Copyright 101

Presented to the County Attorney Affiliate of the New Mexico Association of Counties, Santa Fe, N.M., January 22, 2020

By Michael Eshleman Tell ‘Em What You’re Going to Tell ‘Em

 Types of intellectual property.

 What is copyrightable?

 What is not copyrightable?

 How to get a copyright.

 Work-for-hire doctrine.  Playing music in your business. ▲ Ben Stein is dying to tell you  Fair use doctrine. about the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, Pub. L. 71-361, 46 Stat. 59 (1930) Part One: Intellectual Property Betteridge’s Law

When a headline is written in the form of a yes or no question, the answer is always “no.”

►Screenshot from The Guardian website. Not Trademarkable Either

►Screenshot from The Guardian website. Article I, Section 8, Clause 8

“The Congress shall have Power . . . To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.”

►Noah Webster, painted by John Herring. National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C. Patents Protect Ideas

“Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain a patent therefor . . . .” 35 U.S.C. §101.

◄Henry Fonda (Thomas Watson) and Don Ameche (Alexander Graham Bell) working on the first telephone in The Story of Alexander Graham Bell (20th Century Fox 1939).

►Thomas Edison and the phonograph. Thomas Alva Edison (1890) by Abraham Archibald Anderson. National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C. Processes and Methods

▲ U.S. Patent 1, granted 1790 to Samuel Hopkins for a new process to make potash. It is signed by President George Washington and Attorney General Edmund Randolph.

◄Crystals of potash. Business Method Patent

Priceline’s “Name Your Own Price” System is Patent 5,794,207, Method and apparatus for a cryptographically assisted commercial network system designed to facilitate buyer- driven conditional purchase offers.

Business method patents were allowed by State Street Bank & Trust Co. v. Signature Financial Group, Inc., 149 F.3d 1368 (Fed. Cir. 1998). See also Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593 ▲James Tiberius Kirk and Penny (2010) (modifying rules for these patents). Hofstadter, your Priceline Negotiators. Trademarks

• Both Federal and State governments issue trademarks. • Federal government’s power from the Commerce Clause of the Constitution. • Trademark symbol (™) means mark is claimed by user, but not secured by Federal trademark. • Registered trademark symbol (®) means mark has been registered at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. • Trademarks protect against unfair business competition, not intended to squelch free speech. Word Marks Word Marks

This Sick Beat

U.S. Trademark Registration No. 8,6434,783: “Paper products, namely, notebooks, notepads, blank journals, blank writing journals; Stickers; Stationery.” Design of Word Marks Logos Logos Colors: Owens-Corning Pink

In re Owens-Corning Fiberglass Corp., 774 F.2d 1116 (Fed. Cir. 1985), rev’g 221 U.S.P.Q. 1195 (T.T.A.B. 1984). Colors: Tiffany Robin’s Egg Blue

U.S. Trademark No. 2,359,351 (boxes), No. 2,416,795 (bags). Colors: Louboutin Chinese Red

U.S. Trademark No. 3,361,597. See Christian Louboutin, S.A. v. Yves Saint Laurent America Holding, Inc., 696 F. 3d 206 (2d Cir. 2012). Trade Secrets

• Typically not eligible for patent, trademark, or copyright protection. • Examples are customer lists, marketing plans, manufacturing processes, and chemical formulas. • Governed by contracts (e.g., employment contracts, non- disclosure agreements) and state statute or tort law. Part Two: What’s Copyrightable Copyrightable

“Copyright protection subsists . . . in original works of authorship.”

17 U.S.C. §102.

“Authorship”

Works must be man-made. So the monkey-selfie is uncopyrightable because the monkey took the photograph. Naruto ex rel. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, Inc. v. Slater, 888 F.3d 418 (9th Cir. 2018).

But . . .

In Urantia Foundation v. Maaherra, 114 F. 3d 955 (9th Cir. 1997), a religious text “‘authored’ by non-human spiritual beings described in terms such as the Divine Counselor, the Chief of the Corps of Superuniverse Personalities, and the Chief of the Archangels of Nebadon” was copyrightable because humans asked the questions of the beings and arranged the answers. “Fixed in a Tangible Medium of Expression”

▼ King v. Mister Maestro, Inc., 224 F. Supp. 101 (S.D.N.Y. 1963). Dance! Dance! Dance!

(Far left) Rudolf Laban. (Left) Examples of Labanotation. (Above) Benesh notation. (Right) Beauchamp-Feuillet notation. (Clockwise from bottom left) Michael Kidd in It’s Always Fair Weather (MGM, 1955), George Chakiris in West Side Story (United Artists, 1961) Gene Kelly & Jerry the Mouse in Anchors Aweigh (MGM, 1945), Fred Astaire in Royal Wedding (MGM, 1951), Twyla Tharp, Mena Suvari in American Beauty (DreamWorks, 1999), “Take Off With Us” from All That Jazz (20th Century Fox, 1979). Books

Charles Dickens and Sir Walter Scott were very popular in 19th Century America. Partly because they were ineligible for American copyright and pirated by American publishers who paid no royalties. ▲Sir Walter Scott by Henry Raeburn, Scottish National Gallery, Edinburgh.

◄Charles Dickens, photographed by Jeremiah Gurney, circa 1867. Plays

Laurence Olivier as Hamlet; Marlon Brando, Kim Hunter & Jessica Tandy in the original Broadway production of A Streetcar Named Desire; playbill for Our American Cousin, the play attended by President Lincoln when he was shot. Poems

“If by some magic a man who had never known it were to compose anew Keats's ‘Ode on a Grecian Urn,’ he would be an ‘author,’ and, if he copyrighted it, others might not copy that poem, though they might of course copy Keats’s.” Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp., 81 F.2d 49 (2d Cir. 1936) (Learned Hand, J.).

