Service staff with assessing

are r r W , r . m r r r how well these Sites ep esented in the count y ithin ino ity g oups , the invento y r is m for L Am ri In A Am W of civil ights sites li ited atinos, e can dians, and sian ericans . ithin m of mm m m r t the es , the topics public acco odations , equal e ploy ent , and housing a e no well r r ep esented .

No o era ll int r r ti n t l n xi t I r v e p e ve co cep p a e s s . nte pretive planning was the topic of a December 1 997 meeting between twenty- four representatives from the National Park S r B rm m C R In tu C R M m e vice , the i ingha ivil ights sti te, the National ivil ights useu , and the U er F r T r met C H m Ri I r r niv sity of South lo ida . his g oup at a ivil and u an ghts nte p etive Plann ing Workshop with the goal of recommending how interpretive planning could The r rm contribute to the effective interpretation of civil and human ri ghts . g oup confi ed f r r r r r r or mm m r the need o an interp etive concept plan that inte p ets, p ese ves, co e o ates stories and resources associated with civil and human rights with an overall goal to m r r r r of i p oving the quality, depth and b eadth of inte p etation and education civil and m r It r N P r S r hu an ights topics . noted a need to coo dinate between the ational a k e vice and N fii rth r has to m r r outside sites . o e action been taken co plete the inte p etive concept plan f due to a lack o funding .

St udy Recommen da tion s

Responding to the finding that some areas ofcivil rights are underrepresented in interp reting mm r r m r our cultures this study sets fort h four reco endations to ecognize , p o ote , and p otect ’ civil rights history sites that meet the National Park Service s thematic framework of ” “ The creating social institutions and movements and Shaping the political landscape . National Park Service should :

n ma rk eme on r i o ofthe 1 960 s c 1 . Prep a re a Na tiona l H istoric L a d th study p ov si ns ivil

r T m r r r i ghts a c ts . he e studies can assist pa k planne s and histo ians in identifying sites that r r r N P rk S m may be considered for p reservation and inte p etation as pa t of the ational a yste , n L m r on N R r. B designation a s National Historic and a ks , and listing the ational egiste asi g

ii m r of r m m a the e study on p ovisions the civil ights acts (voting, equal e ploy ent , housing , mm r m r r r public acco odations , and school deseg egation co pliance) can po t ay chapte s in the ’ r r own r n nation s civil ights sto y, each of which has its st uggles and sig ificance within the m m . The t r r r r m ove ent s udy should include egist ation equi e ents , a list of potential sites to r for N H r L m r N R r conside ational isto ic and a k designation and ational egiste listing , and r r ofN H r L m r m for r r r p epa ation ational isto ic and a k no inations app op iate sites . One chapte “ of r r m r r R civil ights al eady co pleted is the sto y on school deseg egation , entitled acial ” Desegregation in Public Education in the United States that resulted in the designation of five National Historic Landmarks and identified other sites that should be considered for rt r For m u N P r S r fu he study . these the e st dies , the ational a k e vice should continue its rt AH t r r r ri pa nership with Q o obtain schola s in p epa ing civil ghts historic contexts .

Pr r th me tud on immi ra nt ri ht . T r m r r 2 . ep a e a e s y g g s his f a ewo k study aised issues of E m of r m A sian American and Latino imm igrant ri ghts . xa ples topics include c i inal justice and the A sian American experience that ultimately had a significant impact on defining Am M r r mm r r . e ican citizenship ost likely, othe acial and ethnic i ig ants faced ’ r on m r S discrimination in similar issues that eflected the nation s de oc atic values . uch a “ study would fit in with recently proposed legislation to authori ze the study of the ” “ ” Am r r r m ot peopling of e ica to tell the histo y of the count y as a elting p , and both the m r m t isolation and assimilation of immigrants in the ainst ea of socie y .

t m ri n r r in the c m leti n f th m t f r t 3 . Con sult wi h Na tive A e ca s ega d g o p o o a e e s udy o he n i ri ht Th N Am r ri history ofNa tive A meric a c vil g s . e ative e ican civil ghts story (including Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiians) is unique and therefore the adequate identification and interpretation ofits history can only be reached by focusing strictly on S N P r S r N its elements . uch a study would aid the ational a k e vice in telling the ative Ameri can story at its units and meets the thematic framework conceptualization of ’ representing the full diversity ofAmeri ca s past .

4 r r n inter reti e conce t la n for civil ri ht . S r . P epa e a p v p p g s uch a plan can desc ibe and link the experiences of minorities at National Park Service units with other civil ri ghts related r mm m m m . A sites and useu s lthough each site tells a unique sto y, the co on the e of people An r r r stri ving for basic ri ghts unites these stories . interp etive plan can desc ibe the va iety r r mm m of people and issues associated with civil ights and explo e co on the es , goals and B r r r r r r . approaches fo inte p etation , education and visito se vices y linking othe sites , visitors can increase their understanding and appreciation of civil ri ghts issues associated

of . with sites at all levels significance (local , state, and national)

TH E CIVIL RIG H TS FRAMEWORK STUDY

CI VIL RI GH TS Thos e rights g ua ra nteed to a n individua l ’ a s a member o s o f ciety.

PA RT A INT . RODUCTI ON

In 1 964 C r m m r r US . r ong ess adopted the ost co p ehensive civil ights legislation in histo y . The C R Act 1 964 1 r Am ri r 2 r ivil ights of ( ) gua anteed all e cans the ight to vote, ( ) p ohibited r m mm on r r r or ri disc i ination in public acco odations based ace, colo , eligion , national o gin , 3 r m on ofr r r sex or ri ( ) outlawed job disc i ination the basis ace, colo , eligion , , national o gin , 4 r r ri r m The r and ( ) gave the fede al government b oad autho ty in enfo ce ent . civil ights “ movement leading up to this A ct was one of the most publicized events in United States r r r war r C r m r histo y . Sho t of a decla ation of , no othe act of ong ess had a o e violent r —a r r ur m r r backg ound backg ound of conf ontation , official violence, inj y, and u de that has ”2 ri r few parallels in Am e can histo y .

The issue of who is guaranteed legal equality has been contested by women and minority r r r rt r T m r r g oups , cong esses, and fede al cou s eve since ho as Jeffe son asse ted in the “ r r C r D r ofIn e men a e . our ecla ation dep ndence that all c eated equal lea ly, the evolution of present understanding ofcivil ri ghts is deeply tied to our collective story and represents the t r T i r r our r . s highest aspi ations and deepest t agedy of national cha e hus , it wholly within the mi N P r S r r r r r r ssion of the ational a k e vice to locate, evaluate , ecognize, p ese ve, and inte p et m r r r nationally significant Sites associated with the any th eads of the civil ights sto y .

h N P r S r m r r r r r m of T e ational a k e vice has identified a nu be of civil ights elated esou ces , so e S r which have been designated as units of the National Park System . till othe s have been designated as National Historic Landmarks or listed in the National Register ofHistoric ’ F rt r of ri r m r r r Places . u he telling the civil ghts sto y ust conside the sto y s ch onology, its To do N P r m ri m ri are r r . historical the es , and how va ous ino ties ep esented this , the ational a k Service has partnered with the Organization ofAmeri can Histori ans (Q AH) to provide an ri r hr overview of civil ghts histo y, a c onological outline, and a list of people , events , and

P rt OAH ri are P rt F. places that tell the story . a icipating histo ans identified in a

rm r r r m r r Based on this info ation , this study cha acte izes b oad the es in the sto y, ecognizes the r r r m r rr r events, pe sons and places that ep esent the ; and p ovides a cu ent pictu e of how well r r The N P r S r represented and recognized these Sites a e within the count y . ational a k e vice will then be able to decide which themes and minority groups need furt her intensive study to r F r m r identify sites and assist with interp etation . utu e co pletion ofthe enti e framework will allow planners to evaluate proposals by Congress and others for additions to the National r N Tr S m N H r Ar Park System o ational ails yste , designations as ational e itage eas , and assist

wPOI/ II I Di tiona r New Y r R n m afire Sa ire Is Ne CCI c o : a dom House 1 27 . Willia S , / y ( k ,

3 ev ed The Ci vil Ri hts Act ( 7964: The Pass a e o t/re La w Tha t Ended Racia l Se re a tion D. Lo Robert y, g 31 g f g g w r r l 4 42 : tate Univers it ofNe Yo ess . 997 0 . ( Albany S y k P ) , , r in ecognition and preservation of sites through National Historrcal Landmark desrgnatron N i R i r and at onal eg ste listing .

’ W omen s Rights Nati ona l H istorical Pa rk National Park Service photograph

Ceda r H ill home ofFrederic Douglass _ , k it Frederic k Douglass Na tiona l H is toric S e National Park Service photograph PA RT B VERVI . O EW O F CIVIL RI G H T S H I ST ORY

MO VEMENT: The a c tivities ofa g roup of 3 eo l v p p e to a chie e a g oa l.

TELLING TH E STORY

This overview describes the efforts of women and minori ty groups to secure and enforce civil r n r C M r US . r r r ights u de the onstitution . ino ity g oups cove ed in this f amework include N Am r Afii can Am r L A Am r ative e icans, e icans, atinos, sian e icans , and gays and lesbians . M of r r R A t 1 4 B A t any thei st uggles shaped and defined the Civil ights c of 96 . ecause this c ’ r m r r r r ft r A r eflects the ajo civil ights st uggle both befo e and a e its adoption , the ct s p ovisions m m mm r m r (equal e ploy ent , public acco odations, voting, and equal education) se ve as ajo m r the es within the sto y .

The level and detail ofinform ation for each minority group in this histori cal overview is mainly dependent upon two factors : whether the civil rights story of a minority group is r r r i t m The m n documented and how closely elated thei sto y s o the the es . ost well k own instances of denial of civil rights and the struggle to have them made effective were the r of r ri of ri In esistance southe n states to the p nciple blacks having equal ghts with whites . m r r r for L far co pa ison , the histo y of civil ights atinos is less developed . Only within the past thirty years have specialists in the field of Mexican American and Puerto Rican history gone about the business of recovering the long-neglected history ofLatino people in the United T r r r r m mm States . hei histo ical eco d on so e subj ects such as public acco odations and equal f r employment is much less developed than o education and voting rights .

S m r r r for A Am r not i ila ly, the histo y of civil ights sian e icans has been well publicized , but m r m r r ri A Am r r . r like othe ino ities, is an i po tant chapte in civil ghts histo y sian e icans faced m r rm r m r discrimination that anifested itself in va ious fo s , f o b utal physical violence to m r m r r m . obstacles in a eas such as education , e ploy ent and housing Othe i po tant aspects of Am r r r are mm r W r War II Asian e ican civil ights histo y i ig ation , citizenship , and o ld m Few for m r ri ofA Ammcans intern ent . people know, exa ple, the c itical cont butions sian to “ A Am ri the development of the concept of citizenship in the United States . sian e ca is m t r r m r r A characterized by uch cul u al and ethnic dive sity , and includes nu e ous g oups of sian ri ri r descent who sometimes expe enced civil ghts events independent of one anothe .

r r m m m r B r 1 9505 . The gay, lesbian , bisexual , and t ansgende ove ent e e ged in the efo e then , individuals and groups of people with same - sex desires resisted oppression by claiming a r r r rm r . P right to. public space, but this was cultu al , athe than fo al , political esistance eople

- r r r r of R u m . involved in sa e sex elationships , faced execution du ing the ea ly yea s the ep blic — — This is a minority group that required a political act c oming out for its members to be a rm r of r to f identifiablefWith this act , g ys and lesbians fo ed a va iety o ganizations fight or ’ 6 m r T r r justice by the 1 9505 and 1 9 05 to i p ove one s life . hei civil ights history includes m m r m r m police harassment in public places , and e ploy ent disc i ination in gove n ent , schools , and the military .

v o r B t n Th H v r ide Uni ers itv Dicti na v os o . e ou hton Mrffl in om an 1 s N w Ri e s ( 988 . Webs ter i I& e g C p y) , The civil ri ghts struggle for women is a window on changing definitions ofcitizenship and has r r the ways it been shaped by gende , ace, and class . Because women constitute half of r r r or r r r eve y acial , ethnic , eligious , egional g oup , thei story is difficult to tell in a linear The r rr are th fashion . clea est na atives e struggles for the ri ght to vote and the subsequent r E R Am m T debates ove the qual ights end ent . hese struggles highlight the leadership ofa

r of r mi m m - m Y t r g oup educated, p edo nately white , and ostly iddle class wo en . e , thei success depended upon coalitions and alliances with working- class and minori ty women who were r It is m r always p esent . i po tant to tell this story in a way that renders visible the full diversity r ‘ S r ofpa ticipants . uch a telling will also p ovide links between one civil ri ghts struggle and another and clarify the different perspectives and priorities that can profoundly affect the & & m m r implicit eanings of that a biguous wo d equality .

Very little has also been recorded about American Indian protests against discri mination in c mm r m All Am ri I public ac o odations , education,voting ights, and e ployment . e can ndian m R r do r . r Am ri I expe iences not fit in with the civil ights odel athe , e can ndians dealt with white racism while trying to define their individual rights vis- a-vis their own tribal Am r I governments; maki ng their civil rights movement unique . e ican ndians faced intense r r r to m t r m their reedom fede al p essu es assi ilate into white socie y while st uggling to aintain f , , f I of r r t r r r m o . lands , and ways life ssues sove eignty, t ea y ights , land esto ation , econo ic

m r ri r r m r m m . develop ent , bu ial ghts , and eligious f eedo define thei ove ent

The following civil rights overview is separated into chronological sections that identify E phases in the development of civil rights between 1 776 and 1 976 . ach section contains brief descriptions ofwomen and minority experiences submitted by the Q AH historians and to of their lists ofat least five to ten people , places, and events that they judge be national m S B l r B6 s ri m r . significance . ections th ough discu s the expe ence of wo en and all ino ities Section B7 discusses the Ameri can Indian Movement and their unique civil ri ghts r m f T r are , o o experience . hese desc iptions placed within the political , social econo ic aspects the time period

“ bs a nd Freedom 1 963 M a rch on Wa shington for J o w Photograph by Abbie Ro e h to ra h National Park Service p o g p 1 776 - 1 865

- PART B 1 . PPRESSI N O O , 1 776 1 865

In of r D r ofI r m n r the founding this count y, the ecla ation ndependence decla ed that all e a e ” r 1 7 C rt t r 88 US . r c eated equal , and in , the onstitution pu po ed o secu e the blessings of ” rt But ri r r m libe y to the people . these ghts and libe ties we e eant only for white men of r rt Th . e r r m m A ri Am r p ope y founding fathe s neve i agined that wo en , f can e icans (both slave r or men r r r r and f ee) , without p ope ty could be equal to the p ope tied white men entrusted with r pa ticipation in the civic arena .

Cr r r r m t r r r usade s against slave y and acis invented the idea of equali y befo e the law, ega dless r D r I m of ace, and used the ecla ation of ndependence as a conde nation of slavery that had ri of 1 6 1 9 m V r been in existence since the o ginal landing Slaves in at Ja estown , i ginia .

A r for r- r r bolitionists sea ched colo blind citizenship , while slave y p oponents viewed non W m r whites as inferior races unworthy of Constitutional ri ghts . o en who pa ticipated in the m m 1 8305 1 8405 r m m 1 8405 abolition ove ent in the and , initiated thei own ove ent in the that ’ r m r m m r r was ooted in an e e ging white iddle class and in wo en s oles in c eating civil society . “ T r tur r R m r w s r rt hei civic duty, as cap ed in the ph ase epublican othe hood, a to aise vi uous r r t r P citizens (sons) and to encou age thei husbands o exe cise civic virtues . ushing the & & r of r r r m r bounda ies thei assigned sepa ate sphe e, wo en began to challenge the gende ed definitions of public life and of citizenship .

L m Am r r non- men r m r ikewise, antebellu e ica excluded othe white f o pa ticipating in “ r N r A ct 1 r m r . U u z 790 C r de oc acy nde the at ali ation of , ong ess stipulated that only f ee white ” Ir m r of mm m n r m . r e rri pe sons could beco e citizens onically, the ajo ity white i ig ant a ving in America between 1 83 0 and 1 860 enjoyed manhood suffrage denied to non - whites who had lived in America for years .

r r ri for r for S . rr U . te ito ial expansion aised civil ghts issues those who lost thei land and new rr a fier immigrants seeking economic prosperity. Chinese who a ived the discovery of gold in r f mm r t Am L r mm r California marked the first majo wave o A sian i ig ation o eri ca . abo i ig ants m r m r A r as K r In later followed the f o othe sian count ies, such Japan , o ea and dia; adding a In m r A ri dynamic dimension to the racial diversity of American society . co pa ison with f can mm u r r r m H r A Am ri . Americans , sian e cans as a co nity neve lost thei pe sonal freedo oweve , in mm r r m E r m of r r comparison with i ig ants f o u ope they had any thei civil ights taken away, “

m r . T r r . including political and econo ic ights hey we e , in wo ds , between black and white r f ft r k r of Mexicans who gained their constitutional ights o citizenship a e the US . ta e ove the r r r m r r mal southwest , would conf ont disputes in ace wa s , lynchings , u de s , and the

“ r administration ofunequal justice lasting into the early twentieth century . Unde legislative Am r In r r to r m r sanction , e ican dians we e fo ced give up thei lands and to ove west ac oss the R r r r r r I r r own Mississippi ive , while weste n settle s app op iated land the ndians conside ed thei , m r r r . thus , dest oying thei cultu al and political autono y

na r r n t r P m - r o . Within society, nont aditio l elationships we e tole ated eople involved in sa e sex cr r r r relationships or those who ossed the gende line we e th eatened with execution ,

or r rm of hm for r u imprisonment , othe fo s punis ent gathe ing in p blic places , engaging in

- or r r u . sexual activity. c oss d essing in p blic 1 776- 1 865

Exa mples ofcivil rights events a nd individua ls

W ofPr A m A Abi a il A d a m . A am r g s ife esident John da s , bigail d s , u ged better legal treatment r Am r R of women before and afte the e ican evolution .

Na tiona l Ne ro Con ention . Be 1 83 05 r m g v s gun in the , these pe iodic eetings ofleading ’ blacks strategized the race s protests against slavery and discrimination and devised plans T m r and programs for racial advancement . hese eetings fo eshadowed later A fri can Ameri can i civil rights and self help organizat ons .

- Ri cha rd Allen . A was r r U S A r llen the fi st national black leade in the nited tates . founde of ’ n M E AM Fr .Afii can S Afii ca E C r r the ee ociety and the ethodist piscopal ( ) hu ch , the ace s first _ - and e r N self help independ nt institutions , he was also the p esident of the ational Negro

Convention .

Fr deri k D l D m - r r r r r D ri e c oug a ss . ouglass gained fa e as an anti slave y o ato and w ite . u ng the C War r for mi r f rt ft r War ivil , he galvanized black suppo t the lita y ef o ; and a e the , was the He l r The N rt r r for r . S chief spokespe son civil ights published the week y newspape , o h ta ’ r m m A ri Am r r m r r which p o pted abolitionis , f can e ican ights , wo en s ights , and a host of elated r rm Fr r D NH S efo s . ( ede ick ouglass, )

-

n lin rimk 1 r r . S a ra h A ge a G e . 83 0s southe n abolitionist pionee s

’ ’ ti n H S F New r 1 848 W om en s Ri hts Conven o . g eld in eneca alls , Yo k in , this convention ’ f r l S m n m formally began the women s struggle o equa ity . uch eeti gs would be held al ost annually up to the onset of the Civil War.

r m m r Eliza b eth Ca dy Sta nton . An activist who initiated the suff agist ove ent and autho ed the Declaration of Sentiments that called for a broad array ofri ghts for women presented at ’ E C S H NPS the Women s Rights Convention . ( lizabeth ady tanton ouse, )

’ fr r r who E S r L ucretia Mott . Women s suf age o ganize , with lizabeth tanton , ag eed at the ’ 1 840 World An ti - Slavery Convention to plan the first women s ri ghts convention held in 1 4 Seneca Falls in 8 8 .

An - v m m for r k m Soj ourner T ru th . ex sla e who beca e a national sy bol st ong blac wo en and ’ ’ an advocate of women s and blacks rights .

M Su r m C r r v Cit o B oston . An 1 849 Robe ts . y f assachusetts p e e ou t decision that established ” “ B A ri the separate but equal doctrine in a public school segregation case . ( oston f can Ameri can NHS)

A 1 9 5 4 Su rem e Cou rt ofCaliforn ia rulin th at Ch inese , l H all . Peop e V. p g ou ld n ot iv e testim on in cou rt a a in st like bla cks a n d In dia n s , c g y g

wh ites . 1 865 - 1 900

PA RT B2 RE N TR T I N P - . CO S UC O RE RESSI ON, 1 865 1 900

F C War r r r B C r ollowing the ivil , southe n state legislatu es began p oducing lack odes , as ea ly ’ 1 t r r r m 865 o m . A R as , est ict blacks equal ights and to aintain the plantation syste epublican C r r 1 866 1 870 r r C War ong ess esponded between and , by passing the th ee g eat ivil th th th Am m 1 3 1 4 1 5 r r r end ents ( , , ) that abolished slave y, gua anteed the newly f eed blacks r Am r men r m r equal p otection of the laws , and gave all e ican citizens ( ) the ight to vote no atte “ or r f r r r r o . A i r r what thei ace , colo , p evious condition se vitude lso seek ng to p otect the ights of Am ri In C r C R A of 1 866 all e cans (excluding dians), ong ess passed the ivil ights cts and

1 H rt r r US . r r 875 . encefo h , all pe sons bo n in the we e national citizens with ights that could in “ ” theory be enjoyed without regard to race and with the full and equal enjoyment of public N r r r r r r places . ewly f eed slaves and f ee pe sons of colo looked fo wa d to a life of political r r rights and equality befo e the law that was sho t lived .

A s R r m 1 877 r econst uction ca e to an end in , legislative and judicial actions would take thei R D m r r r ri toll on the concept ofequal rights . epublican and e oc atic pa ties sac ificed civil ghts

m r r . In ivil Ri a of 1 8 r r C hts C s es 8 3 US . p og a s and bills in o de to win white votes the g , the Supreme Court found the statutory guarantee ofequal enjoyment ofpublic accomm odations unconstitutional on the grounds that the equal protection clause ofthe Fourteenth Amendment only applied to state action and did not permit federal control of individual T r m r of actions . his decision g eatly li ited the ights blacks in individual states and strengthened Jim Crow laws in the South .

The passage ofthe Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were partially responsible for the ' ’ m r W m singular focus ofwomen s ri ghts activis on the elective f anchise . o en s coalition ’ effort s with blacks to secure their rights brought a new wave of women s activism in their Th r m fA ri Am r m struggle to achieve the same ri ghts as men . e enf anchise ent o f can e ican en W m ' in effect embedded into the Constitution a gendered definition of citizenship . o en s rights activists in the north and the mid-west had always considered themselves part ofthe m F r m to r of r r r m . o abolition ove ent so e, conceding a gende ed definition the f anchise in o de to guarantee it to black men was a necessary compromise at the end of a long and incredibly fr m r m tu r . V war. For r r bloody othe s , such a co p o ise consti ted bet ayal e y quickly, suf age ' became the symbolic focus for women s demands for civic equality and was the most r controversial because it constituted a di ect claim to participate in public life .

In the 1 8905 Congressand the Supreme Court began defining which minorities could become C r rri I r citizens . ong ess began confe ng citizenship status on ndians within ce tain states , albeit In 1 S r m r r . 898 C r C without full citizenship ights , the up e e ou t uled that hinese individuals r r The r born in the United States should not be st ipped of thei U S . citizenship . victo y of the Chinese helped to preserve a vital constitutional pri nciple established in the Fourteenth

Am endment .

