GEORGE ROCHBERG–SLOW FIRES OF AUTUMN (UKIYO-E II) FOR FLUTE AND HARP: A PERFORMANCE GUIDE WITH SPECIAL FOCUS ON HIS INCORPORATION OF JAPANESE MUSICAL AND ARTISTIC IMAGERY
BY
AI YAMAGUCHI
THESIS
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts in Music with a concentration in Performance and Literature in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2019
Urbana, Illinois
Doctoral Committee:
Professor Jonathan Keeble, Chair Professor Gabriel Solis, Director of Research Associate Professor J. David Harris Associate Professor Reynold Tharp
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to identify and analyze George Rochberg’s application of
Japanese musical and artistic imagery through an examination of his flute and harp piece, Slow
Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II) (1978-1979). This study synthesizes research on Rochberg’s shifting compositional aesthetic, discusses the performance techniques incorporated in the piece, and shows the connections between this composition and the seventeenth-century Japanese art genre known as Ukiyo-E, as well as Japanese traditional instruments and folksongs. This study also provides a comprehensive performance practice guide so that performers may more effectively interpret and convey these varied influences.
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To my beloved family, Susumu, Takeko, and Jun Yamaguchi
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are numerous people whom I would like to acknowledge for their support throughout the process of this project. I would like to thank my committee members Dr. Gabriel
Solis, Dr. Jonathan Keeble, Dr. Reynold Tharp, and Professor J. David Harris, for their patient guidance and advising to complete my thesis. I am especially grateful for my research advisor,
Dr. Gabriel Solis, for his support and feedback throughout the writing process, as well as, Dr.
Jonathan Keeble, my mentor, for sharing his wisdom and inspirations throughout my years at the
University of Illinois. My sincere thanks to Carol Wincenc and Christina Jennings for their generosity in sharing their experience and expertise for this research. The collected materials from the interviews have been undoubtedly invaluable to my project. I extend my deepest appreciation to my beloved family in Japan for their continuous and tireless support throughout my musical and educational endeavors. Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to
Frank Niemeyer for contributing not only countless hours of proofreading and editing, but also for his love, comfort, and encouragement throughout this journey. I certainly could not have finished this document without his support.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ...... 1
CHAPTER 1: GEORGE ROCHBERG’S LIFE AND COMPOSITIONAL STYLE ...... 4
CHAPTER 2: MUSIC HISTORY OF JAPAN AND TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 8
2.1 BRIEF MUSIC HISTORY OF JAPAN ...... 8
2.2 JAPANESE TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS ...... 13
CHAPTER 3: GEORGE ROCHBERG AND JAPAN ...... 32
3.1 THE JAPANESE INFLUENCE ...... 32
3.2 THE CREATIVE PROCESS ...... 36
3.3 GEORGE ROCHBERG, CAROL WINCENC, AND CHRISTINA JENNINGS ...... 38
3.4 ITSUKI NO KOMORIUTA (五木の子守唄) ...... 41
CHAPTER 4: SLOW FIRES OF AUTUMN (UKIYO-E II) FOR FLUTE AND HARP ...... 43
4.1 UKIYO-E: THE JAPANESE WOODBLOCK PRINTS ...... 43
4.2 APPLICATION OF TRADITIONAL JAPANESE INSTRUMENTS IN IN SLOW FIRES OF AUTUMN ...... 60
CONCLUSION ...... 75
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 78
APPENDIX A: PROJECT RECITAL PROGRAM ...... 82
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INTRODUCTION
Musicians have the important responsibility of accurately delivering composers’ intended musical stories, visions, inspirations, and expressions. To make the music more meaningful and personal, it is essential for musicians to perform and bring their sensibility and inflections to the interpretation. This can be exceptionally daunting, particularly when musicians are faced with pieces that challenge and indeed exceed the limits of traditional tonality, a common practice in twentieth-century music, and pieces that incorporate musical materials from outside Western performers’ common cultural background. The modernist movement in music shifted composers’ focus away from the confines of traditional tonality and toward different compositional techniques that rely on new musical trends, forms, and styles. Postmodernism later established a wide variety of new and innovative musical approaches. Experimentation with new ideas and new philosophical views further expanded the musical language. One of the preeminent American composers who contributed to both serial and postmodern music was
George Rochberg.
George Rochberg was known as one of the most prominent serialist composers through the 1940s and 1960s; however, after the tragic death of his son in 1964, he shifted his compositional style and chose to “[broaden] his spectrum to include tonal idioms.”1 Rochberg describes his initial attempt as:
I was not yet ready to re-embrace “tonality” without reserve, I began to approach it first by quoting tonal music of the past, in assemblages or collages of different music (Contra Mortem et Tempus and Music for the Magic Theater, both 1965), and in commentaries on works of the past (Nach Bach, 1966); later, I would compose sections for movements or whole movements in the language of tonality (Symphony No. 3, 1966-69.)2
1 Warren John Gaughan, “An Analysis of George Rochberg’s Carnival Music: Suite for Piano Solo” (DMA diss., Arizona State University, 2008), 4. 2 George Rochberg, liner note for String Quartet No.. 3 (Nonesuch H 71283), 1973.
1 Since his new style of writing included musical quotations from the past in his tonal music, some critics considered his music to be controversial. The first composition that exemplified
Rochberg’s major pivotal change was his Third String Quartet (1971), which the Concord String
Quartet premiered in 1972.3
Rochberg felt strongly that true expression in music lay in the traditions of the past; he believed that drawing on such traditions allowed compositions “to re-emerge as a spiritual force with reactivated powers of melodic thought, rhythmic pulse, and large-scale structure.”4 During this period, many of his compositions borrowed from earlier composers such as Bach,
Beethoven, Brahms, Stravinsky, and Ives in combination with his own original ideas to make a musical language of his own. In 1973, Rochberg and his wife visited Japan and their encounter with the traditional music of Japan left a lasting impression and fascination. This experience inspired him to compose four beautiful pieces that captured the culture and sound of Japan through his unique use of tonality and atonality. One such piece, Imago Mundi (1973), is a large orchestral work influenced by Japanese Gagaku music.5 Other Rochberg works that incorporate
Japanese cultural and aesthetic influences include the three-part Ukiyo-E series written for solo harp, flute and harp, and flute and piano. Although Western classical music and the Japanese musical culture evolved separately over the centuries to include dramatic differences in musical modes, harmonies, and instruments, an exchange of these two unique musical cultures have significantly increased over the past century. Research on the application of these Japanese
3In an article by James Wierzbicki, “Reflections on Rochberg and ‘Postmodernism,’” Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 45, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 114, Wierzbicki reviews the Third String Quartet as “…the quartet’s dissonant passages…are strongly reminiscent of Bartok, Schoenberg, and Stravinsky…[and] the quartet’s extended tonal episodes sound very much like music that might have been penned by Beethoven and Mahler.” 4 James Wierzbicki, “Reflections on Rochberg and ‘Postmodernism.’” Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 45, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 115. 5 Gagaku is a form of ancient Japanese court music.
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imageries and aesthetics in Western musical compositions is still limited and, thus, demand further study.
This thesis offers a deeper appreciation and clearer understanding of the Japanese musical and artistic imagery in Rochberg’s flute and harp piece entitled Slow Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E
II). In addition, this thesis provides teachers and performers a foundation upon which to explore and expand their contemporary musical repertoire through relevant historical background and an in-depth performance practice guide, which will further enhance performances of the piece.
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CHAPTER 1: GEORGE ROCHBERG’S LIFE AND COMPOSITIONAL STYLE
The contemporary American composer George Rochberg (1918 – 2005) began his composition and counterpoint study at the Mannes College of Music in New York City, where he was a student from 1939 – 1942. His principal teachers included Hans Weisse, George Szell, and
Leopold Mannes. However, during World War II, his study was interrupted, and he enlisted in the United States Army in 1942. In 1945, upon his return to the United States due to an injury he incurred in battle, Rochberg continued his education and received a Bachelor of Music degree at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia in 1947, where he studied composition under
Rosario Scalero and Gian Carlo Menotti. The following year, Rochberg received a Master of
Music degree from the University of Pennsylvania and was appointed as a faculty member at the
Curtis Institute, where he remained until 1954. During this period, Rochberg began working as a music editor at one of the leading music publishing companies, Theodore Presser Company, and ultimately became the company’s director of publications. In 1960, Rochberg left Theodore
Presser to take a position as chair of the music department at the University of Pennsylvania.
Although he resigned from this position in 1968, he remained on the faculty of the University of
Pennsylvania until 1983.6
During Rochberg’s early compositional period in the 1940s, his works were heavily influenced by Stravinsky, Hindemith, and Bartok.7 Between 1950 to 1951, Rochberg received a
Fulbright and American Academy Fellowship and studied with the Italian serialist composer,
Luigi Dallapiccola, in Rome, Italy. This led to a major stylistic change in which Rochberg fully
6 Austin Clarkson and Steven Johnson, “Rochberg, George,” In Grove Music Online. Accessed March 21, 2018. 7 For example, his work The First String Quartet (1952) show characteristics that strongly resemble Bartok.
4 embraced dissonance and ventured into Schoenbergian serialism.8 In Mary Dicken’s thesis entitled George Rochberg’s Ukiyo-E (Picture of the Floating World), she links Rochberg’s affinity for serialism to his World War II experience. She includes a partial quote from Richard
Duffalo’s interview with Rochberg in 1986 in which he stated:
One of the most powerful impulses toward twelve-tone, serialism, whatever you want to call it, was my reaction to my war experience which began to take over after the war. . . After the war, after I began to feel I had my feet on the ground musically, and in other ways too, the drama, the darkness of that whole experience. . . really had rooted itself. It didn’t show itself right away, but it started to make demands on me emotionally. And that’s what started to push me into a kind of atonal world. . . It came out of a deep emotional need to express what I felt had happened, what I’d been involved in and what it meant to me.9
During this period, Rochberg became one of the most highly respected American serialist composers. Some of his most significant works from this period include Chamber Symphony
(1953), Symphony No. 2 (1956), Cheltenham Concerto (1958), and Second String Quartet
(1959).
Following the premature death of his son, Paul, in 1964, Rochberg once again shifted his compositional approach. He abandoned serialism and began to gravitate toward a mixture of tonality and atonality.10 Of this transition in compositional technique, Rochberg commented,
“After Paul died, that absolutely made it necessary for me to wash my hands of the whole thing
8 Austin Clarkson and Steven Johnson, “Rochberg, George.” In Grove Music Online. Accessed March 21, 2018. In James Wierzbicki’s “Reflections,” 111-112, he includes a direct quote taken from Austin Clarkson’s article on Rochberg in the 1980 edition of the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, in which Austin addresses Rochberg’s stylistic shift to serialism. Austin comments, “[Rochberg] felt his imagination liberated at last by a language he took to be inevitable culmination of historical developments. He mastered its technique and explored its expressive possibilities in such works as the 12 Bagatelles, the Chamber Symphony, David the Psalmist and the Second Symphony.” 9 Mary Dicken, “George Rochberg’s Ukiyo-e (Pictures of the Floating World)” (Bachelor’s thesis, Miami University, 2006), 2. Ohiolink (muhonors1146856287) 10 Jay Reise, “Rochberg the Progressive,” Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 19, no. 1/2 (Autumn, 1980 - Summer, 1981): 395. http://www.jstor.org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/stable/832601
5 [serialism].”11 Rochberg would ultimately characterize serial music as “… empty, meaningless,”12 and he shifted his musical language back to a more expressive style.13 In fact, even before Rochberg’s son’s death, the composer was already questioning the idea of twentieth- century music. He stated:
Something strange has happened to music – so strange, in fact, that I hardly know how to describe it. Up until the time of World War II, composers wrote music out of the conviction that somehow, in some mysterious fashion, music could and did express profound human states and emotions. Music was a record in sound of the most intense kinds of human experience. . . in the twenty years since the end of World War II, it seems that the growing impact of science and technology on all our modes of thought and existence has finally penetrated the art of music. And this is the strange thing that has happened: by applying the scientific attitude and ideology to the art of music, the composer has transformed music into a unique, if curious, form of applied science.14
During this period, Rochberg began to favor more traditional tonality combined with abstract chromaticism; he also incorporated musical quotations from other composers, such as Mozart,
Bach, Beethoven, Mahler, Boulez, Berio, and Ives, into his compositions.15 Richard Taruskin has described Rochberg’s Third String Quartet, which premiered in 1972, as an early and significant example of musical postmodernism.16
It was during this period that Rochberg felt that he was finally “truly freely on the way, in
[his] own world,” and many of these later compositions reflect the composer’s greatest range of
11 Joan DeVee Dixon, George Rochberg: A Bio-Bibliographic Guide to His Life and Works (Stuyvesant, NY: Pedragon Press, 1992), xxiii. Rochberg made this reflection on his son’s tragic death nearly twenty years after the fact. 12 In fact, as early as 1963, Rochberg was questioning his expressiveness in music, point of view, and the complex surface of serialism. His last composition to follow serialism’s strict twelve-tone style was the First Piano Trio (1962-62). Taken from Alan Gillmor’s article, “The Apostasy of George Rochberg,” Intersections, Vol. 29, no.1 (2009): 32-48. 13 “George Rochberg, Composer, Dies at 86,” The New York Times, June 1, 2005. 14 George Rochberg, ed. William Bolcom. The Aesthetics of Survival: A Composer’s View of Twentieth-Century Music (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984), 151. 15 Alexander L. Ringer, “The Music of George Rochberg,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 4 (October 1966): 424-425. 16 James Wierzbicki, “Reflections on Rochberg and ‘Postmodernism,’” Perspectives of New Music, Vol. 45, no. 2 (Summer 2007): 109. http://www.jstor.org.proxy2.library.illinois.edu/stable/25164659
6 expressionism and engagement with diverse compositional styles.17 For example, the musical language that Rochberg used in Slow Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II) for flute and harp incorporates his unique interpretation of Japanese traditional music as well as quotations from a well-known Japanese lullaby. The piece features a continuous, meditative flow of various contrasting figures reflecting the slow, impersonal processes of an ever-transient, changing world. His applications of these artistic images greatly showcase his expressivity.