▲John Keats by William Hilton, National Portrait Gallery, London. Computer Programs Maps Fine Art

This sculpture by Picasso in Chicago would be eligible for copyright but it was placed in the public domain by failure to follow formalities. Letter Edged in Black Press, Inc. v. Public Bldg. Com'n of Chicago, 320 F. Supp. 1303 (N.D. Ill. 1970). Musical Compositions Musical Recordings Photographs

The photo of Oscar Wilde at issue in Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony, 111 U.S. 53 (1884), where the Supreme Court said Congress could make photographs copyrightable. Films

The first film copyrighted in the United States, Fred Ott’s Sneeze (1894). The Edison Manufacturing Company’s William K.L. Dickson registered it by depositing a contact sheet containing all the frames of the five-second film. Music Videos

(clockwise from above) Sara Bareilles’s “King of Anything”; Kacey Musgraves’s “Follow Your Arrow”; and Haim’s “Forever.” Advertising

One of the circus posters at issue in Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co., 188 U.S. 239 (1903), where the Supreme Court held advertising was copyrightable. Architectural Works

• Created by Architectural Works Protection Act of 1990, codified as 17 U.S.C. §102(a)(8). • Protects buildings completed after 1990. • Applies only to copying the building— photographing, sketching building not infringement. • Does not protect “individual standard features.” ▲ Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, • See Yankee Candle Co. v. New designed by Frank O. England Candle Co., 14 F. Supp. 2d Gehry. ►Gary Cooper 154 (D. Mass. 1998); Charles W. Ross as Howard Roark in The Builder, Inc., v. Olsen Fine Home Bldg., Fountainhead (Warner Bros. 1949) with his L.L.C., 827 F. Supp. 2d 607 (E.D. Va. Cortlandt Homes. 2011). Part Three: What’s Not Copyrightable Uncopyrightable “That there can be no valid copyright in facts is universally understood. The most fundamental axiom of copyright law is that no author may copyright his ideas or the facts he narrates.”

Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., 499 U.S. 34 (1991). “You can use facts to prove anything that’s remotely true.” —Homer J. Simpson.

Original works of authorship

The Howard Hughes case: Rosemont Enterprises, Inc. v. Random House, “You didn't Inc., 366 F. 2d 303 build that.” (2d Cir.1966). Copyright in news

“But the news element—the information respecting current events contained in the literary production—is not the creation of the writer, but is a report of matters that ordinarily are publici juris; it is the history of the day. It is not to be supposed that the framers of the Constitution . . . intended to confer upon one who might happen to be the first to report a historic event the exclusive right for any period to spread the knowledge of it.”

International News Service v. Associated Press, 248 U.S. 215 (1918). Made Up Facts Not Copyrightable

See Nester's Map & Guide Corp. v. Hagstrom Map Co., 796 F. Supp. 729 (S.D.N.Y. 1992), Alexandria Drafting Co. v. Amsterdam, 43 U.S.P.Q.2d 1247 (E.D. Pa. 1997). Cf. Rockford Map Pubs., Inc. v. Directory Service Co. of Colo., 768 F. 2d 145 (7th Cir. 1985).

►Cara Delevingne in Paper Towns (Fox 2000 Pictures, 2015) who runs away to a paper town, Agloe, New York, shown on a 1950’s highway map. "You have not experienced Shakespeare until you have read him in the original Klingon."

The creators of constructed languages (e.g., Esperanto, Klingon) cannot keep people from using them to write their own works.

Idea vs. Expression Dichotomy

The forms at issue in Baker v. Selden, 101 U.S. 99 (1879). So There Was This Girl . . .

Or this guy. What can you say about a twenty-five-year-old girl who died? That she was beautiful and brilliant? That she loved Mozart and Bach, the Beatles? And me?

Tommy Lee Jones’s first screen credit was the Harvard roommate of Oliver Barrett, III (Ryan O’Neal) in Love Story (Paramount, 1970). Laws of nature are uncopyrightable Names, Phrases, Slogans, Titles of Works See 37 C.F.R. §202.1 (2018).

The U.S. Copyright Office cannot register claims to exclusive rights in brief combinations of words such as:

• Names of products or services. • Names of businesses, organizations, or groups (including the names of performing groups). • Pseudonyms of individuals (including pen or stage names). • Titles of works. • Catchwords, catchphrases, mottoes, slogans, or short advertising expressions.

U.S. Copyright Office Circular 34. Clichés, Unoriginal Phrases Joel Mac’s “Made in America” vs. Kanye West’s “Made in America”: “Sweet baby Jesus,” “Sweet Brother Martin,” “Sweet Queen Coretta,” “The Wild Wild West.”

“It is universally true that even creative works contain material that is not original, because all creative works draw on the common wellspring that is the public domain. Words and short phrases, including titles and slogans, rarely if ever exhibit sufficient originality to warrant copyright protection. Longer phrases are also not protectable if they are common or cliché.”

McDonald v. West, 138 F. Supp. 3d 448 (S.D.N.Y. 2015). Jokes See Allen Madison, “The Uncopyrightability of Jokes,” 35 San Diego Law Review 111 (1998), Hoffmann v. Le Traunik, 209 F. 375 (N.D.N.Y. 1913). But see Foxworthy v. Custom Tees, Inc., 879 F. Supp. 1200 (N.D. Ga. 1995).

◄ Milton Berle, whose appropriation of others’ jokes led to his being called “The Thief of Bad Gags.”

► But see Kaseberg v. Conaco, L.L.C., 260 F. Supp.3d 1229 (S.D. Cal. 2017). Recipes & Drink Mixes “The U.S. Copyright Office cannot register claims to exclusive rights in . . . listings of ingredients, as in recipes, labels, or formulas.”

U.S. Copyright Office Circular 34. “Remember to save the liver!”

Lionel Hutz: “I'm sorry, Mrs. Simpson, but you can't copyright a drink. This all goes back to the Frank Wallbanger case of '78. How about that! I looked something up! These books behind me don't just make the office look good, they're filled with useful legal tidbits just like that!” Copies of Older Works

Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp., 36 F. Supp. 2d 191 (S.D.N.Y. 1999).

(clockwise from top left). Daughters of Revolution by Grant Wood. Pont Royal, Paris by Childe Hassam. The Whistling Boy by Frank Duveneck. Mother and Child by Mary Cassatt. Venetian Lady by John Singer Sargent. All are in the Cincinnati Art Museum. Fonts

See 35 C.F.R. §202.1(e) (2016), Eltra Corp. v. Ringer, 579 F. 2d 294 (4th Cir. 1978) (affirming the refusal of Register of Copyrights to register a a font design). But font software may be copyrighted. Registrability of Computer Programs that Generate Typefaces, 57 Fed. Reg. 6201 (Feb. 21, 1992), Adobe Systems, Inc. v. Southern Software, Inc., 45 U.S.P.Q.2d 1827 (S.D. Cal. 1998).

◄ Sample of Bembo. ► Sample of Adobe Garamond. Useful Articles

“A ‘useful article’ is designed to serve a utilitarian purpose. Examples include the overall shape or design of a car, an airplane, clothing, a food processor, a television set, or a golf ball. Useful articles can have both copyrightable and uncopyrightable features.”

U.S. Copyright Office Circular FL-103.