The final devastating blow to civil rights gains made in Reconstruction came in the form of

In Ple v r r 1 8 6 . F r US . m r 9 ss . e us on S C judicially sanctioned seg egation in y g , the up e e ou t of r u ri r r affi rmed the concept sepa ate but eq al public facilities , thus ensu ng acial seg egation

W u u i A r Am r r m . se a s and disc i ination hites wo ld th s concept to keep f ican e icans , well as 1 865 - 1 900

th r m ri i r n . In of 1 9 ur othe ino ties , sepa ate but unequal facilities the final decades the cent y, r r r for r r r r howeve , the g oundwo k enewed civil ights effo ts , pa ticularly the last phase ofthe r r r m r Am ri suff age st uggle , was being laid in d a atic changes th oughout e can society .

Ur ri mm r rm m r r banization, indust alization , i ig ation , the fe ent of populis and labo st uggles , the ' expansion of education and emergence ofwomen s professions would frame a new and more r t for r dive se se ting the equal ights struggle .

Exa mples ofcivil rights events an d individuals

Su a n B . A nthon . A m r r rm m m S B: An s y ctive in nu e ous efo ove ents , usan thony entered the ’ for m r in 1 1 In 1 86 she fight wo en s ights 85 . 9 played the leading role in organizing the National Woman Suffrage Association focused on gaining an amendment to the federal

tu S B . An H NHL S B A B rt . NR consti tion . ( usan thony ouse, ; usan nthony i hplace, )

ll a B rn tt r r fIda B W - B m tt I da B . W e s a e . U o . a e Afii can Am nde the leade ship ells , erican women mobilized their extensive network of clubs and reform associations in behalf of

’ ' th w n ffra fr m m fr B ome s su ge despite exclusion o ost white suf age associations . y the late 1 9 t r mi Afii can Am r m r r cen u y, ddle class e ican wo en we e key players in the c eation ofan c r ru r mm edu ational and civic inf ast ctu e within the black co unity, especially the club Th th m ri movement . ey knew e e powe ng necessity ofsuffrage as they experi enced the crushing repression ofsouthern Jim Crow laws and . the disfranchisement of Afri can

- Ida B . W Bam tt H H Am r men . e N L e ican ( ells ouse, )

’ n W m wa m t W omi su ffra e . In 1 890 s o w m S r y g g , yo ing ad itted statehood ith wo en s uff age w t m fr m as r o r . W S C NHL and the fi st state g ant wo en full suf age ( yo ing tate apitol , )

B k r T W hin t n r r r rn ri oo e . a s g o . Suppo ted by no the n and southe indust alists and r i W m T I t A m m r philanth op sts , ashington ade uskegee nsti ute in laba a the ost enowned th th 1 r 2 Aft r institution for the higher education ofblacks in the late 9 and ea ly o centuries . e “ ” his Atlanta Compromise address in 1 895 that called for blacks to accept segregation in r r f r fu r m r m r as r m r A r etu n o tu e econo ic oppo tunity , he e e ged the p e ie e national f ican

r m r M r L er K r. r American leade and held that title until the e e gence of a tin uth ing , J , sixty yea s M m r B r T . W N late . ( ooke ashington ational onu ent)

1 2 C r mm r for T he fi rst Chinese Exclu sion A ct. This 88 act banned hinese labo i ig ation ten The r C years a ban that was later extended numerous times . law also decla ed that hinese T A immigrants could not become naturalized citizens . his is a significant event in sian m f mm the o US . r Am erican history and is also a landmark event in develop ent i ig ation laws . It was the fi rst comp rehensive immigration act of the nation and marked the beginning ofthe ’ It r mm r federal govemment s restri ctive imm igration policies . was also the fi st i ig ation law that banned immigration on the basis of race .

S r m C r r C rn US . m rk v . S . In 1 898 Won Ki A . U g , the up e e ou t uled that hinese individuals bo The a re - a ffinn ed u not ri oftheir US . h . in the US . co ld be st pped citizens ip c se a vital legal p ri nciple established in the Fourteenth Amendment . 1 900- 1 94 1

PART B - 3 . REK INDL ING CI VI L RI G H TS , 1 900 1 94 1

The first decades ofthe twentieth century witnessed massive social and governmental r on Pr r Era r r W r War I changes b ought by the og essive , civil ights o ganizations , o ld , and the D r E rt m r m r r ep ession . ffo s to co bat disc i ination found exp ession in bi acial activism and the rm fr m H for r f r m m ri o rm m . o r fo ation efo ove ents opes equality soa ed any ino ty g oups , but m r m ost ended in g ave disappoint ents .

The Pr r Era of 1 9 - 1 2 r r r A ft r og essive 00 9 0 b ought the la gest electo al change in US . history . e

r m r r N Am m -in a decades long st uggle, wo en gained voting ights unde the ineteenth end ent 1 2 m r m r r 9 0 . S r Yet , black wo en in the outh e ained disenf anchised and ove all southe n blacks r r r r r r r and the poo lost voting ights th ough lite acy tests, and esidency and egist ation r r m r f r m m . T o men m equi e ents designed to keep the f o voting hus , while sco es black , wo en m r m r mm r r r . and i ig ants we e excluded f o the voting olls, countless white wo en we e added

Military service and wartime j ob opport unities during World War I brought new hopes for m r m ri A r equality and econo ic oppo tunity to ino ties . ctivists a gued that fighting to make a world safe for democracy and for the rights of the Oppressed would dismantle racial m r m r r r m war met m r r r inequality at ho e . Yet , black se vice en etu ning f o the sa e acial est ictions r war m r r m r r m r n in place befo e the , and any no the n ig ants seeking wa ti e job oppo tu ities faced im r L m to the same discrimination that existed in the J C ow south . atinos who had co e this r r r m r r B country to fill in labo sho tages we e viewed as nothing o e than cheap labo . y the 205 1 93 05 H Am r for rm r r 1 9 and , ispanic e icans fought back decent wages and fa wo ke s began organizing .

An opportunity for governmental reform in employm ent came with the stock market crashes r r R r of 1 929 that signaled the beginning of the G eat Dep ession . esponding to p otests and “ ” r m r r r r R lobbying effo ts that any blacks we e the last hi ed and fi st fi ed, the oosevelt administration instituted New Deal programs that enabled people ofall races to obtain T New D r r m r needed job training and employment . hese eal p og a s g eatly affected the lives of n Am ri N r ri r m m r Afii c a e cans , especially in the o th , b nging public wo ks e ploy ent oppo tunities R rt r r use of r t to some blacks . oosevelt fu he advanced black inte ests in his p esiden ial r r m r Democrati ma orities executive powe s , thus avoiding the p edo inantly southe n g j of the

S r C Ri S of D rt m . House and enate, and by c eating the ivil ghts ection the Justice epa ent r r m R D m r r Seeing these advances , black vote s began switching f o epublican to e oc at , the eby k becoming the first wave ofblac votes to impact social and political reform .

r r r m r rm With the loss of voting ights and continued enfo ced seg egation , ino ities began to fo f r r ri E m r organizations to legally fight o thei civil ghts . xa ples of such o ganizations included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAA CP) in 1 909

’ rt N r M m N Ur L 1 9 1 0 (previously sta ed as the iaga a ove ent in the ational ban eague in , P 1 and the Congress of Spanish Speaking eople in 93 9 .

n r m r In public education , using ewly found o ganizations , ino ities began launching legal challenges to segregated schools i n the late 1 93 05 School districts had systematically ” segregated Mexican children into so- called Mexican schools or Mexican classrooms 1 900 - 1 94 1

r S r t r ac oss the outhwest , and seg ega ed black and white schools existed th oughout the South . The fi rst precedent -setting local and state level court cases to desegregate Mexican and

‘ Afii n American r m ca schooling we e decided at this ti e .

' The to m ri A i debate as citizenship and its acco panying ghts continued . s an immigrants faced mm r r for R changing i ig ation laws and we e ineligible citizenship . ights such a s land w r r to A Am r Am o ne ship we e denied sian e icans in sixteen states . eri can Indians who had r rm r r W r War I r 1 24 se ved in the a ed fo ces du ing o ld eceived citizenship status and in 9 , the passage ofthe Indian Citizenship A ct declared that all In dians born within the United States r B t r m r f . u r o m US . r m we e citizens fede al policy t eated the as wa ds the gove n ent , eaning

& T r not fil l& r s. r r r m they did enjoy citizenship ight hey we e denied the ight to t avel f eely, anage r o m m r r rm thei wn oney, vote (in so e states) , and pu chase fi ea s and alcohol .

A r m r of men m m lso du ing this ti e pe iod , foundations the gay and lesbian ove ent start ed “ ” S r r r m r taking shape . ocial analysts began ejecting p io edical definitions of inve sion or “ ” t C mm men r m e l . m m ho os xua i y as deviant o unities of , and to a lesse extent wo en , with sa e T r ri r sex desires began to grow in urban areas . hei ght to gathe in public places such as bars t r m r r mm . was enuous , and police aids and ha ass ent we e co on

Ex m l f i l i t nt l a n indi i l a p es o c vi r gh s eve s, p aces d v dua s

W E B D B i M r r r of t u o . r u . . . s ajo black leade of the fi st half the twentieth cen u y, a fo nding m m r 1 905 of N r M m r m NAACP r of e be in the iaga a ove ent which late beca e the , edito the ’ NAA CP S Cr m r of re for isis agazine, and a p oponent highe ducation blacks as opposed to ’ Du B B r W m on r u . Booke T . ashington s e phasis indust ial ed cation ois oyhood H m NHL o esite, )

t t t r E C S rm H a rriot S a n on Bla ch . Daughte of lizabeth ady tanton and activist who fo ed the Equality League of Self- Supporting Women in New York in 1 907 with the aims to gain the

m m m rri m r r. vote and the right of wo en to co bine a age , othe hood , and paid labo

S An I r r of r for The S . Imm r A ngel I sla nd . U ig ation tation at gel sland se ved as the po t ent y t 1 4 U S Imm r n S A I Asian immigrants from 1 9 1 0 o 9 0 . ( nited tates ig atio tation , ngel sland NHL)

C r C mm N A lice Pa ul . Paul organized the ong essional o ittee within the languishing ational She her r r r m American Women Suffrage Association (NA WSA) . and coho ts b oke f o the ' T r A NAWSA to form the National Woman s Party (NWP) in 1 9 1 4 . his pa ty followed lice

’ Paul s single -minded focus on legal equality for women by introducing in 1 923 an Equal Paulsdale NHL Rights Am endment to the Constitution . ( , )

m r r r r r m r m C a rrie C h a p ma n Ca tt . Catt e e ged as a b illiant st ategic o ganize in ca paigns f o '

1 9 1 5 m NAWSA r 1 9 1 5 . C Idaho to New York between 1 890 and , and beca e p esident in att s & & W P r 1 9 1 6 out r r m inning lan , int oduced in , spelled a cohe ent st ategy to obilize a disciplined m r r of a rmy of su ffragists from the ground up , waging state ca paigns whe e the e was a chance

1 0

1 900 - 1 94 1

M r M L B th n fth r a y c eod e u e . One o e fi st female leaders of a black institution ofhigher she m r mi A ri Am r m r ofher m education , was the ost p o nent f can e ican fe inist leade ti es , an r to Pr Fr D R m . r r r r adviso esident anklin oosevelt on ino ity g oups , and di ecto in charge of N r A r New D N A m r M M eg o ffai s in the eal ational Youth d inist ation . ( ary cLeod Bethune H m NHL M r McLeod B C H NH o e , ; a y ethune ouncil ouse S)

M m Elea nor Roo e elt. r f r E s v ost powe ful fe ale political activist o this e a . ( leanor Roosevelt NH S)

Miss ouri ex rel Ga in v Ca n a da . T 1 es . his 93 8 case proved to be the most important r of era S r m C r rm M r m deseg egation case this, as the up e e ou t dete ined that issou i ust supply a am black student with the s e education it supplied to a white student .

\

B r E n 1 93 6 S r m rt r Gibbs v. oa d o duca tio . In C r f , the up e e ou o de s equalization of salaries of r M m r C M r white and black teache s in ontgo e y ounty, a yland .

f m B ert Corona . o C r t r r One the ain hicano leade s in the twentieth cen u y, Co ona was founder or co- founder ofat least four import ant Chicano civil ri ghts and advocacy r 1 No C r r o ganizations since the 93 05 . hicano leade has a longe history of defending the ri ghts ofC M mm r r r hicano and exican i ig ant wo ke s .

C on re ofS a ni h S ea kin Peo le El Con re o de Pueblo ue H a bla n E a n l g ss p s p g p ( g s s q sp o ) .

F rm 1 93 9 s r t - L r r o ed in , thi was the fi s pan atino civil ights o ganization in the nation with a r for r ofM Am ri M imini rants t r b oad agenda the p otection exican e cans , exican g , and o he L r S r L M r r ofLos A atino groups ac oss the nation . pea headed by uisa o eno and a g oup ngeles Chicana/o r r C r m r r r Latinos/as based leade s , the fi st ong ess eeting ep esented ove r from hundreds oflocal organizations and labo unions .

the White H ouse 1 9 1 7 Su ffra gists pic k eting , - 2 - 3 l 799 DLC Photograph courtes y ofthe Library ofCongress ( LC USZ6 )

1 2 1 94 1 - 1 954

PART B4 . B IRTH O F T 4 H E CIVI L RIG H TS M OVEME NT , 1 94 1 1 95

W r war m r r rm r m of o k in ti e indust y and se vice in the a ed fo ces , co bined with the ideals m r r m r r r rm de oc acy, spawned a new civil ights agenda at ho e that would fo eve t ansfo Am ri C m t r r r m w . r o as e can life ontinued black ig ation the no th , whe e f anchise ent allowed ,

' r D m r R r for F r esulted in both e oc atic and epublican pa ties vying the black vote . ede al public policies to end segregation emerged and civil rights became a national issue for the first time R r since the econst uction era .

A s m m r r m r r m r m any ino ities ente ed ilita y se vice, a changed econo y d ew any people into r Em r wa time defense industry jobs that would bring social and federal reform . ploye s encouraged millions ofmarri ed women and mothers to work outside the home for the first m r war m r m W r War H m m ti e du ing the a ove that b ought wo en into post o ld e ploy ent . Approximately Indians left their reservations to work in the wartime industries and “ ” r rm r A ri Am r r M r W 1 94 1 se ve in the a ed fo ces . f can e icans th eatened a a ch on ashington in , in their demand for a fair share ofjobs and an end to segregation in government departments Pr R r k r m and the armed forces . esident oosevelt esponded by ta ing action to ban disc i ination r To r m rm F r Em m Pr in defense indust ies . assu e co pliance , he fo ed the ede al ploy ent actices Committee (FEPC) whose heari ngs exposed racial discrimination practices and assisted in F rm of FEPC r r r gaining work for migrants in the North . o ation the would b ing pe haps the fi st r m r L r case ofcivil rights issues raised with rega d to equal employ ent fo Latinos . atino leade s appeared before the FEPC to protest the exclusion ofLatinos from many war-related “ ” industrial jobs because employers considered them aliens despite their Am erican

citizenship .

’ r D V m m r r m r m m The wa s ouble ca paign (de oc acy ab oad , de oc acy at ho e) also sti ulated civil rights activism on the part of gay men and lesbians when these groups encountered both ‘ F m r m m r r rm r . r r toleration and pe secution in the a ed fo ces o ally banned f o ilita y se vice, gay In mm ft rm men and lesbians enlisted and were conscripted anyway . the i ediate a e ath of the 1 94 1 - 1 954

r ri m r im r L majo attacks against disc ination and seg egation , even in the J C ow South . egal challenges to the Plessy doctrine dominated civil ri ghts activities during the post - war era ’ m S r m C rt Br wn v B r o . oa d o Educa ti T cul inating with the up e e ou s decision in f on . hese r r of m r ri m m activities could be conside ed the bi th the ode n civil ghts ove ent , whose judicial Br wn v Boa rd o Educa ti n 1 4 and legal bellwether was o . f o in 95 ; and whose civil and social foundations would come in the Montgomery Bus Boycott of 1 955 and the student sit-in 1 movement beginning in 960 .

Social pressures I ncreasingly gravitated toward ending segregation during and immediately after ’ r I mi war n fG r M wa . o r r the n the dst of the , the publicatio unna y dal s , classic study of ace r An America n Dilemma f r n m r m elations , , of e ed an u co p o ising account of the long history of ”4 r l of m of Pr Tr acial injustice and a candid ana ysis the econo ics inequality . esident uman ’ continued President Roosevelt s use of executive powers to advance black civil rights outside of In 1 4 T m mm t r C r s. 9 6 r of f ong es , u an co issioned a s udy acial inequities that called or an end to “ ” C m 1 947 T o S r r Am r . seg egation in e ica o pleted in , ecu e These Rights would support legal

ri in ~ Su reme C r t for R r In 1 4 S . 9 8 victo es p ou t cases tha paved the way the econd econst uction , T m r r r rm r ru an o de ed the deseg egation of the a ed fo ces .

Exa mples ofcivil rights events a nd in dividua ls

Re ea l ofChine e Exclu ion A ct . In 1 943 1 05 r p s s s , a total of people would be allowed to ente the Al r m A Am r r r r r. count y eve y yea though the epeal was sy bolic , it enabled sian e icans and thei ’ - A r r allies to later successfully challenge anti sian acism in Ameri ca s immig ation laws .

War H r m rt United S ta tes . The W r S C Koremats u v. o ld up e e ou case that upheld the ’ govemment s ri ght to exclude people of Japanese ancestry from the West Coast based on M r War R C r N M m M Intemment military necessity . ( anzana elocation ente ational onu ent , inidoka

N M m -R r R C rC m r NHL ational onu ent , ohwe elocation ente e ete y, )

’ D E F M r Th ur o d M a r hal . A s NAACP S L g o s l head of the egal efense and ducational und, a shall R Br w v Boa rd o Educa tion . led the legal fight that culminated in the o n . f decision ( ankin M m r C F r L r r D M m ri H NHL e o ial hapel , ounde s ib a y, ouglass e o al all , )

ri r of C r ofS S k L uisa M oren o a nd J osefi na Fierro. P ncipal leade s the ong ess panish pea ing M r wa G m mm r r r C r of People . o eno s a uate alan i ig ant who ose to the top leade ship in a ong ess In dustri al Organizations union duri ng the 1 9405 and was the main organizer of the first national

r F rr was r r r of C r r meeting ofthe Cong ess . ie o the fi st national sec eta y the ong ess and late a member ofthe Sleepy Lagoon Defense Committee that helped overturn the mass conviction of

Chicano youngsters involved in the infamous 1 944 Sleepy Lagoon trial .

“ ” r M Am ri are T he Z oot S uit Riots . First mass violence di ected against exican e cans as youth

- In 1 943 r r r . targeted as un Am erican and deviant for wea ing zoot suits , white soldie s and sailo s stationed around Los Angeles descended on downtown and East Los Angeles assaulting and

terrorizing Mexican Americans for several nights .

' 4 m an W W N rt on o . . o uote rom Eric Foner The Story o America n Freedom (New Yor : . Q f , f k C p y 24 6

1 4 1 94 1 - 1 954

’ S mith v. A r ht In 1 44 r m r r T ll i . 9 US . S C D m r P r g , the up e e ou t uled that the exas e oc atic a ty s use “ of the white primary to restrict black voting was unconstitutional under the Fifteenth

Amendment .

A merica n I ndia n v otin ri ht W r War H r H arr Aus in a F g g s . o ld vete an y t , ort McDowell Yav a ai stru led on b eh alf ofIn dian v otin ri hts in Arizon a lea din p , gg g g g to

’ ’ th e U. r m rt H rri v La veen 1 948 A r S . Sup e e Cou s decision in a s on . ( ) that found izona s r r A ri for r r N w M . e est ictions unconstitutional d ve voting ights was also unde taken in exico .

Forma ti n h M tt hin i t F 1 H r H o oft e a a c e Soc e . 950 r a C mm P r y ounded in by a y y, a o unist a ty m m r Mattachine S t r r r e be , the ocie y sponso ed discussion g oups , developed a theo y of m t r m r r m m ho osexuals as a cul u al ino ity, fought police ha ass ent , and founded a agazine , m , in 1 An r r 1 953 r r m Matta hin 953 . c inte nal evolt in esulted in a new st ategy of assi ilation , but e continued to fight for basic civil rights and won a Supreme Court case when the Los Angeles m t f ne r m r r o o . post aste efused handle copies O _ because he conside ed the obscene

m n v R l In 1 1 C r S r m C r r f S tou e . eil . 95 or y , the alifo nia up e e ou t uled that it was not illegal a m A public restaurant or bar to cater to ho osexuals . lthough it was still illegal under sodomy laws m - sex r of ri of m for men to engage in sa e acts , the ecognition the ght public asse bly gay and lesbians represented a landmark decision .

1 4 m r r m r The 95 US . S C v r Edu a tion . B rown . B oa d of c land a k up e e ou t decision that found “ ” racially segregated public schools unconstitutional and overturned the separate but equal B r f 1 Br . o E NH M H 896 . S S doctrine in effect since ( own v oa d ducation ; oton igh chool, A R M m r C D H F r L r r NHL NHL; ndrew ankin e o ial hapel , ouglass all , and ounde s ib a y, )

M onroe School, B rown v . Boa rd ofEd uca tion Na tiona l H istoric Site National Park Service photograph

1 5 1 955 - 1 964

B M DERN IVIL RI - PART 5 . T O C G H S MOVEMENT , 1 955 1 964

In r m m m m r Am ri r the g eatest ass ove ent in ode n e can histo y, black demonstrations swept the r C count y seeking onstitutional equality at the national level , and an end to southern massive Pr f r . r r o C R A esistance esidential executive o de s , the passage two ivil ights cts , and the ’ federal govemment s first military enforcement of civil rights would finally bring an end to The a de jure segregation . advoc cy and success ofthis movement ultimately led to similar r m r effort s by othe ino ities .

Thr r ft r S r m C r r r u Br w ee yea s a e the up e e ou t uled school seg egation unconstit tional in o n v. Boa rd o Educa tion r ft r M m r A m P f and two yea s a e the ontgo e y, laba a bus boycott , resident E nh wr r r R r Th 1 ise o e signed the fi st civil ights bill since econst uction . e 957 Civil Rights Act

. mm n r U S . C o C R E c eated the independent o ission ivil ights . ven though the Commi ssion

liinited to - findin m its r r was a fact g ission , epo ts would help shape the breakthrough Civil A ct of 1 964 r C mm r r r Rights and p ovide the o ission with g eate autho ity .

G r r for m r r era ains in civil ights va ied ino ities du ing this . I o sing ground were Latinos who

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m rt le al . and mm r r W faced ass depo ations of g illegal i ig ants in Ope ation etback , educational r S r r LO S A In seg egation in outhwest schools , and police b utality cases that ocked ngeles . ’ contrast the re- emergence ofa women s rights movement in the 1 9605 resulted in significant r of 1 963 E Pa Act r t n civil ights gains in adoption the qual y , p ohibiting inequali y based o sex R A t 1 4 t m C c 96 rri r o m for m . in the ivil ights of , and breaking ba e s e ploy ent wo en

D ri m m m m m r f r r u ng this ti e the ho ophile ove ent developed in a nu be o diffe ent di ections . “ ” Both women and men in the bar culture engaged informs of Cultural resistance to police In r r r on r r r . r ep ession by insisting thei ight to gathe in public cities ac oss the count y, _ working - class lesbian bars nurtured a world where women made public their same - sex desire T r r i rm f r r . u and fought o the ight to public space his cult al esistance, along w th the fo al r m r for m r r a /lesbian political effo ts of ho ophile o ganizations , laid the basis the conte po a y g y m m ove ent .

ri ri m m r r r r Af can Ame can ass de onst ations , televised acial violence, fede ally enfo ced r f r r deseg egation o highe education institutions , as well as the black passive esistance movement of the early 1 9605 would lead to adoption of the landmark Civil Rights A ct of

1 4 r m m r r US . r 96 . Conside ed the ost co p ehensive civil ights legislation in histo y, the act ' ri It granted the federal government strong enforcement powers in the area of civil ghts .

r to m r r r m r prohibited a number of p actices li it voting , gua anteed acial and eligions ino ities tions r m ofr equal access to public accomin oda , outlawed job disc i ination on the basis ace, mm on C R r r sex or r US . C colo , eligion , , national o igin , continued the o ission ivil ights , and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission .

Exa mples ofcivil rights events a nd individ ua ls

D r Bilitis DO B m r San Fr Da u er Bilitis . In 1 955 e ght s of , aughte s of ( ) e e g d in ancisco as the

' D B rk T r L r, O fi rst national lesbian organization . h ough its publication , the adde wo ed to p rove the respectability oflesbians and to win acceptance within mainstream society .

1 6 1 955 - 1 964

M nt m r B o o e us B o co . R P r rr D m r 1 1 for r g y y tt osa a ks was a ested on ece be , 955 , efusing to

rr r her ri r r r A - de m . r su ende seat on a city bus to a white , as equi ed by unicipal law yea long r m r m m bus boycott followed spa king the odern civil ights ove ent .

n M err l 1 Alle v. S r m r e l . A 956 US . up e e Cou t Opinion that overt urned a Utah court decision denying the franchise to Indians because of a fear that Indians might gain substantial control f o the county government .

- - Sit in nonviolent mo ement. The r F r r 1 1 960 ( ) v lunch counte sit ins began on eb ua y , , in Gr r N r C r r eensbo o, o th a olina, as college students began a di ect , but passive, assault on denial of r r The m thei ights to public facilities . addition of young adults to the move ent swelled the r r r anks of those pa ticipating in demonst ations .

Ell B k r wh 1 r a a e . Black activist o in 960 helped o ganize the Student Nonviolent C r C mm r r r r r oo dinating o ittee, a decent alized g oup favo ing g ass oots politics to empower r r ut o dina y people to speak o .

M rtin L th r Ki n J r The r m A ri Am r a u e g, . p ee inent f can e ican leader who galvanized large m ri m m sections of white public opinion behind any of the goals of the civil ghts ove ent .

n hin ton Th 1 M r n W f r ri l& The M a rch o W a s g . e 963 a ch o ashington o civil ghts and fil employment was the largest protest for Afii can Ameri can rights to that time and cemented ’ th m r A r Am r r 2 M r L r K Jr. s t r as o a tin uthe ing , pos u e the ajo national f ican e ican leade of the ” r hi m I H Dr m r century and whe e he gave s fa ous ave a ea o ation .

r N r f r W m B etty Frieda n . Founde of the ational O ganization o o en who was devoted to “ t f r m r of 1 963 F m M obtaining full equali y o wo en in public life and autho the e inine ystique . This work had a major influence on the prohibition ofinequality based on sex in the Civil Rights A ct that resulted in creation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and breaking down barriers to employment for women .

r r n fDrum . In 1 964 S P r Publica tio o , the Janus ociety of hiladelphia, unde its cont ove sial A r f r r P r Dr m . o president Cla k olak , launched a pionee ing publication , u dve tised as a place “ “ ‘ for r r r r m news for and fiction pe ve ts it featu ed photog aphs of ale nudes , Dr m r r . irreverent comic st ips and fiction , and openness about sex u quickly outst ipped all r other homophile publications , gaining a ci culation of

in a t the Lin ln m ria l Reve rend M a rtin Luthe r K g. J r. , co Me o Nationa l Park Serv ice photograph 1 965 - 1 976

- PA RT B6 . TH E SEC ND REV L T O O U I ON, 1 965 1 976

W 1 964 C R Act R ith the passage of the ivil ights , the Civil ights Commission struggled with

’ r m r r Th . e C mm an agenda apidly expanding in scope, co plexity, and cont ove sy o ission s work took on a national rather than a regional focus that concentrated on affirmative action and federal enforcement efforts . A s newly mobilized social movements saw impressive r C mm r m r gains in black civil ights , the o ission add essed clai s f om an expanding array of civil 5 r tu for m r r r ights consti encies si ila p otections and emedies .

E r me r was m r C R F nfo ce nt of school deseg egation ade possible th ough the ivil ights Act. aced r Of r u r m r r r m r with the p ospect losing fede al f nding in disc i inato y p og a s, school boa ds and l l r m to r r R r oca gove n ents had poduce plans that would integ ate schools . esults we e also C mm C R 1 garnered from investigations by the US . o ission on ivil ights in the late 9605 and early 1 9705 on aspects ofAfii can Am erican education and detailing the educational isolation La dr of r r m tum of tino school chil en , a legacy educational seg egation dating f o the of the r centu y .

The equal employment and other economi c opportunity features ofthe Civil Ri ghts A ct of 4 m m r The M rm r 1 96 significantly i pacted ino ities and women . fight by exican fa wo kers for economic justice and the Chicano Movement for dign ity and identity became inexorably “ ” The r rm i linked during this era . concept and p actice of affi at ve action significantly m fAfri Am r r . S r o r expanded the black iddle class till the failu e can e icans , gene ally, to b eak “ ” glass ceilings in corporate ownerships and high executive positions as well as the recurri ng “ ” backlash against affirmative action continued to leave most of the race in a marginal m M m r of E Em m t r C mm EE C econo ic position . e be s the qual ploy en Oppo tunity o ission ( O ) & & urged the formation ofa civil ri ghts lobby for women analogous to the NAACP for Afii can t The N r for W m NOW Am eri cans to implement the Ac . ational O ganization o en ( ) was

m r - war m m r founded , and wo en active in the civil ights , student , and anti ove ents we e also ' In r m r r m r of m . beginning to aise the issue wo en s equality gove n ent , executive b anch e edies for past discrimination included developing a workforce reflecting the minori ty and gender makeup ofthe labor pool in federal contract work .

4 R Act m r to Even with the passage of the 1 96 Civil ights , ino ities continued face voting h r m C rt m r 1 944 T e U . S . S restrictions . up e e ou had ade it clea , at least since , that the

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tin itizens r or ri . Fifteenth Amendment gran g c voting ights could not be denied ab dged Yet , it took another twenty years and the Voting Rights A ct of 1 965 to provide the enforcement The measures needed to protect the suffrage ofAfrican Americans and other minorities . results were felt most significantly in urban areas ofthe country and in the Deep South where voter registration sc ared and black municipal officials were elected in large numbers vi rtually gaining complete control ofthe local governments and paving the way for expanded political m r r r C C R M m 1 965 influence . Si ila esults we e achieved in the hicano ivil ights ove ent of

T r r r L r 1 9 75 . h oughout the twentieth centu y, va ious atino advocacy o ganizations had openly p rotested against poll taxes and other methods that kept Latinos from registering to vote . Voting ri ghts cases from the 1 9705 through the 1 9905 resulted in the election of Latinos to

- p reviously all white municipal and county councils and boards .

F ll i vil Ri hts J ourna l . a H u h Dav is raham The iv il Ri hts omm iss ion: The First 40 Years . g g G , C g C C 1 99 7 7 . . 1 8

1 965 - 1 976

mi it n t t H omo hile a ro e . In 1 965 m m p l t p s s , ho ophile ilitants launched a series of picket lines C S r C mm S D r m P W at the ivil e vice o ission building , the tate epa t ent , the entagon , the hite H and Ph F r of I H In W ouse , in iladelphia on the ou th July, at ndependence all . ashington , tiny contingents of women in respectable dresses and men in ties carried signs proclaiming ” “ H m S as I S r H m R In o osexuals hould be Judged ndividuals and uppo t o osexual ights . ” r m r r m 1 966 - 1 969 r r In H r m n annual e inde s f o , p oteste s at dependence all e i ded onlookers D r I r r m to that the ecla ation of ndependence had not b ought f eedo all .

l n H na ndez m m m r of r EE F Ai ee er . Only wo an e be the fi st OC . ollowing lack of VII r m implementation of Title (p ohibiting e ployment discrimination) , Hernandez urged r f r m NAA formation ofa civil ights lobby o wo en analagous to the CP.

ri r m m M a lcolm X . A n A fri can Ame can leade who ca e to sy bolize the Black Power movement .

l mr r Bla ck Pa nther Pa rty . One of the mi itant black groups that e e ged du ing the Black

Power period following passage ofmajor civil rights legislation .

t A rm Am r M m AIM A m erica n I ndia n M ovem en . ctivists fo ed the e ican Indian ove ent ( ) in

’ AI M to t f r n M n r to r . orr o Min eapolis , in esota, in esponse police b utality soon began speak

I r r r m r r r r . S ndian sove eignty, eligious f eedo , t eaty ights , and cultu al su vival ignificant

- M n B D V r B r R C ur B . individuals include e non ellecou t , ussell ea s , lyde elleco t , and ennis anks

m ri I n A r Al tra occu a tion . B 1 969 1 97 1 A a ca z p etween and , e can ndia activists occupied lcat z

- Fr B T I rm r r ri San s a . sland, a fo e fede al p son located in anci co y hey wanted to use the island m r m ofIn for an educational and cultural center and to publicize the ist eat ent dian peoples . A r I NHL/NPS : G l r r m r . The occupation ended with a aid by fede al a shals ( lcat az sland, o den Gate National Recreational Area)

f 2 7 1 969 r S Inn G r newa ll . o Sto On the night June , , the police aided the tonewall in eenwich Wh m m r so m r m Village . at had happened so any ti es befo e in any othe places this ti e F r ofri r provoked prol onged resistance . ighting back and spa king a night oting, the pat ons of S NHL r ri . the Stonewall Inn came to stand for militant esistance and gay p de ( tonewall , )

a r r T C C esa r Cha vez a nd United Fa rm W orkers (UFVV) UnionH ea dqu te s . hough havez r his r ofnon- staunchly remained a labor leade , p actices violent civil disobedience and struggle for the rights ofordinary workers now place him in the pantheon of great civil ri ghts

r The UFW W its r r D C r m leaders in US . histo y . , ith headqua te s in elano , alifo nia beca e a f symbol that ign ited the Chicano urban civil rights movement in the second half o the 1 9605 .

The fir out r 1 968 C o Ea st L os A ngeles Blow O uts . st walk p otest in by hicano high sch ol r ft r students from the main schools on the eastside of Los An geles . Ove students le thei T rk classes to protest inferior educational opport unities and disc rimination . his event spa ed a major effort for educational reform for Chicano students in segregated schools .

20 1 965 - 1 976

Fir t Na tiona l Chica no th L i ti n nf r in1 96 ou bera o Co er nce . r D 9 s Y e Sponso ed in enve , by ’ C r G za Cr for r r r C r m o ky on les usade Justice, the confe ence b ought togethe hicano youth f o throughout the nation in a meeting to declare their rights and to promote an ethnic nationalist m m M m ove ent . uch of the symbolism and rhetoric ofthe Chicano student movement e anates r m m f o this eeting .

L a Ra ni P rt The r f za U da a y. o ganizational convention o this first and only Chicano r met El P T 1 2 97 . An G rr political pa ty with delegates in aso , exas in Jose gel utie ez was rm r rt G rr elected as chai an , but this c eated a division within the pa y between utie ez and r r of r n The r r T mm suppo te s Co ky Go zales . pa ty had ea ly successes in exas co unities but r Im r r f fizzled out within a few yea s . po tant because it symbolizes the political aspi ations o

Chicano youth .

M xi n A m ri n L e l D f n n E ti n F n F M e ca e ca a e e e a d d uca o u d . 1 968 ALDEF g s ounded in , became the primary voting rights and civil rights advocacy organization for Mexican A m n Am r . H r r r San r Sa Fr e icans eadqua te ed fi st in ntonio then late oved to ancisco and, Los A MALDEF r m r ri r r finally, to ngeles , won seve al i po tant voting ghts cases ove the yea s .

Th Phila l hia Pla n . In 1 6 m r fPr R r M N e de 9 9 o . p , the ad inist ation esident icha d ixon devised a plan to require contractors bidding on federal and federally assisted construction projects to r m r r m m rt The m r r hire a fixed numbe of ino ity g oup e bers by a ce ain date . easu e fi st applied “ ”

In 1 1 . . rt f P m k P P . 97 U S C o in ennsylvania beca e nown as the hiladelphia lan , the ou t Appeals for the Third Circuit upheld the legali y of this plan .

- F rm a i n ofthe Na tiona l G a T a k Force . In 1 973 r m m o t o y s , a g oup of ostly white iddle class men r rm N Ga T F r r r m gay inte ested in political action fo ed the ational y ask o ce, late ena ed the Th t n National Gay and Lesbian Task Force . e goal was o focus o national issues and to bring r gay liberation into the main stream of Ameri can civil ights .

m u nd ettus Brid e elm a Ala a ma a l n TheEd P g , S , b , o g the Selm a -to-M ontgom ery Na tiona l H istoric T ra il Photograph courtesy ofthe Alabama Historical Society

2 1 PAR T B THE AMERI CA N INDIA N M VEM 7 . O ENT

The r Am r In M m T of ch onology of the e ican dian ove ent is quite extensive . ens thousands of n American Indians suffered from US . expansion a d gave their lives in support oftheir B r m ofE r r to r people . efo e the co ing u opean colonial powe s the sho es ofNorth Am erica and U S r Am ri In r r R the founding of the nited tates , hund eds of e can dian cultu es th ived . eligious r m s r m rr beliefs , wo ldviews , cos ologie , and envi on ental su oundings shaped the structure of m m T r er . r thei gov n ents , institutions , dwellings , and econo ies he e was , and continues to be, a

r deal fof r t m Am r I g eat dive si y a ong e ican ndian populations , languages, and cultures .

I r In D m . . r U . S o o inant s ciety viewed ndians as the Othe this context , it pe ceived them as rri r W I r r er o as . wa like , c ude and ba s to expansion noble savages hat to do with ndians E I : r m m mm . r beca e a national dile a ssentially, ndians had two options eithe assi ilate o peri sh .

F E m m r rnm In ollowing the nglish odel of colonialis , the fede al gove ent viewed dians as r m r t Am r . Th r S . sepa ate na ions of peoples and t eated the diffe ently than white e icans e U . i F r ha r C t r r I . C r s r onst ution contains two efe ences to ndians i st , ong ess the powe to egulate r I S r m r . t ade a ong the va ious states , fo eign nations , and ndian nations econd , the executive A r r r In . s b anch has the esponsibility of negotiating t eaties, including with dian nations the - - r m r I Th mm r in r . e co ande chief, the p esident had a ilita y elationship with ndian nations judicial branch had the duty to interpret the Constitution .

Indian/white relations can be divided into the following five policy eras with land issues central to the development of this relationship .

- - TREA TY MAKI NG ERA , 1 776 1 8 71

In r r r m US . expansion into dian count y spa ked a se ies of bloody engage ents that continued

' Fr m 1 778 to 1 87 1 I r into hundreds of r until the 18905 . o , ndian nations ente ed t eaties with the for r r m r m US . that contained stipulations the fede al gove n ent to p ovide the with educational ,

- S r m C r D r r m era US . r . medical , and housing se vices u ing the t eaty aking , the up e e ou t ofI rendered decisions that defined the legal and political status ndian nations , usually in C r m r r ways that restricted Indian sovereignty . ong ess also enacted nu e ous laws pe taining r m r r specifically to Ameri can Indians . Out of this histo y e e ged what is called the t ust doctrine .

M r ri C r In 1 83 1 , Chief Justice John a shall desc bed the he okee nation as in a state of “ ”6 r r u r m r r . The p pilage , ese bling that of a wa d to his gua dian following yea , he pictu ed the “ ” “ r r r for Cherokee Nation as a domestic nation , and that a weak state , in o de to p ovide its

ma r r m r r u r safety, y place itself unde the p otection of one o e powe ful witho t st ipping itself of ”7 T r r m m the right ofgovernment and ceasing to be a state . hus , the fede al gove n ent assu ed It m r I for extensive powers over Indians . was ostly conce ned about opening ndian lands non lndian settlement .

l r i 30 US . v Sta te o Geo u . Cherokee Na tion . f g

7 ' 5 1 5 ll v Geor ia 3 1 US . r s t r . o ce e g .

22 Exa m le ofci il ri ht indi id ua l la ce a nd nt p s v g s v s , p s eve s

Tec um eh . In r 1 8 1 05 T m S r r s the ea ly , ecu seh , a hawnee, o ganized a confede acy in the Ohio V r r r r r In 1 1 T m alley to stop the loss of thei lands and to p ese ve thei cultu es . 8 3 , ecu seh was B T m mi r I r killed at the attle of ha es , effectively ending collective lita y ndian esistance east of

M Ri r T m r r - . I r . r the ississippi ve ecu seh was p obably the ea liest pan ndian leade in US histo y .

Pro het town . A I T m r r Ten kwatawa p s town in ndiana founded by ecu seh and his b othe s , M of r r r called Prophetstown . any thei followe s lived the e in preparation to defend their lands In 1 8 1 1 m of r m U S . rm and ways life f o the nited tates , a ilitia a y destroyed the camp .

I ndia n re i ta nce . I B H Cr z H s s ndividuals such as lack awk, a y orse and other Indian leaders m r r m led the fight to aintain thei lands and cultu es against the US . ilitary effort to displace In dians .

A SSIM IL A TI N AND AL LO TIVIENT ERA 1 871 -1 93 4 O ,

D mi r mi r r m In evastated by disease , econo c dep ivation , and lita y st uggles , ost dians had been T era r r r m confined to reservations by the 1 8705 . his is cha acte ized by fede al atte pts to turn In dians into mirror images ofwhite Americans through the individualization ofIn dian land ’ T f r f r m . o o I holdings , education , and othe eans his policy called the cleansing the ndians t cul ure and spirit .

In I A r r Act 1 87 1 C r r t r m the ndian pp op iations of , ong ess took away sove eign nation sta us f o T r r US . . tribes without awa ding citizenship hus , they we e subject to the law, but not A rm In r rm r f r protected by the ri ghts ofcitizenship . la ed dian efo e s called o citizenship m or r r ofr r m r through allot ent , the edist ibution ese vation land in s all pa cels , to individual r I m Am r m r . U r tribal me be s pon eceiving a pa cel of land , an individual ndian beca e an e ican U r r C r m r r r citizen . nde this p ocess , ong ess envisioned individuals with o e cont ol ove land Tr not r out I until tribes no longer existed . ibal land pa celed to individual ndians changed hands from Indians to whites and ultimately opened up more than 1 00 million acres to white 8 E In r r r r . m . develop ent dians found ways to p ese ve thei identities and spi ituality ventually,

24 S r Act Am ri I . in 1 9 , passage of the nyde gave citizenship to all e can ndians

Exa mples ofcivil rights events a nd individ ua ls

A r r G r m r G eronimo. With the paches facing a th eat to thei way of life, e oni o su faces as a In r F m rm military leader ofthe Chiricahua Apache dians du ing the 1 8705 . inally co ing to te s 1 886 m of r r with General Nelson Miles in , he and his s all band followe s we e shipped in exile He 1 9 1 2 r r ofwar r A m k m . to Florida , laba a , and O laho a died in , still a p isone without eve Ar having an opportunity to return to his beloved izona .

3 mer n India n i vil Ri hts West ort nnecti t: r w n ed Enc elo edia o A ica ( . o cu een ood O lso . v f James S . p C g p C G

- 7 r s 6 . P es .

2 3 L n v Wo In 1 o e . l . 903 U S . S r m f , the up e e Court held that Congress had plenary power over I m C r ndian nations and people, eaning that ong ess could take lands and suppress In dian r cultu e .

Allotment roce re i ta nce I p ss s s . ndividuals such as Redbi rd Smith (Cherokee) and Chitto Harj o (Muskogee) led resistance during the early 1 9005 against the allotment process on their lands .

W a a rl M nt zum a ss C a o o e a . T mi j ( s ) aken captive as a boy and educated in do nant society, Wassa m m r N t r C . o r ja beca e a edical docto in hicago fo getting his oots , he headed a successful dri ve during the 1 9 1 05 that prevented the federal government from removing his r r m F r McDowell R r r Yavapai elatives f o the o t ese vation to a less desi able location .

AN NEW DEAL ERA 1 93 4-1 945 I NDI ,

With assimilation a failure and in response to. criticisms detailed in the Meriam Report of 1 2 r r m m r I N w D 9 8 e . R r , the fede al gove n ent next e ba ked on a policy called the ndian eal athe r mi I r m I r m than t ying to assi late ndians, it suppo ted any functions of ndian gove n ent in the “ r to r r I tur r r mm desi e esto e ndian cul e and he itage , add ess co unal land base and land purchase ”9 i - r m The Ind New D r r r . r N issues , and egene ate t bal self gove n ent ian eal used va ious ew D r r m P W r Adm r m eal agency p og a s such as the ublic o ks inist ation to eet these goals .

Dr - n M r m R r m r r rm m o C r r . Th awing heavily the e ia epo t, ong ess adopted a aj o efo easu e e In dian Reorganization A ct of 1 934 canceled the general allotment -policy and changed the ’ Bureau ofIndian A ffairs (BIA) procedures regarding economic development and community self-govemment particularly authorizing tribes to adopt their own constitutions

- H r m ri r not r r for - ovemment m r b . and y laws oweve , any t bes we e p epa ed self g and no ajo 1 0 transfers ofgovernmental fu nctions from the BIA to the tribes occurred .

Ex a mples ofcivil rights events

R r t A t I ndia n Reor a ni a ion A ct. In 1 934 C r I c g z t , ong ess enacted the ndian eo ganiza ion BIA T r (IRA) which established a policy ofIndian preference within the . his app oach m T r m m . provided Indians with more opportunities fo e ploy ent and advance ent his law, A r C r m W r m wri tten by the Commissioner ofIndian ffai s John ollie , i posed este n syste s of The r D Act m govern ment on Indian peoples . law also epealed the awes (land allot ent), t r r for Am r provided funding for Indians o pu chase land, and established schola ships e ican

In dian students .

t In 1 936 C r IRA r u Okla homa I ndia n W elfa re A c . , ong ess extended p ovisions to incl de

Oklahoma Indians .

9 ri a Native Americans and the New Deal: T e O fice Files ofJohn Univ ers ity Publi cations ofAme c . h f / llr r htm 1 1 . - / tIve amerrcan co e . 995 o ier 1933 1 945 www lexisnexis com/academic/ urdes na , , C ll , , g

‘ ’ n iv rl Ri hts Act in Ci vil Ri hts in l rn tt t An Historical Anal s is o the 1 968 Indra C g . g D na L. Bu e I o d . y f

- ' In 1 9 w Y r : arland ublishin c 8 99 . Americ a n His torv: Major His torica l Interp reta tions ( Ne o k G P g

24 Na tiona l Con re ofA merica n I n ia n g ss d s . Between 1 94 1 and 1 954 this organization fought for I r r r ndian sove eignty , and political and t eaty ights .

TERM INA TI N - O ERA , 1 956 1 970

Aft r W r War II r on r rm m r r e o ld , which had placed less inte est efo and o e inte est in reassert ing r m of r l m In t aditional values , the pendulu fede a policy swung back to assi ilating dians into the m r m o r rm r W rm ainst ea fsociety th ough te ination and elocation . ithin the te ination policy, C r r r r In r r ong ess sought to absolve the t ust elationship and tu n dian affai s ove to the states . D ri 1 05 r u r r rm m u ng the 95 , ove a h nd ed nations we e te inated, leaving the susceptible to land 10 55 rt A r r m r r m I and pove y . elocation p ogra p ovided job t aining and funds to ove ndians r A m m Am ri I f om reservations to large cities . ssi ilation failed once again as any e can ndians r r r r rm refeni n r r ejected city life and t ibal leade s esisted te ination , p g the t ust elationship with

- the federal government over non Indian interests at the state and local levels .

