Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 5 Issue 1 Spring 2015 http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Indonesian Schools: Shaping the Future of Islam and Democracy in a Democratic Muslim Country

Kathleen E. Woodward University of North Georgia

This paper examines the role of schools in slowly Islamizing Indonesian society and politics. Why is this Islamization happening and what does it portend for the future of democracy in Indonesia? The research is mostly qualitative and done through field experience, interviews, and data collection. It is concluded that radical madrasahs are not the main generators of Islamization, but instead the widespread prevalence of moderate Islamic schools are Islamizing Indonesian society and politics. The government began the “mainstreaming” of Islamic elementary and secondary schools, most of which are private, in 1975. This has continued and grown, making them popular options for education today. The government has more recently been increasing the role of state run Islamic universities by expanding their degree offerings to include many non- Islamic disciplines. The use of Islamic schools to educate Indonesians is due to the lack of development of secular public schools and high informal fees charged for the public schools. By making Islamic schools an attractive option that prepares students for success, society has been Islamized slowly as the number of alumni increases and as these alumni play leadership roles in society, business, and government. This Islamization is not of a radical nature, but it is resulting in more Islamic focused public discourse and governing policy, and low levels of tolerance for other faiths and variant Muslim practices. The recent addition of civic education in Islamic schools, which has been exalted by Westerns, is taught with specific Islamic interpretations that change the meaning of concepts, particularly pluralism. The resulting consequence is that while Islam and democracy’s compatibility are stressed in Islamic civic education, tolerance for pluralism is truncated. Islamic schools are homogenizing Islam in Indonesia and shaping the public discourse and democracy in ways that are infused with modernist Islamic values. Keywords: Islam, schools, Indonesia, democracy, civic education, politics, pluralism, tolerance, modernist Muslim, madrasah, pesantren, ulama, universities

Schools are a product of social and political Indonesia’s schools are of particular interest decisions, but they also create and shape the due to Indonesia being the world’s most future generation of leaders and therefore largely populous Muslim majority country and it is a shape future social and political decisions. relatively new democracy having begun the Schools in all countries therefore are of prime transition in 1998 with violent protests bringing importance when studying politics, culture, and down Suharto, the dictator for over three society. Frequently, social scientists neglect the decades. The first free elections were held in study of a country’s education system as being 1999 and changes to the Constitution and the product of and generator of society and election methods have continued to the present politics. However, if one looks at what is with yet another change in late 2014 that ended happening in a country’s schools, the future can the direct election of governors and mayors.1 be seen. Think how your education influenced Many analysts assess the role of Islam in you. You are a product of that education. Your Indonesia’s democracy and politics through worldview and decision making is shaped by what you learned in school. 1 They are now to be elected through the local legislative assemblies. Indonesian School: Shaping Islam and Democracy Woodward

examining elite negotiations, the historical and education that prepare them for advancement in cultural existence of Islam in Indonesia, or the society in fields such as medicine, law, business, ties of Indonesian Muslims to the Middle East. science, and education making Islamic schools While these are important determinants of an attractive option for many Indonesians. Islam’s role in Indonesian social and political This mainstreaming of Islamic based life, schools, being primary socializing agents, education is not based on radical interpretations should be a part of the analysis of Islam and of Islam or the attempt of a fundamentalist politics in Indonesia. In schools, the effects of group to take over the state, but has had the historical and cultural manifestations of Islam, effect, and will likely continue to push toward a ties to the Middle East, and elite negotiations greater acceptance of society and governance can be seen, as well as offering insight into the being based on Islamic tenets and values. The future direction of Islam and politics. Students precise form taken of this greater inclusion of in both public and private schools will be shaped Islamic values in the social and political by the curriculum that has evolved through discourse and governing policies issued through compromise, negotiation, political decisions, and Indonesian democracy can be better understood ideologies from around the world. These through examining the country’s schools. This students will in turn be the leaders of tomorrow. examination yields the conclusion that while Therefore, examining schools can provide a Islam is more prominently evident in Indonesian glimpse into both the past and future of a society and governance now that it is a country’s politics, discourse, and role of democracy, it is not in the form of a ideologies, including religion. predetermined prescriptive Islam that rigidly This article discusses the history and current constrains decisions; rather, most students are situation of schools in Indonesia with emphasis taught to contextualize Islam and use itjihad on Islamic schools; however, as will be shown, (critical thinking to make Islam relevant to time Islamic and public general education (secular) and place). This shaping of Islam and politics is schools are closely inter-twined. The types of taking place within the context of modernist schools available from elementary to higher Islam gaining ascendancy and Islam being education, their curriculum, and oversight by the slowly homogenized, even if this state will be detailed, along with an examination homogenization is of a contextualized variety. of the cost of schools, which helps explain Applying Islam to Indonesian society and choices parents make when deciding which governance is continually being negotiated schools their children will attend. Religious and among leaders, groups, governing agencies, and civic instruction will be highlighted with a view society itself within the context of democratic toward explaining why religious and civic governance. Schools are sometimes a education exists in the forms it does in Indonesia battleground for this negotiating because they and how this instruction may portend the future shape the future, but thus far the process of direction of Indonesia’s religious and civic negotiating the role of Islam in society and engagement in democratic governance. In sum, politics has been mostly peaceful. It is argue in it is argued that Indonesia is experiencing a slow this paper that Islam is slowly becoming more Islamization of its society and politics, not prominent and homogenous in Indonesia largely through radical Islamic schools, but instead due through the influence of schools and decision to the popularity and mainstreaming of moderate makers who are a product of these schools, and Islamic schools and due to the mandated that there are problems with tolerance of variants instruction of religion in “secular” schools. of Islam and non-Islamic faiths, but it is also Students are able to cross-over between Islamic argued that Islam in Indonesia has shown itself and secular schools with relative ease and most to be generally compatible with democratic all students are exposed to rather extensive governance and is continually evolving as a instruction in religion through whichever school product of social and political discourse and they attend. State run and private Islamic decisions and in turn is continually shaping that universities present an affordable and attainable discourse and decision making. A closer option for students seeking degrees in higher exploration of how schools are involved in

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shaping the evolving role of Islam in society and militant interpretations of Islam, similar to how politics is offered below. madrasahs in Pakistan spread such ideologies and contributed to the violence and strength of Current Context: Why Examine Islam’s Role radical Islamic groups in that country. in Society and Politics in Indonesia? Fortunately for Indonesia, this does not seem to be the case. Although there is a network of The bombing of tourist venues in Bali in about a hundred madrasahs run by various 2002 in which over 200 people died led to the fundamentalist Islamic groups and individuals, acknowledgement that some madrasahs in and these schools teach anti-pluralist, anti- Indonesia may be instilling radical Islamic western, and anti-democratic viewpoints and worldviews in its students that led to the terror advocate Indonesia becoming a fundamentalist attacks. The bombers were found to have been Islamic state, these are the exception, not the under the guidance of former students of a norm.4 private madrasah in Solo, Central Java, called Further fueling the fear that Indonesia is Al-Mukmin, or more commonly called, Ngruki. headed in a radical Islamic direction is the fact Ngruki Madrasah has about 2000 students and that there remains much, some argue increasing, teaches a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam intolerance for plurality and acts of communal based on Salafi doctrine. This Madrasah was violence. These acts include the burning of founded by Abu Bakar Ba’asyir who is also a homes, places of worship, and violent protests.5 co-founder of a fundamentalist Islamic In addition, the Ministry of Home Affairs has organization called Jemaah Islamiyah (JI).2 Abu allowed several local areas to ban the Islamic Bakar Ba’asyir also founded a political sect, Ahmadiyah, which is viewed by organization, called Mujahidin Council of mainstream Muslims as aberrant and heretical. Indonesia (MMI) that acts as an umbrella The Religious Affairs Minister and high ranking association for numerous small radical groups generals in the army have called the Ahmadi across Indonesia. sect heretics that should be criminalized.6 The Radical Islamic groups have seen many of highest council of Islamic scholars/leaders in their leaders arrested as the Indonesian police’ Indonesia, called Majelis Ulama Indonesia counter-terrorism unit, Densus 88, has been (MUI), issued a fatwah in 2005 stating successful in arresting militants suspected of Ahmadiyah and a network of liberal Muslims participating in or planning terrorist acts.3 called JIL (Liberal Islamic Network) were However, the linkage between Abu Bakar heretics and therefore dangerous to society. The Ba’asyir’s Madrasah in Solo and the Bali MUI also issued a fatwah that same year stating bombings prompted concerns that Indonesia liberalism, pluralism, and secularism were may be headed toward greater Islamic Western values and antithetical to traditions of radicalization. There was fear that radical Islamic thought.7 madrasahs were spreading fundamentalist and The MUI is affiliated with the government and was created by President Suharto in 1971