▲ A dress designed by Oscar de la Renta, worn by Audrina Patridge. Useful Articles: Severability

“Copyright may protect authorship in pictorial, graphic, or sculptural designs that can be identified separately from, or exist independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article. Examples include a sculpted jaguar ornament attached to the hood of a car; art printed on a T-shirt, beach towel, or carpet; a colorful pattern decorating the surface of a shopping bag; a drawing on the surface of wallpaper; a carving on the back of a chair; or a floral relief decorating the handle of a spoon.”

U.S. Copyright Office Circular FL-103

See Star Athletica, L. L. C. v. Varsity Brands, Inc., 580 U.S. ___ , 137 S.Ct. 1002, 197 L. Ed. 2d 354 (2017), aff’g 799 F. 3d 468 (6th Cir. 2015). Laws, Judicial Decisions, Briefs

▲ “Gentlemen, need I remind you, you're in a court of law?” U.S. Government Works

“Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government.” 17 U.S.C. §105.

Except the Postal Service claims copyright. U.S. Government Photos

(from left) Dorothea Lange's "Migrant Mother,” February 1936, taken while Lange worked for the Farm Security Administration. Neil A. Armstrong after having walked on the Moon, July 20, 1969, photographed by Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. Judge Sarah T. Hughes administers the presidential oath to Lyndon B. Johnson aboard Air Force One, Love Field, Dallas, Texas, November 22, 1963, photographed by Cecil W. Stoughton of the Army Signal Corps. Public Domain

• Published before 1925: Public Domain. • Published 1925-1989: May be public domain if copyright notice defective. • Published 1925-1963: May be public domain if copyright not renewed after 28 years.

Cornell’s “Copyright Term and the Public Domain” chart:

http://copyright.cornell.edu/resources/publicdomain.cfm Part Four: Getting a Copyright What You Have to Do to Copyright a Work:

►Detail from “The Two Tax Collectors” by Marinus van Reymerswaele, National Museum, Warsaw. No Formalities Previously:

• Work had to be registered with Copyright Office to be copyrighted. Publication without registration meant work was in public domain. • Published works had to display copyright notice in the proper form—no notice or defective notice meant work was in public domain. • Owner must renew copyright after (top) A proper notice. (above) A defective notice on the film twenty-eight years. Charlie Chan’s Secret (20th Century Fox, 1935), as it lacks the None of this true under current law. name of the owner. Can’t File Infringement Suit Unless Registered

• Must register to sue: 17 U.S.C. § 411(a).

• Must have certificate of registration to sue—not enough to have applied for a copyright registration. Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com, L.L.C., 586 U.S. ___,139 S.Ct. 881, 203 L.Ed.2d 147 (2019), aff’g 856 F.3d 1338 (11th Cir. 2017).

• Copyright Office’s website says the office has six- to ten-month backlog in issuing registration certificates. Benefits to Registration

• Ability to sue. • Puts the world on notice, akin to recording title deeds or mortgages on land. • Registration certificate is prima facie evidence of validity of copyright—if registered within five years of first publication. • Licenses of copyright can be recorded with Copyright Office. • Ability to borrow against copyright. • Lienholders can file with Copyright Office their security interests just like U.C.C. filings.

How to Register

• File through website or using paper forms. • Forms are easy to complete—basic information on the work and claimant. • Fees for paper forms are much more expensive ($35 for on-line, $85 for paper). • Must deposit two physical copies of the work with the Copyright Office, even when filing on-line. • Forms and many informational circulars on the Copyright Office website:

Copyright.gov Bundle of Sticks

Under 17 U.S.C. §106, copyright owner has the exclusive right to:

• Make copies of the work. • Distribute the work. • Make derivative works, e.g. adapt a novel into a film. • Publicly perform the work. • Display the work.

Part Five: Playing Music in a Public Place Public Performance Right

“The owner of copyright under this title has the exclusive rights to do and to authorize any of the following: In the case of musical works, to perform the copyrighted work publicly.”

17 U.S.C. §106.

• Right established in 1897. • Upheld in Herbert v. Shanley Co., 242 U.S. 591 (1917). Performing Rights Organizations

• Four P.R.O.’s in U.S.: American Society of Composers, Authors & Publishers; Broadcast Music, Inc.; SESAC; and Global Music Rights. • ASCAP and B.M.I. represent 95% of songs. • Represent songwriters and music publishers. • Do not represent recording companies or performers. • Do not handle dramatic performances (“grand rights”). • P.R.O’s partner with their foreign counterparts.

ASCAP President

• “Evergreen” • “Rainy Days & Mondays” • Theme to “The Love Boat” Rainbow Connection Issue Blanket Licenses

• “Blanket” means any song in their repertories can be played. • Different fee schedules for different kinds of businesses • Restaurants, bars, nightclubs. • Bowling alleys. • Retail stores. • Hotels, etc. • Rates also vary based on occupancy limits of business, square footage, or number of employees. Economically Efficient

• Transaction costs of each publisher dealing with each business would be enormous. • Without blanket licenses through P.R.O.’s, only largest businesses could have music. • Saves time and money for both sides of Professor Ronald Coase of the the transaction. University of Chicago, who won • ASCAP typically pays 85% or more of its the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1991 for his work on transaction fees to its members. costs.

Consent Decrees and the “Rate Court”

• ASCAP: United States v. Am. Soc’y of Composers, Authors & Pubs., 1940-43 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 56,104 (S.D.N.Y.1941), amended 1950-53 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 62,595 (S.D.N.Y.1950), amended 1960 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 69,612 (S.D.N.Y. 1960), amended 2001-2 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 73,474 (S.D.N.Y. 2001). • BMI: United States v. Broadcast Music, Inc., 1940-43 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 56,096 (E.D.Wisc.1941); United States v. Broadcast Music, Inc., 1966 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 71,941 (S.D.N.Y.1966), amended 1996-1 Trade Cas. (CCH) ¶ 71,378 (S.D.N.Y.).

• E.g., Pandora Media, Inc. v. Am. Soc’y of Composers, Thurgood Marshall United Authors & Pubs., 785 F.3d 73 (2d Cir. 2015). States Courthouse, Foley Square, Manhattan Exception: Music for Sale

No license needed under 17 U.S.C. §110(7) to:

• Play recorded music that is for sale on the premises; and • Play it in the immediate area where the music is for sale.

Ownership of an album does not give you right to publicly perform it. Exception: Playing Own Music

A performer playing his own compositions does not require a P.R.O. license.