Ex m l f i il ri hts e ent la ce a nd in di idua l a p es o c v g v s , p s v s

R m W m bo 1 06 T P r r N w J ua n de J esus o ero. 9 e M hen a s all y in at aos ueblo in no the n exico , Romero witnessed the involuntary transfer of thousands ofacres ofTaos land to the Carson

N F r B L . In T Cr r m B ational o est , including lue ake aos beliefs , the eato had given the lue B r non- In r hm rr r r m L . ake efo e long, dian enc oac ents into the su ounding a ea dis upted any of F r r r T m r . the sh ines acing this th eat to thei spi itual well being, the aos people de anded the Aft r m r r ofhi r r r r . s etu n of thei sac ed land e beco ing the cacique (a eligious leade ) people, he B In 1 f r r t r L . 970 905 R m r led the struggle o the e u n of lue ake , now in his , o e o witnessed President Richard Nixon sign a bill into law returning Blue Lake and acres to his people .

- I P N r fi h- r r Fish ins . American ndians in the acific o thwest held s ins in suppo t of thei v Wa s hin ton Sta te 1 68 D treaty rights Beginning with Sohappy . g ( 9 ) avid f r r r In Soha Sr. r o r . ppy, began a se ies legal ulings conce ning fishing and t eaty ights v Wa s hin ton 1 974 r r r m r United Sta tes . g ( ) a fede al dist ict cou t held that any weste n m l l Washington Indian nations had a ri ght to half ofthe sal on catch .

’ ’ n At Fr La W t Am r I r Fra nk s L a ndi g. ank s nding in ashing on , e ican ndians , joined b iefly by “ ” M r Br fish- r of r Dick G regory and a lon ando , conducted ins to p otest the denial thei fishing “ ”

m r as r . rights in the usual and custo a y sites , stipulated by t eaty

T Na ti ona l I ndi a n Ed uca tion A ssoci a tion . his association was established in 1 969 to give American Indians and Alaska Natives a national voice in thei r struggle to obtain educational equality .

‘ on n med a ter the re i in The case iskn own as the BU ldl Decis i a f p s d g j udge George Boldt .

25 I n dia n Educa tion : A Na tiona l Tra ed -A Na tiona l Cha llen g y ge . A 1 969 report ofthe Senate Comm ittee on Labor and Public Welfare that exposed many shortcomings in the i ofI r f r r mm for educat on ndian child en and o fe ed eco endations change .

rm ti n f l I h l r A 1 ft Fo a o o loc a ndia n sc oo b oa ds . 969 shi in BIA policy that encouraged the formation oflocal Indian school boards and offered Indian governments an opportunity to r m m of m r BIA take ove the anage ent schools ad iniste ed by the .

- NA TI N ERA 1 SELF DE TERMI O , 9705

In 1 970 r ft r ofIn r m hr , fede al policy shi ed back to the suppo t dian gove n ents t ough self I m of r r rm . r m r dete ination ndians had lost uch thei land , eligious f eedo , t aditional modes

‘ ofeconomic roduction r r m mm r p , and the fede al gove n ent had co itted itself to p ovide Am Indians certain services in return for the land . eri can Indian activists issued protests and cries targeted mainly at the federal government calling attention to injustices still I m rr T faced by ndians and ,to de and legislation to co ect the situation . hey sought r f r ri r r r r r ecognition o t eaty ghts and esto ation of t ibal sove eignty . Ove the objections of In r m 1 968 C n r Am ri In Ri C A ct. dian gove n ents in , o g ess passed the e can dian ivil ghts T i m r r on In r me r r r r h s law i posed bill of ights p otections dian gove n nts , fu the e oding thei r F rm o of Am r I M m AIM m r sove eignty . o ati n the e ican ndian ove ent ( ), de onst ations,

m r of r r r . a ches , and occupation facilities cha acte ize this pe iod

m l l ri ht nt la ce a nd indi idua l Exa p es ofcivi g s eve s , p s v s

' M ri P r Sioux led I M a ria Pea r on . In 1 972 s , a a ea son , a , opposition in owa against a

- discriminatory state law that required the immediate reburial of non Indian &remains and t Her the curation of In dian remains in a state facili y for study in perp etu ity . action contributed to the ri se ofthe Ameri can Indian repatri ation movement that sought to end r m the abuses committed against American In dian e ains .

r ofZ P New M i In 1 970 L Robert E . L ewis . A s governo uni ueblo in ex co , ewis began a “ ‘ B of r Z P r home rule experiment . y the end the following yea , uni ueblo had taken ove r In control of its own affairs from the Bureau ofIndian A ffairs . Othe dian nations followed suit .

r ri m r Waunika m A n nie W a unika . Responding to fede al disc ination in health ca e, spent uch Tr of her adult life working to improve health conditions on the Navajo reservation . aveling r she m extensively throughout the reservation and talking on local adio stations , anaged to m her . spread word about tuberculosis and other diseases affecting people , saving any lives

r r H a nk A d a ms . Adams led the st uggle against the opp essive state laws that denied H Washington Indians thei r treaty rights to fish in the usual and customary places . e was wounded by a gunshot from an unknown assailant .

26

MA TI F IVIEW RK PART C . TH E C RA O

In r m r for r m r r developing a f a ewo k civil ights , the ajo question we esponded to is how well r r r r e are N P r r ep esented civil ights events , pe sons and plac s within the ational a k Se vice . Use of m rm f the es pe its the identification o individuals , events , and places that illustrate crucial r of r r r m r T histo ical aspects a topic within an inte p etive f a ewo k . he thematicframework of civil rights history can be based on provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1 964 which is r m m r r U r T conside ed the ost co p ehensive civil ights legislation in S . histo y . his legal basis ’ r n m r m m r eflects society s dy a ic elationships between wo en , ino ities, and government within m T r r . m of the social , cultu al and econo ic influences of eve yday life hese the es voting , equal m m a mm are r ri e ploy ent , equ l education , and public acco odations cha acte zed below .

How well these themes are illustrated within the National Park Service is also described The is on m r of N H r m below . analysis based a co pa ison existing ational isto ic Land arks and N P r S m i r OAH Pr ational a k yste units w th the histo y and sites identified by the . evious ’ N a P r S r m r m r m m m ation l a k e vice the e studies cove ing social and hu anita ian ove ents , wo en s l Am r r r C r US . r r histo y, onstitutiona histo y, black e icans in histo y, acial deseg egation in

' education and Am r W r War II r m r public , the Japanese e ican o ld inte n ent expe ience have r r T 1 of N identified sites associated with civil ights histo y . able this section notes ational r ri r T 2 of Park Service civil rights related interp etation by mino ty g oup . able this section lists National Historic Landmarks and National Park System units within the civil rights eras outlined in the overview .

TH EMES

Votin g Access to the ballot is a milestone in the path to full civil rights for minorities r m r - ovemment and women that represented political f eedo , the ight to self g and the The r was r m transform ation of the nature of politics in America . f anchise g anted to all ale 1 70 m 1 920 r r two C R A citizens in 8 , given to wo en in , and einfo ced within ivil ights cts 1 957 D ovemments to ( , espite passage of these acts, state and local g continued defeat and discourage the Ii ght of minority voting through tactics such as gerrymandering r It V R Act of 1 965 rri r and lite acy tests . was not until the oting ights that the last ba e s to Am ri In H voting were breached with provisions extending to e can dians , ispanic Th f Am ri m r m r . e r o Ameri cans , Asian e cans and si ila language ino ities sto y voting in m m r m r America is one that experienced violence, ass de onst ations , and coalesced ino ity

groups .

The story of voting rights within the National Park Service has been most p rominently told through the recognition of National Historic Landmarks and National Park Service units for women and A fii can Americans and in properties nominated to the National ’ r In 1 980 C r r W m R Register by preservation partne s . ong ess autho ized the o en s ights F New r r r r of National Histori cal Park in Seneca alls , Yo k which p ese ves the histo y the

’ early women s rights movement and interprets a major movement in American social The rk m of history through a cluster of homes and meeting places . pa includes the ho e ’ Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Wesleyan Chapel where the fi rst women s rights 4 r N H ri La mark r convention was held in 1 8 8 . Othe ational isto c nd s and sites ecognize

2 8 meeting places and homes ofinfluential women suffragists and the reform work of ’ Afr Am r m r A ri Am r r r ican e ican wo en s o ganizations . f can e ican sites ep esent rt of m S pa icipation both individuals and the asses in gaining the vote . ites include ’ m r r m 1 m - -M m abolitionists ho es, g ass oots eeting places , and the 965 Sel a to ontgo ery m r r a ching oute .

No study of voting ri ghts has been completed for other minorities; all of whom r r T r m expe ienced acial discrimination in this area . his ove view ost notably identifies Am ri I r Latin / r e can ndian legal cases and o ganized o a effo ts to gain voting rights .

Equa l Employment Opportunity Title VH ofthe Civil Rights A ct of 1 964 forbids discri mination by employers and created the Equal Employment Opportunity r The f Commi ssion to investigate disc imi nation complaints across the nation . struggle or equal pay and nondiscrimination in employment resonates throughout the American m E m m r ri m r r political econo y . qual e ploy ent took on g ave situations p a ily du ing the Depression and at times ofwar as whites held minorities to substandard jobs and low ’ T m is r r m for wages . his the e cha acte ized by the wo en s fight equal pay, non r m ofm ri r r r m New D disc i ination ino ties in defense indust y, p og ess ade in the eal r r m ob r for Am r I Latino/a rm r r p og a s , j t aining e ican ndian , unionization of fa wo ke s in the

1 9605 of men mi r . , and acceptance gay in the lita y

The m M r M l e B r r r New D ho e of a y c od ethune, a p esidential adviso du ing the eal m i N H r L dm r r r s m . p og a , the one ational isto ic an a k specifically associated with this the e Other import ant individuals and events are identified in the civil rights overview such as Betty Friedan and A ileen Hernandez who were influential in gaining equal pay and job r for m C r C UPW for r r oppo tunities wo en at the national level , esa havez and the thei wo k Latino/a rm r 1 963 M r on W A ri Am r n for on fa labo , and the a ch ashington by f can e ica s equal employment .

Eq ual Educ a tion Leading the way in overturning state and federally sponsored ’ for r m r m S r m C r segregation , the fight equal education was p o inent f o the up e e ou t s

Th r - r r Pless 1 896 Brown 1 954 . e decisions in y in to in , and beyond cou t o de ed

‘ dismantling of segregated schools unlocked the potential for a diversecountry to finally achieve the aims and goals ofthe foundations of the nation contained in the Declaration f But r of Independence and the Constitution o the United States . the failu e to achieve this desegregation after nearly a half- century demonstrated the limits of the federal ’ government as well as black protest to substantially alter the country s ingrained m T m r r r institutional racis . his the e is cha acte ized by legal challenges to seg egated public education and federal enforcement ofcourt - ordered segregation that affected all minority groups .

The story of school desegregation is told in the National Histori c Landmarks theme E u C m 2 0 R D r o P . 0 0 study, acial eseg egati n in ublic d cation o pleted in , this study was p repared to provide information called for in the Central High School National Historic Site enabling legislationf The theme study contains a comprehensive history of the re ation/dese re ation ri A Am r H A r school seg g g g expe ences of sian e icans , ispanics , f ican

2 9 Am r N Am ri A N N H i e icans , and ative e cans (including laska atives and ative awai ans) . E N H r L m r are r r xisting ( and potential ational isto ic and a ks identified and egist ation r r m for r r of local ' si nificance are equi e ents p ope ties national , state, and g defined . A s a r of m r esult this study, any potential sites elated to educational equality with national 1 849 1 975 N significance between and have been identified . ational Park Service units r of r r include sites that tell the sto y the seg egation , deseg egation , and enforcement of

- court ordered school desegregation .

0 Public A ccommoda tion M r C r S r m r ino ities , ong ess , and the up e e Cou t have debated t r r r mm for er r and in e p eted the ight to access public acco odations ov one hund ed years . Equal access to public accommodations removed legal restri ctions to facilities for m r r T m r r everyday social and econo ic inte cou se . his the e is cha acte ized by nonviolent boycotts and sit- in campaign s staged in the 1 9405 and 1 9505 that intensified in the 1 9605 r as the media exposed the conf ontations to the nation .

National Historic Landmarks associated with the Afii can Ameri can struggle include Constitution Hall Where the Daughters of the Am erican Revolution denied access to n rM r An r 1 93 9 D r A B C r si ge a ian de son in , and the exte venue aptist hu ch which symbolizes the grassroots effort to boycott Montgomery city buses in 1 955 following ’ it The ri for Rosa Parks s refusal to s in the back of a city bus . ght gays and lesbians to r m S 1 ri N 969 . o r gathe in public places is sy bolized by tonewall , site of the ots studies o m for r m r r sites a ssociated with this the e have been conducted othe ino ity g oups .

The r r r r civil ights ove view identifies othe places , individuals , o ganizations , and events

mm The 1 96 - in associated with fighting discrimination in public acco odations . 0 sit r counter in G r r N rt r T m m W C . he ove ent began at the oolwo th lunch eensbo o , o h a olina m r E m r B rm m A r . B r 1 963 a ch in i ingha , laba a exposed acial violence to the count y lla ake , r NC r sit- inm m r a founde of S C, helped o ganize ove ents and o ganizations like the Mattachine Society and Daughters ofBilitis that influenced the development of gay civil

rights .

r m r r m r a e r . In addition to the major themes desc ibed above, othe the es p o inent in the ove view

r r r r r r H ousing Supported by both p ivate develope s and fede al policy, acially est ictive provisions institutionalized housing segregation in Ameri ca that remained in effect for all S r m C r r r r minori ties until 1 948,when the US . up e e ou t found acially est ictive housing covenants unconstitutional leadingt o substantial changes in housing patterns throughout E r m the country in succeeding decades . ven then , covenants e ained in effect until T m rk r Congress adopted the Fair Housing Act of 1 968 . his act a ed a t ansition in the civil rights movement as enforcement shifted from blacks in the rural South Who had gained

- r C R A ct of 1 964 access to lunch counters and whitesonly jobs th ough the ivil ights , to

blacks in the urban North who faced racial concentration in housing .

One National Historic Landmark representing the housing theme is the Shelley House for

“ ’ its association with the Supreme Court s 1 948 ruling that raci ally restrrctrve covenants

violated the Fourt eenth Amendment .

3 0 C rimi na l j u stice Anti - Chinese violence in the American West in the mid to late

r - M ri 1 9405 Los An - nineteenth centu y, anti exican violence du ng the in geles , and anti gay violence and police harassment revealed how civil rights could be trampled when m r r r ri - as m A r r ino ity g oups we e catego zed as anti social and a enace to society . nothe a ea r r m A r of civil ights c i es is lynching . cco ding to two scholars who will publish a book on r r m r r this subj ect soon , the e we e as any eco ded mob lynchings of Mexicans during the r of 1 9005 r r Afii n Am ri ea ly decades the as the e we e of ca e cans .

An r m was r r Am r W r W r I T i othe exa ple the inca ce ation of Japanese e icans in o ld a I. his s the topic ofthe theme study: Confinement and Ethnicig : An Overview ofWorld War 11 Am r R m 1 99 r r S . C 9 Japanese e ican elocation ites o pleted in , this study was p epa ed to provide information for the National Histori c Landmark theme study called for in the It r r Manzanar National Historic Site enabling legislation . contains a b ief histo y of Am r r r WWH r r r m Japanese e ican elocation du ing , p ovides an ove view of tangible e ains currently left at 3 5 internment sites (7 previously listed on the National Register of Th H r P ri r r . e isto ic laces), and desc bes any existing inte p etation study concludes that all r m r N R r r H r L m r m sites appea to e it ational egiste o National isto ic and a k status . Ca ps that are related to the topic of Japanese American internment in World War II are identified as r t a esult of this s udy .

Ri ghts ofimmigra nts The mass deportation of millions ofMexicans (and Latinos/as) during the 1 93 05 and 1 9505 signaled an era when basic civil libert ies and human rights r r mm Imm r N r S r we e ab idged in co unities swept by the ig ation and atu alization e vice . Organizations such as the Committee for the Protection ofthe Foreign Born provided r r assistance to people whose ights we e violated .

A meri ca n I ndia n civil ri ht The r m g s ove view identified ultiple events , places and Am r T r are r 1 N individuals associated with e ican Indian civil rights . he e ove 00 ative Am r N H r L m r are e ican ational isto ic and a ks , yet only a few associated with this Th e r r m In M r r framework . fo ced e oval of dians east of the ississippi is ep esented in the Tr T r N H r Tr Th Am r R H . e In John oss ouse and the ail of ea s , a ational isto ic ail e ican dian Movement to regain sovereign rights is represented in the 1 969 - 1 97 1 occupation of

Al r N P r S r . cat az, a ational a k e vice unit

C OMPLETING TH E ST ORY

of r r Am r r The civil ri ghts story is one the g eatest st uggles in e ican histo y, one that continues m our r m T Our C t r . r to this day . onsti ution p o ises equality and cultu e de ands it his sto y has been characteri zed by the insistence ofwomen and minorities on a standard ofequal treatment under the law that improved the social and economic conditions of life for millions r rm T m . r ofminorities and wo en and consequentlyt ansfo ed the nation hus , the sto y involves r r r r ofm I for m the identification , p ese vation , and inte p etation any ndividuals and sites wo en B r r of and minority groups . ased on the ove view, ch onology, and an analysis existing and potential sites the following findings and recomm endations can be drawn :

3 1 Study Findings

The findings concentrate on which themes and - minority groups need furt her intensive study to assist with the preservation and interpretation of sites that convey how the civil rights m m r ove ent influenced both national and eve y day life .

M a n ci il ri ht rela ted ite ha e been identifi ed a n d inter reted Th y v g s s s v p . e current status ofthe National Park Service civil rights story is most readily seen in individuals are r m tur M rt L r K r who of p o inent sta e, such as a in uthe ing , J . , and well known events like M r r the 1 965 Selma Voting Rights march . ost sites ep esent pivotal moments in civil rights r N H ri histo yor the lifetime work of activists . Of the ational isto c Landmarks identified in T 2 24 are a A ri Am r 1 3 m 3 able , associ ted with f can e icans, with wo en , with American I 1 A Am r a /lesbian m m N ndians , and each with sian e icans and the g y ove ent . ational Park Service units and National Historic Trails that interpret civil ri ghts include 8 associated A ri Am r 3 m 2 A Am r with f can e icans , with wo en , and each with sian e icans and American I i ‘T of er r Am r W r War H . r m nd ans opics int p etation include Japanese e ican o ld inte n ent , ’ m r in Am ri In Am r I wo en s histo y voting, e can dian expulsion and the e ican ndian Mo m A fii can Am r r rt ve ent , and e ican civil ights effo s in voting, public school r ri r deseg egation , and civil ghts gene ally

m r f i i ht r la t it h n t en i ntifi n i t 2 . A n u be o c il r e ed s e a e o b e de ed a d n er rete T v g s s v p d . he m r r . r histo ians cont ibuting to this study list any events , places, and people in the ove view r m ri r not r T that a e i portant in the civil ghts sto y that have been ecognized . his list is not m r or m r N P S r co p ehensive definitive , but e ely assists ational ark e vice staff with assessing W m r are r r r . r r how well these sites ep esented in the count y ithin ino ity g oups , the invento y Am ri I A W r s m for L Am ri . of civil ight sites is li ited atinos , e can ndians , and sian e cans ithin m of mm m m are not the es , the topics public acco odations , equal e ploy ent , and housing well

represented .

t In r N ra ll inter reti e conce t la n e i . r 3 . 0 ove p v p p x s s te p etive planning was the topic of a December 1 997 meeting between twenty- four representatives from the National Park r B rmi m C R In N C R M m Se vice, the i ngha ivil ights stitute , the ational ivil ights useu , and the T r met C H m R In r r University ofSouth Florida . his g oup at a ivil and u an ights te p etive Planning Workshop with the goal of recommending how interpretive planning could The r rm contribute to the effective interpretation ofcivil and human ri ghts . g oup confi ed r r r r or mm m r the need for an interpretive concept plan that inte p ets , p ese ves , co e o ates stories and resources associated with civil and human rights with an overall goal to r r r of improving the quality, depth and b eadth of inte p etation and education civil and t to r N P r S r human rights topics . I noted a need coo dinate between the ational a k e vice and

' r r taken to m r r outside sites . No fu the action has been co plete the inte p etive concept plan

due to a lack offunding .

Study Rec ommend a ti ons

Responding to the finding that some areas of civil rights are underrepresented in interp reting mm r r m and r our c ultures this study sets forth four reco endations to ecognize . p o ote , p otect ’ civil rights history sites that meet the National Park Service s thematic framework of “ ” “ r a m m The c eating soci l institutions and ove ents and shaping the political landscape . National Park Service should :

1 Pre a r N i . p e a a t ona l H istoric L a n dm a rk them e study on p rovision s ofthe 1 9605 civil ri h T m g ts a cts . he e studies can assist park plann ers and historians in identifying sites that m a r for r r r r r N P r S m y be conside ed p ese vation and inte p etation as pa t of the ational a k yste , as N H r L m r on N R r B designation ational isto ic and a ks , and listing the ational egiste . asing m on r of r m m u a the e study p ovisions the civil ights acts (voting , equal e ploy ent , ho sing, mm and r m can r r r public acco odations , school deseg egation co pliance) po t ay chapte s in the ’ r r r n nation s civil ights sto y, each of which has its own st uggles and significa ce within the m m The r r r u r m of to ove ent . study should include egist ation eq i e ents , a list potential sites r for N H r L m r N R r conside ational isto ic and a k designation and ational egiste listing , and r r N H r L m r m f r r r r p epa ation of ational isto ic and a k no inations o app op iate sites . One chapte “ r r m r on r R of civil ights al eady co pleted is the sto y school deseg egation, entitled acial ” Desegregation in Public Education in the United States that resulted in the designation of five National Historic Landmarks and identified other sites that should be considered for For m N P r r u u fwt her . S study these the e studies , the ational a k e vice sho ld contin e its r r r partne ship with Q AH to obtain schola s in p eparing civil rights historic contexts .

Pr a re a them e tud on immi ra nt ri ht . T r m r r u 2 . ep s y g g s his f a ewo k study aised iss es of mm r r E m f r A sian American and Latino i ig ant ights . xa ples o topics include c iminal justice and the A sian American experience that ultimately had a significant impact on defining M r r mm a Am r a h . r e ic n citizens ip ost likely, othe acial and ethnic i ig nts faced ’ m r u r on m r u S discrimination in si ila iss es that eflected the nation s de oc atic val es . uch a study would fit in with currently proposed legislation to authorize the study of the ” “ ” ofAm r r r as m peopling e ica to tell the histo y of the count y a elting pot , and both the r m r isolation and assimilation of imm ig ants in the ainst eam of society .

l with Na ti e Am erica n re a rdin the com letion ofa theme ud for the 3 . Con su t v s g g p st y The N Am r r history ofNa tiv e A m erica n civil rights . ative e ican civil ights story (including Alaska Natives and Native Hawaiian) is unique and therefore the adequate identification and interpretation of its history can only be reached by focusing strictly on u u N P r S r N its elements . S ch a study wo ld aid the ational a k e vice in telling the ative American story at its units and meets the thematic framework conceptualization of ’ representing the fu ll diversity of America s past .