17 Alexander L. Ringer, “The Music of George Rochberg,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 52, No. 4 (October 1966): 418.
7 CHAPTER 2: MUSIC HISTORY OF JAPAN AND TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
2.1: BRIEF MUSIC HISTORY OF JAPAN
Japanese culture draws from a long history and deep traditions. This chapter will include a brief and modest introduction to Japan’s musical history to further assist the reader in their understanding and recognition of the Japanese references utilized and found in Rochberg’s works. Ultimately, this will guide the performer so that they may engage music in the classical tradition that incorporates Japanese materials.
The history of Japanese music has been documented since the eighth century.18 As in the musical histories of Western cultures, foreign culture from nearby countries played a critical role in Japanese music; in the case of Japan, the primary influences came from China. Furthermore, the music of religious organizations played a major role in Japanese music, just as in European music (e.g., Buddhism in Japan and the Catholic Church in the West). Chinese cultural migration has been very significant to Japan; however, other mainland Asian countries, such as Korea,
Mongolia, and Southeast Asia, have also played a part in the multicultural influences within
Japan over the centuries.
The Japanese historical periods correspond to significant political developments in
Japan.19 The first major historical period in Japan is known as the Nara period (710 – 794).
During this period, a new centralized government was formed, which was modeled after the
Chinese capital of the time; the name of this period comes from the city of Nara. The influence
18 Since Japanese was not yet a written language earlier in their history, the ancient Japanese musical scenes and culture were documented through Chinese sources. William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 31. 19 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 31.
8 of Chinese culture was certainly still seen in this period.20 Musical documentation in Japan also began to flourish during this period. Music was used in some of Japan’s first native literary works, the Kojiki (712) and the Nihon shoki (720), which are collections of Japanese mythology.
These collections of myths contain over two hundred poems, many of which were meant to be sung.21 The Nara period was also the beginning of Buddhism in Japan, which developed alongside the traditional Japanese religious practice of Shintoism. During this time, court music, gagaku, began to be performed in the Japanese imperial court. This type of music originated from Yayue, the Chinese ceremonial music of the Tang dynasty, and Aak, which came from
Korea. Throughout this period, international music and musicians were both heavily imported from China, Korea, and India in both sacred and secular genres.
More Japanese musicians began to thrive during the Heian period (794 – 1185) when the location of the imperial capital was moved from the city of Nara to Heian-kyō, which is now known as Kyōto. During this period, imported music and musical instruments were adapted and performed with native influences. Since a wide variety of music had been brought to Japan, the emperor gave orders concerning the various musical styles. The standard Gagaku orchestra was established around the ninth century, and the music was categorized into Tōgaku (“music of the left”), which contain musical elements from China, India, and Japan, and Komagaku (“music of the right”), which included musical elements from Korea and Manchuria.22 Gagaku instrumentation includes three main sections; percussion, strings, and winds. There are different sized drums, such as the dadaiko and gakudaiko, tsuridaiko, and gongs, such as shōko, which are
20 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 32. 21 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 31-32. 22 Benito Ortolani, The Japanese Theatre: From Shamanistic Ritual to Contemporary Pluralism (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1990), 297.
9 used to serve as a “colotomic structure.”23 The wind instruments used in gagaku ensembles include the kodai or shosōin shakuhachi, which was the earliest type of shakuhachi; the shō
(mouth pipe organ); the hichiriki (a Japanese oboe known as the center of the gagaku ensemble due to its strong tone); a transverse flute such as the kagurabue (performed in Shinto ceremonies); and the ryūteki (of Chinese origin and the largest gagaku flute, which resembles the flutes used in Noh) or komabue (of Korean origin and the smallest gagaku flutes).24 This section of the ensemble is known as the heart of the gagaku, and the wind instruments carry the main compositional melodic line and distinctive harmony.25 The role of strings in gagaku is secondary as they usually play arpeggios and fragments of melodies. The strings usually include the biwa (a plucked lute with four strings), the wagon (a six-stringed zither), and the gakusō (a thirteen- stringed zither that predates the koto).26 During the Heian period, the court aristocracy flourished, and art and literature continued to develop further, gradually becoming Japanized.27
The Kamakura period (1185 – 1333) was the new beginning of a military dictatorship led by Minamoto no Yoritomo in Kamakura, Japan, in which a separate headquarters was established north of Kyōto. During this period, the shogunate28 became an important force in the government and served alongside the imperial court. Another development during this period was that Buddhism became prominent, and common citizens of Japan, as well as warriors, began to apply the ethics of Zen Buddhism. In the musical scene, there was a decline in court music,
23 Various drums are utilized to signal major musical phrases or regulate the tempo of the piece. For example, shōko is usually played on the first beat of every measure and tsuridaiko is utilized to mark off a larger phrase units. This term is used in the gamelan music of Java and Bali; however, this structure was also adapted in Japanese gagaku. 24 Flute instrumentation depends on whether the origin of the music was Chinese, Korean, or Shinto. 25 Normally, sho is used to provide chordal harmonies instead of melodic lines, which are usually found in other wind instruments since sho produces multiple notes when air is blown into the instrument. 26 William P. Malm, “Japanese Music: A Brief Survey,” The World of Music, Vol. 20, No. 2 (1978): 64. 27 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 35, 103-113. 28 For nearly 700 years, the shogunate or the shogun was hereditary military dictator of Japan.
10 and theatrical arts became widely popular in both the court and the military. There was more emphasis on vocal and dramatic music, and this music was sung by a poet accompanied by biwa.
This tradition is comparable to the minstrel traditions of Medieval musicians and singers in
Europe. In addition, chanting by Buddhists became popular and greatly influenced the style of secular music, such as drinking songs. Both secular and sacred music became equally popular during the Kamakura period.29
During the Muromachi, or Ashikaga, period (1333 – 1568), there was a shift in the
Japanese social structure, which led to many feudal wars. This period began when members of the Ashikaga family took over the position of shogun in the Muromachi district in Kyōto, which was described as chaotic and violent. Although the Ashikaga clan occupied the shogunate for nearly 200 years, they could not successfully spread their political control as far as the Kamakura clan had been able to. During this same period, theatrical arts expanded, and performances of dance-dramas and acrobatics became prevalent in Japan. These developments led to the creation of Noh drama and the rise of the shakuhachi, a Japanese bamboo flute, which was often the instrument of choice for wandering priests known as Komusō. 30
The Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568 – 1600) included the final set of wars following the Ashikaga period. A leader named Oda Nobunaga and his associate, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, established a centralized government, which brought political unification and all provinces under single political control. During this period, Noh drama continued to gain popularity.31
29 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 36-37. 30 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 38. The Komusō, known as “monks of emptiness,” belonged to the Fuke sect of Japanese Zen Buddhism. These monks practiced suizen, which is a Zen practice of meditation using the shakuhachi flute. 31 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 39.
11 The Edo period (1600 – 1868), which took place under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate, brought peace and stability. Edo, now known as Tokyo, became the new capital of
Japan. During this period, a new concept was born in major cities: as the economy grew, many forms of art and entertainment began to flourish. For example, kabuki32 and bunraku puppet theatre became popular. Another major development in Japanese art was known as Ukiyo-E, or
“pictures of the floating world,” and, in music, there was a continuous rise of shamisen, koto, and shakuhachi performance.33
The Meiji period (1868 – 1912) brought about major political, economic, and social shifts in Japanese history. During this period, Japan signed treaties to open its country to international trade, which ultimately led to the defeat of the last shogun. This significant change brought about the modernization and Westernization of the country and established a new political system, which restored power to the emperor and a close-knit cabinet of advisors, including a group of nobles and former samurai.34 Western music dominated Japanese music education, throughout this period, and, specifically, Western military music was the first introduced in the Meiji era.35
The major shift from complete cultural isolation to the integration of Western culture ultimately enhanced the Japanese music scene and led to the establishment of conservatories of Western music. These conservatories focused on teaching Western-style compositions, and Japanese composers began to apply Western musical ideas in traditional Japanese music.36 Furthermore,
32 Kabuki is a traditional Japanese form of theater. The Japanese popular drama is performed with highly stylized singing and dancing with elaborate costumes and colorful make-up. 33 William P. Malm writes that “in Edo theater, audience participation and a good cry were as essential as they were to Italian operas of the same centuries [17th century].” Malm. Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 39-41. 34 The military nobility and members of the Japanese warrior caste are known as samurai (or bushi). The samurai warriors arose in the 10th century and performed military service until the 19th century. 35 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 42. 36 Following World War I, although an integration of Western musical ideas and style was still sought, nationalist ideology emerged with a blend of Japanese traditional instruments and scales within the context of the Western orchestra. (For example, writing a koto concerto for the Western orchestra.) Christopher Bryant Anderson, “The Use
12 post-World War II, the assimilation of Western music swiftly heightened due to the establishment of American military bases in Japan. As a result, the residency of Westerners increased as well as their imported Western goods. Thus, the rise of Western cultural presence in
Japan, undeniably, had a significant impact on Japanese citizens.37
Concurrently, as Japanese music became more widely available around the world, many
Western composers became intrigued by its unique concepts, and more broadly, the sounds of
Eastern musical traits. More Asian-influenced compositions were written around the turn of the twentieth century and emerged as an influence of growing significance in the development of
Western music.38 A further examination of some of the influences of Japanese music in
Rochberg’s piece, Slow Fires of Autumn will be provided in Chapter 3. More specifically, this research will connect the significant influence of the shakuhachi and Noh music as well as the
Japanese art genre that flourished during the Edo period, Ukiyo-E.
2.2: JAPANESE TRADITIONAL MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Rochberg was intrigued by the sound of the shakuhachi and koto combination that he had heard during his stay in Japan. The lasting memory of these instruments later influenced his composition, Slow Fires of Autumn. In this section, I will provide a brief survey of the Japanese traditional instruments shakuhachi and koto so that the performer may effectively portray them in deliveries of the piece. This chapter will include a brief discussion of the history, construction,
of Traditional Japanese Music as an Inspiration for Modern Saxophone Compositions: An Interpretive Guide to Joji Yuasa’s Not I But The Wind… And Masakazu Natsuda’s West, or Evening Song in Autumn.” (DMA diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014), 1. 37 Christopher Bryant Anderson, “The Use of Traditional Japanese Music as an Inspiration for Modern Saxophone Compositions: An Interpretive Guide to Joji Yuasa’s Not I But The Wind… And Masakazu Natsuda’s West, or Evening Song in Autumn” (DMA diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014), 1-2. 38 Chou Wen-Chung, “Asian Concerts and Twentieth Century Western Composers,” The Musical Quarterly, Vol. 57, No. 2 (April 1971): 211.
13 and timbre of the instrument, as well as a number of the prominent performance techniques used for its tone production.
Shakuhachi
The shakuhachi, a traditional Japanese vertical bamboo flute, has fascinated many composers from all over the world. This unique instrument, along with many other traditional instruments from Japan, was originally imported from China and other Asian countries. Once introduced in Japan, the shakuhachi underwent several transformations in conjunction with country’s political and cultural-historical periods.39
One of the first types of shakuhachi arrived from China at the end of the seventh century, when gagaku court music was established and flourished in Japan. This instrument had six holes and was much more slender than the later five-holed shakuhachi. Some shakuhachi differed in lengths, and not all were made out of bamboo; instead, jade, stone, and ivory could be utilized.