2 with the purpose of gaining government JI is a spin off organization of the illegal Darul Islam (DI) that was founded in the 1940s with the oversight of Islamic leaders and to provide goals of separatist rebellions against colonial rule and religious legitimacy for Suharto’s policies. the creation of an Islamic state. JI was founded in MUI’s purpose was to issue fatwahs (judicial 1993 and also works with Al-Qaeda for training and opinions) about matters involving Islamic financing. Many of its leaders are children of DI jurisprudence and to oversee halal certification. leaders. It came to consist of a powerful web of personal contacts across Indonesia. Other militant groups associated with Darul Islam that operate 4 Hefner, Robert (2009). inside Indonesia include Laskar Jihad, Madelia 5 Human Rights Watch (March 15, 2011) and (June Mujahidin Indonesia, Laskar Jundulloh, the Banten 16, 2011). International Crisis Group (November 24, group, and Angkatan Mujahidin Islam Nusantara 2010). (AMIN). 6 Freedman, Amy and Robert Tiburzi (2012). 3 International Crisis Group (May 3, 2007). 7 Gillespie, Piers (2007).

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Since Suharto’s fall, however, the MUI has Relatedly, with decentralization and the become more conservative has been issuing devolution of political authority to the provinces fatwahs in numerous areas of life that were and districts, more than 50 local districts have previously not within their purview, including implemented aspects of Sharia, particularly smoking, using hair dye, and saving the notable are Aceh, West Sumatra and West Java. environment. The elected governing officials This may appease fundamentalist groups and have thus far done little to oppose illiberal prevent them from attempting to capture the fatwahs from the MUI, such as the one against national government, or it may inspire them and Ahmadis and liberalism, secularism, and allow their views to grow more accepted and pluralism. viewed as inevitable. While this is being done Similarly, groups that are legal and operate within the framework of democratic institutions, within the law, but spread fundamentalist views there are questions being raised about the of Islam’s role in society and politics, including intolerance of plurality that is accompanying Hizb ut-Tahrir Indonesia (HTI) and Front these changes. This paper argues that even Pembala Islam (FPI – The Islamic Defenders though radical madrasahs are the exception in Front), are allowed to operate with a concerning Indonesia and the police have been successfully extent of impunity from government closing jungle training camps and society does prosecution. FPI has come to act as a morals not largely accept terrorist acts as legitimate, police thrashing clubs that serve alcohol and there is a “slow creep” of Islamization infusing warning women to cover more. The police at Indonesian society and politics. times have arrested some members of FPI, A look at election results for parliament in including its leader, Habib Rizieq in 2008 and April 2014 are interesting for showing that imprisoned him for a year and a half for the FPI Islamic parties are not fading, but are gaining attacking and killing protestors with whom they votes with 32% of the vote going to parties with disagreed, but the group is still allowed to a declared Muslim identity. The parties are not operate largely unchallenged and officials seem radical and must officially accept the democratic afraid to oppose it too strongly. framework and secular state within which they Another example of why some people fear operate or they are not allowed to participate in Indonesia is becoming a breeding ground for elections. However, these parties use the radical Islamic groups is that while the number democratic process to push policies in a more of radical madrasahs is low in Indonesia Islamic direction. Their main obstacle is that compared to many other Muslim majority they are not united among themselves and countries, fundamentalist organizations have represent various factions within the Muslim been found recruiting within secular schools, community. Old divisions between traditional, both secondary level and at institutions of higher rural based ulama and modernist Muslims education. Militant Islamic cells were found in a prevent this unity.9 Several leaders, such as high school in Klaten, Central Java and the those in the MUI, are attempting to remedy this liberal oriented UIN and IAIN (state run Islamic 8 universities). The public flagship university, 9 The PKB party that largely represents the Universitas Indonesia, has witnessed the traditional, rural based ulama is mistrustful of the presence of large and active fundamentalist, modernist groups due to historical experiences dating although not necessarily militant, Islamic groups back to the 1920s but continuing until now. The since the early 1990s. Hard-line Islamic groups PKB accuses modernist groups of attempting to also use social media to get their message out to eradicate the power of traditional ulama in the the Indonesian public. Indonesia has one of the country and spread fundamental modernist practices highest rates of social media use in the world; across the country. The PKB received 9% of the vote thus, this is an effective medium to reach people, in parliamentary elections making it the biggest vote perhaps more so than through radical madrasahs. getter of the Islamic parties; however, the other three parties each received approximately 7% each and are all considered modernist in orientation making their total votes much higher than PKBs (Gwenael Njoto- 8 Freedman, Amy and Robert Tiburzi (2012). Feillard. May 9, 2014).

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division that prevents the Islamic political Sukarno, and is now led by his daughter, parties from currently being a powerful bloc Megawati Sukarnoputri. Jokowi has a history of within Parliament. Their success over time will being tolerant to pluralism and a defender of likely be influenced by the greater social justice; however, the close race indicated homogenization of Islam within Indonesia that is that a very different candidate has the potential occurring partly through the educational system. to be elected next time. Prabowo carried the Another characteristic of the 2014 elections baggage of having been exiled from the country showing the appeal of an Islamic message to in 1998 due to allegations of human rights voters is that one of the candidates for the abuses as head of the Indonesian Special Forces presidency, former General Prabowo Subianto, during the protests that ousted Suharto, his ex- who barely lost the election, had statements in father-in-law, from power. Thus, while he had his party, Gerindra’s, official manifesto that the support of many of Suharto’s former allies, risked endangering the secular foundation of the he also was vilified for his past. Thus, his state, such as declaring a vital task of the state Islamic leaning and connections were not the was to “guarantee the purity of religious main trait characterizing him, but his political teachings that are recognized by the State [and rebirth partly through the use of Islam shows it guard them] from deviations and contempt from is possible to use Islamic discourse and networks other religious teachings.”10 Prabowo was to propel oneself to power, which is cause for known in the 1990s to have close ties to very concern in a country that is showing signs of conservative Islamic groups that want to see becoming more Islamic oriented. Indonesia become an Islamic state.11 While he The strength of Islam as a political factor may have been and continues to use such groups and the growing acts of intolerance in society, for his own political ambition, he tapped into the along with the Indonesian leadership’s tacit conservative Islamic groups for support in his approval for intolerance is troubling and causing attempt to become President. He also garnered observers to ask why this is happening. The support from factions in the military that share above described intolerance is co-occurring with the worldview of conservative Islam and goals surveys showing Indonesians support of Islamizing Indonesia further. Although democratic participation, human rights, and Prabowo was also supported by groups in interfaith tolerance, further complexifying society seeking rents through his ascendency, or analysis of Islam in Indonesia. 12 Other surveys, seeking a return to a more orderly military style however, show increasing support for Islamic government, his near success in capturing the law, groups enforcing a strict version of Islamic presidency in 2014 shows the appeal of an practice, and practice of personal piety that is Islamic message among Indonesian society and stronger than in several other Muslim majority the strength of a network of leaders in society, countries.13 Similarly, Bagir and Cholil (2008) governance, and the military that are willing to analyzed anti-pluralism discourse in Indonesia see a greater Islamization of the country. If he and found a recurring theme that criticized the were to win the presidency next time, Indonesia westernization of Islam and a stance that would surely become an even less tolerant pluralism would lead to relativism and weaken society of pluralism and may even head down a people’s commitment to Islam. path of ending democracy. How does one make sense of the conflicting The winner of the July 2014 presidential evidence regarding Islam’s role in Indonesian election was a populist and moderate Muslim, society and politics with evidence on the one Joko Widodo (Jokowi), who was the governor of hand of radical elements, intolerance, and the Jakarta and former mayor of Solo, Central Java. growing importance of Islam in politics with He ran for president as a candidate of the PDI-P evidence on the other hand that points to most Party, which historically was the nationalist and secular party of Indonesia’s first president, 12 Mujani, Saiful (2007) and Esposito, John L. and Dalia Mogahed. (2007). 10 Gwenael Njoto-Feillard (May 9, 2014). 13 Pew Global Attitude Project (May 17, 2011) and 11 Gwenael Njoto-Feillard (May 9, 2014). Hassan, Riaz (July 2007).