Pre a re a n inter reti e conce la n for ci il ri ht . Su n r n 4. p p v pt p v g s ch a pla can desc ibe and li k the experiences ofminorities at National Park Service units with other civil rights related A r mm m sites and museums . lthough each site tells a unique sto y , the co on the e of people A n r striving for basic rights unites these stories . interp etive plan can describe the variety and u a r r mm m of pe ople iss es associ ted with civil ights and explo e co on the es , goals and u r rv B r r a n . n r approaches for inte p et tio , ed cation and visito se ices y li king othe sites , visitors can increase thei r understanding and appreciation ofcivil rights issues associated

al . with sites at all levels of significance (loc , state , and national)

3 3

DETERM INATI NS O F SITE I I F PA RT D. O S G N ICANCE

KINDS or SITES

This section focuses on typ es ofsites that may be associated with civil rights :

’ ’ ’ A cti i t hom e are r r in ri v s s s that di ectly associated with an individual s ole civil ghts .

a herin la ce r r t G t g p s associated with g ass oots efforts o gain civil rights . Examples include churches and meeting halls .

Confl ict a nd demon stra tion sites where groups protested to gain civil rights or federal ma enforcement ofcivil rights . Such sites y include places of public accommodation such as s or mar r r r r . It ma lunch counte and bus stations , ching outes along oads and b idges y include u a m r r f places ofviolence s ch s bo bed chu ches o sites o murders .

Site a ocia ted with le a l cha llen e to di crimin a tion ur s ss g g s s such as co thouses , schools , and college campuses that were sites oflegal decisions or involved with litigation that interpret or illustrate discriminatory conditions .

e T ar r Examples of civil rights sites ar shown in the following table . hese sites e al eady designated as National Historic Landmarks or units of the National Park System and are T 2 T r r of and r described i n able . hese sites show the st ong ole activists gathe ing places r r r r m mid- w th oughout civil ights histo y, the p o inence of legal challenges in the t entieth r and m m s r m m m of centu y, the i pact of public conflict and de on t ations in the ass ove ents the

1 9605 and 705 .

These properties outstandingly represent :

o r m r r u the st uggle of a ino ity g o p, 0 the single most important event leading to a movement 0 the major catalyst for change in self- awareness ofminority rights and development ofa movement

CRIT ERI A or NATI ONAL SIG NIFICA NCE

Na tion a l H istoric L a n dm a rk C riteria

National significance for cultural properties is measured by criteria for the designation of M National Historic Landmarks . ost National Historic Landmarks remain outside the national

r m r ma m n or r r pa k syste , whe e they y be a aged by a local , state , fede al agency, a p ivate

or an r r w r. institution , individual p ope ty o ne

To i for N H r La m r n r b r t r qual fy ational isto ic nd a k desig ation a dist ict , site , uilding , st uc u e , or obj ect must meet these standards :

Possess exceptional value or quality in illustrating or interpreting the heritage ofthe U S r ar r r n r or r . nited tates in histo y, chitectu e , a cheology, engi ee ing , cultu e

P r of r t n m r rkma ossess a high deg ee integ i y of locatio , design , setting , ate ials , wo nship , n feeli g , and association

Cultural resources that may be nationally significant within the civil rights fram ework include those that meet at least one of the following National H istoric Landmark criteria :

Are a m i r Criterion 1 . ssociated with events that have ade a sign ficant cont ibution to are or r r r t r of and identified with , that outstandingly ep esent , the b oad national pat e ns United States history and from which an understanding and appreciation of those r m patte ns ay be gained .

A re m r i of r Criterion 2 . associated i po tantly w th the lives pe sons nationally

significant in the history ofthe United States .

r r o A re m . r ar r m C ite i n 5 . co posed of integ al p ts of the envi on ent not sufficiently significant by reason ofhistorical association or artistic merit to warrant individual recognition but collectively compose an entity ofexceptional historical or artistic significance; or outstan dingly commemorate or illustrate a way oflife or culture

(District) .

r r m r r r of r r r r r u O dina ily, ce ete ies , bi thplaces , g aves histo ical figu es , p ope ties owned by eligio s r r m r m r institutions or used for religiouspurposes , st uctu es that have been oved f o thei

r r and r r o iginal locations , reconstructed histo ic buildings , p ope ties that have achieved If u r r significance within the past fifty years are not eligible for designation . s ch p ope ties fall ma r : within the following categories they y, neve theless , be found to qualify

E A r r r r r m r r m xception l . eligious p ope ty de iving its p i a y national significance f o

architectural or art istic distinction or hi storical importance .

2 A or r r r m r m r , Exception . building st uctu e e oved f o its o iginal location but which is

. r m r or for nationally significant primarily for its architectu al e it , association with

44 ’ persons or events of transcendent importance in the nation s history and the

association is consequential .

E A r r xception 3 . site ofa building or structu e no longe standing but the person or ’ event associated with it is oftranscendent import ance in the nation s history and the

association is consequential .

A r r r r f ri E 4 . o o r xception bi thplace , g ave, bu ial if it is a histo cal figu e of r r r ri or r r t anscendent national significance and no othe app op ate site, building st uctu e r r of r di ectly associated with the p oductive life that pe son exists .

E 5 A m r r r m r n r m r xception . ce ete y that de ives its p i a y national sig ificance f o g aves of r r m r or r m r pe sons of t anscendent i po tance, f o an exceptionally distinctive design o an

exceptionally significant event .

A r r or m of r r r Exception 6 . econst ucted building ense ble buildings of ext ao dina y national significance when accurately executed in a suitable environment and r m r r r r m r p esented in a dignified anne as pa t of a esto ation aste plan , and when no m r other buildings or structures with the sa e association have su vived .

7 A r rt r m r mm m r E . r xception p ope y p i a ily co e o ative in intent if design , age , t adition , r or symbolic value has invested it with its own national histo ical significance .

A r r n 50 r Exception 8 . p ope ty achieving national sig ificance within the past yea s if it m rt is ofextraordinary national i po ance .

Na tion a l Pa rk System Criteria

for N P r S m t r m m To qualify inclusion as a unit of the ational a k yste , a cul u al site ust eet the landmark criteria of national significance listed above and additional tests of suitability and In r m : feasibility . addition to the standa ds above, it ust

r Be an outstanding example ofa part icular type ofresou ce .

r for r r for m or for Offer superlative oppo tunities ec eation , public use and enjoy ent ,

scientific study .

Na tiona l H ist oric T ra il Criteria

H r Tr r N Tr S m A ct r m : To qualify as a National isto ic ail (unde the ational ail yste ) , a t ail ust

Be a trail or a route established by histOric use and must be historically significant as a

result ofthat use .

45 Be ofnational significance with respect to any ofseveral broad facets ofAmeri can r T i . o r of r histo y qualify as nationally significant, histo c use the t ail must have had a far r on r r Am ri r eaching effect b oad patte ns of e can cultu e .

0 Possess significant potential for public recreational use or historical interest based on r r r r histo ic inte p etation and app eciation .

Applying the C riteria

Properties eligible for consideration under the civil ri ghts framework must have played a or r l r r Am ri r m r definitive c ucia ole in , the ights of e can citizens to equal t eat ent unde the law ri r ri T r r r r o . ega dless of ace, sex , eligion , national o gin , sexual o entation hese events and m r mi m ri decisions ust have se ved as lestones in the national develop ent of civil ghts . Such milestones will generally reflect three aspects of civil rights history:

’ 4 m r m m 1 S r m o m . . t uggle ost likely ass ciated with ino ity and wo en s ove ents

t m r m r I r re US . S C . 2 . n e p tation ost likely associated with up e e ou t cases

m t E r m m t r r . 3 . nfo ce ent os likely associated with legislative acts and fede al enfo ce en

EVAL UA TI NG TH E SIG NIFI CANCEO F SI TES

Historic sites help in understanding the civil rights movement by descri bing a story to be told D r m rt for r r there and providing the setting . iffe ent kind of sites will be i po ant inte p eting the full range and breadth ofcivil rights in America .

’ A ctivists H omes

n m To be considered nationally sig ificant , a ho e should be associated with an activist who was :

a premier exponent (a founder or one ofthe import ant representatives) of a major m m or ove ent , r m m m or highly influential in educating othe s , led a ass ove ent , active in a definitive or crucial role in the development of civil rights nationally

46 a n B nth n Sus . A o y H ouse National Park Service photograph

G athering Pla ces

To be considered nationally significant these sites should :

m r of m r or of r r or a k the site a ajo event phase civil ights histo y,

m r -r m r or be associated with a odel g ass oots de onst ation , be the focal point of a grass - roots project at the national level

Dexter A venue Ba ptist Church Photo courtesy ofthe Alabama Historical Comm ission

4 7 Confl ict a nd Demonstra tion Sites

To be considered nationally significant these sites should have :

0 r r rm r gained nationwide attention that galvanized and hastened civil ights efo , o

r of r l r helped spu passage national civil ights egislation , o marked a political and emotional peak in the civil rights movement

Stonewall I n n Photograph by Andrew Dolkart '

Sites a ss ocia te d with lega l ch a llenge

T r n : o be conside ed nationally sig ificant , these sites should

m r m r or firm of r r US . a k a challenge to, an af ation , acial disc i ination unde the C onstitution , and show the state of discrimination at the time ofthe event

Shelley H ouse Gilleard Photo by G erald L.

48 PART E. B IBL I OG RAPH Y

S OURCES CO NSULTED

‘ ’ B r t D Jr. An H ri An f 1 L. o 968 I C R Act u net , onald , , isto cal alysis the ndian ivil ights , in Civil Ri hts in America n H is tor : Ma or H is torica l Inter reta ti n N w g y j p o s . e York : Garland

P In 1 87 . ublishing c . , 9

P Er A r n Freed m . New r W W rt r Th e Stor o me ica o : . . N m . C 1 9 8 . one , ic y f Yo k o on o pany, 9

“ r The Ri C mm : The F r 4 r iv G m H D . i C 0 . C l Ri ht aha , ugh avis ivil ghts o ission i st Yea s g s J ourna l F 1 997 . , all

Gr m M r AB - LI m a i n ivi Ri M v m The C C O Co n o to the C l hts o e ent. S B r r oss an , a k . p g anta a ba a :

AB - LI C C 1 993 . O,

H K rm L . Ra ce Rela ti ns nd the La w in Ameri a n H is t N w r . o a c or . e : G r all , e it , ed y Yo k a land P 1 87 . Co. 9 ublishing ,

4 K P r . R 1 9 05 Kenrrit L H C C . . Civil ellog, ete J ivil ights onsciousness in the , in all , ed r M r H ri l In r r t i New r : G r Rights in Ame ica n H is tory : aj o is to ca te p e a t ons . Yo k a land

Pu Inc . 1 987 . blishing , ,

Th ivil Ri A I Th P h L w d . e C hts ct o 964: e a ss a e o t e a Tha t En Loev R r D. e ded y, obe t , , g f g f w r r i n A : S U r Ne Pr 1 997 . Ra cia l S e e a t o . g g lbany tate nive sity of Yo k ess ,

’ m l min th Pa s t: La ndma r W m H r Rec a i e ks o o en s is to . M r P P . ille , age utna , ed g f y

BlOomin ton: I Pr 1 992 . g ndiana ess ,

E l di Ameri a n India n ivil Ri h W r d . nc c o e a o c C ts . C m S . c : Olson , Ja es , , y p f g estpo t , onnecticut 1 r Pr 997 . G eenwood ess ,

’ r New r R m H 1 P liti l Di tiona . : Sa re s New o ca c 993 . fire W m . Sa , illia fi y Yo k ando ouse ,

t Pr n D r G 1 . ivil Ri hts in Ame ica : 1 5 00 to he es e t. r : 998 A . C Sigler, Jay g et oit ale,

‘ ’ H R : The I fAl r I a C r n T Loo. o Str nge , a oly and ina olding the ock ndianization cat az sland , 1 969 in The Public Historian Winter 2 00 1

N Am r New D : Th University Publications ofAm erica . ative e icans and the eal e Office Files

’ wwwl exisnex is comracademic/ ides/nativ e american/ lli rh tm r 1 93 3 co e 1 995 . OfJohn Collie , gp ,

C H m R I r r P W r Pr am . Vaughn , S ivil and u an ights nte p etive lanning o kshop oceedings ,

- 1 7 N P rk r G r D m r 9 1 0 99 S . Atlanta , eo gia , ece be , , ational a e vice RECOMMENDED RE ADING S

A frica n A merica n

’ rd mm ti n V W r Th Public A cco oda o : C . n e Stra n e Ca reer o J im Crow 3 cd . s an oodwa d s, g f ( , f r r o n r . r r is the standa d account the o igi s of seg egation Othe valuable , olde accounts

E W Ra R la ti n i V r i [ - C r . ce e o s n i in a 8 70 1 902 H r include ha les ynes , g , owa d

R Ra ce Rela tions in the Urba n South 1 765 - 1 890 W m H . abinowitz, , illia Chafe , Civilitie a nd Civil Ri hts : Greens boro North Ca rolina a nd the Bla ck Stru le r Fr s g , gg fo eedom M rri Th e ri in o vi R A D. O s the Ci l i hts Movement Bl k and ldon o s , g f g , a c Communities

’ Or a nrzm or Cha n e N r A r M M A F r g g f g ewe studies include nd ew . anis, i e You Ca n t ’ P ut Out: Th e Civil Rights Life ofBirmingha m s Reverend Fred Shuttles worth Glenda

Rebb he P a in a nd the Promis e: The Stru le or Civil Ri hts in Ta lla ha ss ee Fl ri y, T gg f g , o da H r The hi in Win r n R. S t d: The S u eme Court a nd ivi Joh owa d, f g p C l Rights fi om Recons truction to Brown explores the positive as well as negative roles ofthe High

Court in civil ri ghts .

Educ a tion : The t r r r H r M B Ne ro Educ i bet e olde wo ks include o ace ann ond, g a t on in l R H r Se a ra te a nd Une ua l H A A a ba ma L . rr m r The Ne ro ouis a lan , p q a y sh o e, g a nd the Schools H r B A H is tor o Ne ro Educa tion in the South en y ulloch , y f g

' R r r l i H r W Fr m Brown to Ba kke K Sim e J us t ce . o : icha d luge , p J a vie ilkinson , The

r r D r 1 - 1 7 D r m A M S u eme Cou t a nd School es e e a tion 954 9 8 m C . odera t p g g , Ja es u a , e Am n x mi t Dwi D Ei enhower a nd the School Des e re a tion Cris is tr t . o g E e s s : gh s g g J . ’ M r Kousser r E : The S r m C r F rs D on R o gan , Sepa ate but not qual up e e ou t s i t ecision acial t r V Tu hn t D ri m S r S r His o M . s e The isc ination in chools , Jou nal of outhe n gr and a k ,

NAACP Le a l Stra te A a ins t Se re a ted Educa tion 1 92 5 - 1 95 0 m g gy g g g , ong the best ‘ A f r are H r B Th e Ba kke Cas e: Ra ce Educa tion a nd A i rma tive o the newe studies owa d ell , , , ff i W m Th ur ood Ma rs ha ll America n Revolutiona r Act on Juan illia s , g , y r w v B a r documents the history of the legal and other strategies surrounding B o n . o d of H r Th e Shi tin Wind A m F r Tea chin Educa tion R. ; John owa d , f g da ai clough , g Equa lity: Bla ck Schools in the Ag e ofJ im Crow

K r Rev lt h R dne t r r are A r D. o o t e e cks Voting Righ s : Among the bette olde studies lbe t i wan , f D Re ublica ns Fa ce the Southern ues tion on Mississippi ; Vincent P. esantis , p Q

1 - 1 r V F L Bla ck Ba llots : Votin Ri hts in the South 944 969 C . Steven . awson , g g , ; ha les B h a nd the Ba llot: Southern Federa l J ud es a nd Bla ck Votes Hamilton , Th e enc g D r H Bla ck Vic tor : The Ris e a nd Fa ll o the White Prima r in Texa s arlene Cla k ine, y f y d the Votin Ri ht A Ma rtin Luther Kin J r. a n s c t o rr Pr tes t a t Selma : , and David J . Ga ow, o g g g f ’ M r Kousser s Th e Sha in o Southern Politics 1 974 m r 1 965 J . o gan p g f ( ) de onst ates that the movement to disfranchise blacks was a direct result of attempts at bi racial H r The Shi tin Wind M N r r R. cooperation . ewe wo ks include John owa d, f g ichael

South 1 888 - 1 908 Perrnan Stru le For Ma s ter : Dis ra nchis ement in the , , gg y f includes A r Am ri D et the disfranchisement oflower class Whites as well as f ican e cans ; and Jane aley,

’ ed J um in J im Crow: Southern Politics From Civil Wa r to Civil Rights al . s , , p

50

As ia n America ns An Inter r tiv H r B : e e is to . : Twa ne P r 1 99 1 . p y oston y ublishe s , r r r ri It r A ve y tho ough su vey of Asian Ame can history . offe s an insightful synthesis based on r A m r for who r existing schola ship . ust ead anyone is se iously interested in Asian American r histo y .

Chines e Sa n Fra ncis co 1 850 - 1 A Tr - C . 943 : a ns Pa c i i c Communi S r t . hen , Yong , f y tanfo d, Pr 2 r : S rd U r 000 . Califo nia tanfo nive sity ess , ’ B on r r r r r C E C ased ext ao dina ily ich sou ces in both hinese and nglish , hen s book represents an attempt . to reconstruct the world ofChinese Ameri cans including how they viewed the It r r world around them and how they lived their lives . ep esents a shift away from

' r m fr m seein m r m It disc i ination and o g these people e ely as victi s . is focused on the Chinese mm San Fr for m co unity in ancisco, which a long ti e existed as the capital of Chinese r Ame ica .

L r I i C L Ed Bonacich . a bo mm ra tion under Ca ita lis m: As ia n Workers heng, ucie and na , eds , g p r W r 1 B f in the United Sta tes be ore Wo ld a 1 . r : U o C r Pr 1 984 f e keley niversity alifo nia ess , T is r wi r m r A Am ri r Th his a collection of sho t essays dealing th diffe ent ajo sian e can g oups . e essays are contributed by various scholars and cover topics ranging from reasons for r ri r The r r emig ation to the expe ences of these g oups in the United States . edito s w ote an m r r m r r r i po tant int oduction to the volu e, which clea ly indicates thei theo etical foundation and

- the influence ofneo Marxist class analysis .

Fr F i i : F r otten As ia n America ns : A Pictoria l Ess a 1 763 - circ a 1 9 C r . il nos o 63 . o dova , ed p g y,

l H nt P . o 1 83 . D I Kenda l/ u ub C . 9 ubuque , owa ,

f m r It This is a ba sic fact book about Filipino Americans with any good illust ations . has been used rather frequently by students of Filipino America .

- A ri New r : Ar Pr 1 ines e Violence in North me ca . 978 . D R r cd . Anti Ch aniels , oge , , Yo k no ess , Am r T r u Roger Daniels is one of the most noted scholars of A sian e ica . his highly p od ctive m r r r A Am r r scholar has published nu e ous books and a ticles on diffe ent sian e ican g oups , In r m D r r r especially Japanese Americans . this ea ly volu e, aniels put togethe a ticles othe s had published in vari ous journals about major instances of anti -Chinese violence in North

America .

r W rld W r N w Concentra tion Ca mp s USA : J ap a nes e Ame ica ns a nd o a II . e

r : H R r W 1 97 1 . Yo k olt , ineha t and inston , The r r of Am r r Here is another early volume by Daniels . inca ce ation Japanese e icans du ing

World War II is perhaps the most extensively studied event in Asian Americans history . Much new research has been done and published (including a more recent book by Daniels America ns in World Wa r 11 New rk: H himself: Pris oners Without Tria l: J ap a nes e , Yo ill W T f r m r r ang, his book o fe s a good co p ehensive account of that t agic event in r American histo y . Fon r P D e S . R r Ra c i m Diss ent a nd As ia n America ns rom . s , hilip and aniel osenbe g, eds , , , f 1 850 to th Pres ent A Doc m n H i t r W r r Pr 1 e : 3 . u e ta r s o . C G 99 y y estpo t , onn eenwood ess , T m r r r his book contains any valuable sou ces that have neve been published befo e, including m rm r E r r m r r r f r pa phlets , se ons , and esolutions . dito s t ied to de onst ate that the e was suppo t o r of C Am r r m A ri Am the ights Japanese and hinese e icans , especially f o f can ericans .

Fr r Or a nizin A ia n America n La bor: the Pa c i i a t nn d- l C . s c Co s Ca e s a mon iday, h is g g f

In - r P T m U r Pr 1 4 . dus t 1 8 70 1 942 . : 99 y, hiladelphia e ple nive sity ess, th Fr m 1 9 t r WWII C F Am r r o the late cen u y to , hinese, Japanese, and ilipino e icans wo ked in

’ ’ sahn n r T are ofFr The r the o cannery indust y . hese individuals the focus iday s book . autho s r r r r r r of r m r r tho ough esea ch helps to econst uct the wo ld these people, f o thei wo kplace to r mm It r r r r r thei social co unities . does a fine job , in pa ticula , in evealing thei elations with Fr m r r each other as well as with capitalism . o the book we lea n how these people wo ked It r r r m together to improve their lives . also p ovides insights into inte ethnic elations a ong

C F r r . hinese, Japanese and ilipino wo ke s

A in a Ra e Politics a nd the hines e Exclus ion A t G or r . Clos the G te: c C c . C y y nd ew g , , hapel 1 H : U r ofN r C r Pr 998 . ill nive sity o th a olina ess , In r r r r r of ri ofC this book , the autho t ies to offe a new inte p etation the o gins hinese exclusion ,

- A r r of 2 . 1 88 which challenges long accepted views cco ding to the autho , the passage the Chinese Exclusion Act was caused more by electoral politics than by racist views and images r r t r r of the Chinese . C itics have a gued tha the autho fails to p ovide convincing evidence . ’ Gyory s book will certainly generate new debates as well as new research over this very vital ri r issue in A sian Ame can histo y .

Ri htin a Wron : J a a nes e America ns a nd the Pa ss a e o the ivil Hatami a L T . C y , eslie g g g p g f

1 r r : S r U r Pr 1 9 3 . r i A t o 988 . S C 9 Libe t es c f tanfo d, alifo nia tanfo d nive sity ess , In spite ofher limitations in research and her problematic assertions which might have r m e r r r r r r resulted f o political naivet , the autho offe s a fai ly good ove view of the ed ess r m r movement and how it succeeded in ove co ing va ious obstacles .

i A ia n India n Immi r r m r P a e rom Ind a : s a nts in No th A e ic a . N w M . a s s e Jensen , Joan g f g

U r Pr 1 988 . Haven : Yale nive sity ess , r In mm r r Th This is a good and basic histo y ofAsian dian i ig ation to No th Am erica . e

research is solid .