These types of shakuhachi were the starting point of the instrument’s development.40 After the decline of the gagaku shakuhachi during the late Heian period (794 – 1185), the construction of the flute varied again. Shakuhachi researchers, including musicologists and historians, have not yet reached a definitive conclusion; it is still heavily debated whether the tempuku or the hitoyogiri first appeared after the gagaku shakuhachi. Regardless, it is known that both instruments appeared in the Muromachi period (1392 – 1568) and have unique features. The tempuku and hitoyogiri were both constructed with five holes (four in the front and one in the back), though the tempuku was made from a very light piece of bamboo, whereas the hitoyogiri
39 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 69-70. 40 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 73.
14 was “constructed from a single node section of the bamboo.”41 The hitoyogiri has been discussed more amongst scholars since this instrument was commonly played by the wandering priests, known as komusō monks.42
The construction of the hitoyogiri was similar to the modern shakuhachi; however, at first, it was built with a thinner and narrower bamboo tube that was shorter in length, which created a sweeter and higher pitch and produced very delicate sounds. When the new religious group known as the Fuke sect was organized during the seventeenth century, the priests, known as the komusō monks, redesigned the hitoyogiri. They utilized the much larger root of the bamboo plant, which lengthened the instrument and created a thick end, similar to the shape of a club. The komusō monks were mostly comprised of former samurai who followed the Zen doctrine. They traveled freely, wore a woven basket over their heads to symbolize emptiness and their rejection of the vanity of the world, and played the Fuke-shakuhachi as a form of meditation known as suizen, or “blowing meditation.” These monks reconstructed the hitoyogiri in order to utilize the musical instrument as a weapon to protect themselves. They kept some of the construction the same as the hitoyogiri, including the five finger-holes and mouthpiece, into which the blowing edge was cut obliquely outward.43 As a result, the air that is used to blow across the edge of their mouthpiece is split, which causes only half of it to enter the instrument.
This construction creates a unique airy timbre that many people associate with the modern shakuhachi today. Overall, the new construction of the hitoyogiri led to a richer tone with greater
41 Sarah Renata Strothers, “Shakuhachi in the United States: Transcending Boundaries and Dichotomies” (Thesis, Bowling Green State University, 2010), 10. 42 Strothers, “Shakuhachi in the United States: Transcending Boundaries and Dichotomies,” 23-24. 43 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 166-169.
15 range and flexibility, and the Fuke-shakuhachi44 is said to be the predecessor of the modern shakuhachi.45
Figure 1: Komusō46 The expansion of shakuhachi music was indeed led by the komusō monks’ performances, which took place when they wandered from city to city, soliciting alms and leading those who listened to enlightenment. The Buddhist music performed by the Fuke sect of komusō is now referred to as honkyoku, and it is part of suizen. The Fuke-shakuhachi was solely used as a religious and spiritual tool rather than a musical instrument. The pieces that these monks played were referred to as “meditations” rather than “music,” and only the komusō monks were allowed to perform these pieces at the time. These monks also had special privileges granted by the central government, which allowed them to freely embark on pilgrimages, unlike average citizens, who were required to have official permission to pass certain checkpoints.47 The
44 The Fuke-shakuhachi that wandering priests used was a one-piece flute. It was not until the late nineteenth century that the two-piece shakuhachi became prominent. 45 Christopher Bryant Anderson, “The Use of Traditional Japanese Music as an Inspiration for Modern Saxophone Compositions: An Interpretive Guide to Joji Yuasa’s Not I But The Wind… And Masakazu Natsuda’s West, or Evening Song in Autumn” (DMA diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014), 11-13. 46 Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 185. 47 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 97.
16 popularity of the shakuhachi among the general audience grew over time; however, by the late nineteenth century, the Fuke sect that practiced suizen was banned by the government following the Meiji Restoration.48 When this took place, the new Western-oriented imperial government redefined the shakuhachi as a musical instrument instead of a spiritual tool. Ultimately, when the new government yet again allowed the use of the shakuhachi, the instrument became widely available to all citizens. This accessibility to the general public led to the vast expansion of the shakuhachi repertoire in a wide range of genres.49
Figure 2: Shakuhachi in various lengths50
48 The Japanese government banned Komusō monks from practicing suizen and destroyed all of the Fuke sect temples in an attempt to eradicate Buddhism from Japan. Much later in the Meiji period, the Japanese government agreed to allow the use of the shakuhachi as a secular instrument; ultimately, the practice of Buddhism was once again allowed. As a result, performances of honkyoku were revived. 49 Jay Keister, “The Shakuhachi as a Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,” in Asian Music. Vol. 35, No2 (Spring-Summer 2004): 99-100. 50 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 8.
17 Spiritual Element
Although the shakuhachi is not primarily considered to be a religious instrument today, the spiritual elements that were once associated with the shakuhachi are still notable in honkyoku, the solo repertoire performed by the komusō monks of the Fuke sect. The shakuhachi was purely used as a spiritual tool and not considered as a musical instrument, and the performance of the instrument was emphasized to be exclusively “the process of producing a sound than the production of that sound.”51 In other words, instead of constructing a predetermined path while playing, the goal of shakuhachi performance is to empty the mind through the repetition of alternating strong and weak beats and create a sense of eternity and freedom throughout the piece. The music should not be directed at an audience, and the emphasis should not be on the performer. The goal of the music is to maintain “a quiet state of mind completely cleared of any conscious thoughts.”52
Shakuhachi Performance Techniques
The following section will detail the most prominent characteristics of shakuhachi performance practice. The description of each technique, as well as the suggested methods to approach the authentic sound on the modern flute,53 will be provided to further advance the execution of Rochberg’s piece, Slow Fires of Autumn. The primary performance techniques to focus on are the shakuhachi tone quality, articulation, pitch changing, and ornamentations.
51 Jay Keister, “The Shakuhachi as a Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist Instrument in the West,” in Asian Music. Vol. 35, No2 (Spring-Summer 2004): 114. 52 Keister, “The Shakuhachi as a Spiritual Tool,” 114. 53 In this document, I will be referring the Böehm-system flute as “the modern flute.” This is the modern-day flute utilized all over the world today.
18 To produce a tone on the shakuhachi, one must blow a steady air stream across the mouthpiece. Unlike brass and reed instruments, which utilize all of the air produced, on the shakuhachi, only about half of the air enters the instrument. Although the sound of the shakuhachi is typically described as an extremely breathy and airy tone, the instrument is capable of producing a wide range of timbres—from whispery and reedy, to bright and metallic, and, even, soft and delicate.54 Further, in shakuhachi playing, this airy “noise” or impure tone is considered an essential part of Japanese musical aesthetics. This concept, known as sawari, embraces the marriage of extraneous noise within the timbre of the shakuhachi or other traditional instruments.55
Figure 3: Shakuhachi airstream56
The articulation technique on the shakuhachi is quite different from the articulation techniques of Western wind instruments. Instead of using the actual tongue to articulate, the
54 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 23. Furthermore, in the shakuhachi playing, “noise” is utilized to show something deep and meaningful gestures. The various airy tones created produced on the shakuhachi is considered as many possibilities of sounds. 55 Christopher Bryant Anderson, “The Use of Traditional Japanese Music as an Inspiration for Modern Saxophone Compositions: An Interpretive Guide to Joji Yuasa’s Not I But The Wind… And Masakazu Natsuda’s West, or Evening Song in Autumn.” (DMA diss., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2014), 14. Also, this concept is often discussed and applied to the performance of the stringed instruments, such as shamisen. 56 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 23.
19 cushiony part of the fingertip is used to open and close the holes and tap as fast as possible, which creates a “popping” sound. This tapping—or attack—creates a clear articulation on the instrument. My suggestion for mimicking this particular sound on the modern flute is to use a combination of the “key click” and “slap-tongue” technique. A percussive technique, called key click, can be achieved by simply pressing the keys down with much force. As for the slap-tongue technique, the performer should place the tongue either between the lips or against the hard palate behind the teeth. By building up strong pressure behind the tongue and by quickly snapping the tongue down or away from the teeth or lips, the “popping” sound is generated.
Vocalizing the syllable “doh” may help execute this technique. The performer may also achieve this technique by tucking in and pressing their lips tightly together, building up pressure, and then rapidly releasing as they vocalize the syllable “ba” or “pa.”
Pitch alteration is one of the essential performance practices used on the shakuhachi. This practice refers to the raising and lowering of the pitch using meri-kari techniques. Meri indicates the lowering of the head/chin and the tones are typically very soft and darker color. Depending on the angle, the pitch can be flattened as much as a minor third. For kari, the head/chin is positioned higher, resulting in the pitch rising as high as a half-tone and the timbres are slightly overblown and brighter in color. Further, to produce more than five pitches (the pentatonic scale) on the shakuhachi, meri-kari techniques are utilized in conjunction with half-holing or leaving a small space of the hole open and changing the angle and pressure of the lips. This process of pitch variation allows the instrument to play not only the full 12-tone chromatic scale but also the microtones in between.57 On the modern flute, by, lowering or raising the pitch by shifting the head, modifying the embouchure, fluctuating the air stream, as well as utilizing microtones and
57 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 39-42.
20 alternate fingerings, one can produce the similar pitch changing characteristics and timbre of the shakuhachi.58
As in standard Baroque performance practices, shakuhachi music also has its own formalized phrases and ornamentations, which are crucial for bringing unique and personalized characteristics to the music. For example, on the final melodic note in each phrase, an ending grace note or a brief flick on a pitch is typically added.59 To execute this on the modern flute, one may bend the note down by simply shifting the airstream or tucking in their chin and rolling in the head joint. Then, the performer may quickly lift the pitch up by rapidly reversing the previous technique before moving on to the next phrase. In The Shakuhachi: a Manual for
Learning, written by the shakuhachi master, Christopher Yohmei Blasdel, the author identifies the most prominent performance techniques found in the solo repertoire:60
• Grace Notes: These are added at the beginning or the ending of phrases and can also be seen in between phrases. Grace notes are usually quick and are produced by either moving the chin up or down, changing air fluctuation, or using microtone fingerings. To execute this on the modern flute, emphasize the grace note with keyclick and/or slap tongue technique and, if there are more than one, rapidly move between the grace notes.
Figure 4: Grace Notes
58 To learn specific fingerings for microtones, I highly suggest the manual written by a former solo flutist of Philadelphia Orchestra, James J. Pellerite, entitled, A Modern Guide to Fingerings for the Flute. James J. Pellerite. A Modern Guide to Fingerings for the Flute. (Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., Inc 1988), 39-48. 59 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 172-173. 60 This text has been utilized as a main resource and reference for many dissertations, scholarly essays, and renowned ethnomusicology journals. There are only limited number of manuals for shakuahchi that have been published in English. Overall, Blasdel’s text has been reviewed positively and recommended by some of the respected shakuhachi masters such as John Singer and Riley Kelly Lee, as well as a researcher of Japanese music, David W. Hughes. The list of shakuhachi performance techniques has been adapted from Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 46-5l.
21 • Nayashi: This kind of portamento is produced when the pitch is slowly bent down and up. On the shakuhachi, the performer begins with the standard tone, then gradually shifts to the meri position to bend the pitch down, followed by raising the pitch by shifting the head up to the kari position. On the shakuhachi, fingerings do not change. To execute this on the modern flute, you can use the same technique as the shakuhachi, including the head movements, and bend the pitch by changing the angle of the airstream.
Figure 5: Nayashi
• Suri-age, suri-sage: Another type of portamento. Suri-age is applied when a note changes to the next higher pitch. This technique consists of sliding the note up. Suri- sage is the opposite; it is applied when a note changes to a lower pitch. One major difference for this technique is that the performer is allowed to bend the pitch up slightly and, then, slide down the note to execute the next tone. These gestures may be accomplished on the modern flute by shifting the airstream gradually higher or lower or by rolling the flute inward or outward to bend the pitch up or down. If possible, slide the fingers off of open-holes.
Figure 6: Suri-age, suri-sage • Muraiki: This technique produces part wind and part tone. In order to achieve this characteristic on the shakuhachi, the performer blows an explosive charge of air into the flute, creating a perfect mixture of control and chaos. To execute this style of playing on the modern flute, use a combination of wind tone and a part of the “jet whistle”61 technique. This can be achieved by strongly overblowing a note with fast, high-pressure air while maintaining a proper embouchure with a slightly bigger aperture.62
61 Jet whistle is one of many flute extended techniques. The sound is produced by completely sealing the embouchure hole with your lips and blowing a very fast and forceful air, creating a loud blast of glissando-like sound without tone. 62 This is slightly different from the common jet whistle technique. Normally to produce a proper jet whistle, one must seal the embouchure hole completely with the lips.