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Islamic schools and the largest mass based photocopying, uniforms, books, extracurricular Muslim organizations in Indonesia being activities, building construction and relatively moderate and the public’s support for maintenance, an enrollment fee, and tuition for democracy? The answer lies in acknowledging operating costs. Teachers sometimes asked for that support for political participation and “donations” for students to receive their grades democracy does not necessarily mean a or demanded students needed private tutoring in lessening role for religion in politics and greater order to pass. A portion of these rents were then toleration. These western ideals typically go passed up to the principle in order for the together, but in non-western countries, teachers to keep their jobs.14 These fees were democracy may manifest differently. A look at unofficial. The government maintained that schools in Indonesia, particularly civic and public education was free but began in the late religious education, is instructive for 1990s to address the issue of unofficial school understanding how Islam is evolving and fees and recognize their existence. The schools influencing this young democracy. claim that they do not receive enough money from the government to run the schools and Indonesia’s Educational System therefore must charge the informal fees to Secular Public General Education schools operate; however, there is significant evidence of money being siphoned off at all levels and it The Indonesian educational system consists not reaching the schools. of public and private schools organized into In response to the economic and political elementary (grades 1-6), junior secondary crisis of the late 1990s, the government (grades 7-9), and senior secondary school decentralized the schools in 1999 to the district (grades 10-12). The public general education level in terms of budget and administration.15 In (secular) schools are overseen by the 2000-2002, the national legislature amended the Department of Education; whereas, the religious Constitution to state that all Indonesians had the schools are overseen by the Department of right to an education and required citizens to Religion. President Suharto mandated in 1973 pursue a basic education and for the government that education would become compulsory to fund it, specifically mandating that central through completion of elementary school and regional governments spend 20% of their (grades 1-6). This mandate was phased in and budgets on education. In 2003 these changes completed in 1984. In 1994, President Suharto were reinforced by a law on the National decreed that education would become Education System stating that central and compulsory through grade nine. While full regional governments will guarantee the compliance has not yet been achieved and implementation of compulsory education at least enrollment drops significantly in the junior at the basic education level without charging any secondary schools, the government is still fees and that teacher salaries were not a part of attempting to increase enrollments, most the 20% to be spent on education.16 However, recently through President Jokowi’s “Smart the Constitutional Court said that the 2003 law Card” program begun in late 2014 to help poor keeping teacher salaries out of the 20% violated families pay for their children’s education. the constitutional provision that had not stated Under Suharto’s “New Order” that lasted this specifically. Further eroding government from 1967-1998, schools became part of the “franchise” structure of administration where people paid to receive a position in a 14 Rosser, Andrew and Anuradha Joshi (February government affiliated agency, such as the police, 2013). 15 license issuing agency, or school administration. There was less money in the budget of the central In exchange, the government official had access government due to the collapse of the Rupiah in 1997 to rents collected during the course of the job. and the IMF was encouraging decentralization and privatization of all government services as a This meant that public general education schools condition of its crisis loans. began to charge more fees to attend school, 16 Rosser, Andrew and Anuradha Joshi (February including, for example, fees for exams, 2013).

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expenditures on schools is that many district equipment, including chairs and desks, and do governments include non-educational expenses not provide as good of an education as the public in their calculations. secular schools and their fees typically rise in A 2005 mandate to increase teacher salaries junior secondary school. and require all new teachers have a bachelor Indonesia scores very low in international degree is supposed to improve teacher quality educational measures of skills. They were and ensure a minimum living wage for teachers, ranked 64th out of 65 countries in math, reading, but this cuts into the already sparse budgets of and science skills according to the 2012 Program schools despite President Yudhoyono increasing for International Student Assessment. As of the proportion of the budget spent on education 2012, 51% of people aged 15-18 were enrolled in 2004. In 2005 President Yudhoyono again in senior secondary schools.20 The gross increased school budgets through providing enrollment ration (GER) at the higher education funds directly to schools on a per pupil basis for level, which is the total enrollment as a books, operating costs, supplies, etc. Schools percentage of the college-age population, is were supposed to reduce their fees in response 25%, which is the lowest percentage of all BRIC and in 2008 he instructed district governments to nations, except India, which has a GER of ensure there was free basic education. Later in 20%.21 This GER is, however, more than double 2008, in response to continued resistance at the what it was in 2001, and the Indonesian district level, the Yudhoyono administration government plans to keep expanding the number decided that free basic education could only be of students in higher education. guaranteed to poor families. The government Newly elected President Jokowi (Joko therefore issued a regulation granting permission Widodo) has instituted a “Smart Card” program to “international standard” schools (SBI) and for the country similar to the one he instituted as schools trying to develop a “basis of local mayor of Jakarta. Children who are eligible superiority” to continue charging fees, which in based on financial need will be given a debit- effect meant that middle and upper class card that can be used to pay for school related children attending these schools would pay a expenses. The government will put the money fee, while poor children attending the lower into their account monthly and the student can quality public schools would attend for free.17 It use the card to pay for school fees, books, was in fact many middle and upper class supplies, transportation, and uniforms. The families that did not want fees to end because expenses will be monitored and the money will they feared the quality of their schools would not go through numerous levels of lower over time and they were cheaper than the administration as it has in the past; thus, expensive secular elite private schools.18 reducing opportunities for corruption. This While user fees have declined significantly program coincides with cards issued for health in the post-Suharto era, they have not been care and social welfare. The national program eliminated and vary according to district and was begun in November 2014 and could school.19 The fees push many poor families into potentially help poor children attend school. sending their children to private madrasahs that The Smart Card will provide Rp 225,000 ($18) are funded by private organizations and thus per semester for elementary students, Rp. cheaper. These madrasahs that service poor 375,000 ($31) per semester for junior secondary communities usually do not have much students and Rp. 500,000 ($41) per semester for senior secondary students, including vocational studies.22 17 Rosser, Andrew and Anuradha Joshi (February 2013). 18 Private madrasah, except the newer elite model, are cheaper than public schools; however, there still exists private elite schools that are more expensive that public schools. 20 Clark, Nick (April 4, 2014). 19 Rosser, Andrew and Anuradha Joshi (February 21 Clark, Nick (April 4, 2014). 2013). 22 Surya, Aditya. (November 21, 2014).