- A ia n America ns a nd the Su reme our : A D c u n ta H i d . t r r H c s C o e s to . Kim, yung chan , , p m y y

r Pr 1 992 . New York : G eenwood ess ,

- m m r u r r on A Am r T Hyung chan Ki has published nu e o s efe ence books sian e ican history . his T m i m m r . is one ofh s ost i po tant publications his volu e contains the texts , including both s of3 6 m r US H C r A majority and dissenting Opinion , land a k igh ou t cases involving sian r r m 1 875 The are r 5 Americans in a centu y (f o to cases g ouped in sections , and each The are r u r r has an interpretative essay . essays cont ib ted by diffe ent schola s and go well with

the introductory essay by the editor. K M H in M w Ch a en . Ne r : K 1 98 ingston , axine ong . Yo k nopf, 0 . U r r r is mi Wri nlike othe wo ks discussed he e , this not an acade c piece but a novel . tten by one of m m u A Am r ri r its m r the ost fa o s sian e ican w te s , oving and vivid sto ies help the public r m r ofC Am ri r m It unde stand i po tant aspects hinese e can life , f o social life to work . is a

’ r fi P rt r m r ar - powerful histo ical ction . a icula ly i po tant e accounts ofChinese family less men s r r rt m Am r st uggles in thei effo to building and clai ing e ica .

lain r As ia n India ns Fili inos Other As i n McC C cd . a Communities a nd the La w , ha les , , , p , , . w P 1 4 Ne ub . , 99 . M lain i a r A Am ri r Th cC s noted schola of sian e can legal histo y . is latest book consists of A r articles about several major Asian Ameri can groups . clea focus of the book is the

' ri ofF and A sian In Am r r m expe ence ilipinos dian e icans , which have not eceived as uch a r Am r r attention s thei Chinese and Japanese e ican counte parts .

ihir r Ma r ins and Ma ins trea ms : As ia ns in Ameri n H i r O o G . ca s to a nd Cul ur k , a y Y g y t e . t t fW Pr 1 4 S : U r o 99 . eat le nive si y ashington ess, The impact ofthis physically thin but intellectually heavy book has been felt far beyond the In kihir r A Am r S u . G r O o r A field of sian e ican t dies it , a y investigated va ious c itical sian Am ri m r of ri r r e can issues , such as the a gins histo cal consciousness , ace, gende , class and r r His r t e r r r r . cul u in a ve y b oad, wo ld histo y pe spective insights about the elationship “ ” “ ” between the the mainstream and the marginal (the other) help us better understand not _ A r only sian Ameri ca but also Ame ican society as a whole .

H B Ma ki a nd Rema ki n As ia n America throu h Immi ra tion Polic 1 85 0 Ong ing, ill . ng g g g y,

r t Pr 1 9 . 1 0 . S r r : S U r 93 99 tanfo d, Califo nia tanfo d nive si y ess, The book represents an attempt to understand US immigration policies in the context of ’ ri m r H the m of A sian Ame can socioecono ic histo y . Ong ing s analysis is focused on i pact ix A Am r r m C F A such policies on s sian e ican g oups , na ely, hinese, ilipino, Japanese, sian i K r V m The m rt In . d an , o ean , and i etna ese appendices , which contain the texts of i po ant

r fi . legislation and cou t cases, add signi cantly to the value of the book

A i Am r B : m Di erent Shore : A H is tor o s a n e ica ns . T R . Stra n ers ro a akaki , onald g f ff y f oston 1 L r 998 . ittle , B own , m r m r m of m r Though the book has encountered so e c iticis s , it e ains one the ost popula books ’ Its m r m nrce m r about A sian Ameri can history . appeal co es f o a co bination of the autho s r R T i extraordinarily eloquent prose and his effective use of historical sou ces . onald akaki s a His m pioneer and leader in A sian American Studies . book helps to ake available to audiences

' - A Am r u beyond the academy stories about the 1 50 year history ofvarious sian e ican gro ps .

r n i Unbound Feet: A Soc ia l H is tor o Chines e Women in Sa n F a c s co. Yung , Judy . y f

r Pr 1 995 . Berkeley : University ofCalifo nia ess ,

- - r m C mm San This is a well research , well w itten book on wo en in the hinese co unity in t r u r m not Am r Francisco . I reveals the va io s opp essions that wo en faced only in e ican The k r u t e rt m society but also within the Chinese community . boo eco nts h effo s ade by the m of S rt a re r . , women to liberate themselves . uch effo s captu ed sy bolically by the notion “ i C ra of m n r . unbound feet . in reference to the hinese t dition wo en bi ding the feet G ay/L esbia n

Bé A Comin r rubé . Out Unde F r Th H r M , llan g i e: e is to y of Gay en a nd Women in World Wa r II New r : Fr Pr l . ess 990 . Yo k ee , A r ri men m r social histo y of the expe ences of gay and lesbians in the ilita y .

’ B n A H m I San Fr - Na m . H r W oyd , la illa o os nvade ancisco s isto y as a ide Open ” In re tin a Pla ce r r lv L T . C a o Ou s e es : es bia n Ga a nd Bis exua l Communit H is tories own g f , y, y , Br B eem N w r R n 1 9 . . e : 9 edited by ett y Yo k outledge, 7 A r San Fr m m ft r S W r W r histo y of ancisco beco ing a gay ecca a e the econd o ld a .

’ D Emili Sexua l Politi s exua l Communities : The Ma kin H o h . c S o a omos exua l Minori , Jo n , g f ty i 1 - 7 r f the United S ta tes 940 1 9 0 . C : U o C Pr 1 83 n 9 . , hicago nive sity hicago ess, Th f e classic study o the homophile movement .

nrl N w r D t Stonewa ll. e : 1 9 . Duberman M r Bau . 9 , a tin Yo k ut on , 3 An of S ri r a /lesbian m m analysis of the place the tonewall ot in the histo y of the g y ove ent .

E a L M m D mm S . G U S : ofI pstein , teven y and esbian ove ents in the nited tates ile as dentity, ” In Th e Globa l Emer en e o a Le i D r P S r . c G a nd s b a n Politi c ive sity, and olitical t ategy g f y s : i l Im rints a Worldwide Movement B rr D A am W m Na t ona o . p f , edited by a y d , Jan ille A n Kr l P T m r r D v n ak dre ouwe . : U P 1 99 u e d 9 . y , and hiladelphia e ple nive sity ess , m of m r r a /l bian m m A social move ents analysis the conte po a y g y es ove ent .

Im ro er Bos tonia ns : Les bia n a nd Ga H is tor rom the P r H r Pr The . u ita ns to isto y oject , p p y y f B Pr 1 B : 998 . Pla la nd. y oston eacon ess , r on a /les ian r B A collection ofphotog aphs and texts g y b histo y in oston .

m ri r N w r T r N d . a A e ca n H is to . e : m . C 1 976 K e G . atz, Jonathan y y Yo k ho as Y owell , f m a /le bian r The classic collection o docu ents on g y s histo y .

wD r New r : H r R w 1 L ia n Alma na c : A Ne oc umenta . r Gay/ es b y Yo k a pe and o 983 . m r r A complementary volume to the above docu enta y histo y .

D . B t L th r li r E L M D. oo s o ea e S e s o Gold: Kennedy, lizabeth apovsky and adeline avis f , pp f w r Ne : R 1 9 . r o a Les bia n Communit . 93 The H is to y f y Yo k outledge , r - bar r fem m i n B New The classic study of the wo king class cultu e of butch and wo en uffalo ,

York .

’ Fr k Fa R r : New r Ga L r F 1 9 9 k T rr . r 6 Kissac , e ance ea ing g evolutiona ies Yo k s y ibe ation ont , 1 Ra dica l H is tor Review - 34 1 995 1 97 . y , r r r An analysis of gay men in the ve y ea ly yea s of the gay liberation movement . rr r W B i V McGa M F rm . ecom n is ible: An Illus tra ted H i y, olly and ed asse an g s tory ofLes bia n nd Ga Li e in Twentieth- Centur Americ N w P a a . e r : S 1 y f y Yo k enguin tudio , 998 .

A m r on m New r P L r r collection of visual ate ial based an exhibit ounted at the Yo k ublic ib a y,

with an analytical text .

B - Fem R : N . S C r 1 H r i n 950s . e e e estle , Joan utch elationships exual ou age in the s s 3 , o.

- 24 , 1 98 1 . A r n butch/fem bar ur classic a ticle o cult e in the 1 9505 .

’ il A Des ired Pas t: A Short H is t - R Le aJ . or o Sa me Sex Love in A ri C upp , y f me ca . hicago : f Pr 1 U r o C 999 . nive sity hicago ess , A synthetic account ofthe history ofsame - sex relations covering the entire span ofAmeri can history .

M r i o is terl a nd Br rl L v S . C t S othe o es : Les bia na nd Ga Phila del hia 1 945 tein , a c y f y y y p , 72 r f P 1 9 . C o: U o C r 2 hicag nive sity hicago ess , 000 . An s Of a /lesbian m m P l m analy is the g y ove ent in hi adelphia, e phasizing the interaction l m n between esbians and gay e .

Th m M r L R d to Freedom: The Advoca H . on oa te is tor o the Ga a n L o pson , a k, ed g y f y d es bia n t ’ M v ment New r S . M r 1 94 . o e . : 9 Yo k a tin s , A ' collection ofphotographs and text from the Advocate the leading magazine ofgay/lesbian life .

L a tino/a

i n Th H is or o the Mex ica n America n Civil Ri hts Movem n Ar r R . Ch ca o& e t e t. F. tu o osales y f g

H : Art P Pr 1 996 . ouston e ublico ess , This is the fi rst and only general text focusing on the history ofChicano civil rights and is the A m m r companion volume for the four part PBS seri es of the same title . ti eline of i po tant It is r t rm r ofr events is included . well w it en , info ative, and contains a bibliog aphy elevant r The PBS r r for m of and sou ces . se ies should be eviewed its i ages the places events of

- import ant civil ri ghts related activities .

A merica n I ndia n

D r Na tive America : Portra it o the Peo les . L Duane Champagne . f p et oit , ondon , and

D C : I Ink Pr 1 994 . Washington , nvisible ess , This anthology contains contains contributions about In dian experiences by various authors that could guide the work ofthe project concerning American In dian issues .

America n India n Societies : Stra te ies a nd Conditions o Politica l a nd m D . Cha pagne , uane g f

r rv v l m r MA : C r S r Inc 1 989 . Cultu a l S u i a . Ca b idge , ultu al u vival , , This study discusses the ways in which the social and cultural organizations ofdifferent r to a Indian groups infl uenced how they dealt with the outside s who sought politic lly,

m r r m . econo ically. and cultu ally subo dinate the

56 D V r r J . r M L A ri n India s A C . . me ca n merica n s ti A J u ce . : elo ia, ine, and liffo d ytle , ustin U r T Pr 1 983 . nive sity of exas ess , The authors examine how laws have impacted Indian people in the judicial branch of

r m r r . gove n ent , at the fede al , state, and t ibal levels

D r V r Behind th Tr il Br k Tr a ties : An I r J . e a o o en e ndia n Dec la a tion o elo ia, ine , f f Ind n w 4 e ende ce . Ne r : D P 1 97 . p Yo k ell ublishing,

E m r I L r L D . Ame ica n ndia n ea de s . R. L : rs d unds , avid incoln and ondon Unive ity of N r eb aska Press, 1 980 . T of r r In r Br his collection essays p obes the lives of va ious dian leade s, including Joseph ant , R W i C r Montzuma P r McDonal John oss , ashak e, a ols , and ete d .

’ ’ J h A M N w Th he Bu a lo s Gone : A Stud o T ose . o a t t oda s Ameri a I p y, lvin ff y f y c n ndia ns . N r m Pr 1 4 rm L : U 98 . o an and ondon nive sity of Oklaho a ess , T r I r for r r r r ri his study add esses ndian st uggles wate ights , eligious su vival , and fishing ghts .

Fr India n Res erva tions in the United Sta tes : Terri v r i K . tor So e e nt a nd laus , antz y, g y, i i ha n C Lo : U r ofC Pr 1 Soc oeconom c C e . 9 g hicago and ndon nive sity hicago ess , 99 . The author examines deplorable living conditions on vari ous reservations and the potential for change .

E Am ri Indi n overei nt a nd the U reme C ur M W D . e ca n a S S . Su o t: The a s kin ilkins , avid g y p g 1 A U r ofT Pr 997 . o J us tic e . : f ustin nive sity exas ess, f S r m C r This book offers a critical analysis o how and why the US . up e e ou t has developed

r - ri I r r ext a constitutional justifications to dep ve ndians of thei lands , to sanction eligious and I r r r f r In r r r n o . cultu al opp ession , to e ode ndian sove eig ty, and to cu tail civil ights dians

W omen

m In the E es o the La w: Women Ma rria e a nd Pro ert in Ninete en th B N r . asch , o a y f , g , p y Pr I NY C r U r 1 982 . t r New York. : Cen u y thaca, o nell nive sity ess ,

' Ra ica l s irits : S iritua lis m a nd Women s Ri hts in Nineteenth Centur Ann . d B raude , p p g y

B : B Pr 1 989 . America . oston eacon ess ,

Ed Th e Conc is e H is tor o Woma n Su ra e : Selections rom the M rJo P s. Buhle , a i and aul , y f ff g f r r fI W rk o S ta nton Anthon Ga e a nd H a e . Ur : U r o Pr Cla ss ic o f , y, g , p bana nive sity llinois ess ,

1 978 .

li m 1 - Women a nd America n Soc ia s 8 70 1 920 . Ur : U r I M r . Buhle, a i Jo , bana nive sity of llinois

Pr 1 98 1 . ess ,

' M n Ca nnot S a k or H er: A Critica l Stud o Ea rl F m i K r n K r . a e in s t Campbell , a ly oh s p e f y f y 1 W r C n : Gr Pr 989 . Rhetoric . estpo t , on eenwood ess , The r i C N . G ound n o Modern Femini m N w H s . e : U r Pr ott , ancy g f aven Yale nive sity ess ,

1 987 .

Femini ' DuBois E . s m a nd Su ra e: The Emer enc e o a n Ind , llen ff g g f ep endent Women s M v m nt in America 1 - 1 I NY: o e e 848 869 . C rn U r Pr 1 , thaca, o ell nive sity ess, 978 .

H a rriot Sta nton Bla tch a nd the Winnin o Woman Su i' a e New H g f fi g . aven : Yale t Pr 1 U r 997 . nive si y ess,

' E Pers ona l P olitics : Th R W n Li r S r . e oots o ome s be a tion in the Civi R vans , a a f l ights Movem n a n h N w Le N w r K e t d t e e t. e : 1 979 . f Yo k nopf,

' F r E r Centur o Stru le: The Woma n s Ri hts Movement in the United lexne , leano . y f gg g Sta tes . Pr 1 d m r M : B 975 . 959 rev . c . C 1 ; , a b idge , ass elknap ess ,

N Feminis m in the La bor Movement: Women a nd the United Aut W r r G . o o ke s abin , ancy , 5 Pr 1 0 1 1 7 . I NY: C r U r 99 . 93 5 9 5 thaca, o nell nive sity ess ,

P Wh r I E m Bl W G . When a nd e e nter: Th e a ct o a ck omen n R iddings , aula I p f o a ce a nd Sex in i M rr 1 4 Arner ca . New r : W m 98 r. Yo k illia o ow,

’ H m E Br : Ri hteous Dis content: The Women s Movement in the Bla iggenbotha , velyn ooks g ck

1 - 2 m H r r r Pr 1 Ba tis t Church 8 0 1 9 0 . C r : U 9 93 . p , 8 a b idge a va d nive sity ess ,

N w r B H E E L Rebirth o Feminis . e : r 1 7 1 m 9 . ole, dith , and llen evine, f Yo k Quad angle ooks ,

’ L r r G r Th e Grimke Sis ters rom South Ca rolina : Pioneers or Woma n s Ri hts a nd e ne , e da , f f g 1 New r : S 966 . Abolition . Yo k chocken ,

' ’ M G ; The Ris e o P ublic Woma n: Woma n s Power a nd Woma n s Pla ce in the atthews , lenna f

- Pr 1 2 New r : r U r 99 . United Sta tes 1 63 0 1 9 70 . , Yo k Oxfo d nive sity ess ,

' White Women s Ri hts : Th e Ra ci a l Ori ins o Feminis m in the N m M . ew an , Louise ichele g g f

New r : r U r Pr 1 999 . Un ited Sta tes . Yo k Oxfo d nive sity ess ,

W N rt 1 New r : W . . 996 . r Truth: A Li e A S mbol . P r N l Ir . So ourne ainte , el vin j f , y Yo k o on ,

' Th e World S lit O en : H ow the Modern Women s Movement Cha n ed R R . osen , uth p p g

A rica New r : V Pr 2000 . me . Yo k iking ess ,

' ' i va l in the Doldrurns : The America n Women s Ri hts Movement 1 945 to R L . Surv upp , eila g

New r : r U r Pr 1 987. the 1 9b0s . Yo k Oxfo d nive sity ess ,

- B m r Ba ll ts 1 25 1 880 . : W men in Public: Between Ba nners a nd o . R M r . o 8 yan , a y alti o e Johns

H U r Pr 1 990 . opkins nive sity ess ,

ART F N LTIN H I T RI A P . CO SU G S O NS

mrill r Dr. A C a a o Pr ofH r D r r of C r for m r S l , ofesso isto y, i ecto the ente Co pa ative tudies in R E S r U r t ace and thnicity, tanfo d nive si y

’ m r r on M Am ri Dr. Ca a illo s wo k focuses the status of exican e cans and other racial minori ties

’ He ri to d velo m nt f in Ameri can cities . has cont buted the e p e o the largest archival collection in the United States (at Stanford) dealing with civil ri ghts and other organizations among Am r r t r Mexican e icans du ing the twentieth cen u y .

Dr Yon Chen A Pr r ofH r A Am ri S u A . g , ssociate ofesso isto y and sian e can t dies , and ssociate D Gr S U r ofC r Ir ean of aduate tudies , nive sity alifo nia, vine

' “ Ph D Am r H r m Dr C r . . r C r U r 1 S . 993 ince hen eceived his in e ican isto y f o o nell nive sity in , he hi r r on A Am r Hi r i ha s . s Ch nes e s focused esea ch and teaching sian e ican issues fi st book, Sa n

Fra ncis co 1 850- 1 943 2000 S r U r Pr , which was published in by tanfo d nive sity ess , deals with Am r one r A Am r r r r Chinese e icans , of the la gest and oldest sian e ican g oups , and thei effo ts to Am ri build their own community in e ca .

Dr r E n D McKni ht U r t Pr r H r U r t : Sa a va s , istinguished g nive si y ofesso of isto y, nive si y of Minnesota

E ri Am ri m r um r r Dr. vans is a histo an of e can wo en and has autho ed n e ous books and a ticles ’ including Pers ona l Politics : The Roots of Women s Libera tion in the Civil Rights Movement Sh a nd the New Left and Bornfor Liberty: A H is tory of Women in America . e has also “ ’ consulted in a number of other public history projects including Interpreting Women s ” H istory in the National Park Service

llaw Pr r ofH r M r C r F r E. Ca Dr . A lton H orn sby, J . , ulle y ofesso isto y, o ehouse ollege

Hi Hom sb rv as E r r ofN r H r . s S 1 976 Dr. ince , y has se ed dito of the Jou nal eg o isto y He n Am r H r 2 . publications include Chronology of Afii ca e ican isto y, editions has held H m R r United Ne ro C F National Endowment for the u anities , ockefelle , and g ollege und research fellowships .

m Ridin I n A Pr r of S Am r I S Dr . J a es g , ssociate ofesso Justice tudies and e ican ndian tudies , Ari zona State University; citizen of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma

’ R In s r r on ri m r r Am ri Dr. iding esea ch focuses histo cal and conte po a y issues involving e can

A r r r r r r r Indians . histo ian by t aining, his epat iation publications have been p inted and ep inted Dr . L eila Ru Pr r r D r m ofH r S U r pp , ofesso and Chai , epa t ent isto y, Ohio tate nive sity

’ Dr R - rt . m r r of m x Her upp teaches wo en s histo y and the histo y sa e se sexuality . a icle “ ’ Im M S r r : W m R H r P r r agine y u p ise o en s elationships in isto ical e spectives , o iginally 1 980 r ri m m m r published in , has been ep nted any ti es , including ost ecently in Classics in

L Her r r a /le bian D ir t: A r esbian Studies . othe wo ks in g y s history include A es ed Pa s Sho t H is tory ofSa me - Sex Love in America ; Wha t Ma kes a Ma n a Ma n: Drag Queens a t the 8 01 Ca ba ret co- r V r T r rt m r m U rs ofC , autho ed with e ta aylo and fo hco ing f o the nive ity hicago Pr m r rt on m mm ess; and a nu be of a icles lesbian fe inist co unities, sexuality and politics in the ’ m m m rn m - x se . wo en s ove ent , and global patte s of sa e sexuality

D r . Cha rle Vincent Pr r ofH r S r U r t A&M s , ofesso isto y, outhe n nive si y College

Dr V i r fBla k L is la t r in Loui n D r R i . incent s the autho o c eg o s s ia a u ing econs truc t on and A

Centenni l H i t r o outhern Univers it a nd A&M ll 1 - 1 H h a s o S Co e e 880 980. e as y f y g , r r one r r r r on f cont ibuted ove hund ed schola ly a ticles , essays , and book chapte s the subjects o A fii an - r m A fii n - Am r H e r c Ameri can life and p o inent ca e icans of Lo uisiana . has se ved as Em S r V r S U r t is r U r inent chola at i ginia tate nive si y, and the ecipient of the nive sity 4 Pr F E A r 1 99 . esidential aculty xcellence wa d,

Reviewer

Dr Cla b orne C a r on Pr r ofH r D r r M rt L r K r J . . y s , ofesso isto y and i ecto of the a in uthe ing, , Papers Project at Stanford University

' Dr C r r In S tru le: SNCC a nd the Bla ckAwa kenin o the 1 960s . a son s fi st book , gg g f , a study of S N C r C mm 1 98 1 the tudent onviolent oo dinating o ittee, was published in and won the r r f H Hi r Frederick Jackson Turner Awa d of the O ganization o American istori ans . s othe l l The FBI File Dr C r r r publications include Ma co m X: . a son also se ved as senio

r f r r - rt r - r on r adviso o a fou teen pa , awa d winning , public television se ies the civil ights “ ” movement entitled Eyes on the Pri ze and co- edited the Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights r Ki Dr C r r K P Rea der In 1 985 Co etta Scott ng invited . a son to di ect the ing apers Project which has produced four volumes ofa projected fourteen - volume comprehensive ' rm rr wri edition of King s speeches , se ons , co espondence , publications , and unpublished tings .

6 1 APPENDIX 1 CH RONOL OG Y O F CIVIL RI G H TS IN AMERI CA

- OPPRESSI ON, 1 776 1 868

’ 1 773 P Wh Poems on Va rious ub ects Reli ious a nd M r hillis eatley s book S j , g o al was ’ l m her Am ri r pub ished , aking e ca s fi st black published author.

‘ Am ri B C r r W m r V r e can aptist hu ch o ganized in illia sbu g , i ginia .

1 784 Death of Phillis Wheatley .

1 787 Abolitionists Richard Allen and Absalom organized the first Free Afri can Society m t t r P (beneficial and u ual aid socie y) in the count y in hiladelphia .

1

B Pri H t r for oston blacks, led by nce all , petitioned the legisla u e equal school facilities .

F r New r C Afri Fr r S . i st f ee school in Yo k ity, the can ee chool , opened

1 789 -1 87 1 Various treaties stipulate that the federal government was to establish schools r and provide teachers for Indian child en .

1 790 F r n r US r r r i st atu alization law of the , decla ing that only a f ee, white pe son could It m o for r r r become naturalized citizen . beca e the foundati n va ious futu e acist anti A sian legislation .

f t T m 1 794 Absolam Jones and followers dedicated First A fri can Church o S . ho as in E was r m r r P . hiladelphia Jones , an piscopalian , the fi st black iniste o dained in

America .

r Richard Allen and followers organized the Bethel AM E chu ch .

k 1 797 Congress refused to accept first recorded petition from blac s .

1 800 Slaves plotted in the Gabri el conspiracy in Virginia to gain freedom and in Philadelphia an anti - slavery petition was presented to Congress on behalf offree

persons of color.

Andrew Jackson called upon blacks to fight in the War of 1 8 1 2 .

1 8 1 6 AME church organized at Philadelphia convention .

1 8 1 7 Philadelphia blacks held meeting at Bethel Church to p rotest against Colonization “ Society effort to exile us from the land of our nativity . 1 8 1 9 The In dian Civilization Act provided to missionary societies to establish for I r schools ndian child en .