22 • Kasaiki: This is similar to muraiki; however, it should not be played as explosively and chaotically as muraiki. Instead, this technique should be played with a breathy and airy tone, and the sound is sustained for a period of time. On the modern flute, this tone may be mimicked by using a much larger aperture as well as letting the air slightly flow over the top of the embouchure hole, while maintaining a consistent and set embouchure. The performer can engage the lower lip to aim the air higher. Additionally, by changing the vowel shape and the distance between the teeth, one can achieve different tone colors.
• Sorane: A light and airy tone with more breathy quality than a regular tone. This sound should be produced with little to no intensity on the shakuhachi. On the modern flute, this type of wind tone can be achieved by forming a much smaller aperture with a higher airstream, over the embouchure hole.
• Tamane (Flutter Tongue): This is similar to the flutter-tonguing technique that is utilized on the modern flute and other modern instruments. However, on the shakuhachi, it is more highly common to execute this technique by vibrating the uvula (gargling effect). On the modern flute, one may either roll the “r” and flutter- tongue, or throat-flutter (a soft gargle) by vibrating the uvula while blowing a fast, steady airstream.
• Sutebyoshi: This is a repetition on a single note. On the shakuhachi, this effect is produced by using the finger tapping technique. To execute the note repetition, the performer begins slowly and quietly. Then, gradually crescendo and accelerando by abruptly tapping the finger hole on the shakuhachi, or utilizing crisp articulations on the modern flute. Finally, the tempo quickly slows down, and the dynamic should diminuendo. In contrast, the very last note should be powerful and accented. This single note repetition in a rhythmic pattern (pushing and pulling of the tempo) is commonly found throughout Japanese traditional music.
Figure 7: Sutebyoshi • Yuri (Vibrato): The shakuhachi uses a variety of vibratos to present different colors and styles. There are numerous techniques to execute vibratos: the head swinging left to right (which mainly alters the rate of vibrato by the swinging speed of the head), the head swing up and down (which mainly alters the pitch), the fluctuation of breath/air, the head rotating in a circle, or the shakuhachi moving up and down rapidly. The overall effect of the shakuhachi vibrato sounds similar to a string vibrato than a diaphragmic vibrato utilized by woodwind instruments. On the modern flute, numerous types of vibratos can be applied to mimic the shakuhachi; use wide and slow vibrato, narrow and fast vibrato, intense, fast or slow vibrato, delicate, fast or slow vibrato.
23 The table below provides a summary of the information provided within this section:
Table 1: Selected shakuhachi performance techniques Shakuhachi Similar terms Definitions and Execution on Execution on Performance used in the shakuhachi the Modern Flute Techniques Western Music
Finger Lip/Tongue • The fingers are used to • Use a combination of key click and Tonguing Pizzicato “attack” the note to punctuate. the lip or tongue pizzicato to mimic the (Slap tongue) • The “articulated” notes are sound. Further instruction can be found heard more as blips or on pages 20. “popping” sound.
Meri Head/Chin • Meri: Lowering of the • Meri: Tilt your chin down, direct the & Position head/chin to flatten the tone. airstream down, or roll the flute in, to Kari • Kari: Raising of the lower the pitch. head/chin to sharpen the tone. • Kari: Opposite of the meri technique. (Chin up, air higher, or roll the flute out)
Grace Notes Grace notes • A quick note(s) is added at •Emphasize the grace note with the beginning or end of keyclick and/or slap tongue technique phrases. and, if there are more than one, rapidly move between the grace notes.
Nayashi Portamento • The note is gradually bent • You can use the head motion or bend down and up. the pitch by changing the angle of the • Fingerings do not change. airstream down and up. • Frequently produced by head movements.
Suri-age Portamento • Suri-age: Sliding the note • Bend the pitch up or down by shifting & up. This technique is applied the airstream gradually higher/lower or Suri-sage when the note changes to the rolling the flute in/out. next higher pitch. • If possible, slide fingers off of open- holes. • Suri-sage: Similar to suri- age, however, this is applied when the following note changes to a lower pitch. • First, slightly slide the pitch up, then slide down to execute the next note.
Muraiki Part Wind Tone/ • A blast of breathy sound. • Strongly overblow a note with fast, Part Semi-Jet • The flute produces part wind high-pressure air while maintaining a Whistle and part tone by using proper embouchure with a slightly explosive charge of air. bigger aperture. • Note: This is slightly different from the common jet whistle technique. Normally to produce a proper jet whistle, one must seal the embouchure hole completely with the lips.
24 Table 1: Selected shakuhachi performance techniques (continued) Shakuhachi Similar terms Definitions and Execution on Execution on Performance used in the shakuhachi the Modern Flute Techniques Western Music
Kasaiki Wind Tone •A breathy sound. • Breathy sound can be achieved by • Similar to muraiki but not as using a much larger aperture as well as explosive. allowing the air to slightly flow over the top of the embouchure hole. By changing the vowel shape and the distance between the teeth, one can achieve different tone colors.
Sorane Wind Tone • A light, airy sound. • A light and airy sound can be achieved by a much smaller aperture with a higher air direction.
Sorane Wind Tone • A light, airy sound. • A light and airy sound can be achieved by a much smaller aperture with a higher air direction.
Tamane Flutter Tongue • Flutter tongue or vibrate the • Rolled “r” flutter tongue while uvula (gargling effect) to blowing a fast, steady airstream. resemble flutter tonguing. • Throat flutter (a soft gargle) by vibrating the uvula while blowing a fast, steady airstream.
Sutebyoshi Repetition of a •Start slow, then accelerates. • Crisp articulation throughout. single tone Slow down at the end with the • Begin the note slowly and quietly. accent on the last note. Then, as you crescendo, gradually accelerate. The tempo should quickly slow down and diminuendo at the very end and accent the very last note.
Yuri Vibrato •The head swinging left to • A variety of vibratos can be applied to right mimic the shakuhachi: • The head swinging up and Wide and slow down Narrow and fast • The fluctuation of breath/air Intense, fast or slow • The head rotating in a circle Delicate, fast or slow • Moving the shakuhachi up • Avoid overly utilizing the vibrato and down throughout the piece. The traditional style of shakuhachi playing also frequently plays without the vibrato.
25 Koto
Figure 8: The 17-string koto (left), the 21-string koto (center), the 13-string koto (right)63
The koto, a thirteen-stringed, plucked board-zither, is one of the most commonly known traditional Japanese instruments, along with the shakuhachi. The Japanese koto originated in
China during the Nara period (710-794) and first appeared in the Japanese imperial court ensemble, gagaku. Although some materials and decorative aspects have changed over time, the basic overall shape and construction of the instrument has remained constant since the eighth century. There are two types of koto that are seen today: the Gakusō and the Zokusō. The Gakusō is utilized in the gagaku ensemble, whereas the zokusō is used in everyday performances.64
The koto is a long zither made from two pieces of paulownia wood with thirteen tightly twisted silk strings. Traditionally, this instrument is played while it rests on the floor. The body is hollowed out and the bottom is covered with a plank. The strings are supported by thirteen
63 Miki Minoru, “String Instruments (Zithers),” Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. Philip Flavin (Boydel & Brewer: University of Rochester Press, 2008): 128. 64 Henry M. Johnson, “Koto Manufacture: The Instrument, Construction Process, And Aesthetic Considerations,” The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 49 (March 1996): 38-39.
26
ivory or wood bridges that vary in sizes. Interestingly, these bridges can be moved up and down, which allows the performer to control the tuning of the instrument. The strings are plucked; however, the koto player wears three plectra, called tsume (literal translation as “nail”), on the right fingers (thumb, index, and middle). These tsume are typically made out of metal, bone, or plastic.65 The player does not wear any finger picks on the left hand; instead, the left hand is used to manipulate the strings to produce special effects and ornamentation such as vibrato and pitch bending.66 This instrument was, initially, a part of the gagaku ensemble; however, later, it became more popular among elite groups where it was used as a vocal or dance accompaniment.
During the seventeenth century, a blind musician named Ikuta Kengyō, a widely recognized as a pre-eminent koto player, transformed the pre-existing koto repertoire. He changed the playing techniques of the instrument by imitating the stylized performance of the shamisen.67 Kengyō innovated the style of koto music by combining the performance with the shamisen and developing music that emphasized the instrumental elements more than the vocal elements. Up until this point, the koto was primarily used as vocal accompaniment and was never utilized as a soloistic instrument, or, as such, a highlight of the performance. This transformation of performance style captured audiences’ interests and greatly popularized koto music.68 Further, in an attempt to mimic the sound of plucked shamisen strings, Kengyō redesigned a new tsume
(plectra) for the koto, making it more square by creating sharp corners. He believed that this
65 Depending on the school of performance, the shape of tsume varies. The Ikuta school uses squared-shape tsume, whereas the Yamada school uses rounded tsume. 66 Henry M. Johnson “Koto Manufacture: The Instrument, Construction Process, And Aesthetic Considerations,” The Galpin Society Journal, Vol. 49 (March 1996): 38. 67 Shamisen is a three-stringed traditional Japanese instrument that resembles a guitar or banjo. This instrument appeared in variety of genres; however, it was common in folk songs and other popular music. Th shamisen was especially associated with all of the activities related to night life during the Edo period. Geishas and Maiko often played the shamisen to accompany vocal or dance pieces for entertainment. 68 Christopher Andrew Ayer. “Miyagi Michiyo and His Works For Koto and Shakuhachi,” (Thesis, the University of Cincinnati, 1997), 8-9.
27 change would help to produce sounds that are more closely related to the bright and percussive tone of the shamisen. The pitch-bending technique in the shamisen style was another element that was added by Kengyō. This technique was accomplished by pressing down or pulling up on the string using the left hand after the pitch of the note was plucked by tsume.69
The koto developed even further during the Meiji period (1868 – 1912) when Western music was introduced to Japan. Miyagi Michiyo, a blind koto performer, innovator, and composer, was the first Japanese composer to incorporate Western music with traditional koto music. He has also invented several different sized koto with a various number of strings. He not only contributed hundreds of works to the modern koto repertoire but also created new performance techniques for the instrument. Michiyo and other contemporary composers began to imitate techniques that were originally utilized by the harp and other Western instruments.70
Figure 9: Squared shaped tsume (left) and rounded shaped tsume (right)71
69 Christopher Andrew Ayer, “Miyagi Michiyo and His Works For Koto and Shakuhachi” (Thesis, the University of Cincinnati, 1997), 9-10 70 Miki Minoru, “String Instruments (Zithers),” Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. Philip Flavin (Boydel & Brewer: University of Rochester Press, 2008),136. 71 Ibid., 129..
28 Koto Performance Techniques
The koto is performed by plucking the strings with tsume on the first three fingers of the right hand. The instrument is capable of producing a wide variety of timbres, from soft and delicate, to rich and warm, as well as bright and powerful. By changing the speed and strength of the strings that are being struck, as well as varying the distance from the bridge, one may achieve numerous tone qualities and dynamics. Much like the shakuhachi technique, pitch bending is also commonly applied to the koto performance by pressing down or pulling the string using the left hand. In addition, today, many Western musical techniques such as pizzicato, muting, and harmonics are utilized as a part of the standard methods on the koto. In Composing for Japanese
Instruments: String Instruments (Zithers), Miki Minoru, a renowned Japanese composer of many koto pieces, provides useful historical information and an orchestration manual for Japanese traditional instruments, including the koto. Minoru presents numerous resources for modern koto performance techniques and, below, a condensed list of the primary timbral effects is provided.
The principal koto performance techniques involve the use of the left and right hands and the proper application of the tsume.72 By understanding some of the unique inflections and characteristics of the koto, the performer will be able to better execute Rochberg’s piece, Slow
Fires of Autumn.
72 The list of performance techniques of koto has been adapted from Miki Minoru, “String Instruments (Zithers),”Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. Philip Flavin (Boydel & Brewer: University of Rochester Press, 2008),136-145.
29 Figure 10: The range of 13-string Koto73
• Oshibiki (glissando pressing technique): After the string has been plucked by the right hand, the pitch is raised by a minor or major second using the left hand. This is similar to the suri-age technique on the shakuhachi.74
Figure 11: Oshibiki • Oshi-hanashi: This is the opposite of oshibiki. A technique consists of sliding the pitch down. This is applied when the following note changes to a lower pitch. On the koto, this technique is executed by first, pressing the string down using the left hand, then release the string once plucked. This is similar to the suri-sage technique on the shakuhachi.
Figure 12: Oshi-hanashi • Yuri (vibrato): This is an application of vibrato by utilizing the left hand once a string has been plucked.75
• Ato-oshi (ornamental pressing technique): This is similar to oshibiki. After the string has been plucked by the right hand, the pitch is raised; however, the degree of pitch- bending is not specified to a specific interval and is indeterminate.