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schools, and identity formation.23 The private Islamic Schools Islamic schools fall into two categories. The first is the pesantren, which are traditional Indonesia’s population is approximately boarding schools teaching classical Islamic 90% Muslim and Islamic identity is growing; traditions of knowledge and are found mostly in however, Indonesia is not an Islamic state, nor is rural areas and frequently affiliated with one of Islam the official religion of the state. The the two Indonesian mass based Islamic constitution states adherence to five principles, organizations, Nahdlatul Ulama. There are over together called Pancasila. The first of these 10,000 pesantren and these are run by local principles is “belief in one God” with six ulama, who are frequently called “kyai” in religions being recognized. These include Indonesia. Kyai often blend pre-Islamic Islam, Protestant Christianity, Catholicism, elements into their role as head of a pesantren, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. such as performing spiritual healing, fortune Pancasila, including adherence to a religion is telling, and magical potion giving for a fee. The viewed as strengthening national identity, which second type of Islamic school in Indonesia is the was a concern for this diverse archipelago when madrasah, which is either run by an individual, achieving independence. The state therefore small group, or the second mass based Islamic supports religion and the teaching of religion organization in Indonesia, called through the Department of Religion and Muhammadiyah. Madrasahs in Indonesia are Department of Education and has required by usually day schools without residential facilities law the study of one’s own religion in both and they tend to be more modern in teaching public and private schools since 1960. The state style and curriculum than pesantren, although also runs Islamic schools through the they also teach a more modernist variant of Department of Religion as well as overseeing Islam that is sometimes associated with the private religious schools. The state (under fundamentalism and is frequently opposed to the Suharto) established the MUI (Majelis Ulama more traditionalist, blended Islam taught in the Indonesia; Council of Islamic Scholars/Leaders) pesantren. There are approximately 37,000 as discussed above to provide Islamic madrasahs in Indonesia and their popularity, “opinions” about legislation, government policy, particularly elite ones, are growing.24 Elite and issues affecting society and the practice of private madrasahs, either run by Islam. Therefore, even though the Indonesian Muhammadiyah or a smaller group or an state is not Islamic based, it has shown a history individual, have become popular with the middle of supporting the cultivation of Islam and and upper classes in Indonesia. These elite encouraging religious piety as part of the madrasahs are quite expensive and have Indonesian national identity. While freedom of excellent facilities and instruction in the religion is protected by the constitution, as long sciences, English, and the arts. as it is one of the six religions noted in Pancasila, there is not separation of Church and Indonesian Pesantren and “Traditional” Islam State in the same way that it exists in the United States. The Indonesian state is based on Pesantren have existed in Indonesia at least Pancasila and therefore is bound to support and from the 1600s, beginning in the coastal areas of uphold religion since the first principle of the islands, Sumatra and Java, where Islam first Pancasila is belief in God/religion. Islamic schools are over 90% private in Indonesia, although there are some state run 23 Of the madrasahs, state run madrasahs account for Islamic schools (madrasahs) that were increased 6.4% at the elementary level, 10.6% at the junior in the mid-1990s as part of Suharto’s efforts to secondary level, and 13% at the senior secondary coopt and gain control over Islamic movements, level as of the mid-2000s, according to Azra, Azyumardi; Dina Afrianty; and Robert W. Hefner (2007). 24 Azra, Azyumardi; Dina Afrianty; and Robert W. Hefner (2007).

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spread to Indonesia. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, pesantren spread to Indonesian Madrasahs and Modernist Islam the interior of Java as returning pilgrims from Mecca and Medina spread Islam to areas that In the early 1900s, modernist Islamic were only nominally Muslim. The peace schools, called madrasahs in Indonesia began to brought with colonialism allowed for this be founded by scholars returning from studies in spread. Previously, the archipelago consisted of the Middle East. The first ones were founded in warring small kingdoms.25 Pesantren blended West Sumatra and south-central Java. In pre-Islamic traditions with Islam and continue to Indonesia, the name “madrasah” was given to do this to a large extent today. They therefore Islamic schools that taught general education are said to represent the “traditional” variant of studies, in addition to Islamic knowledge. The Islam in Indonesia as opposed to the modernist madrasahs were denounced by the traditional variant discussed below. pesantren leaders as western and irreligious.26 Pesantren curriculum consists of study of the Although the model for the Indonesian madrasah Qur’an and hadith, jurisprudence (fiqu), Arabic, education came partly from Dutch colonial and mysticism (tasawwuf), and Arab sciences (alat). Christian missionary schools, the madrasahs A pesantren typically consists of a mosque, were affiliated with “modernist” variants of dormitories, the kyia’s residence, and Islamic practice that was popular in Egypt and “classrooms,” which typically have a concrete the Middle East. In both Indonesia and the floor and no furniture. Children are divided by Middle East, it was recognized by a new ages and sex and sit on the floor. Instruction is generation of Muslim scholars and leaders that done by recitation. Prior to the mid-1970s, in order to not be dominated by the West, children usually began attendance around age Muslims had to learn more than religious studies eleven or twelve and lived at the Pesantren for in schools. Religion could be infused three or four years. Some acquired enough throughout the curriculum, but students needed reading and writing skills and Islamic to learn science, math, and history, for instance, knowledge to become a local mosque leader and in order to create a strong Muslim society. teacher. Some pupils even went on to a Thus, ideas of religious revival became pesantren that taught more advanced knowledge intertwined with modern education, and the and continued their studies up to and building of madrasahs was part of the occasionally including study at an Islamic “modernist Muslim” movement that swept university. No grades were given and pupils across the Muslim world in the 20th century and advanced at their own pace. is still shaping Islamic identity and power. Pesantren were usually economically self- Modernist Islam refers generally to a more sufficient engaging in raising livestock, Qur’anic based practice of Islam, which is agriculture, and/or handicrafts. These were sometimes more fundamentalist, but also can some of the skills children learned in addition to allow for contextual interpretation of the Qur’an. Islamic studies. In the 1920s, some pesantren This is contrasted with the ulama based began to include instruction in math and/or traditional practice of Islam where local history due to the influence of Dutch colonial religious leaders provide interpretation of schools. By the 1950s, most pesantren taught Islamic precepts and instruct on how Islam some rudimentary general education curriculum; should be practiced according to their however it was usually rather limited due to the knowledge of a particular “school” of Islam, limitations of the kyai’s knowledge, except in which refers to a particular tradition of Islam the larger pesantren. Nowadays, pesantren that developed over centuries. The difference frequently allow a government school or between modernist and traditional Islam is a bit madrasah to exist on or near its property in order similar to the difference between Protestantism to meet the requirement that the national (Bible based) and Catholicism (priest based) curriculum be followed as is discussed below. 26 Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. 25 Laffan (2003). Hefner (2007).