(top) Carol King. (middle) Willie Nelson. (bottom) Ed Sheeran. Exception: Public Domain

Playing music in the public domain does not require a license from the P.R.O’s.

Can play commercial recordings of public domain compositions.

(top) Antonio Salieri. (middle) W.A. Mozart (bottom) Stephen Foster. Exception: No Public Performance

Employees playing music in non-public areas, e.g. stockroom or office, does not constitute a public performance and does not require a license. Exception: Small Business

No license needed under 17 U.S.C. §110(5) to play music from terrestrial radio and television—Sirius XM, Direct TV, or Internet services not covered.

• Bar or restaurant under 3,750 square feet, or • Other business under 2,000 square feet;

AND

• No more than six speakers used; • No more than four speakers in one room; • No more than four televisions used; • No more than one television per room; • No television bigger than 55 inches; • No cover charge. Exception: Worship

No license needed under 17 U.S.C. §110(3) for “performance of a nondramatic literary or musical work or of a dramaticomusical work of a religious nature, or display of a work, in the course of services at a place of worship or other religious assembly.”

►The North Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana, designed by Eero Saarinen. Pay Someone Else

• Many music services can provide music with the music license fees baked into the price. • Mood Music (successor to “Musak”) partners with Pandora. • Sirius XM, Spotify, and others have business service. Highest Risk: Clubs and Bars

• P.R.O.’s monitor advertising for venues that are playing music. • Will contact venues without licenses. • If ignored, they will send inspectors in to make notes of songs being played.

ASCAP, BMI repeatedly will ask venue to get a license before suing

• B.M.I. made “24 written warnings, 77 telephone calls, and five visits by Plaintiffs to Defendants' establishment.” Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Shaber, Inc., S.D. Ohio C.A. No. 1:10-CV-00393, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 143769 (Oct. 6, 2010). • B.M.I sent 28 letters. Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Bar None of Reynoldsburg, Inc., S.D. Ohio C.A. No. 2:11-cv-00625, 2012 WL 3064239, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 104742 (July 27, 2012). • 24 letters plus B.M.I. “telephoned Centerfold Club on seventy-nine occasions and visited the club on four occasions.” Broadcast Music, Inc. v. Nolan Enterprises, Inc., S.D. Ohio C.A. No. 2:11-CV-705, 2013 WL 143370, 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 4918 (Jan. 11, 2013). • 15 letters and 29 telephone calls. Broadcast Music, Inc. v. DK 547, L.L.C., S.D. Ohio C.A. No. 2:11-CV-1064, 2013 WL 1615569, 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 54033 (Apr. 15, 2013). Get the License

Penalties in lawsuit • make up for the time business did not have a license. • penalize business for not getting that license. • act as a deterrent to others.

If You Go to Court, You Will Lose

• No admission fee charged: Herbert v. Shanley Co., 242 U.S. 591 (1917). • Musicians chose songs, so musicians should be liable, not venue: Dream Land Ballroom, Inc. v. Shapiro, Bernstein & Co., 36 F.2d 354 (7th Cir. 1929). • Told musicians not to play ASCAP songs: Famous Music Corp. v. Bay State Harness Racing & Breeding Ass’n., 554 F.2d 1213 (1st Cir. 1977). • Manager hired musicians without owner’s permission. Superhype Pub., Inc. v. Vasiliou, 838 F. Supp. 1220 (S.D. Ohio 1993).

Potentially nondischargable debt

Courts have found judgments for willful copyright infringement can be nondischargable as a "willful and malicious injury" under 11 U.S.C.§ 523(a)(6):

• In re Barboza, 545 F. 3d. 702 (9th Cir. 2009). • In re Remick (Herman v. Remick), 96 B.R. 935 (Bankr. W.D. Mo. 1987). • In re Walker (Sailor Music v. Walker), 541 B.R. 456 (Bankr. W.D. Mo. 2014).

See Caitlin McGowan, “Copyright Infringement and Bankruptcy: The Meaning Of Willful in Two Statutory Schemes,” 2009 Syracuse Science & Technology Law Reporter 51. Part Six: Work for Hire You May Not Own That

• Copyright in works created by employees do not automatically belong to employer.

• Copyright in works created by independent contractors do not automatically belong to commissioning employer.

• Definition in 17 U.S.C. §101. Work for Hire Defined by Copyright Act

A “work made for hire” is—

(1) a work prepared by an employee within the scope of his or her employment; or

(2) a work specially ordered or commissioned for use as a contribution to a collective work, as a part of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, as a translation, as a supplementary work, as a compilation, as an instructional text, as a test, as answer material for a test, or as an atlas, if the parties expressly agree in a written instrument signed by them that the work shall be considered a work made for hire.

17 U.S.C. §101. The Case on “Work for Hire”

Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid, 490 U.S. 730 (1989).

• Employment is determined by usual principles of agency, contract, and law. • A contractor is not an employee just because you commissioned the work or told him what to do. Scope of Employment

School could not claim copyright in Graham’s dances as work for hire because she was a part- time employee and the scope of her employment did not include choreography: “Graham's employment, per her contract, was only to teach and supervise the School's educational program, and not to choreograph.”

Martha Graham School & Dance Foundation, Inc. v. Martha Graham Center for Contemporary Dance, Inc., 380 F.3d 624, 637-38 (2d Cir. 2004). Martha Graham and Bertram Ross, photographed in 1961 by Carl Van Vechten. Independent Contractors

“A work specially ordered or commissioned for use as a contribution to a collective work, as a part of a motion picture or other audiovisual work, as a translation, as a supplementary work, as a compilation, as an instructional text, as a test, as answer material for a test, or as an atlas, if the parties expressly agree in a written instrument signed by them that the work shall be considered a work made for hire.”

17 U.S.C. §101.

Supplementary Work

“A ‘supplementary work” is a work prepared for publication as a secondary adjunct to a work by another author for the purpose of introducing, concluding, illustrating, explaining, revising, commenting upon, or assisting in the use of the other work, such as forewords, afterwords, pictorial illustrations, maps, charts, tables, editorial notes, musical arrangements, answer material for tests, bibliographies, appendixes, and indexes, and an “instructional text” is a literary, pictorial, or graphic work prepared for publication and with the purpose of use in systematic instructional activities.”

17 U.S.C. §101.

Part Seven: Fair Use Fair Use: The Safety Valve

• Created by judges in Nineteenth Century. • Literal application of law unfair, like the Sherman Act. • Later codified in the Copyright Act. Section 107 of the Copyright Act

“Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work . . . for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright.” Fair Use: The Four Factors In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include—

(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;

(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;

(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and

(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.