73 Miki Minoru, “String Instruments (Zithers),”Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. Philip Flavin (Boydel & Brewer: University of Rochester Press, 2008),131. The range between the whole notes are considered as the standard range of the koto. 74 The suri-age technique on the shakuhachi can be found on page 22. 75 On the harp, this is similar to the “vibrated sound” technique found in Mathilde Aubat-Andrieu, Laurence Bancaud, Aurélie Barbé and Hélène Breschand, “Playing Techniques,” Guide to the Contemporary Harp (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019), 62-63.
30 Figure 13: Ato-oshi
• Hiki-iro (pulling technique): After plucking a string, the pitch is lowered then lifted up by pulling the string. This technique is considered to be a delicate ornamentation and it is comparable to the nayashi technique found on the shakuhachi.76
Figure 14: Hiki-iro • Keshizume (muting technique): When stirking the string, the nail of the index finger (left-hand) is placed underneath the string. This technique produces a dull, buzz-like timbre.
• Muting: To mute the koto, place one of the fingers of the left hand on a string at the top of the bridge while plucking the string with the right hand. This dampens and reduces the resonance of the tone.77
• Pizzicato: To produce pizzicato on the koto, use the tips of the fingers instead of plucking with the tsume (plectrum).78
• Glissando: This technique may be performed with or without plectra producing various unique timbres. Furthermore, if glissando is played on the untuned left side or right side of the bridges, it produces an undefined pitch glissando.
• Uchikaki (plectrum strike/scrape): A multiple strings are scraped rapidly with a plectrum in a technique similar to a glissando.
76 The nayashi technique on the shakuhachi can be found on page 22. 77 This is equivalent to the “xylophonic sound” technique discussed in both Aubat-Andrieu, Bancaud, Barbé and Breschand, Guide to the Contemporary Harp, 64-65. And Carlos Salzedo. Modern Study of the Harp – L'etude moderne de la harpe (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1948), 19-22. 78 This is equivalent to the “plucked sound” technique discussed in Aubat-Andrieu, Bancaud, Barbé and Breschand, Guide to the Contemporary Harp, 62.
31 CHAPTER 3: GEORGE ROCHBERG AND JAPAN
3.1: THE JAPANESE INFLUENCE
George Rochberg published more than a hundred musical works in his lifetime. In addition to his musical compositions, he was also known as an influential writer, having published many essays about music. In the final years of Rochberg’s life, he completed a book entitled Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music. Ultimately published after his death in
2009, the work is dedicated to his first composition teachers from the Mannes School of Music,
Hans Weiss and George Szell, as well as to Rosario Scalero and Gian Carlo Menotti from the
Curtis Institute of Music. This autobiography beautifully captures Rochberg’s life as a composer, writer, and educator. Rochberg also includes a chapter devoted to the Ukiyo-E series, in which he shares his experiences from his trip to Japan and reveals the development of his interests in
Japanese music, art, and culture while also discussing the creative process for the Ukiyo-E series and Imago Mundi. This text provides a glimpse into Rochberg’s inspirations and intent in Slow
Fires of Autumn and is undoubtedly a significant resource for further understanding the piece.
In the text, Rochberg describes his first trip to Japan in 1973 as follows:
. . . No people and no culture ever had remotely comparable the effect upon me as did the Japanese, their music, their art and theater. No travel experience beyond the borders of America had anywhere near the memorable effect of that Japanese experience.79
Rochberg further explains that, although his trips to Australia, Russia, Mexico, and Israel, all left him with strong impressions, the three weeks he spent in Japan were the most memorable and unique experience that he ever encountered, and “translated directly into music for [him].”80
79 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 186. 80 Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces, 186.
32 . . .it was the exotic Japanese experience that most fascinated me and drew out of me music unlike any I’d previously composed, unlike because of its marked differences in color, texture, form, expression, emotional source, and range.81
His journey to Japan began with an invitation to participate in a conference of the
International Society for the Study of Time; however, what impacted him the most were two unexpected and unforgettable events. First, the Japanese university that was hosting the conference invited a group of Japanese traditional instrumental performers, named “Yonin No
Kai” (literal translation is “Group of Four”). They were a highly-respected ensemble in Japan and considered to be a national treasure. The instrumentation for this ensemble included the shakuhachi, a vertical bamboo flute, and three kotos of various sizes. Rochberg described the performance of the shakuhachi and koto as follows:
. . . strangely moving – as much for the incredible range of the subtle inflections of expression possible on it, which make the instrument sound almost human, as for its incredibly dark, rich, woody timbre in its lowest register and piercing poignancy in its upper register. . . I was drawn to the poetic expressiveness of the vertical flute and the reverberating strength of the attack timbre of the generic koto. Whether large or small, its pitches could be bent microtonally by pressure from the fingers of the left hand on the resonating string or stings.82
The unique sound of nature produced by the Japanese traditional instruments had a significant and lasting effect on Rochberg, and ultimately led to the creation of his first composition in the series, Ukiyo-E for solo harp. For both Ukiyo-E and Slow Fires of Autumn, Rochberg explained that his intention was to treat the harp more like the koto, a traditional Japanese stringed instrument. He wanted to find ways for the instrument to produce a variety of timbres in all
81 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 187. 82 Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces, 188.
33 registers, including unique colors and resonances that step away from the French harp music of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.83
The second unforgettable event that left Rochberg with enduring memories of Japan was the farewell dinner festivities that also celebrated his fifty-fifth birthday, which his wife had secretly arranged during their stay. At this celebration, Rochberg met a special guest, a Japanese doctor, who loved Japanese music, especially the Noh drama and specialized singing common to the genre. In honor of Rochberg, the doctor sang a Noh song with rising and falling emotions that reflected the meaning of the text and vocalized the authenticity of the ritual intonations of
Noh.84 Rochberg described this performance “magical” although he had no understanding of the text or the story being told. Nonetheless, he could hear the dark pain conveyed by the singer’s use of strangulated vocal sounds. In just those few moments, Rochberg was captivated by the world of Noh drama. Rochberg and his wife attended Noh theater at the end of his stay in Japan, and he characterized the singing and his personal experience of the performance as:
. . . kind of intoned, bone-sad chanting projected in a tightly pinched, high-placed nasal tone of voice. . . the extreme slowness of Noh. . .That dreamlike slowness cast a spell over me: far more than mechanical slow motion, it is closer to an otherworldly pace, a form of floating, motionless motion, than any form of Western acting or theater I know of. That almost surreal, ritualized slowness, combined with the mournful, white-painted faces of the ghost characters telling their tragic tales costumed in ornately rich, traditional kimonos was mesmerizing. By some kind of intuitive understanding below the level of language, we heard, saw, and felt what was happening onstage. That slowness – which still haunts and grips me – reaches into the core of existence itself.85
83 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 88. 84 Noh is a form of traditional Japanese musical drama that originated in the fourteenth century. Noh moves very slowly and uses poetic language. Noh songs are accompanied by a small sensemble of Japanese traditional instruments and are usually sung in an almost chant-like, monotonous style.The costumes of Noh drama are elegant, and the actors wear elaborate masks. The plots of the dramas are extracted from Japanese classic literatures such as the Genji Monogatari. 85 Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces, 189.
34 Rochberg brought back two souvenirs from Japan, which both played an influential role in composing Imago Mundi and Slow Fires of Autumn. The first souvenir was a recorded set of
Gagaku music, and the second item was a Japanese music box.86 As he pulled the chain that hung from what resembled a Christmas tree ornament, he described a “. . . sadly sweet tune . . .
It was that very affecting, melancholy, simple tune, with its irregular phrase shapes, that triggered my imagination. . .” 87 An old Japanese folk lullaby played in this music box was later incorporated in Rochberg’s Slow Fires of Autumn. In doing so, Rochberg captured the melodic and rhythmic essence as well as the rich imagery of Japan in his composition.
Rochberg indicated that all four Japanese-influenced works, Imago Mundi, Ukiyo-E
(Pictures of the Floating World), Slow Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II), and Between Two Worlds
(Ukiyo-E III) as:
. . . imagistic: Personal, subjective evocations, each in its own way a dreaming consciousness’s internal picturing through musical images (obeying no necessary logic of association or succession) moving freely in a fluid space (rather than time) unanchored from gravity; and, in the case of the Japanese-influenced Ukiyo-E chamber pieces, the sense of motion is, more often than not, closer to floating than anything else imaginable.88
Continuing, Rochberg shared his perspective of the traditional school of Japanese painting,
Ukiyo-E, as “. . . precise delineation of a world we recognize but is not necessarily ‘real’ in the purely mundane sense.”89 He explained that these paintings had a way of transforming the natural world and people into something magical and beyond reality. Rochberg transforms this concept into musical imagery by shifting musical ideas to:
86 Rochberg mentions in the text, Five Lines, Four Spaces, that this recorded set of ceremonial Gagaku court music was played on traditional Japanese wind and percussion instruments. You can find more information regarding this musical setting in chapter 2.1: Japanese Musical History of this document. 87 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 190. 88 Ibid., 192. 89 Ibid., 192.
35 . . . seamlessly [move] from image to image, gesture to gesture, idea to idea without the necessity of connecting links binding too closely the succession of motion, figuratively letting the music float in a space that does not confine it to movement in any predesignated direction or order. The piercing charm of Ukiyo-E lies in its power to image the world not as static, fixed forms of ‘reality’ but as floating pictures of radiant qualities ranging from states of melancholic forlornness and emptiness to quiet or ecstatic joy.90
At the same time, Rochberg mentioned that during the process of composing the series Ukiyo-E
(Pictures of the Floating World) for solo harp, he was also heavily influenced by a passage from a novel that he was reading at the time, entitled Apocalypse by D.H. Lawrence:91 “Allow the mind to move in cycles, or to flit here and there over a cluster of images…One cycle finished, we can drop or rise to another level and be in a new world at once.” Rochberg states that this passage drove him for the rest of the Ukiyo-E series, “whether in sound, word, or color."92
3.2: THE CREATIVE PROCESS
Slow Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II) was commissioned by the Walter W. Naumburg
Foundation for flutist, Carol Wincenc, who was the winner of the 1978 Naumburg Competition.
The Walter W. Naumburg Foundation, founded in New York City in 1925, is one of the oldest and most prestigious American musical foundations, which sponsors an annual competition, The
Naumburg Competition. This foundation selects gifted young musicians and chamber groups and gives them the opportunity to debut in New York City. The winner is provided not only with a significant cash prize but also with two subsidized New York City recitals, a premiere performance of a commissioned work, and other U.S. concert engagements. Carol Wincenc and
90 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 193. 91 In Apocalypse, D. H. Lawrence writes a complex novel which includes his criticism of the Book of Revelation. He presents his view of the political, religious, and social structures that have shaped the Western civilization. 92 Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces, 193.
36 harpist, Nancy Allen, premiered Slow Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II) for flute and harp on April
23, 1979, at the Alice Tully Hall in New York City.93
Rochberg’s thought process for the piece began in November 1978. This was around the same time as the anniversary of his son’s passing, which put Rochberg in a period of grief and melancholy. He wrote, “perhaps it was the sense that had settled over me with that summer’s end and the first signs of autumn that the fires that had flared up in the spring and summer months were dying out – slowly, very slowly but surely. An all-pervasive ache settled in me and lasted all through the time when, in January 1979, I finished the work I’d undertaken for flute and harp.”94
The words of the title formed organically by themselves during a drive on a winter day.
The way that Rochberg describes the creation of its title portrays beautiful imagery:
Slow Fires of Autumn – the slow burning out of the life in nature. The music became a bone-deep meditation on what comes before the final sleep, the inexorable slow dying away, the willing, shriveling, shrinking, and curling of all the greens of summer turning to all the browns of fall and winter. The music grew out of the Japanese music-box lullaby, its flavor almost F minor, its Japanese modality floating in its own weight of years.95
This commentary on the title of the piece perfectly illustrates the gradual shift of different seasons: the full cycle of nature and its brightness in summer, which slowly fades into the calmer, more meditative stages of fall and winter. Rochberg continued to explain that this piece is “deeply a subjective picturing of an inner human landscape.”96 Further, he clarified that one of the determining factors for his inclusion of the subtitle Ukiyo-E II was because some elements of the harp figures from the first composition, Ukiyo-E for solo harp (1973), were incorporated in
93 Dixon, Joan DeVee, George Rochberg: A Bio-Bibliographic Guide to His Life and Works (Stuyvesant, NY: Pedragon Press, 1992), 121. 94 Ibid., 195. 95 Ibid., 195. 96 Ibid., 198.
37 Slow Fires of Autumn. Consequently, these pieces became the ultimate series of imagistic
Japanese-inspired works that Rochberg saw as “pictures of the floating world.”