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Christianity. Modernists also apply the Qur’an therefore a network of pesantren leaders and to modern times, while maintaining their strict people who support the traditional style of adherence to the Qur’an. Therefore, it becomes Islamic practices that frequently blends pre- confusing to attempt to categorize the Islamic traditions. The two organizations are modernists and traditionalists according to one sometimes rivals and antagonistic toward each being modern and the other pre-modern. The other, but not to a large extent that one might distinction does not fall along those lines as assume. It is rather common in recent years for modernists are frequently more ardent about children to begin in a pesantren school, but following the Qur’an and hadith closely and move to a Muhammadiyah madrasah for living according to Muhammad’s example than practical reasons such as the availability of the are traditionalist ulama. The difference is more school, and to become a member of about the “purity” of Islam with modernists Muhammadiyah blending the two traditions. claiming to be more pure and pointing to the NU and Muhammadiyah sometimes work institutionalization of ulama as interpreters of together on political issues, but there does Islamic practice and the existence of different remain a fear within NU that Muhammadiyah legal schools of thought as being “corruptors” of seeks to eradicate it and all they stand for while true Islam. Muhammadiyah members do express a A “back to the Qur’an” approach is thus demeaning attitude toward NU for not being taken by modernist, but simultaneous with purely Islamic enough.27 encouraging learning modern, non-Islamic Girls are educated at both madrasahs and knowledge and applying the Qur’an to time and pesantren, although frequently in separate place in order to make Islamic civilization strong rooms. Indonesia is a leader in the Muslim again. The kyai (ulama) in Indonesia are viewed world for its education of girls and acceptance of by many modernists as being backwards, women in the workplace. Not that there is no teaching an impure Islam that is infused with gender discrimination nor push to keep women pre-Islamic traditions, corrupt institutionally for at home with the family raising children, but using their positions to gain wealth, and there is a widespread belief that women can and uneducated in modern disciplines. In other should be contributing members of society words, modernist Muslims tend to view outside of the home. However, women more traditional ulama (kyai) as inept for moving frequently now wear headscarves and Muslim Indonesian society forward. On the flip side, attire, which is a visible result of the traditional ulama in Indonesia accuse the Islamization of Indonesian society and the modernists of attempting to bring fundamental growing influence of the modernist Muslims Islam to Indonesia and of trying to homogenize who encourage women to be contributing Islam artificially in Indonesia that would result members of society but within a Muslim in a loss of a precious Indonesian variant of context, including appropriate dress. For Islam. Kyai call modernists arrogant and accuse instance, women are accepted as working, them of wanting to move Indonesia backwards although not if it interferes with their family life, to the time of Muhammad. but they must cover appropriately and not walk Two mass based Muslim organizations were alone in the evening or in unseemly places. created in the early 1900s in Indonesia and They also should not be alone with men. represent the opposing viewpoints of modernist Traditional Islam in Indonesia allows for pre- and traditional Islam described above. Islamic patterns of dress and one rarely sees Muhammadiyah was created first and engaged women’s heads covered in rural, traditional in social welfare and educational activities as it regions. The encouragement to be a modern strove to bring modernist Muslim ideas to Muslim woman, who is educated and even Indonesia. Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) was created working, but follows the Qur’an is evidence for in response to Muhammadiyah. Although the the direction Islam is taking in Indonesia. This is traditional ulama were present in Indonesia first, they had not been organized but instead existed 27 These insights are from the author’s several years as independent kyai running pesantren. NU is of living in Indonesia studying these Islamic groups.

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similar to how democratic participation is and this pattern still exists today and allows encouraged but within the context of a Muslim national and religious goals to both be met and society as is discussed below. has kept the pesantren tradition alive. Government-Islamic Schools’ Relationship and Madrasahs were mostly already teaching modern the Growth of Islamic Schools as a Means to studies along with religion, so the acceptance of Educate Indonesians the 70/30% split in instructional material was not as big of a change for them as it was for In 1975 the “Agreement of Three Ministers” pesantren. The Department of Religion also was signed by the Departments of Religion, opened a few public madrasahs to serve as Education, and Internal Affairs, and agreed to by models of combining the national curriculum many of the main Islamic leaders who with Islamic teachings. These schools were negotiated on behalf of the schools, both expanded and increased in number during the traditional pesantren and modernist madrasahs. 1990s, but are still far outnumbered by the It stated that Islamic schools should follow the private madrasahs and pesantren. government general education curriculum for Under the Agreement of Three Ministers, 70% of the instructional day and use government graduates from Islamic schools could obtain a issued textbooks that were the same as those diploma that was considered equivalent to a used in the public general education schools. public, general education diploma if the school The Islamic leaders agreed to this because they had complied with providing 70% of instruction were afraid that if they did not, they would be in the national general education curriculum. incorporated into the public general education This paved the way for admittance to state run system and cease to exist as Islamic schools. In Islamic colleges and some public secular 1961, when Sukarno was still in power, the universities and was later expanded to make national parliament had passed a law stating that graduates eligible for admittance to all institutes in eight years, religious schools would be of higher education. Therefore, while the transitioned to oversight by the Department of Agreement of Three Ministers encouraged the Education, which raised fears they would be teaching of the national curriculum, by making secularized. Suharto came to power in 1967, but Islamic schools more mainstream, it increased he and other nationalists saw the need to develop their popularity and maintained their presence in a stronger public education system. The Islamic society because students could attend an Islamic leaders were therefore happy that the Agreement school and still learn general education and have of Three Ministers allowed the Islamic schools their diploma viewed as being equal to one from to remain under the Department of Religion and a secular public general education school. to continue existing as private Islamic schools. In 1989, the government enacted a new Even many of the traditional ulama were National Law on Education, which was later willing to participate in building the strength of amended by the National Law on Education of the country through educating its people with a 2004. This law identified private Islamic modern curriculum, as long as they were still schools, both madrasahs and pesantren, as being allowed to teach Islam and be leaders for the a subset within the national educational system community through running the pesantren. They and therefore subject to following decrees and saw that they could keep students in the regulations issued by the Department of pesantren if they cooperated with the Education, including participating in the government, which enabled the school to be government’s efforts to make education certified and students to receive government compulsory through the ninth grade. Even recognized diplomas. Otherwise, pesantren and though the Islamic schools had to follow madrasahs may have seen declining enrollment guidelines of the Department of Education, the and withered. However, pesantren needed help Department of Religion was allowed to provide and government teachers to teach the national curricular material and texts that met the curriculum. Thus, many government schools objectives of the Department of Education but opened on or near the property of numerous also infused an Islamic perspective into the pesantren where students studied at both schools material. Therefore, the Departments of

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Religion, Education, and the schools continued to work collaboratively and the Islamic schools continued to be a vital part of the Indonesian education system, even though most were privately run and pesantren were generally still very traditional with children sitting on the floor and instruction of Islamic studies being done through rote memorization and children working communally to keep the pesantren economically viable. The decision to keep ensuring Islamic schools were a vital part of the national effort to educate the next generation, helped to ensure Islamic schools and Islamic teachings would remain an integral part of Indonesian society. In 1994, the Department of Education issued a “regulation on National Curricula,” which included the decision to allow graduates from Islamic schools to be eligible for admittance to all public, secular universities, including the most prestigious universities in Indonesia. This made the Islamic schools even more popular since now students would not have their opportunities limited in regard to higher education if they graduated from an Islamic senior secondary school. Previously, some, but not all, secular public schools accepted students from Islamic schools. As of the mid-2000s, madrasah and pesantren graduates can also enroll in the military and police academies thus making education through Islamic schools a viable path for any career choice.28 Frequently being cheaper than the secular public schools, parents often chose Islamic schools for their children’s education. The chart below shows what percentage of students attend what type of school in which grades, how many are female, and the growth rates.

28 Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. Hefner (2007).

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2001-2 Enrollment Figures for Private Madrasahs, Public Schools, and Pesantren29 Level of School Private Madrasah Public General Pesantren Education School Elementary (Grades 3,075,528 25,850,849 1-6) (50% female) (49% female) Junior Secondary 1,961,511 7,466,458 (Grades 7-9) (51% female) (44% female) Senior Secondary 661,104 5,051,640 (Grades 10-12) (55% female) (47% female) All Grades 5,698,143 38,368,947 1,770,76030 Combined Source: Department of Religion 2003

Growth of Madrasahs and Public Schools’ Enrollment Growth 1998-200131 Level of School Private Madrasah Public General Education School Elementary (Grades 1-6) 2.5% -0.2% Junior Secondary (Grades 7-9) 3.3% 0.1% Senior Secondary (Grades 10-12) 9.4% 2.4% Source: Department of Religion 3003

29 Adapted from information in Azra, Azyumardi; Dina Afrianty; and Robert W. Hefner (2007). 30 This figure is from 1997 and is from Jabali and Jamhari (2002). 31 Adapted from information in Azra, Azyumardi; Dina Afrianty; and Robert W. Hefner (2007). Figures for Pesantren growth were not available.