17 U.S.C. §107. Examples of What You Can Do With Fair Use

• Quote from a book in a review. • Report news and use work in the story. • Use images from films to illustrate a book on cinematography. • Copying sheet music for a music class. • Make fun of others’ work with satire and parody.

Parody as Criticism and Commentary

Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569 (1994).

▼Your presenter wearing Roy Orbison’s glasses at the Roy Orbison Museum, Wink, Texas. Narrow View of Fair Use: Parody

Jack Benny’s parody of the 1944 M-G-M film Gaslight on his C.B.S. television show was not fair use. Loew’s, Inc. v. Columbia Broadcasting System, Inc., 131 F.Supp. 165 (C.D. Cal. 1955), aff’d sub nom. Benny v. Loew’s, Inc., 239 F. 2d 532 (9th Cir. 1956). Quote Another Work in Your Own

“The past is never dead. It's not even past.” William Faulkner, Requiem for a Nun

“The past is not dead. Actually, it's not even past. You know who said that? Faulkner. And he was right. I met him, too. I ran into him at a dinner party.” Owen Wilson, Midnight in Paris

Faulkner Literary Rights, L.L.C. v. Sony Pictures Classics, Inc., 953 F. Supp. 2d 701(N.D. Miss. 2013). Quote Another Work to Criticize It

Richard Cox, a professor at the University of Pittsburgh wrote a book-length response to Nicholson Baker’s Double Fold. Cox was told by his publisher that his quotation was not fair use because he quoted more than 300 words. Baker’s publisher refused permission because Cox’s book would make Baker look bad. Baker himself approved permission.

Richard J. Cox, “Unfair use: advice to unwitting authors,” 34 Journal of Scholarly Publishing 31 (2002). Fair Use to Criticize Hollywood and Madison Avenue

The four factors from section 107:

(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes; (2) the nature of the copyrighted work; (3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and (4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work. Fair Use In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include—

(1) the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;

(2) the nature of the copyrighted work;

(3) the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and

(4) the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.

17 U.S.C. §107. Fair Use and Senior Pictures

Calkins v. Playboy Enterprises Int’l, Inc., 561 F. Supp. 2d 1136 (E.D. Cal. 2008). The Four Parts in Calkins

 Purpose & Character: Commercial use weighs against but not bar to fair use because magazine’s use was transformative and not trying to supplant original work’s market.

 Nature of Use: Slightly weighs against because of unpublished nature and creativity of original work. Playboy’s use was not particularly “transformative.”

 Amount of Use: Neutral, even though entire work used.

 Effect on Market: Weighs in favor because there was no impact on the market for original. Think Posner & Easterbrook’s Chicago-school ideas in antitrust.

Fair Use and The Nation

The Nation magazine obtained a copy of the galleys of Gerald R. Ford’s memoir, A Time to Heal, and published parts from the most newsworthy section, Ford’s discussion of the pardon of Richard M. Nixon. Time, which had first-serial rights for an excerpt from the book, cancelled its deal as a result.

Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc., v. Nation Enterprises, 471 U.S. 539 (1985). Fair Use and The Nation

•the purpose and character of the use: While news reporting is a legitimate reason, The Nation wanted to scoop Time and the hardcover book. Against The Nation.

•the nature of the copyrighted work: As it was an unpublished work, fair use was limited. Against The Nation.

•the amount and substantiality of the portion used: The ▲Victor Navasky, the Nation took the most valuable part of the book. Against The editor of The Nation in Nation. 1979, who published the Ford excerpt.

•the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work: Time cancelled contract and limited market for book. Against The Nation. Narrow View of Fair Use: Scholarship

Quoting unpublished letters of J.D. Salinger deposited in publicly-available archival collections was not fair use. Salinger v. Random House, Inc., 811 F. 2d 90 (2d Cir. 1987), rev’g 650 F. Supp. 413 (S.D.N.Y. 1986).

Congress has since changed law so fair use applies to unpublished works. The Biz Markie Case

“’Thou shalt not steal’ has been an admonition followed since the dawn of civilization. Unfortunately, in the modern world of business this admonition is not always followed. Indeed, the defendants in this action for copyright infringement would have this court believe that stealing is rampant in the music business and, for that reason, their conduct here should be excused. The conduct of the defendants herein, however, violates not only the Seventh Commandment, but also the copyright laws of this country.”

Grand Upright Music, Inc. v. Warner Bros. Records, Inc., 780 F. Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1991) (first paragraph of opinion). Dave Barry’s Book of Bad Songs Jimmy Smith v. Drake

Drake’s song “Pound Cake / Paris Morton Music 2” took 35 seconds of a 60 second spoken word track at the end of one of Smith’s albums.

Smith’s estate wouldn’t grant license because Smith did not like hip-hop.

Found to be fair use because it was transformative and did not harm market for Smith’s work.

Estate of Smith v. Cash Money Records, Inc., 253 F. Supp.3d 737 (S.D.N.Y. 2017). Fair Use and De Minimis Copying

The Beastie Boys licensed a recording of flutist James W. Newton playing one of his own compositions from the record company but did not license the musical composition from Howard. The copying represented three notes of the score. The court found no infringement. Newton v. Diamond, 349 F. 3d 591 (9th Cir. 2003) “You take a chance the day you’re born.

Why stop now?”

◄Barbara Stanwyck Part Eight: Recommended Reading Reading List

Copyright Treatises • Paul Goldstein. Goldstein on Copyright. New York: Aspen, 2005. 4 volumes. • Melville B. Nimmer & David Nimmer. Nimmer on Copyright. New York: Matthew Bender, 2001. 11 volumes. • William F. Patry. Patry on Copyright. St. Paul, Minn.: Thomson West, 2007. 7 volumes.

Copyright Hornbooks • John W. Hazard, Jr. Copyright Law in Business and Practice. New York: West Group, 2002. • Marshall A. Leafer. Understanding Copyright Law. New Providence, N.J.: LexisNexis, 2014. • Roger E. Schechter & John R. Thomas. Principles of Copyright Law. St. Paul, Minn.: West, 2010.

Copyright Aimed at Law Students • Mary LaFrance. Copyright Law in a Nutshell. St. Paul, Minn.: West, 2017. • Stephen M. McJohn. Copyright : Examples and Explanations. New York : Wolters Kluwer, 2015.

Reading List

Popular Works • Stephen Fishman. The Copyright Handbook: What Every Writer Needs to Know. 13th ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Nolo Press, 2017. • William S. Strong. The Copyright Book : A Practical Guide. 6th ed. Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2014.