3.3: GEORGE ROCHBERG, CAROL WINCENC, AND CHRISTINA JENNINGS
“Allow the mind to move in cycles, or to flit here and there over a cluster of images . . . One cycle finished, we can drop or rise to another level and be in a new world at once.” – D. H. Lawrence Apocalypse
George Rochberg worked closely with Carol Wincenc and Nancy Allen during the compositional process. Wincenc reminisces about the process of working together in Joan
DeVee Dixon’s book entitled George Rochberg: A Bio-Bibliographic Guide to His Life and
Works:
. . . What I remember so vividly in those meetings with George in my upper-west-side apartment was not only the rich exchange of musical ideas—he would ask, “How do you do ‘that’ on the flute?”, “Is ‘this’ sonority possible?”, “This passage must be played in a burst and flurry of ff,” – but the intensity of feelings, as this work had deep personal significance for George which he shared with me. Years later I was to take my first tour to Japan which brought home for me many of these feelings, a uniquely creative spirit generated by that culture and George’s experience of it.
I knew I had ventured into a most special place – performer with composer, together, bonded, and committed to a process of inquiry and discovery. It couldn’t have begun in a more timely and dramatic fashion.
Slow Fires to me is a work of great beauty and a great challenge to perform. It is one I shall grow with beyond its first ten years and into the decades to come. . .97
In researching this thesis, I conducted a phone interview with Wincenc to record her impressions of Rochberg’s influences while developing this piece and to get a glimpse of her experience working directly with the composer. Much to my surprise, Wincenc informed me
97 Joan DeVee Dixon, George Rochberg: A Bio-Bibliographic Guide to His Life and Works (Stuyvesant, NY: Pedragon Press, 1992), 121.
38 that, during the preparation of the piece, Rochberg did not share any of his personal thought processes, nor did he mention D.H. Lawrence’s quote from Apocalypse as an inspiration for the work. Instead, she vividly remembered that he intensively focused on the sound, shape, time, and expressiveness of the music. Wincenc, however, shared her thoughts on the D.H. Lawrence quote, “you can hear it [in the composition], [Rochberg] alternates the sound haven. It’s like short streams of consciousness.”98
During the interview, I asked about any challenges that she encountered during the preparation of the piece. She responded that at that particular time in her life, one of the significant challenges was “leav[ing] behind Western approaches and fully going for a sound and style that is Eastern.” Wincenc discussed how she and Allen had to be willing to “go outside of the box.” She commented that “this can be something really difficult to do for those who are primarily trained in Western music,” although this type of music was starting to become more prevalent in the West. Wincenc further shared Rochberg’s vision for the sound of Slow Fires of
Autumn:
Rochberg wanted aggressive. He wanted dramatic differences between extraordinary to gravitas to anguished moment. . .What he was asking of them was really, invited them to the world of improv so to speak. . . I just think that going outside of the box, it has an element of improv.99
She concluded the conversation with a discussion on the ending of the piece. “What’s very important is that at the very end, he wanted the absolute peacefulness. He wanted such a feeling of tranquility, like what you probably get when you meditate.”100 Wincenc and Allen recorded the piece with the CRI recording production.101 Rochberg worked alongside them
98 Interview with Carol Wincenc, August 26, 2019. 99 Ibid. 100 Ibid. 101 George Rochberg, George Rochberg Volume Two. Carol Wincenc and Nancy Allen. Digital disc. CRI American Masters, 769, 1997.
39 every step of the way during the recording session, and Wincenc expressed that the end product of this recording reflected Rochberg’s wishes for Slow Fires of Autumn. They executed everything that Rochberg suggested and wanted in this piece from timbre, use of space, and the expressions of each gestural motive.
I was also fortunate to be able to conduct an interview with another renowned flutist and a former student of Wincenc’s, Christina Jennings. Christina Jennings is currently an Associate
Professor of Flute at the University of Colorado, Boulder, and she is known as an acknowledged expert on Rochberg’s music. Recently, she published a Naxos disc of flute music by George
Rochberg. It features Slow Fires of Autumn as well as her transcription of Rochberg’s Caprice
Variation, which was originally written for solo violin. Although she did not work directly with
Rochberg on Slow Fires of Autumn, she had a close personal connection with the composer during his lifetime since her father was the second violinist for the Concord String Quartet, with which Rochberg collaborated for many years.
Jennings describes Slow Fires of Autumn as “cyclical and wave-like,” and she was fascinated by D.H. Lawrence's quote, which she believed summarized the piece perfectly. She commented:
Yes, this piece kind of goes on and on and on. . . and is very cyclical and wave-like, and then there is this outburst that it is so typical of Rochberg’s music. Where you will have this dreamy or wandering section followed by something that is very intense. The idea of Ukiyo-E, the floating pictures of the world, I think is, very appropriate here. And then, there is nothing like finally getting into the ending and the incredible fade away of the folksong is really spectacular.102
She followed up that the piece is beautifully written; however, she commented that due to the
“wandering” quality of the piece, listeners may get lost if the performer does not set up the scene properly. This music has incredible flexibility and spaciousness, which requires clear
102 Interview with Christina Jennings, April 6, 2018.
40 interpretations in the moment of its performance. Jennings describes Rochberg’s work of art as
“crazy atonal outburst followed by extreme emotional lines and gestures—dance and comic-like gestures (even in the atonal way) are very much present in this piece.”103
3.4: ITSUKI NO KOMORIUTA (五木の子守唄)
The Japanese folksong incorporated into Slow Fires of Autumn is one of the most widely known folksongs in Japan, and it is often taught in school music classes. Rochberg never revealed the name or the origin of the folksong, which he heard from a simple Japanese music box that was one of the souvenirs from his trip to Japan. Coincidentally, I immediately recognized the song when I originally heard Rochberg’s piece, as I was born and raised in Japan near the area where this tune originated.
Itsuki no Komoriuta (五木の子守唄), “Itsuki Lullaby,” derived from Itsuki village in the
Kumamoto Prefecture on Kyushu island, which is the southernmost of the four main islands of
Japan. There are numerous versions of the lyrics to this lullaby; however, overall, the song is a sad reflection of the poor young girls from Itsuki village who were sent to the city to be employed as babysitters for rich families. While soothing the babies asleep, these young girls created versions of lullabies in which they sang about their lives, misfortunes, and hardships. A local historian of Itsuki village, Teruo Uemura, found 350 variant lullabies, most of which exhibited desire and discontent. Uemura comments that singing was their way of releasing feelings that these young girls were prohibited from expressing in public.104
103 Interview with Christina Jennings, April 6, 2018. 104 Erick Eiichi Masuyama, “Desire and Discontent in Japanese Lullabies,” Western Folklore, Vol. 48, no. 2 (April 1989): 144.
41 I’m a beggar. You are rich, with obi105 and rich kimono. Who will weep if I’m beaten to death but the cicadas on the pines. No, not the cicadas, but my young sister who would cry for me.106
I’ll only be here ’til Bon107; if Bon comes early, I’ll go home early. I’m just a beggar; these are goodly folk, with nice obi waist-sashes and nice kimono. If I should die, bury me by the roadside; offerings of water will come from the passers- by. (If I should die, who would cry for me? Only the locusts in those pine mountains.)108
Rochberg learned from a pianist and friend, Etsuko Tazaki, that this tune was an old traditional
Japanese folk song. However, it is unlikely that he was aware of the origin or lyrics of this lullaby since there has not been any documentation found during this research that discusses the music beyond overviews of its melody and title. In one of his texts, Rochberg describes the tune as a “very affecting, melancholy, simple tune with its irregular phrase shapes.” 109 Nonetheless, the melody that Rochberg heard from the delicate music box acquired in Japan captivated his imagination and transformed into the haunting yet beautiful composition, Slow Fires of
Autumn.110
105 Obi is a type of belt to keep traditional Japanese garments, such as the kimono, in place. Depending on the material, Obi can be very expensive and prized for their craftmanship. 106 Katsumasa Takasago, Liner notes to Japan Flower Dance: Japanese Folk Melodies. Digital disc. Nonesuch Records Inc., 451900-2, 2008. 107 Bon or obon (お盆) is a Japanese Buddhist custom. It is a celebration to honor the spirits of one's ancestors. 108 David W. Hughes, Liner notes to Min’yō: Folk Song from Japan, Takashi Yujiro and Friends. Disgital disc. Nimbus Records, NI 5618, 1999. 109 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 190. 110 Several renowned flutists have also taken an interest in this beautiful tune and have arranged and/or recorded a version of “Itsuki no Komoriuta.” For example, James Galway arranged a flute and orchestral piece that contains numerous Japanese folk songs. In 1979, he published a record entitled “Song of the Seashore and Other Melodies of Japan” and arranged “Itsuki no Komoriuta” for flute with harp and orchestra. Furthermore, Jean-Pierre Rampal has collaborated with Ensemble Lunaire and later published a recording entitled “Japanese Folk Melodies” in 1988. This record also consists of significant number of Japanese folk melodies including the flute and orchestral arrangement of “Itsuki no Komoriuta.” A Dutch flutist-composer, Wil Offermans, has written “Itsuki-no-Komori-uta Japanese Lulluby of Itsuki Village” for flute ensemble. There is also an edition called “Made in Japan,” which provides a flute part to selected Japanese folk songs. Interestingly, this edition includes a play-along accompaniment CD recorded by Wil Offermans himself on flute, alto flute, bass flute, and synthesizer.
42 CHAPTER 4: SLOW FIRES OF AUTUMN (UKIYO-E II) FOR FLUTE AND HARP
Figure 15: Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa111
4.1: UKIYO-E: THE JAPANESE WOODBLOCK PRINTS
There are several identifiable elements that can be associated with the traditional
Japanese painting, Ukiyo-E, and concepts and methods in Rochberg’s composition Slow Fires of
Autumn that depict them. Before I explore the relationship between Rochberg’s composition and the Japanese traditional Ukiyo-E art, I will provide a brief historical background of this art genre and the printing method employed in its reproduction.
During the Edo period (1600-1868), the arts and popular culture flourished which led to substantial economic growth. Ukiyo-E, which refers to Japanese woodblock prints, became especially prevalent among all citizens during this period. In Japanese, Ukiyo translates to
“floating world,” and E means “picture.” A novel entitled Tales of the Floating World published in 1661 defined Ukiyo as:
111 Gian Carlo Calza, Ukiyo-e (New York: Phaidon Press Inc. 2005), 205.
43 . . .living only for the moment, turning out full attention to the pleasures of the moon, the snow, the cherry-blossoms, and the maple-leaves, singing songs, drinking wine, and diverting ourselves just in floating, floating, caring not a whit for the pauperism staring us in the face, refusing to be disheartened, like a gourd floating along with the river current: this is what we call ukiyo.112
Further, Gian Carlo Calza, a world-renowned scholar, describes the culture of Edo period as:
It is a shallow world in which the pleasures of life – fashions changing with the predictability of the seasons, celebrity and beauty – had pride of place. A world of wealth and luxury created and destroyed in the space of a dream, and a world of attraction and denial, indulgence and tedium. It was a fast and flashy world; one that urged you to keep up, but was soon gone. There was no time to think and listen, but only to live, to drink the moment down to the dregs, and to let oneself go with the flow of the great river of impermanence as it drifted by.113
Ukiyo-E often presented a glimpse of various popular cultures such as busy street scenes, kabuki theatres, portraits of renowned beauties and actors, courtesan-quarters, and, later, images of landscapes and nature.114 Regardless of the subject matter, Ukiyo-E art portrayed moments in time that reflect the constantly changing world.
The pictures of the floating world can be found in a variety of mediums from paintings, screens, postcards, and illustrated books. Ukiyo-E is characterized by the use of precise black lines contrasted with watercolor-like paints, which present an illustrative quality and lack a clear sense of depth and dimension. These woodblock prints create a flat image, which is one of the distinctive features of Ukiyo-E prints. One of the primary factors that contributed to the popularity of Ukiyo-E was the ability for these to be produced in large quantities at a low cost.
112 Frank Whitford, Japanese Prints and Western Painters (New York: Macmilian, 1977), 57. 113 Gian Carlo Calza, Ukiyo-e (New York: Phaidon Press Inc. 2005), 6. 114 Hokusai’s The Great Wave off Kanagawa is one of the most internationally iconic Ukiyo-E woodblock print today.
44 Thus, the art became widely available and affordable beyond the elites, and its appreciation and enjoyment significantly increased among the middle-class during the Edo period.115
Figure 16: An example of renowned beauties. Figure 17: an example of the landscape. Kitagawa Utamaro’s Three Beauty of the Present Day.116 Katsushika Hokusai’s South Wind, Clear-Dawn.117
The printing technique and process for executing these images is also incredibly unique.