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The above charts point to a couple of madrasahs are more expensive but well notable trends. One is that private madrasahs equipped and provide solid training in both are increasing enrollment more than the secular, general education and religious studies. Since public general education schools, particularly at the mid-1990s, as stated above, all public secular the senior secondary level (grades 10-12). The universities are required to consider graduates second trend that can be seen is that the from Islamic schools that meet the 70/30% enrollment at junior secondary level private curriculum split for acceptance. This has fueled madrasahs (grades 7-9) is a higher proportion of the growth of elite private madrasahs at the the number of students being educated. Over senior secondary level. 20% of students are enrolled in private madrasah As for why more girls attend the private at this level. A third trend is that more girls Islamic senior schools, the answer lies in the attend private madrasahs than boys, with the discussion above – the secular public senior difference being highest at the senior secondary secondary schools were viewed as necessary for level (grades 10-12). Although figures were not admittance into the best universities until available for pesantren, estimates are that girls recently. Most families still viewed male similarly are enrolled more than boys in children as needing the best education. This, pesantren at the higher grade levels. combined with the view that girls’ virtuosity Why are more students attending private needed to be guarded, made the private madrasahs in the middle years? In answer to madrasahs a more attractive and cheaper option this question, according to Azra (2007) who for parents of girls, which allowed girls to be gathered interview data, parents want their educated, but freed up educational money for the children to have some religious education and boys to attend the more expensive public general view the middle years as a tumultuous time education school and then seek admittance into needing more guidance. Furthermore, if a the best universities to develop their future family is to keep their child in school beyond career prospects. Thus, even though girls are elementary years, it typically costs less to attend educated in Indonesia and working women are a private madrasah than it does the public generally accepted, the emphasis is still more on school. Elementary level madrasahs are preparing males for breadwinning, not very typically of lower quality than elementary public different from the situation in Western countries. schools; therefore, it is common for parents to It should also be noted that many students put their children in the pubic secular school at cross-over between secular public general the elementary level, but then switch to the education schools and private madrasahs, and cheaper madrasah for the middle years. The even pesantren, throughout their school years. quality of education tends to improve at this Families strategize to obtain the best education level in the madrasah. For senior secondary for their children based on cost, desire to keep school, many students do not continue and those children living at home, general educational that do will sometimes switch back to the quality, and religious education.32 Azra (2007) secular public school thinking their chances of notes that many of the parents interviewed stated doing well on university entrance exams will be they wanted their children to have both a higher because the scores still tend to be higher religious and a quality general education and for students from the public schools. Socio- that at different levels, different choices were economic class is relevant also because students made based on these two goals of education. who continue schooling at the senior secondary Therefore, the chart above represents how many level are usually from more affluent families and students are in Islamic schools at one point in cost is not a hindrance. They also can likely time, but it does not capture how many students afford private tutors to help study for the have ever been in an Islamic school. This figure university entrance exams. would be much higher. However, the trend more recently has been for affluent families to send their children to elite madrasahs, which explains why more 32 Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. senior secondary madrasahs are opening. These Hefner (2007).

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With crossing over between secular public education is no longer viewed as something that general education and Islamic schools common holds ones chances for success in life back. In and easier now with the Islamic schools fact, it is becoming fashionable to have attended following the national curriculum and with the Islamic schools. These students then become eligibility for acceptance of students from leaders within business, organizations, and Islamic schools into all universities, the government. Islamic education is thus interactions between students from the various contributing to the growing, albeit slow, schools is ever increasing. It is no longer Islamization of Indonesian society and uncommon to find graduates from Islamic governance. It is not necessarily increasing in a schools at the Universitas Indonesia, the most radical direction, but Indonesia is becoming prestigious university in Indonesia. In addition, more Islamized through the greater attendance the state run Islamic universities have improved and acceptance of Islamic schools in Indonesia, and increased the quality and breadth of general the teaching of Islam in secular schools to all education, which makes the Islamic universities Muslim students, and the frequent cross-over of a viable option for gaining an education students between secular and Islamic schools. conducive to building a solid career and This Islamization can be seen in the significant advancing oneself within society. increase in women wearing Islamic dress and In addition to making Islamic schools more headscarves, which was unusual in Indonesia mainstream and allowing for students to move just a couple decades ago. It can also be seen in back and forth between Islamic and secular the voting for Islamic parties, acceptance of schools, the increase of religious instruction in some Islamic law in a growing number of the public secular schools from one to two hours districts, acceptance of Islamic oriented policies per week (begun in 2013) and the mandate that from the national government, the conservative this instruction be done by a teacher who fatwahs issued by the MUI, the Islamization of adheres to the faith being taught (numerous non- public discourse, and the increasing number of Muslim children in Catholic schools will now parents who chose to send their children to learn Islam from a Muslim) is resulting in all Islamic schools, which in turn reinforces the children being taught quite a bit of religion; thus, cycle. making the cross-over between secular and A look at what has been happening within Islamic schools more natural and easy on all the higher education sector is interesting as it sides. The results have been to slowly Islamize shows the strengthening of Islamic universities the younger generation and this Islamization is and the growing prestige of their degrees and the also becoming more homogenous. The Islamization of public secular campuses. Department of Religion works with the Department of Education in developing the Islamic Higher Education curriculum for the teaching of Islam in the The new President of Indonesia, Joko secular schools; thus, exposing children to the Widodo (called Jokowi), announced in October same Islamic instruction in secular public 2014 that the Directorate of Higher Education schools. It is a modernist type of Islam. would leave the Department of Education and Pesantren still mostly teach a traditional variant Culture and move to the Department of Research of Islam but now students attending pesantren and Technology (now called the Department of are more likely than in the past to also attend a Research, Technology, and Higher Education).33 non-pesantren school at some point and be This Directorate is still responsible for exposed to modernist Islam. Some pesantren overseeing all the public and private secular have even begun to blend in teaching of institutes of higher education. The Department modernist Islam or encourage students to find of Religion still oversees the Islamic universities their path within Islam that is most meaningful and colleges, both public and private. This to them. move was taken in order to better connect With the popularity among the middle research, universities, and the rest of society, and upper classes of elite madrasah, the trend of slow Islamization will only strengthen as Islamic 33 Nurdiani, Ria (November 14, 2014).