1 823 Alexander Twilight became the first A fri can Am erican to receive a degree from an Am r r r m M r V rm C . e ican college, when he g aduated f o iddlebu y ollege in e ont

1 82 The rs r Fr m r 7 . fi t black newspape , eedo Jou nal , was published

1 83 1 New England Anti - Slavery Society was formed by William Lloyd Garrison and a m r f ft W m L G rr H H o . N L s all g oup fi een ( illia loyd a ison ouse, )

1 833 Am erican Anti - Slavery society organized in Philadelphia by black and white

abolitionists .

F P F m A -S r S ounding of the hiladelphia e ale nti lave y ociety .

Pr Cr r m was rr for udence andall , a libe al white wo an , a ested conducting an academy for r C r r C m r Pr black gi ls in ante bu y, onnecticut , and the acade y was late closed . ( udence Cr H NHL andall ouse, )

1 83 5 Mob N A m r C a New violence closed the oyes cade y, an integ ated school at ana n ,

1 836 Al r T m one of r A ri Am r exande wilight beca e the fi st elected f can e ican officials, when r he won a seat in the Vermont state legislatu e .

1 83 6 -3 7 Speaking tour of Sarah and An gelina Gri mke to highlight the evils of slavery and to r f r garnish suppo t o abolition .

1 840 World Anti - Slavery Convention where Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton

agreed to call a convention ofwomen .

fhi m r Th N r r o s e S r. 1 847 Frederick Douglass published the fi st issue fa ous newspape , o th ta r k D H NPS (Frede ic ouglass ouse, )

M rri r 1 848 TreatyofGuadalupe Hidalgo allowed exicans in te to ies annexed by the U S . to “ ” enjoy all the ri ghts of American citizens beginning an era ofri ghts offirst Mexican ns 1 848 M P NHL Americia ( ( esilla laza, )

F r m m r for SenecaFalls Convention . i st public eeting to de and equal political ights ’ W m R N H r P rk NPS women . ( o en s ights ational isto ic a , )

Discovery of gold in Califom ia begins a large - scale Chinese immigration from the d n Pr S r D G uan o C . Pearl Rive elta in g ovince , outh hina

1 63 1 4 R r v Ci B n 9 obe ts . t Th 8 y of os to . e Massachusetts Supreme Court rejected a suit by B m R rt r S r r B enja in obe s , in behalf Of his daughte a ah , to deseg egate schools in oston , “ M In . rt of r assachusetts stead , the cou established the concept sepa ate but equal . (Boston Afri can Ameri can NH S)

’ 1 850s C r r m F r M r Th alifo nia sta ted to i pose o eign ine s taxes . e Chinese were a major target ’ Of F r M r Tax the o eign ine s legislation .

’ 1 85 1 Women s convention in Akron where Sojourner Truth spoke to draw attention to the

1 854 F n A m I tu r L U v r r Afri Am ou ding of sh un nsti te (late incoln ni e sity) , the fi st can erican

- in r P n . college Oxfo d , e nsylvania

P l v H a ll S r m C r OfC r r C eop e . in which the up e e ou t alifo nia uled that hinese could not r give testimony i n cou t against whites .

1 855 Th e M r r on A r 2 assachusetts legislatu e abolished sepa ate schools in the state p il 8 .

John Mercer Langston became first black to win an elective office in the nation when ofBr m T r C r Lo C . M r he was elected le k ownhel ownship in ain ounty, Ohio (John e cer L H NHL angston ouse, )

1 Th r m r Dr v a r r r n t 8 57 e U . S . S C ed Scott . S nd o d o up e e ou t, in f , uled that blacks we e citizens

i . t r of U S r rr r r S . Lo C the nited tates and opened fede al te to y to slave y ( uis ou thouse, part of Jefferson Expansion NPS unit)

1 860 5 -1 8705 S r for for U Arm C War r , t uggle blacks to fight nion y in ivil ; eventually se ved in D r r r r t m m m unit . u ing econst uction , legislatu es at e pted to gain equal e ploy ent options f r o blacks .

h r M r P F r r M r V r . 1 86 1 School established at o t ess on oe , i ginia with a black teac e , a y eake This school laid the foundation for the all -black Hampton Institute that opened in

1 868 .

D r r Afii can Am ri to r Ph . 1 864 Father Patrick H ealey b ecame the fi st e can eceive a deg ee ,

when he graduated fromthe University OfLouvain in Belgium .

Tr r M New Orleans ibune , fi st black daily (except ondays) , began publication in

French and English .

I N 1 865 -1 900 RE C ONSTRUCTI ON OPPRESS O ,

t 1 865 Thirteenth Amendment abolishing slavery was ra ified . Rebel states enacted Black Codes which restricted the ri ghts and freedom of m m r m ove ent Of f eed en .

B N r V r m m m r lacks in o folk , i ginia held ass eetings and de anded equal ights and ballot . r r m m r r Othe equal ights ass eetings we e held th oughout the South .

1 866 F r Am m r ou teenth end ent app oved by Congress .

C Ri A ct 1 866 r R r m r B ivil ghts Of passed du ing econst uction, ai ed at dest oying the lack

Codes .

C r B r OfFr m Refii ees A La ong ess established the u eau eed en , g and bandoned nds ’ Fr n B r Th B r m r r eedme s . e ( u eau) u eau , a ong othe things , established the fi st schools r for blacks in many parts Of the former Confede ate States .

L M r to M H r W r C r . Edwa d G . alke and ha les itchell we e elected the assachusetts ouse k Am r m r r . OfRep esentatives , fi st blac s elected to an e ican legislative asse bly

fr D Blacks given suf age in C .

Black delegation led by Frederick Douglass called on President John son and urged

- ballot for ex slaves .

First series of Reconstruction Acts passed by Congress .

B New r r r r r r S r Car r r 1 867 lacks in O leans p otest seg egated ail oad ca s in ta cont ove sy .

1 868 -1 8805 Reconstruction legislatures in many southern states established provisions for

integrated education .

r HB r Many historically black colleges and unive sities ( CUs) we e established .

Am m r r r r s . 1 868 Fou teenth end ent atified , by the states , g ants citizenship ight to blacks

John Willis Menard Of Louisiana became the first Afri can Am eri can elected to the H R r r r m S . U . ouse of ep esentatives but was p evented f o taking his seat following an r r election challenge in which Cong ess efused to seat either man .

The Burlingame Treaty between the United States and China allowed citizens Of the

r m r r . r r r rr H two count ies to e ig ate f eely Japanese labo e s sta ted a iving in awaii .

Du Lt. G rn r L m k him r Oscar J . nn was installed as ove o Of ouisiana a ing the fi st black

t G r r US . L . ove no in the 1 86 C m r r - r r A r m 9 o pletion Of the fi st t ans continental ail oad . la ge nu ber OfChinese had r it pa ticipated in s building .

Founding of National Woman Suffrage A ssociation and American Woman Suffrage A ssociation .

Wyoming admitted to statehood with woman suffrage (Women were enfranchised in W m T rri r W m S C NHL yo ing e to y in ( yo ing tate apitol , )

‘ 1 0 5 - 1 r r R r r m 87 877 Ove th ow Of econst uction gove n ents .

1 870 F ft M m t r r r m r r i eenth end en was atified , g anting voting ights to ale citizens , ega dless r of ace .

H r m R ofM m r A fii canAm r r U i a evels ississippi beca e the fi st e ican to se ve in the . S . S r to e m m m r of r H f r enate and fi st black chosen b co e a e be eithe ouse o Cong ess .

First ofseries Of Enforcement Acts (KKK A cts) placed some of federal elections in hands Of federal Officials and guaranteed civil and political rights Offreedmen through r r fede al cou ts .

H R r r H . R r Joseph ainey, fi st black in ouse Of ep esentatives , was swo n in as H R H NHL C m r m S C r . . ongress an f o outh a olina (John ainey ouse, )

r f r r m 1 8 71 Congressional elections were placed under the cont ol O the fede al gove n ent .

- rr Los A m r Of m r An ti Chinese violence occu ed in ngeles , followed by a nu be si ila ly r t r Am ri W bloody and violent incidents in othe places h oughout the e can est , such as C C r R S r W m T m S hico, alifo nia ock p ings , yo ing aco a and eattle (both in

The Third Enforcement A ct or the Ku Klux Klan A ct protected the civil rights Of

bla cks in the former Confederate States .

Afii can Am r r OfR r Era r B . . P 1 8 72 P. S inchback , an e ican and leade econst uction , se ved as

'

Acting Govem or ofLouisiana for 43 da ys .

4 K Br was Afii can Am r U . S . S r m 1 87 Blanche . uce the second e ican elected to the enate f o th Mississippi and was the only Afii can Ameri can to serve a full term during the 1 9

Br H NHL r B K . centu y . ( lanche uce ouse , )

r m C rt r m . S n rus ha nk U . S 1 876 I U S . v. C , the up e e ou defined and efined the eaning Of the

1 4th Amendment .

C r C rt Ca lifom ia r a C u In in re Ah Yu US . 1 8 78 p , the i cuit ou in uled th t hinese co ld not ru r - C Wa r become naturalized citizens , a ling that helped to cla ify the post ivil

66

1 890 In an attempt to encourage members ofthe Five Civilized Tri bes to abandon their tribal

' relations ‘Con ress The In T rr r N t r A t T , g enacted dian e ito y a u alization c . his statute In l m to enabled dians in Ok aho a gain U S . citizenship by applying for it at a federal

court .

The L Gr A ct r r r r for t and ant equi ed states to p ovide educational t aining black you hs .

Mississippi Constitutional Convention began systematic exclusion Of blacks from The M r political life of South . ississippi plan was late adopted with embellishment by

other states .

National American Woman Suffrage Association founded as merger Of National A Am r W m r A Woman Suffrage ssociation and e ican o an Suff age ssociation .

i r for federal su ervison s ri 1 8 9 1 Lodge b ll which p ovided p Of election was bu ed in the Senate .

B r T W r m r r r l r . 1 895 Educato and ace eade , ooke ashington delive ed his fa ous add ess at the “ ” In A m r m dr r E . C Atlanta Cotton States xposition the tlanta o p o ise ad ess , he decla ed “ r fin ers that in all things social , we can be as sepa ate as the g

Death of Frederi ck Douglass .

m C r rm of r 8. S r Fer us on U . 1 896 In Pless v. y g , the up e e ou t affi ed the concept sepa ate but

equal public facilities .

r m C r r a C r US . S v U S . 1 898 In Wong KimArk . the up e e ou t uled th t hinese individuals bo n T r re in the United States could not be striped Of their US . citizenship . his uling

affirmed a vital legal principle established in the Fourteenth A mendment .

r v Miss iss i i r r . In Willia ms . pp , lite acy tests which cu tailed black voting we e upheld

' r r m for votin which Louisiana enacted a grandfather clause as a equi e ent g,

effectively excluded most blacks .

m ur n Boa rd o Educa tion U . S . S r C 1 899 In Cummings v.Richmond Cou ty f , the up e e o t did “ ” not uphold the equal portion Of the separate but equal policy when the court found in ’ favor of the school board s action to close the black high school in order to fund the

r . black pri mary school , while it continued to Ope ate two white high schools

- 1 941 RE K INDLING CIVIL RIG H T S , 1 900

He A r Am r a W N r hC r Iefi C r . 1 90 1 George H . hite of o t a olina ong ess was the last f ican e ic n

to serve in Congress until the 1 9205 .

I OfOkIahoma . Congress conferred US . citizenship on all ndians

68 1 902 F r r K r r r rri H i st g oup of o ean labo e s a ved in awaii .

1 903 Supreme Court decision upheld clauses in Alabama constitution which disfranchised

blacks .

1 904 The mmi r w m ban on Chinese i g ation as ade indefinite by Congress .

1 905 A world- wide boycott of American goods by Chinese in China and in the Chinese ’ r r Am ri -C mm r r diaspo a in p otest against e ca s anti hinese i ig ation laws and p actices .

N r M m m m all on r iaga a ove ent eeting de anded abolition of distinctions based ace .

’ 1 A r 907 Japan and the United States signed Gentlemen s A greement . cco ding to the A r m m r r r g ee ent , Japan would stop the e ig ation of Japanese labo e s while the United States government would allow the wives ofJapanese imm igrants already in America r to join thei husbands .

A r m f T . u o nna Jeanes , a Quake , established a f nd to assist the develop ent black r r schools in ru al a eas .

1 909 N A for A m ofC r P NAACP f ational ssociation the dvance ent olo ed eople ( ) ounded .

1 9 1 0 The N Ur L u m r r r r ational ban eag e was established to , a ong othe things , aid no the n u ban m blacks in finding suitable e ployment .

A I m rt for mm r r m A r U S . ngel sland beca e the Official po of ent y i ig ants f o sia . ( Imm r S An I NHL ig ation tation gel sland, )

1 9 1 2 Heterodoxy discussion group in New York founded first to call themselves & m fe inists .

1 1 A P NAWSA C r C mm r m r for 9 3 lice aul joined ong essional o ittee, o ganizes de onst ation ' Woodrow Wilson inaugural ; 1 9 1 4 breaks away to form National Women s Party

M m W . N 1 9 1 5 Booker T . ashington died ( ational onu ent)

S . S r m C r r v i d t tes U . In inn . Un te S a r Gu , the up e e ou t outlawed the g andfathe clause B H ri D r NHL m r r . as a eans of est icting black voting ( oley isto c ist ict , )

W A for S A ri - Am r r C rt r G . D . a e oodson founded the ssociation the tudy Of f can e ican W H u NHL rt r G . H r . C Life and isto y ( a e oodson o se, )

' W rm 1 9 1 6 Carrie Chapman Catt s inning Plan fo ulated .

r Law rr A r m 1 9 1 7 New Immig ation , establishing a ba ed zone in sia , f o whence

immigration was banned .

69 B m r F ft A New r C lacks a ched down i h venue , Yo k ity in a silent parade r r p otesting lynching and acial indignities .

Am r r W I r r to war r e ica ente ed and the black p ess allied the , insisting that the se vice r result m r t F r of black soldie s would in the dis antling Of acial inequali y . ailu e kindled widespread support for separatist movement launched by Marcus Garvey in the early 2 1 9 05 .

1 1 Arm 9 8 istice signed ending WWI .

1 9 1 9 The acts OfJuly 1 9 and November 1 6 provided citizenship for all Indians who had rm served in the a ed forces during WWI .

1 920 N e Am m r m r inet enth end ent atified , giving wo en the ight to vote .

1 US . r mm r 92 1 Ta kao Oza wa v. uled that Japanese i igrants we e ineligible for American

citizenship .

2 r 1 . v. B a in h Thind r A I f r 9 3 U S hag t S g uled that sian ndians we e ineligible o US . The ri r of r citizenship . case also t ed to edefine the notion whiteness , asse ting that although historical and anthropological evidence suggests that Asian In dians were t r not r r rd whi e , they we e still white because they we e ega ed as such by society

Equal Rights Amendment introduced .

1 924 The In dian Citizenship A ct declared that all Indians born within the United States were

citizens .

for H m R r ri Henry Gerber founded the Chicago Society u an ights , the fi st gay ghts

group on record .

r m C rt r m r S . S 2 N v H erndon U . 1 9 7 In ixon . , the up e e ou outlawed white p i a ies set up by

the state Of Texas to restrict blacks from voting .

Marcus Garvey was deported as an undesirable alien .

“ r m I r A fii can Am r 1 928 Oscar DePriest was elected to Congress f o llinois , the fi st e ican to

serve in the body since 1 90 1 and the fi rst from a nort hern state .

t di enfranchize I The state OfArizona used the guardianship doctrine o s ndians . In

r v H a ll Ari S S r m C r . Porte . , the zona tate up e e ou t upheld the ban

r D r . D ri 1 9 29 The Stock Market crashed , signaling the beginning of the G eat ep ession u ng “ m m a r r and r the Dep ression Era . any blacks co plained th t they we e the last hi ed fi st ”

fi red . JObs - for-blacks campaign and Spend your money where you can work campaign C New r C Los A r began in hicago , Yo k , leveland , ngeles; lasted th oughout the D r ep ession .

1 93 05 -1 9405 New D r r m FDR Dir ctors/leaders Of i e e . M eal p og a s Of had black agencies ( . ary McLeod B W m H R r W r M r McLeod B ethune , illia astie , obe t eave , ( a y ethune Council House NHS)

Many In dians received employm ent in the Civilian Conservation Corp s and Works Pr A mi r r for r r r r rri r i oj ect d nist ation, wo king ese vation fo est y, i gation , and g az ng

projects .

1 93 1 First of Scottsboro trials in Alabama Of nine Afii can Ameri can youths accused Of E m ca us e celebre raping two white women on freight train . vent beca e and was a

source Ofintern ational embarrassment .

T r its G P m D B r ofI A f r BIA h ough uidance and lace ent ivision , the u eau ndian f ai s ( ) r r m r r m r m m for I Th established a p og a to secu e e une ative e ploy ent ndians in cities . e D r r r r m Great ep ession cu tailed the effectiveness Ofthe p og a .

1 2 Fr k D R N w r D m r w Pr lt r r 93 . e as m an lin oosevelt, a Yo k e oc at, elected esident , a e p o ising In N w D m r r r r m D r . e elief and ecove y f o the ep ession his eal , blacks found e ployment r ft r C C r C r CCC th ough agencies , O en seg egated, such as the ivilian onse vation o ps ( ) , W r A m r PWA N A m r NYA P . ublic o ks d inist ation ( ) , and ational Youth d inist ation ( )

1 93 3 NAACP filed discrimination suit against University ofNorth Carolina on behalf Of C was r r Thomas Hocutt . ase lost on technicality when p esident of black college efused

to certify scholastic record Of plaintiff.

4 At r New r C r r NAACP Am r Fu for 1 93 confe ence in Yo k ity, ep esentatives Of and e ican nd Public Service planned coordinated legal campaign against segregation and

C r H m r m . discrimination . ha les ouston na ed to di ect ca paign

- The BIA began closing some off reservation boarding schools .

’ The Johnson O Malley Act of 1 934 provided federal funds to schools with large

Indian enrollments .

- M Duffie A ct r P r rt The Tydings c g ants hilippines thei independence, vi ually ending

immigration therefrom .

v rr m t Mu a U . S . S r C r r A r i Ma r la nd . r 1 93 5 In Unive s ty of y y, the up e e ou uled that f ican American student Donald Gaines Murray was entitled to admission to the University

OfMaryland .

7 1 v B a r E 1 93 6 In Gibbs . o d o duca tion r r r f , the cou ts o de ed equalization Of the salari es of white r M m r C M r and black teache s in ontgo e y ounty, a yland .

t Social Securi ty A c passed .

1 9 In Mi ouri ex r l Ga ines v. a n 3 8 ss e C a da U . . r , the S Sup eme Court ruled that states must r Afii can Am ri e p ovide e cans with equal ducational facilities .

First black m r Cr B r Fouset P was wo an legislato , ystal i d Of hiladelphia, elected to the / P H R r ennsylvania ouse Of ep esentatives .

1 93 9 The NAACP Le D E F gal efense and ducational und was established .

1 940 Death ofMarcus Garvey .

BIRTH O FTHE IVIL RI H T M VEME 4 - C G S O NT, 1 9 1 1 954

1 9405 Protest for blacks to enter the Army Air Corps; mass meetings protesting r m r m r W 1 4 1 disc i ination in national defense, and th eat of a ch on ashington in 9 .

4 n P r r r 1 9 1 Japanese attack o ea l Ha bo .

Fr D R r r r r m Pr . esident anklin oosevelt , by executive o de , p ohibited disc i ination in

defense industri es and governmental training programs .

S r C rt r r r Jim Cr w r C r m A rt r US . up eme ou uled in a ail oad o case b ought by ong ess an hu

Mitchell that ended racial discrimination in first class interstate rail travel .

’ Fr D R E r r 9066 r 1 942 Based on President anklin . oosevelt s xecutive O de , ove

r r W C rn r r r . Japanese Ame icans in O egon , ashington and alifo ia we e inca ce ated

E C RE r r - was The Congress on Racial quality ( O ) , believe s in di ect non violent action , In m r sit- in r r m founded in Chicago . the sa e yea it conducted a p otesting disc i ination at

a Chicago restaurant .

1 942 - 1 945 Approxi mately Indians left thei r reservations to work in the wart ime

industries and serve in the arm ed forces .

A num r 1 05 1 943 Chinese Exclusion Acts were repealed . total be Of people would be A r m allowed to enter the country every year. lthough the epeal was sy bolic , it enabled ’ Asian Americans and thei r allies to challenge anti - Asian racism in Ameri ca s

immigration laws .

The United Negro College Fund (UNCF) was incorporated .

72 1 944 In Smi h v Allwri t . h S r m r r t U . S . C r m r t g , the up e e ou t decla ed white p i a ies se up by D m r P r to tu r F ft the e oc atic a ty be unconsti tional unde the i eenth Amendment .

A m C P wa s r r m r m N r da layton owell elected fi st black cong ess an f o the o theast .

1 46 Th r S . S m r Mor a n v. V r i i 9 e U . C i n a r n r up e e ou t in g g , outlawed seg egatio in inte state r rt t anspo ation .

’ In E r r 9808 Pr Tr m r Pr C mm xecutive O de , esident u an c eated the esident s o ittee on T mm f m “ Civil Rights . his co ittee O black and white me bers issued the report TO ” S r T R r r ecu e hese ights, that st ongly denounced the denial Of civil ights to some H T Am r f r r r m r . rr r m F rm H m e icans and called o a p og a of civil ights ( a y S . u an a o e and H T H r D r NHL /NH rr S . rum s S a y an isto ic ist ict , )

1 947 Oliver Hill became one Ofthe first Afri can Americans elected to a municipal Office in S after R m C C the outh , winning a seat on the ich ond ity ouncil .

” C RE r Fr m R r r r O sent fi st eedo ide g oup th ough the South .

Jackie Robinson joined Brooklyn Dodgers .

NAA CP r Am r An A W r petition on acial injustice in e ica, ppeal to the o ld, was rm r t fo ally p esented o the United Nations at Lake Success .

’ Pr C mm on C R r r To S r T R esident s o ittee ivil ights issued epo t ecu e hese ights .

4 In v r m r m 1 9 8 Si ue l . Okla homa S C r u p , the up e e ou t held that state ust p ovide legal ed cation

for blacks as soon as it provides it for whites .

’ D m r P r r r r u e oc atic a ty s national convention adopts a libe al civil ights plank; as a es lt , Alabama and Mississippi delegations bolt the Democratic Party to form their own r (Dixiec at) .

’ President Truman issues Executive Order 998 1 creating the President s Committee on fTr m r Arm r Equality O eat ent and Oppo tunity in the ed Se vices .

Supreme Court (Shelley) ruled that federal and state courts may not enforce restri ctive S H NHL covenants on housing . ( helley ouse , )

L v en Ari S S r m C r r r In H a rris on v. a e r , the zona tate up e e ou t eve sed itself, g anting Two r W r I Indians in the state the ri ght to vote . Yavapai Wo ld a I veterans led the drive N w M I r e . for voting rights . exico also allowed ndians the ight to vote

Fr r m r r r 1 950 5 San ancisco gained a eputation as a gay ecca , in pa t as a esult Of its t aditional

f a-nd r rm rt r tolerance O sexual gende confo ity, in pa because it se ved as a port Of entry

73 r r f r P r of r WWH so m r of and etu n o the acific theate ope ations in , that nu be s gay

servicemen and women chose to remain .

h r v Okla oma U . S . S m rt In wea tt v P a inter McLa urin . C 1 950 S . and , the up e e ou established the role that intangibles play in separate but equal education when it determined that separate black schools and segregation within white classrooms were not equal r r n D educational opportunities at the g aduate and p ofessio al levels . ecisions

- B L r NHL rm le al r tur of r . r unde ined the g st uc e seg egation ( izzell ib a y, )

- ( A r R M m ri C D H hO C r H . Deat f ha les ouston ( nd ew ankin e o al hapel , ouglass all , and F r L r r NHL ounde s ib a y, )

' H rr Ha C mm P r m m r ml r men a y y, a o unist a ty e be , and a s a l g oup of found the hin a m r for ri for Mattac e Society, ho ophile o ganization that fought basic civil ghts

homosexual men and women .