The first process involves the artist providing a sketch using only black ink. Next, utilizing a carving knife, the sculptor would engrave the outlines of the given drawing. The sculptor was responsible for carving multiple woodblocks of the same sketch since the printing process required layers of various colors. Each woodblock added a coat of different pigments to the scene and, while sequencing the image, the painter began with the lightest tone in the smallest area and moved to darker shades and larger areas. Meanwhile, artists provided some coloring
115 Woodblock prints were inexpensive alternatives to paintings, but they were more affordable and thus more widely available to more people. 116 Gian Carlo Calza, Ukiyo-e (New York: Phaidon Press Inc. 2005), 399. 117 Ibid., 206.
45 concepts and carving instructions.118 The process of Ukiyo-E production is, thus, a collaborative process. The printmaker is only responsible for providing a master drawing and basic instructions; thus, the actual engraving of woodblocks and the coloring process is left to other, highly specialized artists.
This method for creating Ukiyo-E art is very similar to the production of music. As mentioned previously, the Ukiyo-E painting process is collaborative. The principal artist provides the sketch of the print and directs the use of colors. Then, the execution of the art printing is left to the other specialized artisans. Composing and performing music often resembles this process.
For example, Rochberg’s role as a composer can be comparable to that of the sketch artist. The overall “sketch” of the piece is indicated by various combinations of pitches and rhythms, which is relative to the bold outlines of the drawing in Ukiyo-E. Rochberg also notated diverse mixtures of dynamics, timbral effects, musical style, and duration to guide the performer, which are analogous to the colors in visual art. Further, there are high demands of artistry involved in the creation of modern, yet beautiful, Ukiyo-E prints. For example, the artisans must demonstrate a wide range of skills in order to produce great subtlety in the graphic: from the use of robust, vibrant colors to the gradation technique, “bokashi,” as well as the quality of the lines, which vary from smooth and delicate to wide and strong. Similarly, musicians have a significant role when performing a piece. Performers must have a high level of creativity and skill in order to implement the composer’s intent. Thus, the collaboration between the composer and the performer resembles the creation process of Ukiyo-E art.
Rochberg’s imagistic work of beauty, Slow Fires of Autumn, perfectly captures the literal translation of the art genre, Ukiyo-E, or picture of the floating world. This piece can be divided
118 Tadashi Kobayashi, Ukiyo-e: An Introduction to Japanese Woodblock Prints (Japan: Kodansha International, 1997), 60-61.
46 into five different “images.” Since the piece is an open score and no barlines are indicated in the majority of this piece until the very end, I will identify each section/image with tempo markings
(if provided in the score), page numbers, and musical systems. The page numbers are taken from the harp part and the five images are divided as follows:
5 Images in Slow Fires of Autumn
Image A: Molto adagio; sempre recitando e liberamente – Pg. 3, begins with the harp Internal sub-sections: A1. Agitato Molto – Pg. 4, fourth system A2. Agitato Molto – Pg. 6, first system
Image B: No tempo marking – Pg. 8, second system, begins with the harp Internal sub-sections: B1. No tempo marking – Pg.10, first system, cadenza-like flute section B2. Tranquillo – Pg. 12, fourth system, begins with the flute
Image C: Poco adagio con molto espressione – Pg.13, second system (In scale) Internal sub-sections: C1. freely, rubato molto – Pg.14, second system C2. a tempo – Pg. 14, third system C3. un poco piu mosso – Pg. 14, fourth system C4. freely; molto rubato – Pg. 15, third system C5. tempo primo (poco adagio) – Pg. 16, first system
Image D: No tempo marking – Pg. 16, third system, begins with the harp Internal sub-sections: D1. cantando, rubato – Pg. 18, third system D2. dolore – Pg. 19, second system D3. Poco animato, rubato – Pg. 20, first system
Image E: Andante semplice – Pg. 21, third system (F minor)
As detailed previously, the unique “painting” method utilized in the Ukiyo-E art is layered coloring and the use of the technique can be further explored in Rochberg’s composition.
Each of the five floating images of the world found in Slow Fires of Autumn, shows evidence of contrast on many levels, including tempo, dynamics, register, articulation, harmony, and tone.
47 These various components are applied to different gestural and timbral motives, which then act as distinctive “colors” or “coloring effects,” similar to gradation techniques.
The piece begins with a long sustained note played near the soundboard with a fingernail attack on the string, which is followed by slow, overlapping motivic statements of half-steps and tritones [0 1 6], and concludes with delicate harmonics. This is one of many gestures found primarily throughout the Image A section.
Figure 18: Pg. 3, first system (Harp). Marked with overlapping [0 1 6] motives.
Another primary gestural motive found in the Image A section first appears in the flute part: rapid grace notes followed by a long sequence of sustained values. In a few areas, Rochberg extends the motion with quick, grace note-like figures followed by a sustained note.
Figure 19: Pg. 3, second system (Flute)
48 Figure 20: Pg. 3, second system to third system (Flute) An example of quick, grace note-like figure.
On page four, the fourth system, the flute enters with forceful energy, containing new agitated motions, which then continues with a contrasting tranquillo line. Although the gestures in this sub-section of Image A are rather contrasting, the melodic content is comprised of the same pitch motive, [0 1 6], that was presented at the beginning of the piece in the harp.
Figure 21: Pg. 4, fourth system (Flute). Also contains [0 1 6] motives.
Figure 22: Pg. 5, first system (Flute)
The harp’s arpeggiated figure on page five in the second system adds a new textural element to the sustained notes played by the flute, which has been a familiar expression seen throughout this section.
49 Figure 23: Pg. 5, second system (Harp)
One final gestural element found within the Image A section is the group of thirty-second notes presented on page seven, first system. These notes, which are marked quick and clearly articulated, are a unique characteristic of this section. These notes should be performed with a clear tone and pointed articulations to present a pop of “color.”
Figure 24: Pg. 7, first system (Flute)
50 A new burst of energy played by the harp appears in the introduction of the Image B section. The harp’s wave-like motive, first, begins slowly, then quickly accelerates as the notes ascend. When this gesture is passed to the flute with a grand sustained note (G#3), the section continues on with a new element added to the image. The sustained trill notes and the flutter tongue expression that appear later in this section are both highlighted textural motives found in
Image B.
Figure 25: Pg. 8, second and third system (Harp and Flute)
At the beginning of page nine, marked “Largamente; ma sempre rubato,” both the rhythmic and the pitch-bending figures found in the harp part and intensive, soaring outburst in the flute, create a newly added tension. In contrast, the gestural glissandi motive in the harp part (“Tranquillo” on page twelve, fourth system), adds intricate and flowing layers to the overall Image B section.
51 Figure 26: Pg. 9, 1st and 2nd system (Harp and Flute)
Figure 27: Pg. 12, fourth system (Harp)
In the Image C section, there are several key elements that uniquely distinguish it from the previous Images, including the first use of a key signature. In addition, the entire section prominently features a prolonged use of modality (In scale, C Aeolian, D Locrian, C Octatonic, and Ab Aeolian) and some of the sub-sections display a compositional style that is reminiscent of Impressionistic composers, including Claude Debussy. At the beginning of Image C, there is a distinctive gestural motive found in the harp part with ascending eighth notes and added contrary motion in the last beat of the phrase that periodically repeats throughout the section. This
52 gestural motive utilizes the In scale, which is one of the two predominate pentatonic scales within Japanese traditional music.119
Figure 28: Pg. 13, third system (Harp) An example of the ascending figure with added contrary motion.
Figure 29: An example of Yō and In scales120
Following this folk-like section, the next sub-section of Image C (page fourteen, second system, “freely; molto rubato”) contains a flowing, triplet ostinato-like figure in the flute. The harp showcases a descending sequence, which lacks a clear harmonic cadence, and greatly resembles one of the primary characteristics of Impressionistic music.
119 The Yō scale and In scale are the two types of pentatonic scales that are commonly used in Japanese traditional music. The Yō scale is similar to the major pentatonic scale; however, it does not contain any minor notes. Contrastingly, the In scale contains minor intervals. Malm states, “the Yō scale is basic to folk music all over the world, but the half notes in the In scale are particularly Japanese.” William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 160. 120 Ibid., 160.
53 Figure 30: Pg. 14, second system (Harp and Flute)
Image D contains several gestural motions that burst with energy, intensifying the overall layout of the section in both the flute and the harp. The gestures include scalar motives that are played near the soundboard in the harp on page sixteen, third system, followed by the staccatissimo notes played with extreme force in the flute part. The rolling scalar motives and pointillistic notes in the flute and the harp parts are the primary gestures found in Image D section.
Figure 31: Pg. 16, third system (Harp and Flute)
54 Figure 32: Pg. 17, first system (Flute)
Figure 33: Pg. 17, second system (Harp) Another sub-section that is reminiscent of the Impressionist period, is found in Image D beginning on page eighteen, third system, marked, “cantando, rubato.” The harp begins this section with arpeggiated, stacked thirds followed by whole-tone chords accompanying the flute.
The marriage of whole tone and octatonic scalar motives in both the flute and harp parts produce an almost hypnotic and enchanting effect. Once again, Rochberg’s use of these chords and melodic lines certainly allude to Impressionistic composers.
55 The final gestural and timbral motive found in Image D is the “buzzing,” repeated notes. The eighth notes presented in the harp part are to be “muffled” and the performer is instructed to attack the sustained notes with their fingernail, creating a metallic and buzzing, pizzicato-like sound. In addition, the eighth note gestures vary in tempi and dynamics. The flute part is layered with a similar gesture; however, it often interrupts the harp part, creating a sense of urgency to the conversation between the flute and the harp.
Figure 36: Pg. 20, third system to fourth system (Harp and Flute) An example of interrupted conversation
56 Finally, Image E, beginning on page twenty-one, third system, returns to traditional tonality (F Aeolian) and presents a calming gestural motive. The melody of Itsuki Lullaby is expressed with delicate harmonics in the harp part. The harmonics produce a soft, muffled, and gentle tone, creating an illusion of an ambiguous image that is hazy and far in the distance.
Further, the tone color of the harp, as well as the gradual decrease in tempo, resembles the characteristics of a music box, slowly winding down. Above this texture, the flute elegantly plays an expressive counter-melody creating a sensitive balance between the two instruments.
Figure 37: Pg. 21, third system (Harp)
Figure 38: Pg. 22, fourth system and Pg. 23 first system (Flute)
57 Jo-Ha-Kyū (序破急) and Ma (間)
Another key element that is evident in Slow Fires of Autumn is the application of the essential Japanese aesthetic concept, Jo-Ha-Kyū (序破急). This three-phase structure is considered the basic theory of gagaku music as well as other Japanese traditional music and arts such as Noh drama, Kabuki, martial arts, tea ceremony, Haiku (poetry), and Ikebana (flower arrangement).121
Jo-Ha-Kyū is characterized as modulation of tempo, beginning slowly, then speeding up, and ending swiftly. Jo (序) means “introduction,” Ha (破) translates to “breaking apart” or
“exposition,” and Kyū (急) represents “urgent” or “rushing to the finish.”122 In a traditional
Japanese drama, Noh, the main form of the performance, is constructed on Jo-Ha-Kyū. In Noh performance, this concept is considered as a method of building tension and release. During the
Jo section, the materials presented are characterized as simple and clear. The Ha section is utilized to display a contrast between the simplicity of the Jo section, and the tempo can be either faster or slower. The Kyū section in Noh drama contains a dance scene, and the tempo is typically faster than the Ha section; however, the section often concludes peacefully, significantly contrasting with the dance scene.123
A similar Noh concept of Jo-Ha-Kyū can be found in Slow Fires of Autumn, and identified as follows:
121 Chung-Lin Lee, “Analysis and Interpretation of Kazuo Fukushima’s Solo Flute Music.” (DMA diss., University of Washington 2010), 22. 122 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 116. 123 Chung-Lin Lee, “Analysis and Interpretation of Kazuo Fukushima’s Solo Flute Music.” (DMA diss., University of Washington 2010), 22.
58 Table 2: Slow Fires of Autumn divided into Jo-Ha- Kyū form • The overall scene of this section is characterized as Jo Image A Pg. 3, slow. begins with the harp • The overall dynamic is soft. • The texture is rather simplistic, with recurring motives found throughout both flute and harp parts. • The section begins with a new burst of energy in Ha Image B Pg. 8, second system, the harp part. Image C begins with the harp • The overall texture of this section is more complex Image D and extreme ranges of notes, dynamics, and tempos are presented. • The overall material is meditative and peaceful. Kyū Image E Pg. 21, third system • The texture returns to its simpler form • The traditional tonality of this section releases the listeners from the tension that was created within the Ha-section.
Additionally, in Noh, the drama consists of five main units or dan (loosely comparable to scenes). The first act contains four dan, and the second act contains one. Table 3 outlines the traditional Noh organization.124
Table 3: Organization of Noh drama125 ACT 1 Jo 1st dan The section contains relatively simple and straightforward materials and begins slowly. Ha 2nd dan 3rd dan The overall Ha section displays a contrast between the simplicity of the Jo section, and the tempo can be either faster or slower. 4th dan Interlude ACT 2 Kyū 5th dan This section contains a dance scene, and the tempo is usually faster than the Ha section. However, the section usually concludes more calmly and peacefully, which significantly contrasts with the dance scene.