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including business, energy, etc. Connecting to having their children attend Islamic schools research to places in society that need to keep because they will then have more options when abreast of the latest research will help the seeking higher education. Students who country grow economically and encourage attended Islamic schools previously, typically do universities to conduct more research that is better on the entrance exams of the Islamic beneficial to society. Indonesia needs to expand universities because they studied Arabic and a and keep improving its higher education sector lot of religious studies and can do well on these as discussed below. portions of the tests. Indonesia ranks low compared to other The first Islamic university in Indonesia was emerging economies in terms of the percentage opened in 1946 in Yogyakarta, South Central of its college aged population enrolled in higher Java, and was called the Sekolah Tinggi Islam education. With only 51% of its 15-18 year olds (Islamic School of Higher Learning) but was enrolled in senior secondary schools, low renamed two years later, the Universitas Islam college enrollment rates is understandable. The Indonesia and still exists under that name today. government is attempting to increase enrollment This school taught western curriculum of in higher education, as well as in junior and science, math, social studies, and Islamic senior secondary education. Thus, Islamic studies. It was a modernist Muslim university schools, at all levels are being used to increase that was comfortable mixing Islamic and enrollments. The infrastructure is already there, western style education.36 In fact, the mixing of so the government has sought to improve the the two traditions was viewed by its founders quality of education in Islamic schools and and supporters, particularly Muhammad Hatta, a increase their enrollments. This is simultaneous nationalist hero, as necessary in building a to planning the establishment of a network of strong Indonesian nation. Islam, modernity, and public secular community colleges with credits nationalism were thus linked, as seen in the transferable to a university. These community establishment of this university. colleges will focus on training for jobs in In 1960, the Indonesian government began a manufacturing, nursing, automotive technology, nation-wide system of State Islamic Institutes and other trades. The government also plans to (Institute Agama Islam Negeri or IAIN). Over a create technical colleges and increase vocational hundred small campuses existed by the 1970s secondary schools.34 that consisted of one building with underpaid Competition for entry to Indonesia’s public and poorly trained teachers.37 In 1975, the universities is very fierce. There were only seats Department of Religion reorganized the IAIN for 18% of students who took the entrance system of Islamic universities reducing the exams for public, secular universities, which are number of campuses to 13. The Department of the most prestigious in Indonesia, in 2010.35 Religion also began sending senior officials Students not accepted to the public secular from the Department of Religion and IAIN universities typically seek admission to smaller campuses to universities in Canada, the US, and colleges, but many are private and expensive. West Europe to study in an effort to modernize The Islamic universities and colleges use a the Islamic university system. This evolved into different exam that includes Arabic grammar a special relationship with McGill University’s and religious studies. This is true for both Islamic Studies Program in Canada, which is public and private Islamic university entrance where numerous senior officials have studied exams. Students from Islamic schools and are still sent today.38 Today there are six frequently take exams for public secular Islamic research universities called UIN universities and the entrance exams for Islamic universities. Since the existence of lower tier 36 public secular colleges and community colleges Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. has been limited, many parents see advantages Hefner (2007). 37 Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. Hefner (2007). 34 Clark, Nick. (April 4, 2014). 38 Azra, Azyumardi, Dina Afrianty, and Robert W. 35 Clark, Nick (April 4, 2014). Hefner (2007).

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(Universitas Islam Negara) that offer advanced colleges that ranges from research universities to degrees in medicine, law, psychology, smaller regional colleges. They have been economics, comparative religion, and other actively improving the quality and breadth of fields in addition to Islamic sciences and thirteen their non-Islamic programs, similar to the state IAIN.39 There are thirty-three second-tier state run Islamic universities, but doing so with more Islamic colleges, called Sekolah Tinggi Agama infusion of Islamic doctrine that is Qur’anic Islam Negeri or STAIN (State Islamic School of based. However, the modern and general Higher Education). In the state run Islamic education basis of instruction in both the state universities and colleges, no specific legal and Muhammadiyah run Islamic universities and school of Islam (madhhab) is taught. Instead colleges has allowed students from both subsets students are exposed to several and are required of Islamic higher education to be educated well to take a course in contextualizing Islamic in an Islamic based setting and become leaders teachings. on par with graduates from the secular Since 2003, students are required to take a universities. civic education course that includes instruction The most prestigious secular universities are on democracy, civil society, and human rights, becoming more Islamized due partly to the including women’s rights, which will be extensive cross-over of students in and out of discussed below.40 Shortly afterwards, the Islamic and public general education schools Muhammadiyah private Islamic universities during grades 1-12. The mandate for religious adopted a similar required course. The fact that instruction in a student’s own religion, not the Islamic universities and colleges employ comparative religious studies, in the secular faculty trained to teach in their discipline, as public schools during grades 1-12 ensures all opposed to merely being trained in Islamic students have religious training, even if their studies, combined with the required families were not mosque attending or very contexualization of Islam course and the civic religious. Since education is compulsory education course, as well as the lack of emphasis through grade nine, even though this is not fully on any one legal trradition within Islam has achieved, it means most all of Indonesian improved the quality and broadened the society has weekly religious instruction for nine viewpoints of teachers trained at these institutes of the most formative years and those attending of higher education. Most of these teachers go college would have had formal religious on to teach at pesantren or madrasahs; thus, the instruction for twelve years. Recently, the modernized education is filtered down to the government mandate for religious instruction lower levels of education. Some of the more was increased from one to two hours per week stringently fundamentalist madrasahs are in fact and the religious instruction must be provided by leery of hiring graduates from the state run a religious teacher from that religion as Islamic universities and colleges because they described above. are viewed to have been liberalized. They prefer The forced training in religion for all graduates from the private Muhammadiyah Indonesian students; the prominent role of universities that also teach the non-Islamic Islamic schools in educating Indonesians at all sciences but adhere to a stricter teaching of levels; the prominent role graduates from Islam. Islamic schools play in all sectors of Indonesian The Muhammadiyah organization runs an society, economy, and governance; and the extensive network of private universities and extensive cross-over of students between Islamic and secular public general education schools are all contributing factors to the Islamization of 39 The IAIN in Jakarta was converted to a UIN in Indonesian society and its secular universities. 2002, which began a government push to convert The Islamization of the secular public IAINs to UINs in order to offer opportunities in universities is evidenced by the growing strength several province to receive advanced degrees in of Islamic organizations on their campuses and secular fields within an Islamic university. 40 The civic education was first piloted at the Jakarta pressure for women at these prestigious secular IAIN (now UIN) in 2000.

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institutions to wear Islamic clothes and Islamic Islam, by the time he was overthrown through head scarves. massive street protests in 1998, Islamic leaders already existed within and had ties to factions of Islam during Suharto’s Last Years and in the the military, governing party called Golkar, Young Democracy that Followed government bureaucracies, and leading business figures. Some Muslim leaders wanted to use the During the last few years of Suharto’s reign, chaos that ensued during the transitional period he raised the status of Islam and Muslim leaders, to grab power with help from factions in the but he did so while also controlling it. These army and Golkar. However, others opposed this factors influencing the Islamization of plan, particularly the leaders of the two mass Indonesian society and politics include the based Islamic organizations, NU and building of more mosques, particularly in the Muhammadiyah. Islam and its leaders were thus latter decade of his rule; Suharto making the an important part of negotiating the transition to pilgrimage to Mecca very publically; raising the democracy that ensued after the fall of Suharto.42 status of Muslim leaders through bringing them Although large scale violence in the name of into governing leadership positions in the 1990s Islam was avoided, the transition to democracy and channeling more patronage to devout created possibilities for a more Islamization of Muslims in the form of business contracts; as society and politics. With Suharto’s “lid” and well as providing better funding for Islamic cooptation/control gone, Islam could play a schools and increasing the number of well- more prominent role in governance, even within funded state run madrasahs. After the fall of a secular state. Some power-seekers have also Suharto in 1998 and the transition to democracy shown a willingness to use Islam in attempts to over the next few years, Islamization has propel themselves to power in the young accelerated with democracy creating democracy. opportunities for Islamic groups and parties. It is unclear if this Islamization in Indonesia Suharto’s “turn toward Islam” that occurred will continue or fade away. Understanding the during the early 1990s was partly a reaction to causes of the Islamization and the role that what was already occurring in society. Many schools have played in creating the gradual observers think Suharto was using Islam as a Islamization of society and in bringing about political tool to boost his fading legitimacy as Suharto’s need to coopt modernist Muslims as his family was viewed as more corrupt and out an effort to control the influence of Islam on of touch with society. He had to contend with society and politics makes it likely that the path the rising tide of Islam and attempted to coopt will continue in the same direction that it is it.41 Regardless of why Suharto turned toward currently headed. This is a direction of gradually increasing the Islamization of society, but within democratic governance. Indonesia is 41 Strict modernist Islamic groups had existed in becoming a model for a devoutly Muslim Indonesia since the time of independence in 1945 and society that sees no conflict between being sought the creation of an Islamic state, but these Muslim and being democratic. However, groups had been outlawed and a nationalist form of Islam represented by Muhammad Hatta, the first Vice democracy in Indonesia and the policies President and discussed with the founding of the first spawned from that democracy may look Islamic university, took hold. Sukarno, Indonesia’s different from Western democracies. Not only first president, balanced Islam, Communism, and the will Indonesia likely continue to have Islamic army (nationalists) during his rule. Suharto, his values infused in policy-making and public successor, diminished Islam, banned Communism, discourse, but also Indonesia is struggling with and ruled with the army. However, he allowed one Islamic party (PPP) to nominally run for seats in elections, along with the nationalist party (PDI) and throughout most of his rule. However, toward the the governing party (Golkar). The modernist end, it is the modernists to whom he turned and Muslims were viewed as the most threatening to the attempted to coopt and it is their influence that has state, whereas the traditional ulama in the Nahdlatul grown. Ulama were more closely allied with Suharto 42 Woodward, Kathleen (2002).