1 95 1 University of North Carolina admits its first black student .

NAACP began frontal attack on segregation and discrimination at elementary and high

school level .

Racial segregation in DC restaurants ruled illegal by municipal Court of Appeals .

v Reill C r S r m C r r In Stoumen . y, the alifo nia up e e ou t upholds the ight of public m assembly for homosexual men and wo en .

T 1 952 The first Afii can Ain erican student was admitted to the University of ennessee .

The McCarran - Walter Act abolished the A siatic barred zone and gave a small quota

to the countries therein .

m m one of r m r D E. C 1 953 Dr. Rufus le ent beca e the fi st unicipal officeholde s in the eep t t - A South since Reconstruction , when he was elec ed in a ci y wide vote to the tlanta

Board ofEducation .

m C r r S . S r U . Thom s on Co. v J ohn R. In Dis tric t ofColumbia . p , the up e e ou t uled that

& an 1 872 law protecting the rights Of Afri can Ameri cans to obtain equal access to

public accommodations Was still in effect .

B R L u . Bus boycott began in aton ouge , o isiana

- C mm Eisenhower established 1 5 member Government Contract Compliance o ission to r r m supervi se anti - discrimination regulation applying to employe s with gove n ent

r cont acts .

74

S r M S r m C r Brown outhe n anifesto denouncing up e e ou t decision in , signed by more 1 0 m m r C r than 0 e be s of ong ess .

Bus r T F r boycott sta ted in allahassee, lo ida .

M m r Bus B ri ontgo e y oycott c sis continues .

The BIA m m I r r i ple ented an adult ndian education p og am .

In Al v Merr ll U r th fi' n len . e hi , a tah cou t denied e a c se to In dians because Of a fear that “ allowing them the vote might place substantial control ofthe county government [in In dian The court also held that Indians who lived on reservations did not f r r qualify o state esidency .

The BIA developed policy to attract industries near or on reservations and to employ I Th r r e e . ndians . effo t xpe ienced scant success

' 1 Aft r r m rt S . S C rtur All n 957 e U . en case o the up e e ou ove ned the appeal , the Utah legislature r r I enacted a law explicitly giving ese vation ndians the ri ght to vote . Utah was the last I state to allow ndians the vote .

C r Pr d E n r C R A ct of 1 957 r ong ess passes and esi ent i se howe signs the ivil ights , the fi st R S t 1 r civil rights legislation since econstruction . ta ute ( ) autho izes injunctions to

r r r A ri Am r r 2 r U S . p event est ictions on f can e ican voting ights, ( ) c eates the C mm on C R 3 he ' Civil R S m o ission ivil ights , and ( ) changes t ights ection into the uch

stronger Civil Rights Division within the Department of Justice .

Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus deployedNational Guard troops to prevent school

desegregation i n Little Rock .

Pr D D E r r r r r L R r esident wight . isenhowe o de ed fede al t oops into ittle ock to enfo ce

court orders to desegregate Central High School .

A N T was m m alter ashville, ennessee school da aged by dyna ite a black student was

enrolled .

: The Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was organized .

1 958 Federa l impact funds for the construction and Operation Of schools were extended to

Indian nations .

’ V r B r S r r r 1 9 59 Prince Edward County, i ginia s oa d Of upe viso s abandoned thei public school

system in an attempt to prevent school desegregation .

I u C Am r H r m F r J apanese American Daniel K . no ye and hinese e ican i a ong we e elected

’

C r m . as Hawaii s fi rst US . ong ess en

76 1 960 5 -1 9705 Indians periodically protested forjobs by holding sit-ins in government

agencies .

1 960 Th e r sit-in m m r r N r r G C . lunch counte ove ent began in eensbo o , o th a olina

The S u Non -V C r C mm SNCC R t dent iolent oo dinating o ittee ( ) was founded in aleigh , N r r o th Ca olina .

wa rr r r r M rt L r K Jr. s G aft a in uthe ing, a ested and b iefly jailed in a eo gia state p ison , er r A r r it-in pa ticipating in an tlanta estau ant s .

Am r r m r r New r r id jce ing and taunting f o white p oteste s , schools in O leans we e r deseg egated .

m r A m r r r D S U L G . e onst ations in laba a, outhe n nive sity in ouisiana, eo gia , etc

E r n C R A ct of 1 960 r r r r isenhowe sig ed the ivil ights , whe eby fede al cou ts we e ” authorized to appoint voting referees who would be empowered to register blacks in m r areas where racial discri ination had been p oven .

1 96 1 F m ri t r r U r ollowing a ca pus ot , two black s udents we e en olled at the nive sity Of

Georgia .

h r r f D rr A T e fi st peacefu l deseg egation O schools in the eep South occu ed in tlanta .

- in m m R H S C r after r u Jail ove ent begins in ock ill , outh a olina students ef sed to pay ’ “ ” r SNCC s B m fines and equested jail sentences , thus beginning Jail , no ail ca paign .

’ mm r for CORE Fr m R r T r s . h oughout su e and fall , events unfold eedo ide s in the south

Al M m Dr K r 700 m r r . r rr Mo e than de onst ato s in bany ove ent , including ing, we e a ested .

r m - r m r 1 2 These arrests trigge ed ilitant anti seg egation de onst ations in 96 .

- S . S r m r r r r Baton Rouge mass demonstration sit ins; U . up e e Cou t eve sed distu bing the

- peace convictions of 1 6 sit ln students .

Indian nations became eligible to participate in the Department ofHousing and Urban m TO r t m HUD r r . o rm I Develop ent ( ) housing p og a eceive funding , they had fo ndian H D m r r r r . T r u U housing autho ities h o gh , any ese vations p ovided updated housing .

1 8005 1 976 r u r US . r Between the and , va io s t eaties stipulated that the would p ovide H r m I on r r I . housing to ndian people oweve , any ndians ese vations lived in

- Dur 1 r r r . 9705 m of m substanda d . ove c owed houses ing the , any the lived in houses r k r i r r . that lac ed unn ng wate , elect icity, and telephone se vice

77 1 96 Aft r r r r m M r 2 e seve al days Of p otests and ioting, a black student , Ja es e edith entered the University ofMississippi under federal protection following Governor Ross Barnett r versus JFK up ising .

Southern University (Baton Rouge) closed because of demonstration; other demonstration/bo cotts rr U v r f y occu ed , such as that at the ni e sity o Chicago against

- m discrimination in off ca pus housing .

A G r m r . lbany, eo gia de onst ations

The M r D m Tr A ct was n I anpowe evelop ent and aining extended to i clude ndians .

’ The BIA s R S r m Em m A elocation e vices beca e ploy ent ssistance .

In m . r U S . Daniel K . ouye beca e a senato

1 963 The m m to f r B rm m Al m ove ent ully deseg egate i ingha , aba a began under the leadership

M r L r K Jr. r r r . of a tin uthe ing, and othe local and national civil ights leade s

The March on Washington was the largest protest for Afri can American ri ghts to this ’ K r r a m r Afri m M r L r J . s s time and ce ented a tin uthe ing , postu e the ajo national can ‘h “ American leader Of the 20 century and where he delivered his famous I Have a ” NH t L r Ki Jr. S Dr m r . M r ea o ation ( a in uthe ng, , )

Two blacks enroll in the University of Alabama .

Med ar E r NA ACP r r M was . g ve s , field sec eta y in ississippi , assassinated

F K Was . John . ennedy assassinated

' The President s Commission on the Status Of Women publishes report .

Publication ofThe Feminine Mys tique by Betty Friedan .

Pa Act rr rim r m Congress passed the Equal y , ba ing sex disc ination Of holde s of the sa e

jobs .

r of bar r San Fr rm The Tavern Guild , an o ganization gay owne s in ancisco, fo ed to fight

police harassment and became a political force in the city .

1 964 Civil Rights Act of 1 964 was passed by Congress that ( 1 ) guaranteed all Ameri cans the mm r r 2 r r m , ight to vote , ( ) p ohibited disc i ination in public acco odations based on ace r m r r r or r 3 , colo , eligion , national o igin , ( ) outlawed job disc i ination on the basis of ace 4 federal r m r r r sex or ri , ( ) colo , eligion , , national o gin and gave the gove n ent b oad

autho rity in enforcement .

78 Th e S . S r m U . C rt T II mm up e e ou upheld itle , the public acco odations section , of the C R A ct 1 ivil ights of 964 .

The T - r Am m n for r wenty fou th end ent ban ing the use of poll taxes voting was atified .

T r r r r r M h ee civil ights wo ke s we e killed in ississippi .

The E m r A ct r E m rt cono ic Oppo tunity , th ough the Office of cono ic Oppo unity, was m f r r The In C mm A r m ade available or Indian ese vations . dian o unity ction p ogra also r for I r r m p ovided jobs ndians on ese vations building ho es, sanitation facilities , and

other forfn s ofconstruction .

TH E E ND REV TI N 1 65 - 1 S CO OLU O , 9 976

1 965 M r L r K r r r m r for r J . a tin uthe ing , and othe s led p otest de onst ations voting ights in Al m Aft r t r m r r . r aba a e a vicious at ack by state and local police office s , de onst ato s , unde r r m r r m S m M m r A m fede al p otection , a ched f o el a to ontgo e y laba a , and ended with At r m r r r protests at the Alabama state capitol . least th ee de onst ato s we e slain during m M m NHT the protest . (Sel a to ontgo ery )

C r r r r r r m m r for ong ess passed a new voting ights act , p oviding st onge enfo ce ent easu es F protecting the suffrage of Afii can Americans an d others . ollowing the passage of the Afri Am ri r r r r r r D S law, can e can vote egist ation soa ed, pa ticula ly in the eep outh .

N w r A fii can Am erican leader Malcolm X was assassinated in e Yo k City .

Watts race ri ots occurred in Californ ia .

“ t T dm r r Immigration Reform A c was passed . his lan a k law abolished the acist national ” - mm r f r r A origin basis for allocating annual i ig ation quota o individual count ies . sian E r r nations received the same quota as u opean count ies .

National Organization for Women was founded .

m C S r C mm S Homophile ilitants picketed the ivil e vice o ission building , the tate r m P Wh H P on 4 Depa t ent , the entagon , the ite ouse , and , in hiladelphia July , H Independence all .

m r S . S 1 966 Edward Brooke ofMassachusetts beca e the fi st black elected to the U . enate

since Reconstruction .

NCC r was his G r L r S r m Julian Bond , S leade , denied seat in the eo gia egislatu e; up e e

Court later ordered Bond seated .

N Stokely Carmichael wa s named head ofS CC .

79 B P r P r i n r n C . lack anthe a ty was fou ded Oakland , alifo nia

The Elementary and Secondary Education A ct established special programs for In dian

children .

1 967 S r A ri Am r R r H r in r ar eve al f can e icans , including icha d atche Ga y and C l Stokes i n m r m r C r o U . S . . leveland, we e elected ayo s of aj cities

1 968 Shirley ChisholmofNew York became the first Afri can American woman elected to 1 At r S . C r . r the U . ong ess least eight othe blacks we e also elected to the House of

Representatives .

r K Martin Luthe ing was assassinated .

v H olmes . S . S r m C rt ri f 1 969 In Alexa nder . the U up e e ou abandoned the p nciple o “ ” des egregation with all deliberate speed and ruled that school districts must operate ” nOw and hereafter only unitary schools .

r “M N r r The administration of President Richa d . ixon devised a plan to equi e contractors bidding on federal and federally assisted construction proj ects to hire a The m r fixed number ofminority group members by a certain date . easu e first applied “ P in Pennsylvania became k nown as the Philadelphia lan .

National In dian Education A ssociation was established to give Ameri can In dians and

Alaska Natives a national voice in their struggle to obtain educational equality .

‘ A shift in BIA policy encouraged the form ation of local Indian school boards and

' r In r m o ortunit to r m m Offe ed dian gove n ents. an pp y take ove the anage ent Of schools

administered by the BIA .

l r i t 27 1 969 m r r The Stonewa l o of June , a ks the beginning of the gay libe ation

movement .

1 970 Congress extended the Voting Rights A ct of 1 965 for another five years .

' National Women s Strike for equality .

mm on C R r r m r r k federal The U . S . Co ission ivil ights epo ted a ajo b ea down in

’ enforcement of the nation s legal mandates prohibiting racial discrimination .

m r A r Am r C r e 1 97 1 With at least fifteen me be s , f ican e icans in ong ess stablished a

Congressional Black Caucus .

r m C r r a re r r r ar S . S The U . up e e ou t uled that states not equi ed to ca ve out sep ate

' legislative dist ri cts for urban blacks or any other rac ia l or ethnic group .

r ofA for T r C r e N n Th . C e U . 8 ou t ppeals the hi d i cuit upheld the legality ofth ixo

80 ’ “ m r r ad inist ation s job plan fo minorities known as the Philadelphia Plan .

Supreme Court says busing is a constitutionally accepted method for integrating public school

m r r mm The . S r C r U S . up e e ou t uled that swi ing pools and othe such public facilities r S r r could be closed to avoid deseg egation . uch closings , the cou t easoned, affected

blacks and whites equally .

1 2 97 A G r I . national black political convention was held in a y, ndiana

New York Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm made an unsuccessful bid for President

of the United States .

m ow rfirl r r A ri Am ri A m C P r. e da layton owell , J , the ost p and cont ove sial f can e can

C r m . ong ess an , died

Some ofthe first blacks were elected to Congress from the Deep South since T B r r r T A Reconstruction . hey included a ba a Jo dan of exas and ndrew Young of r Geo gia .

t t The . S r m C r ru r r o r U S . up e e ou led that a state could g ant a liquo license a p ivate club

that practiced racial discri mination .

A m r A ri Am r 1 973 M n r H . Jr. m r ay a d Jackson , of tlanta beca e the fi st f can e ican elected ayo

of a major Deep South city .

Br w f r Two M r D m ofC r G r L. o C r blacks , e vyn y ally alifo nia and eo ge o n olo ado , we e

elected lieutenant governors .

The N Ga T F r r r m N Ga L T ational y ask o ce , late ena ed the ational y and esbian ask r fm - m n It l wa F r is rm O m e . s oa s o ce , fo ed by a g oup ostly white , iddle class gay g to focus on national issues and to bri ng gay liberation into the mainstream ofAm erican

civil rights .

4 L u v Nichols m r S r m C rt m 1 97 a . , a land a k up e e ou case in the develop ent of bilingual c r San Fr U S D ri edu ation , in which the cou t found the ancisco nited chool ist ct failed to r f r m E offer equal educational oppo tunity o students with li ited nglish skills .

New York Democrats Bella Abzug and Ed Koch introduced in Congress the fi rst

federal civil rights bill for gay men and lesbians .

r r m V m C m L m to U 1 975 More than efugees f o ietna , a bodia and aos ca e the nited

m r of r - S - E A mm r States , a king the beginning la ge scale outh ast sian i ig ation to the

United States . V R ct 1 965 for r Congress extended the oting ights A of an additional seven yea s .

8 1 W r v a is er Aluminum U . S . S r m C r In ebe . K , the up e e ou t upheld use Of quotas and r m r m r m m r f r othe , ostly volunta y, easu es to achieve equal e ploy ent oppo tunities o ri Am r A f can e icans and others .

r In E S - D rm t T Cong ess passed the dian ducation and elf ete ination Ac . his law enabled In r m r to r m r r r m dian gove n ents and o ganizations cont act any fede al p og a s , including

schools .

S r m C rt r r r m so- r 1 976 The U. S . up e e ou uled that pu po ted victi s of called everse r m r rmi m r disc i ination , alleged to have esulted in job te nation , had the sa e ight as

blacks to sue in federal court s .

82

A IM ILATI N A ND AL L T NT ERA 1 - SS O O ME , 8 7 1 1 93 4

1 876 In one ofthe l ast armed effort s Of Northern Plains Indians to preserve their ancestral of Ar L C e rri r way life, apaho , akota, and heyenn wa o s wiped out a detachment ofthe ’ A rm lr Lt S C . Col . G r US . A C r B t y s eventh ava y, led by eo ge . uste , in the at le of the r NM Little Bigho n . ( )

1 88 1 Court of Indian Offenses gave federal agents the ability to have Indians accused of m r r r cri es punished in ese vation cou ts .

1 8805 to 1 8905 Codes Of Indian Offenses enabled federal agents to suppress Indian religion r m A s r m I and healing ce e onies . a esult , any ndians took their religious ceremonies r r unde g ound .

1 885 C r M r Cr m Act ong ess passed the ajo i es , which subjected Indians accused ofviolating ri m r m seven c es to fede al punish ent .

A m A t K 1 887 C r G r c . D A ct ong ess passed the ene al llot ent nown also as the awes , this law provided for the allotment Ofreservation lands to individual Indians and the breakup of B 1 4 r ri . 93 I r t bal landholdings y , when the law was epealed, ndians had lost th ee Th r m quarters of their la nd holdings . ose individuals who eceived allot ents also

r . eceived U S . citizenship

r f G D r If W v P u o . o oka, a ai te , had a vision that led to the c eation the host ance eligion n r r r Indians sang a d danced in a ce tain way, the buffalo would eappea , the dead would W I m m r ur r. et n , and, the whites would disappea ith ndians facing any social , econo ic , m of m fr m S . and political problems stemming o U expansion, any the accept the new In m r r r G D to r religion . so e a eas , whites inte p eted the host ance as a challenge thei

hegemony .

C r r 1 46 men m r La G 1 890 The Seventh US . aval y slaughte ed , wo en , and child en kota host D k Dancers at Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South a ota .

Tr 1 898 The Curtis A ct extended the allotment process to the Five Civilized ibes .

1 920 5 The Indian Defense League of Ameri ca protested the failure of the U S . and Canadian

governments to recogn ize Indian treaty rights .

m ft m In 1 928 The Meriam Report found that the assi ilation policy had le any dians landless ,

r r m ri . in poo health , unde educated , and i pove shed

INDIA N NEW DEAL ERA 1 93 4- 1 946

T r t IRA . 1 93 4 Congress enacted the Indian Reorganization Ac ( ) his law, w itten by the C r m W rn m of Commissioner Of Indian Affai rs John ollie , i posed este syste s Act r The r a Da , govemment on Indian peoples . law also epe led the wes p ovided

84 u for I r r for Am r I f nding ndians to pu chase land, and established schola ships e ican ndian

students .

1 93 6 The m I W r A ct IRA r m Oklaho a ndian elfa e , extended p ovisions to include Oklaho a

Indians .

1 944 The N C r ofAm ri In rm D r C r r ational ong ess e can dians is fo ed in enve , olo ado , to p ovide r In r for a collective o ganization in the dian st uggle sovereignty and treaty rights .

T t ERM INATI ON ERA , 1 956 o 1 970

1 9405 a nd 1 9505 Senecas led legal challenges and protests in an unsuccessful effort to stop K z Dam r P r m r the in ua p oject in ennsylvania f o flooding thei lands .

1 946 In r r ru r t r In r p epa ation to end the t st elationship and u n dian affairs ove to the states , r I L C mmi A t Th Cong ess enacted the ndian ands o ssion c . e statute enabled Indian r m m r r m gove n ents to file clai s against the fede al gove n ent .

1 948 The Hoover Commission stressed that assimilation must be the primary object of federal Indian policy

1 9505 Th e federal government terminated its recognition of over a hundred In dian nations

and dissolved their reservations .

- f r I A t m 1 95 1 1 962 Relocation became an aspect o fede al ndian policy . t e pting to hasten the m OfI BIA m m for expected assi ilation ndians , the i ple ented the policy which called the mi r I r m r r r m r P g ation of ndians f o thei ese vations and ho e a eas to cities such as hoenix , The Los A San Francisco/Oakland C C m C . ngeles , , leveland, hicago, and Oklaho a ity r am r m ob r r r p ogr p ovided so e j t aining and u ban living skills to its pa ticipants , but they r for m of r r ft rt . U r we e le without adequate suppo np epa ed city life , any the elocatees t m r r o . r r . etu ned ho e Othe s , howeve , successfully adapted city life

r r r I 1 953 Congress ended the discriminato y liquo laws pe taining to ndians .

1 96 1 The National In dian Youth Council was founded to address problemsfacing Indian

communities .

r In r m C r Am r I C 1 968 Ove the objections of dian gove n ents , ong ess passed the e ican ndian ivil m B R r on In r m A t. T Rights c his law i posed ill of ights p otections dian gove n ents ,

further eroding their sovereignty .

rm theAm r I M m A IM M M Activists fo ed e ican ndian ove ent ( ) in inneapolis , innesota, AIM k for In r in response to police b rutality . soon began to spea out dian sove eignty

r m r r r r . religious f eedo , t eaty ights , and cultu al su vival

r M u Ru m r N Mem ri l 1 969 AIM temporarily takes ove o nt sh o e ational o a .

85 A r r S C mm on L r P W r I epo t Of the enate o ittee abo and ublic elfa e, ndia n Educa tion : A Na tiona l Tra ed -A Na tiona l Cha llen e m r g y g , exposed any sho tcoming in the education ofI r r r mm n for ndian child en and offe ed eco e dations change .

1 969 to 1 971 Am r In A r z I rm r f e ican dian activists occupy lcat a sland, a fo e ederal prison San Fr B T t located in ancisco ay. hey wanted o use the island for an educational and r r m r m In Th cultu al cente and to publicize the ist eat ent of dian peoples . e occupation r r m r A r I HL . N /NPS ended with a aid by fede al a shals ( lcat az sland, )

1 971 Lo N R r N C mm t cated at Tsaile on the avajo ese vation , avajo o uni y College became the

r ll r l In mm D anaw - t first t iba y cont ol ed dian co unity college . eg eda Que zelquatl f W U r D C r . nive sity was also established in avis, ali o nia ithin the next decade another In twodozen such institutions were established in dian country .

- RMINATI N ERA 1 0 SELF DETE O , 97 5

1 970 The federal government abandons termination and adopts a policy Of self rm f r I dete ination o ndians .

1 97 1 Attorneys organized the Native Ameri can Rights Fund (NARF to provide legal Am ri In o r m m r r n ur assistance to e can dian g ve n ents in atte s of sove eig ty, cult al

r I r . su vival , and ndian civil ights

1 972 AIM r r i r Tr Br Treaties t o W t and othe o ganizat ons coo dinated the ail of oken ashing on , D C r r e m r for r r , whe e leaders p es nted a anifesto to fede al officials calling a etu n to the

o r m . treaty relations between Indian nations and the US . g ve n ent

1 973 M r McPherson S I r mi r a ia , a ioux , led opposition in owa against a disc i nato y state law

& that required the immediate reburial ofwhites and the shipping ofIndian bodies to the T r mm r m r m m for t r t . state useu s udy in pe p e uity his p otest , ste ing f o the inadve tent r m r Am ri I discovery Of a buri al with Indian and white e ains, spa ked the e can ndian r r m m r for r r r r ofIn epat iation ove ent , a d ive equal bu ial p otections and epat iation dian m re ains .

AIM members and Lakota traditionalists took over the small town of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation in South Dakota to protest corru ption on the

reservation .

O r 1 970 5 The Menominees ofWisconsin organized to restore thei r federal recognition . the s

followed the Menominee example .

Nationa l Pa rk Se rv ice

“ De m n h Inte ri r U. S . p a rt e t oft e o

National Historic La ndma rks Su rv ey

“ Na tiona Re iste r Histor a nd Ed ucation l g , y,