Copyright History • Paul Goldstein. Copyright's Highway: From Gutenberg to the Celestial Jukebox. Rev. ed. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2003. • Edward Samuels. The Illustrated Story of Copyright. New York: Thomas Dunne, 2000.

Reading List

Public Domain • Stephen Fishman. The Public Domain: How to Find & Use Copyright-Free Writings, Music, Art & More. 8th ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Nolo Press, 2017.

Licensing • Richard Stim. Getting Permission: Using & Licensing Copyright-Protected Materials Online & Off. 6th ed. Berkeley, Calif.: Nolo Press, 2016.

Music • Bob Kohn. Kohn on Music Licensing. 5th ed. New York: Wolters Kluwer, 2019. • David J. Moser & Cheryl L. Slay. Music Copyright Law. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2012. • Randall D. Wixen. The Plain & Simple Guide to Music Publishing. 3d ed. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Books, 2014.

Reading List

Filmmaking • Michael C. Donaldson & Lisa A. Callif. The American Bar Association's Legal Guide to Independent Filmmaking. Chicago: American Bar Association, 2010. • Michael C. Donaldson & Lisa A. Callif. Clearance & Copyright: Everything You Need to Know for Film and Television. 4th ed. Los Angeles : Silman-James Press, 2014.

Fashion • David Faux, ed. The American Bar Association's Legal Guide to Fashion Design. Chicago : American Bar Association, 2013. • Guillermo C. Jimenez & Barbara Kolsun. Fashion Law: A Guide for Designers, Fashion Executives, and Attorneys. 2d ed. New York: Fairchild Books, 2014.

Fair Use • L. Ray Patterson & Stanley W. Lindberg. The Nature of Copyright: A Law of Users’ Rights. Athens : University of Georgia Press, 1991.

Michael Eshleman, Otero County Attorney

 B.A., University of Cincinnati.

 J.D., University of Dayton.

 M.L.S., Indiana University, Bloomington.

 Member of the bars of Ohio & New Mexico.

1101 New York Avenue Alamogordo, New Mexico 88310 575-437-7427 [email protected] Part Nine: Tedious List of Credits Image Sources

• Ben Stein: Screencapture from film Ferris Bueller’s Day Off at http://img.huffingtonpost.com/asset/2000_1000/574db550130000fb07383218.jpeg?cache=y3o1mrmizk • The Guardian: Screenshot of https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/mar/26/not-ok-can-cardi-b-really-copyright-okurr • Noah Webster: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Noah_Webster_pre-1843_IMG_4412_Cropped.JPG • U.S. Constitution: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Constitution_of_the_United_States,_page_1.jpg • The Story of Alexander Graham Bell: http://legendsrevealed.com/entertainment/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/3900044_lg_2_henry-fonda-don-ameche.jpg • Thomas Edison: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Abraham_Archibald_Anderson_-_Thomas_Alva_Edison_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg • First patent: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FirstUSpatent.jpg • Potash crystal: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash#/media/File:PotashUSGOV.jpg • Shatner and Cuoco: http://blogs-images.forbes.com/davidwismer/files/2013/01/20130109171131ENPRNPRN8-PRICELINE-COM-KALEY-CUOCO-1y-2-1357751491MR.jpg • Starbucks mermaid: https://qph.ec.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-58b8aee066ab040b3790f65dc3047853 • Shake It Off cover: https://soundcloud.com/xithur/taylor-swift-shake-it-off-xithur-piano-cover • Taylor Swift: Screenshot from video for “Shake It Off” at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfWlot6h_JM • Swisher Cigars: http://www.cigaraficionado.com/webfeatures/show/id/3151/print/Y • Swisher Sanitation: http://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/business/gr9st9/picture30991365/alternates/LANDSCAPE_1140/swisher • Worldvision Charity: http://logos-download.com/11873-world-vision-logo-download.html • Worldvision TV: http://t13.deviantart.net/xB849TP36v1HyhR1U03_A4yWpFc • Coca-Cola logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coca-Cola_logo.svg • Kodak logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Logo_of_the_Eastman_Kodak_Company_(1971-1987).svg • Exxon logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Exxon_logo.svg • Kellogg’s logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kellogg%27s-Logo.svgHawaiian Punch logo: http://www.blueridgebeverage.com/beverages/non- alcoholic/dr-pepper-snapple-group/hawaiian-punch/ • Copyright Office logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US-CopyrightOffice-Seal.svg • Microsoft logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Windows_logo_-_2012.svg • Colonel Sanders: https://dailyinformant.wordpress.com/2013/01/01/archaelogists-accidently-discover-colonel-sanders-secret-recipe/ • Mouse ears: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mickey_Mouse_head_and_ears.png • Little Nipper: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RCA_dog.svg • McDonald’s Golden Arches: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:McDonald%27s.svg • NBC Peacock: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NBC_Peacock_1986.svg • Jolly Green Giant: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jolly_Green_Giant_-_panoramio.jpg • Lacoste crocodile: https://fortunedotcom.files.wordpress.com/2011/10/lacoste_crocodile.jpg • AT&T Deathstar: http://www.underconsideration.com/brandnew/archives/new_logo_and_identity_for_att_by_interbrand.php • Louboutin shoes: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Louboutin_altadama140.jpg • Clueless Tiffany’s: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/59/3e/47/593e47cd3588ecdd3afbccc5047e60ee.jpg • Gossip Girl Tiffany’s: http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-3K-jxAVHWas/TsxOZL-p-KI/AAAAAAAAAyA/1ZXk2Ebr_f4/s1600/Gossip+Girlllllllll.jpg