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issues of tolerance for non-Muslims and consultation and compromise within the Muslims who practice Islam in ways that leadership of the Muslim community is highly modernist leaders think are heretical. The regarded. The important role of women in separation of Church and State does not exist in Muslim society is covered, and that "people of the same form it does in the United States and the book” (includes Muslims, Jews, and individual rights are truncated when they butt Christians) should be respected, as did against the role of the government in Muhammad, for worshiping the same God and “protecting” the Muslim majority. many prophets the same as Muslims. A look at civic education in Islamic schools This conceptualization of pluralism is highlights these issues. Some Western observers different from Western conceptions where assume civic education in Indonesia teaches the religion and state are separate and religion is a same Western values of democracy, human personal, not public matter. In Indonesia, rights, and pluralism because these same words although it is not an Islamic state, Islam is very are used to describe civic education in much a part of the public domain and policy Indonesia. These observers assume elements of making. The civic education taught in Indonesia Islamic theology and history are merely used to is therefore grounded in the assumption that as a promote these virtues that are identical to Muslim society, Muslim values should be western conceptions. However, this is an upheld and that these values are compatible with incorrect appraisal of civic education in political participation, human rights, and some Indonesia. Democracy, human rights, and pluralism, as long as that pluralism does not pluralism are taught in slightly different forms threaten the Muslim nature of society. Teaching based on contextualizing these ideals in an civic education in Islamic universities is Islamic context as will be explained below. therefore, on the one hand, a step forward for the promotion of democracy, but, on the other hand, Civic Education in Islamic Schools it also reinforces the Muslim identity of that democracy and society and homogenizes which The civic education offered in the Islamic Muslim values and traditions are viewed as universities is a step forward in promoting the important and honored in Indonesia. The growth of civil society, acceptance of pluralism, emphasis on the Muslim aspects of civil society, and understanding of democracy. However, the democracy, and human rights may, in fact, main emphasis in the instruction is on reinforce prejudices against non-Muslims since, democratic participation, human rights including although they were allowed to live in Medina women’s rights, and the compatibility of Islam during Muhammad’s time and had a role in that with democracy. The pluralism aspect is society, non-Muslims were not fully equal addressed in the sense that the Constitution of citizens. Similarly, Muslim sects that are Medina is used as evidence that Muhamad different from the Islam that is becoming allowed non-Muslims to live in a Muslim mainstream in Indonesia (modernist) are not society, but it is not addressed in the manner protected through this form of civic education. Westerners may assume when they hear the This civic education is then replicated in the word pluralism. The fact that Indonesia is a elementary and secondary schools as teachers Muslim society is made very clear and there is are trained in the Islamic universities where they not an attempt to separate Islam from politics learned civic education. The model being taught beyond the fact that Indonesia is not an Islamic in the state run Islamic universities is being based state required to follow Islamic law. replicated in private Muhammadiyah Instead, the curriculum in civic education universities and even being used in public courses in Indonesia emphasizes that students secular universities to some extent. The model need to be responsible citizens and uphold the is also being increasingly applied directly in tenets in Islam that promote human rights and Islamic elementary and secondary schools. The democratic participation. A lot of references are argument is not that the Indonesian form of civic made to Medina from Islam’s early history and education is negative, it is just to point out that consociational decision making where

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we must be honest about what it is and what to tolerating pluralism within the Muslim expect from it. community and of other faiths. It is also important to recognize what is occurring in Conclusion Indonesia and why the situation is as it is so that we can better predict where the country is This paper argues that Indonesia is headed and how democracy may interact with experiencing Islamization of society and that Islam in other Muslim countries with similar this is gradually influencing government educational and Islamic systems. Further, the decision-making and politics. While some importance of a country’s educational system in analysts think the Islamic influence will fade shaping the future is highlighted in this paper. over time, it is argued here that the education One of the negative aspects of the system which includes numerous mainstreamed Islamization of Indonesia it that it has brought Islamic schools and religious instruction in the with it intolerance that leads to violence and can secular public schools will continue to push become stifling for public discourse that Indonesia in the direction of Islamization. negatively affects the quality of democracy. While the past and new presidents, Yudhoyono Potentially, democracy itself could be and Jokowi respectively have prioritized threatened, but that does not appear likely. creating greater access to and improving the Indonesia will probably continue being a quality of the secular public schools, Islamic democracy and even consolidate that schools present an increasingly viable option for democracy. However, the quality of democracy families seeking educational pathways for their will continue to be affected by the lack of children that will help them be successful and tolerance for different groups and for open move up the economic ladder in this rapidly discourse on topics viewed as being offensive or rising country. Therefore, even with dangerous to the fabric of Islamic society or improvements and greater accessibility in the threatening to the promulgation of Islamic secular public schools, Islamic schools from the ideals. Free speech technically exists in elementary to university level will likely remain Indonesia and the news tabloids publish all kinds integral for educating Indonesians. The of stories, but there are unspoken limits on what government has embraced Islamic schools as can be said when it comes to addressing can be seen through the several decisions questions concerning Islam. People are also discussed above regarding bringing them into either encouraged or required by law, depending the mainstream educational structure and with upon the district, to adhere to Islamic precepts in increased funding given to the Islamic their daily lives. universities and colleges in order to broaden the Thus, the Islamization experienced in degrees offered. Indonesia affects the nature of democracy, but While the teaching of Islam in Indonesia is the country still meets the procedural definition not usually radical or anti-democratic, there are of democracy.43 Schools are a vital link in both some Islamic schools that do preach such the Islamization of society and for understanding viewpoints. However, these are not the ones what civics mean in Indonesia. Schools should most influencing society. It is the mainstream, more moderate Islamic schools that are most 43 A procedural definition of democracy is the influencing the Islamizaton of Indonesian commonly accepted measure used by Political society and ultimately its politics. The Scientists to determine if a country should be called Islamization of society and governance is not democratic or not. It is a conceptual category used necessarily bad for a country or for democracy, for regime typologies. It includes both political and just as the Christianization of a country’s society civil liberties. Political liberties include holding free is not necessarily bad or good. Democracy is and fair elections, allowing most all candidates and embraced by Indonesian Muslims and human parties to participate in elections, and elections resulting in change of office-holders depending upon rights are generally honored within the who won the election. Civil liberties include free Indonesian Muslim community. As discussed press and speech and the freedom to organize and above, the area of concern is in the realm of assemble.

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therefore be watched closely if one wants to understand both the past and the future of this young democratic Muslim country.

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Indonesian School: Shaping Islam and Democracy Woodward

Author Biography

KATHLEEN WOODWARD is an Associate Professor at the University of North Georgia near Atlanta, Georgia, USA. She obtained her Ph.D. in political science from the Ohio State University with a concentration in comparative politics and an inter-disciplinary minor in studies of Islam. Her dissertation research was funded with a Fulbright-Hays grant and was on the topic of Indonesia’s transition to democracy and the role of Islam in this transition. She has lived in Indonesia for over three years, including the period of Indonesia’s transition. Kathleen also has a M.A. in International Studies, Southeast Asia Studies and a M.A. in Education, curriculum and instruction. She has one daughter and several pets and loves to travel.

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