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Jazz and Radio in the United States: Mediation, Genre, and Patronage

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Jazz and Radio in the United States: Mediation, Genre, and Patronage Jazz and Radio in the United States: Mediation, Genre, and Patronage Aaron Joseph Johnson Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2014 © 2014 Aaron Joseph Johnson All rights reserved ABSTRACT Jazz and Radio in the United States: Mediation, Genre, and Patronage Aaron Joseph Johnson This dissertation is a study of jazz on American radio. The dissertation's meta-subjects are mediation, classification, and patronage in the presentation of music via distribution channels capable of reaching widespread audiences. The dissertation also addresses questions of race in the representation of jazz on radio. A central claim of the dissertation is that a given direction in jazz radio programming reflects the ideological, aesthetic, and political imperatives of a given broadcasting entity. I further argue that this ideological deployment of jazz can appear as conservative or progressive programming philosophies, and that these tendencies reflect discursive struggles over the identity of jazz. The first chapter, "Jazz on Noncommercial Radio," describes in some detail the current (circa 2013) taxonomy of American jazz radio. The remaining chapters are case studies of different aspects of jazz radio in the United States. Chapter 2, "Jazz is on the Left End of the Dial," presents considerable detail to the way the music is positioned on specific noncommercial stations. Chapter 3, "Duke Ellington and Radio," uses Ellington's multifaceted radio career (1925-1953) as radio bandleader, radio celebrity, and celebrity DJ to examine the medium's shifting relationship with jazz and black American creative ambition. Chapter 4, "Jazz with Ads," uses the mid-1960s to mid-1970s period, in which commercial all-jazz radio had a limited run, as a prism to examine the interwoven roles of genre, format, and commerce in the presentation of jazz on the air. Contents List of Figures and Tables .................................................................................................................ii Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1. Jazz On Noncommercial Radio .................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2. Jazz is on the Left End of the FM Dial: Missions and mission statements, precursors, models, and ownership ..................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 3. A Date with the Duke: Ellington on Radio ................................................................. 153 Chapter 4. Jazz with Ads: Radio and Genre ................................................................................ 207 Closing Thoughts ......................................................................................................................... 255 Works Cited ................................................................................................................................. 259 Appendix A—Mission Statements .............................................................................................. 269 Appendix B—CMJ and JazzWeek Charts for mid December 2012 ............................................. 283 i List of Figures and Tables Figure 1 Programming philosophy dynamics (After Ahlkvist) ...................................................... 72 Figure 2 Excerpt from "The KJAZ Story."..................................................................................... 236 Figure 3 WRVR Billboard ad linking format to genre .................................................................. 249 Table 1 Jazz Radio Music Services ................................................................................................. 60 Table 2 WRFG Jazz Programs (2013) ........................................................................................... 108 Table 3 Some Long-running WBAI (New York) Programs ........................................................... 125 Table 4 Summary of Noncommercial Radio Station Types ........................................................ 127 Table 5 Comparison of Noncommercial Station Types with Consultant's Programming Cohorts ..................................................................................................................................................... 131 Table 6 2012 Public Radio Stations and Listeners by Format (Source: Arbitron) ....................... 134 Table 7 Comparison of Mid-December 2012 Jazz Charts ........................................................... 146 Table 8 WHAT weekday program schedule ................................................................................ 239 Table 9 The Rise of Noncommercial Jazz Radio Stations ............................................................ 253 Table 10 Sample Mission Statements of Noncommercial Radio Stations .................................. 272 Table 11 CMJ Jazz Chart of 12 December 2012 .......................................................................... 283 Table 12 JazzWeek Chart of 10 December 2012 ........................................................................ 285 ii Acknowledgements I gratefully acknowledge and give thanks for the unyielding support of the Columbia University Music Department. I am particularly thankful for George Lewis and Ellie Hisama’s constant support and belief in my work and my project, but also to the entire Historical Musicology faculty—Elaine Sisman, Walter Frisch, Giuseppe Gerbino, Susan Boynton, and Karen Henson— for sticking with me and Chris Washburne for letting me sit on his sofa and rant. I am especially grateful for having had the opportunity to be guided by John Szwed. Special thanks go to Gabriela Kumar, Anne Gefell, Yulanda Grant, and Johanna Martinez. Thanks also to the archivists and librarians who facilitated this work. Starting with Columbia University, many thanks to Nick Patterson, Eli Lara, and Elizabeth Davis; Laura B. Schnitker at the National Public Broadcasting Archive at the University of Maryland; Judith Korey and the staff at the Felix Grant Jazz Archives at the University of the District of Columbia; Kay Peterson at the Smithsonian Institution American History Archives; and Leighan Cazier and Barry Devlin at the Millburn Free Public Library. I especially thank Salim Washington, John Howland, and Lewis Porter for making this graduate school thing happen and Columbia University colleagues Louise Chernosky and Beau Bothwell, my comrades-in-arms on the topic of music and radio. I would be remiss if I did not thank and acknowledge all my colleagues in the Duke Jazz Study Group: Darren Mueller, Matthew Somoroff, Kate Heidemann, Mark Lomano, and Kwami Coleman. iii I reserve my most heartfelt thanks for Anne Yale for her enthusiastic and insightful editing, to Daphne Carr for never doubting me, to Ashley Nail for saving my life, to Naomi Sturm for mutual admiration, and my Columbia cohort family—Kate Heidemann (road buddy), Andile Khumalo, Alex Rothe, Shannon Garland, Marti Newland, Courtney Bryan, and Nili Belkind—and my main man Matthew Morrison. Finally, I give grateful thanks to the essential, constant, uncompromising, and unconditional support and friendship of my closest colleague, Juliet Forshaw. iv To Yewande (my source) and Amina, Mika, Yolanda, Desmond, Kamille, Osceola, and Chumani v Introduction “Let the facts speak for themselves" is perhaps the arch-statement of ideology--the point being, precisely, that facts never “speak for themselves” but are always made to speak by a network of discursive devices. —Slavoj Žižek1 As a matter of history, jazz and radio have been deeply engaged with one another while serving as important icons of twentieth century modernity. Jazz, however one defines its boundaries and essential elements, is the influential African American musical genre that emerged from a confluence of cultural streams in the century’s first years. The music’s concurrency with the United States’ transition from agrarian-rural to industrial-urban to information age-suburban, from isolationist nation to global superpower, from Black Codes and Jim Crow through the Great Migration to the Civil Rights Movement and the end of legal segregation, allow it to be viewed from any number of ideological perspectives and to be imbued with a wide range of aspirational payloads, in addition to, of course, being appreciated for its inherent musical qualities. The same musical object, say Louis Armstrong’s recording of (Fats Waller and Andy Razaf's) “(What did I do to be so) Black and Blue,” could be appreciated for its earnest and innovative improvisational explorations, for its value as protest, for its subtextual claims for equality, for its appeal for societal inclusion (“I’m white, inside…”), or for its blending of musical genres (blues, jazz, and Tin Pan Alley) into something uniquely “American.” These simultaneous constructions of meaning and significance, in cultural, social, and political discourses allow jazz, 1 Slavoj Žižek, Mapping Ideology, Mapping (London: Verso, 1994), 11. 1 and related music forms, to illuminate undercurrents of race, class, and power that operate within radio and within society. This dissertation considers the engagement between jazz and American radio. This topic has not been the subject of comprehensive study, so my research takes a broad approach, examining the current
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