Image Sources

• Owens-Corning insulation: https://www.owenscorning.com/ • Pink Panther: http://www.qualityinsulationltd.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/pinkPanther_Logos.png • Jennifer Lopez Louboutin: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/58/J-LO_Louboutins.png • Trade Secret: http://cdn.newsapi.com.au/image/v1/97562d2d55b5423e94abc4be01ed82db • Monkey selfie: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Macaca_nigra_self-portrait_large.jpg • Copyright Office seal: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US-CopyrightOffice-Seal.svg • Skywriting: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bling-Bling_Skywriting_David_Shankbone.jpg • Martin Luther King, Jr.: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_-_March_on_Washington.jpg • Skywriting: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bling-Bling_Skywriting_David_Shankbone.jpg • Rudolph Laban: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Labanotation1.jpg • Labanotation examples: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Labanotation#/media/File:Labanotation4.jpg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Labanotation#/media/File:Labanotation3.JPG • Benesh notation: https://www.roh.org.uk/insights/insights-behind-the-scenes-benesh-notation • Beauchamp-Feuillet notation: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Courante-2-b.jpg • Anchors Aweigh: http://ryanmccormickfilmhistory.blogspot.com/2017/05/anchors-aweigh-1945.html • Michael Kidd: https://warnerarchive.tumblr.com/post/57997728084/michael-kidd-in-its-always-fair-weather-1955 • Twyla Tharp: https://www.vulture.com/2015/11/twyla-tharp-on-her-troupes-50th-anniversary.html • American Beauty: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6u1ADgiz8W8 • USGS Map of Lebanon: https://www.topoquest.com/place-detail.php?id=1079827 • Chicago Picasso: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Picasso_Chicago.jpg • Honolulu Hicki-Boola-Boo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Honolulu_hicki_boola_boo_1916.jpg • I’m a Yiddish Cowboy: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:I%27m_a_yiddish_cowboy_Tough_guy_Levi_1908.jpg • Eyes That Say I Love You: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eyes_That_Say_%22I_Love_You%22_1919.jpg • Beautiful Ohio: http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/scriptorium/sheetmusic/a/a00/a0081/ • Folsom Prison Blues: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FolsomPrisonBlues.jpg • Cylinder record: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edisongoldmoulded.jpg • Dark Side of the Moon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dark_Side_of_the_Moon.png • Eight Track Tape of Il Travatore: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eight_track.jpg • Mini Disc: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MiniDisc.jpg • Beatles: http://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/-pUAAOxy1klRcm2R/s-l300.jpg

Image Sources

• Folsom Prison Blues: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FolsomPrisonBlues.jpg • Cylinder record: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Edisongoldmoulded.jpg • Dark Side of the Moon: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dark_Side_of_the_Moon.png • Eight Track Tape of Il Travatore: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eight_track.jpg • Mini Disc: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:MiniDisc.jpg • Beatles: http://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/-pUAAOxy1klRcm2R/s-l300.jpg • Streetcar Named Desire: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/6c/05/68/6c056847920e6fa3603f0fe05b01223c.jpg • Our American Cousin: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fords_Theatre_Playbill_1865-04-14.png • Hamlet: http://vivandlarry.com/classic-film/art-in-film-hamlet-1948/ • Fred Ott’s Sneeze: https://www.loc.gov/item/95505651/ • Circus Poster: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Great_Wallace_Shows_circus_poster.jpg • Gary Cooper: http://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/archives/byId.html?id=145926%7C145923 • Disney Hall: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:800px-WaltDisneyConcertHall.jpg • Telephone book: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Telefonbog_ubt-1.JPG • Jack Webb: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jackwebbbbigseptemberman.jpg • Howard Hughes: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Howard_Hughes_1938.jpg • Barack Obama: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:President_Barack_Obama.jpg • Faraday: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg • Twilight (2008): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twilight_(2008_film)_poster.jpg • Twilight (1998): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twilight_(1998_film)_poster.jpg • Twilight (Wiesel): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Twilight_(Elie_Wiesel_novel).jpg • Children of Men: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Children-of-Men-bookcover.jpg • Lady Gaga: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga_BTW_Ball_Antwerp_02.jpg • Joel Mac: https://myspace.com/joelmacministries • Kanye West: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kanye_West_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg • Sargent: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Venetian_Woman_by_John_Singer_Sargent,_1882.jpg • Cassat: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mother_and_Child_by_Mary_Cassatt,_Cincinnati_Art_Museum.jpg • Hassam: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pont_Royal,_Paris,_Childe_Hassam,_1897.jpg • Wood: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Daughters_of_Revolution_by_Grant_Wood,_1932.jpg • Duveneck: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_Venetian_Woman_by_John_Singer_Sargent,_1882.jpg

Image Sources

• Lady Gaga: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Gaga_BTW_Ball_Antwerp_02.jpg • U.S.S. Enterprise: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:TaskForce_One.jpg • Mariah Carey Album: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%3DMC%C2%B2_(Mariah_Carey_album)#/media/File:E%3DMC2_Mariah_Carey.png • Amadeo Avogadro: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amedeo_Avogadro2.jpg • Avogadro’s Tiebar: https://www.boutiqueacademia.com/products/avogadros-tie-bar • Einstein: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein_tongue.jpg • Michael Faraday: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg • Telephone book: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Telefonbog_ubt-1.JPG • Jack Webb: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jackwebbbbigseptemberman.jpg • Howard Hughes: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Howard_Hughes_1938.jpg • Paper Towns book cover: http://www.johngreenbooks.com/paper-towns/ • Cara Delivigne: http://photos.vanityfair.com/2015/03/19/550b132bd34b74101100fb7b_a-cara-delivingne-gone-girl-paper-town.jpg • Agloe, New York map: http://www.npr.org/sections/krulwich/2014/03/18/290236647/an-imaginary-town-becomes-real-then-not-true-story • Klingon Dictionary: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_cover_from_The_Klingon_Dictionary.jpg • Klingon Hamlet: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheKlingonHamlet.jpg • William Randolph Hearst: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HearstAbout1910.jpg • Hearst Newspapers: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HEARST2.JPG • AP logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Associated_Press_logo.svg • Baker v. Selden forms: http://web.law.duke.edu/images/cspd/ipcasebook_selden_form.png • 10 Things I Hate About You: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:10_Things_I_Hate_About_You_film.jpg • She’s All That: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shes_All_That.jpg • Can’t Buy Me Love: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Can%27t_Buy_Me_Love_Movie_Poster.jpg • Love Story: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Love_Story_(1970_film).jpg • A Walk to Remember: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_Walk_to_Remember_Poster.jpg • Tommy Lee Jones: https://www.pinterest.com/sabbaghlinda/tommy-lee-jones/ • Julia Child: http://www.caketober.com/cakes/12-great-quotes-cake/ • Moe the Bartender: http://www.simpsonsworld.com/video/305663555961 • Lionel Hutz: https://simpsons.fandom.com/wiki/Lionel_Hutz • Milton Berle: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milton_Berle_1949.jpg • Conan O’Brien: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conan_O%27Brien_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg • Adobe Garamond: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adobe_Garamond_Pro_Sample.svg

