Media Representations of Socioenvironmental Conflicts in Guatemala: the Case of the Hydroelectric Expansion
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Sede Amministrativa: Università degli Studi di Padova Dipartimento di FILOSOFIA, SOCIOLOGIA, PEDAGOGIA E PSICOLOGIA APPLICATA SCUOLA DI DOTTORATO DI RICERCA IN : SCIENZE SOCIALI: INTERAZIONI, COMUNICAZIONE, COSTRUZIONI CULTURALI CICLO XXX Media representations of socioenvironmental conflicts in Guatemala: The case of the hydroelectric expansion Tesi redatta con il contributo finanziario del Consorzio AMIDILA del Programma Erasmus Mundus Action 2 Coordinatore : Ch.mo Prof. Devi Sacchetto Supervisore :Ch.ma Prof.ssa. Arjuna Tuzzi Cosupervisore: Ch.mo Prof. Federico Neresini Dottorando : Renato Giovanni Ponciano Sandoval ii Para Lidia, Julián y Leo iii iv Acknowledgments This dissertation could not have been written without the generous financial support of the AMIDILA Consortium of the Erasmus Mundus Action 2 Programme of the European Commission. Thanks to everybody involved in the organization, including the International Relations Offices of the University of Padua (especially Elisa Zambon) and the University of Bologna. The material and administrative support of the University of San Carlos in Guatemala was also essential for completing this effort, especially the Faculty of Engineering and its authorities. I am very grateful to the Faculty of FISPPA Department for their support, especially my supervisors, Professors Arjuna Tuzzi and Federico Neresini, who enthusiastically encouraged me to push the boundaries of my knowledge in order to carry on this project. Professor Devi Sacchetto and Professor Marco Sambin from the Doctorate Council were also great mentors and always helpful on administrative issues. My sincere thanks for your help and kindness to my colleagues of the 30th cycle of the Ph.D. Programme and the members of the PASTIS and TIPS research groups, especially Dr. Andrea Lorenzet, and Professor Alessandro Mongili. Our gratitude and admiration to the beautiful city of Padua (Padova!) our home for more than two years, and to the friends made in that beautiful period of our lives, especially Sergio,Yadira and Rodrigo, Raffaele and Colomba, and Luca and Maria José. Finally, none of this would have been possible without the inconditional support of my family: my mother and brother, and especially my wife Lidia and my sons Julián and Leonel, who agreed to move and change completely their lives so that this aspiring researcher could complete his education. My love for you, now and ever. v vi Abstract The Guatemalan State demonopolized and privatized the electricity market between 1996 and 2000, with two main justifications: first, that rural electricity coverage, which at the time was less than 50%, was a significant obstacle to human development; and second, that there were large amounts of energy resources, especially hydroelectric, unexploited. The subsequent policies and strategies implemented led to quadruple the installed capacity of the network in twenty years, while private hydroelectric generation grew 6000%. However, the neighbouring rural communities received the hydroelectric expansion with protests because of their impact on water use, associating it with extractive industries such as mining or oil. Although these events have been studied before, the last fact points that a Science and Technology Studies (STS) could provide new insights to understanding them, since this representation of hydroelectricity challenges the conventional view of renewable energy as clean and sustainable in this sense: Why is "clean" technology such as hydroelectricity associated with "dirty" industries like mining? The research objective broadens the scope of the previous question since it proposes to identify the fundamental social actors and processes for understanding the media representations of hydroelectric generation in Guatemala and the effects they have on hydroelectric conflicts. Two parallel investigations were developed to confront results. The first was the cartography of the hydroelectric expansion (Venturini, 2010), based on Actor-Network Theory, “ANT”, (Latour, 2005), and postcolonial theory (Anderson, 2002; Marques, 2006; Escobar, 2004) to account for the influence of the Guatemalan colonial past on conflicts, which occurred in mostly indigenous areas. The second was the analysis of a corpus of opinion articles chosen using the methodology of digital media monitoring (Neresini & Lorenzet, 2014) in Guatemala and Colombia. The analysis of the media representations was based on Social Representations theory, “SRT” (Moscovici, 2000), especially the work done regarding environmental studies (Lovins, 1976; Devine-Wright, 2007; Brondi, Armenti, Cottone, Mazzara, & Sarrica, 2014) and the methodology, the quantitative content analysis based on the "bag of words" model (Roberts, 2000; Tuzzi, 2003). Finally, the results from the previous stages were compared to establish an enriched cartography of the controversy. The analysis of the corpus points to significant differences in the representations of hydroelectricity. In Guatemalan media, the analysis of the corpus resulted on the prevalence of "soft-path" representation of energy transitions, which gives a more active role to the public; while in Colombian media, the texts were more associated with a "hard-path" representation, in which energy is a matter of national interest. vii As for the cartography, the findings point to the role of actants as Chixoy, the largest hydroelectric power plant in the country, or “El Niño” Phenomenon, in the creation of the legal framework for the de- monopolization of the electric market. At the time, the interaction between these actants and others put at risk the stability of the national electricity network, contributing to emphasize in the new laws the dispositions that guaranteed the electrical supply, even when their public justification pointed to more developmental objectives. By prioritizing efficiency, the socio-environmental costs of the projects were transferred from the corporations to the communities, which fomented the conflict. This finding, which had been overlooked in previous research on the conflicts, shows how methodologies and theories conceived from the Science and Technology Studies field can bring better understanding to this kind of conflicts. Theoretically, this dissertation shows how research that works with combined theoretical approaches can produce results grounded in more evidence from different contexts. In particular, it points to an affinity between SRT and ANT as joint research frameworks that is worth exploring in future projects. viii Table of Contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 1 Part I: Problem Statement Energy, development and conflict in Guatemala .............................................................................................. 7 Chapter One The Guatemalan energy contradiction .............................................................................................................. 9 1.1 Problem statement .......................................................................................................................... 13 1.1.1 Research questions .................................................................................................................. 15 1.1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 16 1.2 Overview of the next chapters ........................................................................................................ 16 Chapter Two Brief review of hydroelectric energy technology ............................................................................................ 19 2.1 Renewable energy sources and their environmental impacts ........................................................ 19 2.2 Hydroelectric energy ....................................................................................................................... 20 2.2.1 Brief description of the generation process ............................................................................ 21 2.2.2 Types of hydropower plants .................................................................................................... 22 2.2.3 Environmental advantages and impacts of hydroelectricity ................................................... 25 Chapter Three Guatemala: The country and its conflicts ........................................................................................................ 27 3.1 History and current political situation ............................................................................................. 27 3.3.1 Brief history of Guatemala ...................................................................................................... 27 3.3.2 The Peace agreements and the current political situation ..................................................... 31 3.2 Scientific literature on the research problem ................................................................................. 33 Part II. First Research Phase Mapping the hydroelectric expansion of Guatemala ...................................................................................... 39 Chapter Four Controversy mapping in the periphery: A theoretical and methodological approach ................................... 41 4.1 Postcolonial studies and STS ..........................................................................................................