Image Sources

• Migrant Mother: https://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html • Neil Armstrong: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neil_Armstrong.jpg • Butterick dress pattern: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Deltor_for_Butterick_5688_from_patent_US1313496_verso.gif • Claw hammer: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Claw-hammer.jpg • Audrina Patridge: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Audrina_Patridge_2011.jpg • Chair: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adirondack_chair_25.jpg • Bring It On: http://images.hellogiggles.com/uploads/2016/12/15235643/bring-it-on-dunst.jpg • Cheerleading Uniforms: Slip opinion in 6th Circuit decision in Star Athletica. • Harry Anderson: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/515099276101317814/ • U.S. Supreme Court: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Supreme_Court_Front_Dusk.jpg • Great Seal: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US-GreatSeal-Obverse.png, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:US-GreatSeal-Reverse.png • Lyndon Johnson inauguration: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lyndon_B._Johnson_taking_the_oath_of_office,_November_1963.jpg • Parking meter: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Expired_Parking_Meter_Minneapolis_Minnesota_198099971.jpg • Safety valve: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:WH_safety_valve.JPG • Copyright symbol: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Copyright.svg • Tax Collectors: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reymerswaele_Two_tax_collectors_(detail)_03.jpg • Bromley Copyright Notice: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bromley_Manhattan_copyright_notice_page_publ._1955%E2%80%9356.jpg • Charlie Chan’s Secret: https://chart.copyrightdata.com/ch02.html • Mad Magazine: http://www.madmagazine.com/blog/2015/03/20/weird-al-and-mad-at-barnes-noble • Double Fold: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b0/DoubleFold.jpg/220px-DoubleFold.jpg • Vandals in the Stacks: https://images-na.ssl-images-amazon.com/images/I/31kiICkG%2BNL._SX313_BO1,204,203,200_.jpg • Midnight in Paris: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Midnight_in_Paris_Poster.jpg • Jack Benny: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jack_Benny_-_1964.jpg • Gaslight poster: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaslight-1944.jpg

Image Sources

• Midnight in Paris: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Midnight_in_Paris_Poster.jpg • Playmate data sheet: www.scanof.net • Playboy January 2004 cover: https://www.zinio.com/www/browse/issue.jsp?skuId=133393270 • This Film is Not Yet Rated: http://cdn.topdocumentaryfilms.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/04/this-film-not-yet-rated.jpg • Clearance & Copyright: https://www.amazon.com/Clearance-Copyright-4th-Everything-Television/dp/1935247123 • Thanks for Sharing: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thanks_for_Sharing_Poster.jpg • 2 Live Crew: https://chirpradio.org/_/files/blog/Pics_2014_July_Dec/2_Live_Crew.jpg • Oh, Pretty Woman: http://www.musiconvinyl.com/fotos/1514_foto1_product_groot.jpg • Colleen Shannon 2016: http://mansioncostamesa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/unnamed.jpg • Navasky: https://journalism.columbia.edu/files/soj/content/image/victor_navasky.jpg • The Nation logo: http://www.makeitfairca.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/The-Nation-Logo.png • In Search of J.D. Salinger: https://pictures.abebooks.com/DPBOOKS/md/md13491071114.jpg • Biz Marklie: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biz_Markie_at_Amager_Bio_4.jpg • Gilbert O’Sullivan: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gilbert_O'Sullivan_-_TopPop_1974_1.png • Dave Barry’s Book of Bad Songs: http://images.paperbackswap.com/xl/04/6004/9780740706004.jpg • Nothing Was the Same: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nothing_Was_the_Same_cover_1.png • Drake: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Drake_July_2016.jpg • Jimmy Smith: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Liri_blues_jimmy_smith_2004.jpg • Beastie Boys: http://www.billboard.com/files/styles/900_wide/public/stylus/2060309-beastie-boys-7-617-409.jpg • James Newton: http://www.jamesnewtonmusic.com/ • Naughty Marietta: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MariettaVH1.jpg • Herbert stamp: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1940_FamAmer_e_3.png • The Student Prince: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Student_Prince.jpeg

Image Sources

• ASCAP logo: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASCAP_logo_2016.pnghttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASCAP_logo_2016.png • BMI logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Logo_bmi.jpg • SESAC logo: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SESAC_logo.png • Thurgood Marshall US Courthouse: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Marshal_courthouse_jeh.JPG • Ronald Coase: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coase_scan_10_edited.jpg • TV in restaurant: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HKU_Pok_Fu_Lam_campus_APC_Union_restaurant_interior_TV_set_Anthony_Cheung_Bing_Leung_Dec- 2015_Asia_Pacific_Catering.JPG • Warehouse: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_Hall_Lager.JPG • North Christian Church, exterior: My own photograph. • North Christian Church, interior: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/58617232619777206/ • Christian Music logo: https://www.christiancopyrightsolutions.com/services/performmusic/ • Ernest Tubb: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ernest_Tubb_Record_Shop_sign.jpg • Carole King: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:CaroleKingHWOFDec2012.jpg • Ed Sheeran: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ed_Sheeran_(8507720597).jpg • Mozart: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wolfgang-amadeus-mozart_1.jpg • Salieri: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antonio_Salieri_painted_by_Joseph_Willibrord_M%C3%A4hler.jpg • Record Store: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vinyl_and_pulp_(5289126242).jpg • Spotify: https://spotifypresscom.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/spotify_logo_rgb_green.png • Sirius XM : https://www.siriusxm.com/logosandphotos • Pandora: http://www.underconsideration.com/brandnew/archives/new_logo_and_identity_for_pandora.php • Mood Music: http://us.moodmedia.com/ • Bogart’s: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bogart%27s_marquee.jpg • DJ: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dj_Hugo_Drop.jpg • Lisa Simpson: https://68.media.tumblr.com/f6ebd9f9646c2a5d8ad76dc723645f00/tumblr_nu9jr4F0kq1u117t6o1_500.png

Image Sources

• Reid sculpture: http://www.traditionliveson.com/reid.html • Martha Graham: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Martha_Graham_and_Bertram_Ross.jpg • Film set: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clap_Gaspare_Di_Caro,_il_Mondo_Nuovo.jpg • Encyclopedia: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/HK_Britannica_Micropedia_Ready_Reference_Index_1-7.JPG • National Geographic Atlas: https://s7d9.scene7.com/is/image/NationalGeographic/6201354?id=5L2px1&fmt=jpg&fit=constrain,1&wid=484&hei=484 • Index: https://www.pdfindexgenerator.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/index_sample.jpg • Barbara Stanwyck: http://www.doctormacro.com/Movie%20Summaries/G/Golden%20Boy.htm • Golden Boy: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GoldenBoyPoster.jpg