124 William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 125. 125 The figure has been adapted from the following sources: William P. Malm, Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 2nd ed. (Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000), 125. And Chung-Lin Lee, “Analysis and Interpretation of Kazuo Fukushima’s Solo Flute Music” (DMA diss., University of Washington 2010), 22.
59 Thus, not only is the Japanese aesthetic model of Jo-Ha-Kyū apparent in Slow Fires of Autumn, the organization of the piece also parallels the structure of the Noh drama.
Finally, another Japanese aesthetic concept, Ma (間), is presented in the piece. Ma translates as “gap” or “space,” and in the traditional Japanese architecture, this concept was referred to as a set unit of space. However, in music and theater (including the Noh drama), Ma represents a pause in the music or dialogue. This space is considered as more than an interruption, and the musical flow should continue through the silence of the Ma.126 The negative space is known to enhance the sound, which provides more meaning to the tones that are being played, and brings balance to a composition. According to Christopher Yohmei
Blasdel, “in shakuhachi music, the concept of Ma is applied to keep the musical consciousness alive with meaningful silence during rests, pauses, and breaths.”127 In addition to the discussion of Rochberg’s application of Ukiyo-E concepts and methods, through this observation, it is conceivable that Slow Fires of Autumn illustrates some extent of the characteristics, structure, and mood of Noh drama. It is, perhaps, likely that Rochberg intentionally incorporated both commonly applied Japanese aesthetics of Jo-Ha-Kyū and Ma within his composition due to his experience at the Noh theatre and the lasting impact it produced.128
4.2: APPLICATION OF TRADITIONAL JAPANESE INSTRUMENTS IN SLOW FIRES OF AUTUMN
Although Rochberg was not an expert nor a scholar of Japanese traditional instruments, he beautifully captured the unique characteristics and essence of the shakuhachi and koto within
126 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 61. 127 Ibid., 61. 128 Extended explanation of Rochberg’s encounter with Noh drama is further discussed in Chapter 3.1.
60 his Ukiyo-E series. When Rochberg visited Japan, he became close friends with the members of
Yonin No Kai, a renowned performing group of traditional Japanese instruments, and they urged him to compose a piece inspired by Japanese music and instrumentation. Although Rochberg became fond of the timbre and resonance of the shakuhachi/koto combination, he did not feel comfortable enough to write for these specific instruments due to his limited knowledge of their musical idioms and possibilities. However, Slow Fires of Autumn was Rochberg’s response to the request he received from Yonin No Kai and the profound auditory memory of the shakuhachi/koto combination. 129
As Slow Fires of Autumn was written in homage to the shakuhachi and the koto, it is essential to include musical gestures that reflect these instruments. Therefore, in this section, I will identify the characteristics of the selected Japanese traditional instruments found in the piece and provide a performance guide in an effort to effectively convey the composer’s intent and execute the piece with authenticity.
Flute
Rochberg includes various figures with one or two grace notes followed by a sustained note throughout the piece. The sustained notes should be played similar to kasaiki gesture with a breathy and airy tone, which is one of the main gestures utilized on the shakuhachi flute. The grace note figures are typically performed with either air fluctuation or head/chin motion; however, on the modern flute, in any of the figures similar to the following example, the
129 Rochberg, George. Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music. (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 188.
61 performer may simply play the grace note(s) as quickly as possible with more musical weight and emphasis on its first note.
More weight on the 1st note
Figure 39: Pg. 3, first system (Flute)
Further, if the grace note is differentiated with “fz,” this effect may be achieved by either using the key click or slap tongue extended technique on the flute to mimic the “popping” sound that the shakuhachi creates when “tongued.”130
Figure 40: Pg. 4, second system (Flute)
The shakuhachi is capable of producing an extreme range of timbres, from breathy and delicate to bright and piercing tones; thus, when presented with “espr,” “ff,” and “ffz,” one could perform with more intensified and energetic vibrato (yuri). The frequency of the vibrato on this occasion should begin slower and wider and gradually become faster, narrower, and fierce.
130 To learn how to execute the key click or slap tongue technique on the modern flute, refer to page 20.
62 Figure 41: Pg. 4, fourth system (Flute)
When the mood of the music shifts from the meditative stage to an intensified, burst of energy in what I call the Image B section (pg. 8, second system of the harp score), the flute part contains a series of sustaining notes that shifts a half step down from A3 to Ab3 at “Largamente; ma sempre rubato” (pg. 9, first system). Although not explicitly marked in the music, to bring out the authentic character of the shakuhachi flute, one may apply the performance techniques, suri-sage and muraiki, a note-bending technique and a strong wind tone. For this execution, first, the performer should begin with well-grounded A3 with a blast of air. Following the gesture, quickly lower the head/chin (meri position) as well as the dynamic range to soft. Next, as you gradually crescendo, raise the pitch by fluctuating the air stream as the performer slides the left, second finger (A key) off of open-hole. In conjunction, roll the flute outward, then finally execute the next note, Ab3. The scalar patterns leading up to the sustained note should be performed very quickly, like the glissando on a harp. On the same page of the score (pg. 9, second system), the sustained note from G#3 to A3, apply the suri-age technique, and slide the pitch up with extreme energy. To raise the pitch, gradually direct the airstream higher as well as slide the second and third left fingers off of open-holes as you lead up to the note, A3.
63 Figure 42: Pg. 9, first system (Flute)
Figure 43: Pg. 9, second system (Flute) Another shakuhachi-like component found in the flute part appears in Image B, page eleven, fourth system. Here, “Largamente; ma rubato” returns with flutter-tongue marked in the flute part. The shakuhachi also utilizes this technique, which is called tamane. This ornamental trill is created by flutter-tonguing or vibrating the uvula. This is a gargling effect that somewhat resembles the flutter-tonguing technique in the modern flute; however, the sound is generally produced from the back of the throat, and as a result, the tone is much softer. In the flute part, the tone should not be the center of focus, but creating a reedy and breathy effect that one can achieve from the flutter-tonguing technique should be the focal point. Additionally, the “ffz” can be accomplished by blasting fast air into the instrument that one may use when executing a jet whistle on the modern flute, creating a muraiki-like gesture.
Figure 44: Pg. 11, fourth system (Flute)
64 Rochberg first introduces modal tonality in the Image C section, “Poco adagio con molto espressione.” During this folk-like section, Rochberg, again embellishes the notes with grace notes that are common to shakuhachi performance practice. To further execute this section with authenticity, the performer may incorporate both suri-age and suri-sage techniques throughout the melodic lines with each grace note attacked with an intense burst of air. The suggested portamento is marked in Figure 45.
Figure 45: Pg. 8, extracted from the flute score
During the “animato, rubato” in the Image D, the repeated C1 embellished by the grace notes, should be performed more percussively. The grace notes may be accompanied by using osu, the shakuhachi tonguing technique, and quickly slap down and attack the key-hole with the
65 finger.131 In this instance, my suggestion is to forcefully press down the G-key (left, third finger) to execute this motion. In conjunction with osu, the performer should also utilize the muraiki technique and blow a very explosive charge of air into the flute. The sound made by these techniques will mimic the “pop” sound when the shakuhachi is articulated. The method of key clicks and slap tongue should be applied throughout the section until the final introduction of the lullaby, Itsuki No Komoriuta.
Figure 46: Pg. 20, second system (Flute)
Further, by applying sutebyoshi on the repeated eighth notes (C1), the performer may display the common rhythmic expression found throughout Japanese traditional music. This rhythmic pattern is played by fluctuating the tempo; first, notes are performed slowly, then gradually, the tempo is increased before finally slowing down.132
Figure 47: an example of suteboyoshi rhythmic pattern
131 This is comparable to the keyclick technique on the modern flute. 132 Christopher Yohmei Blasdel and Yuko Kamisango, The Shakuhachi: A Manual for Learning, trans. Christopher Yohmei Blasdel (Tokyo: Ongaku No Tomo Sha 1988), 50.
66 When the final section of Slow Fires of Autumn returns to tonality, the lullaby is gently performed by the harp while the flute expressively sings a slow counter-melody. This section should begin with the sorane technique, where the tone color is light and airy. Throughout, the timbre of the flute should be expressive with a slight intensity; however, it should not be so overpowering that it disrupts the intricate melodic line played on the harp. In contrast, throughout the ending phrase (pg. 23, fourth system), the tone color of the melodic line in the flute part should be performed in a manner that resembles kasaiki and sorane. The overall sound quality should be expressive with partial wind and tone using semi-forceful air to create the edgy-reedy sound, accompanied by the extreme use of vibrato. Following the full charge of emotions, to conclude the counter-melody, quickly shift the tone to a much more calming, meditative quality.
Figure 48: Pg. 23, fourth system (Flute) To further clarify, the table below provides a summary of the discussion from this section as well as further suggested applications of the shakuhachi performance techniques on the modern flute:
Table 4: Suggested application of the shakuhachi technique in Slow Fires of Autumn Shakuhachi Execution on Suggested application of the technique in Performance the Modern Flute Slow Fires of Autumn Techniques (The page numbers are taken from the Harp score)
Finger • Use a combination of key click and • Apply to the first note of each phrase that is Tonguing the lip or tongue pizzicato to mimic indicated fz, ffz, or sffz. Lip/Tongue the sound. Further instruction can be • Apply to the beginning of the grace note(s). Pizzicato found on pages 20. • Pg. 20, 1st system: (Slap tongue) Flute, all grace notes leading to C1. Use forceful key click in conjunction with a slap tongue.
67 Table 4: Suggested application of the shakuhachi technique in Slow Fires of Autumn (continued) Shakuhachi Execution on Suggested application of the technique in Performance the Modern Flute Slow Fires of Autumn Techniques (The page numbers are taken from the Harp score)
Grace Notes •Emphasize the grace note with • Grace notes are found throughout the piece. keyclick and/or slap tongue • Play them quickly with more musical weight and technique and, if there are more than emphasis. one, rapidly move between the grace • Pg. 3, 2nd system: Flute, 64-second motives should notes. be treated and perform like the grace notes.
Nayashi • You can use the head motion or • Pg. 13, 3rd system: Flute, D1 (Half note fermata). (Portamento) bend the pitch by changing the angle • Pg. 13, 3rd system: Flute, G1 (Whole note). of the airstream down and up. • Pg. 14, 3rd system: Flute, G1. • Pg. 15, 1st system: Flute, Bb2 (Half note). • Pg. 15, 2nd system: Flute, Bb2 (Second half note, Bb2 in the system). Suri-age • Bend the pitch up or down by Suri-age: & shifting the airstream gradually • Pg. 3, 3rd system: Flute, C1 to D1. Suri-sage higher/lower or rolling the flute • Pg. 9, 2nd system: Flute, G#3 to A3. (Portamento) in/out. (Apply to all the same motives) • If possible, slide fingers off of • Pg. 13, 2nd system: Flute, C1 to D1. open-holes. (Apply to all the same motives) • Pg. 13, 3rd system: Flute, F1 to G1. (Apply to all the same motives) • Pg. 13, 4th system: Flute, Ab1 to C2. • Pg. 14, 1st system: Flute, C2 to D2. • Pg. 14, 3rd system: Flute, F1 to G1. • Pg. 14, 3rd system: Flute, Ab1 to C2. • Pg. 15, 1st system: Flute, Ab2 to Bb2. (Apply to all the same motives) Pg. 22, 2nd system: Flute, triplet F1 to G1 figures. (Apply to all the same motives) Suri-sage: • Pg. 6, 4th system, Flute: Db2 to C2. • Pg 9, A3 to Ab3 figures. (Raise the A3 by kari and sliding the LH 2nd finger off of open-hole) • Pg. 13, 3rd system, Flute: Eb1 to D1. • Pg. 13, 4th system, Flute: Ab1 to G1. • Pg. 15, 2nd system: Flute, Cb3 to Bb2. • Pg. 22, 3rd system: Flute, Db1 to C1 figures. (Apply to all the same motives) Muraiki • Strongly overblow a note with fast, • All fz, sffz, and ffz entrances. (Part Wind high-pressure air while maintaining a • All flutter tongue motives. Tone/ proper embouchure with a slightly • Pg. 4, 4th system, “agitato molto” section. Part Semi-Jet bigger aperture. • Pg. 6, 1st system: Flute, F1 section until Whistle) • Note: Slightly different from the “tranquillo” section, 3rd system. common jet whistle technique. • Pg. 9, 1st system: Flute, “Largamente; ma sempre rubato” to “tenuto,” Pg. 9, 4th system. • Pg. 10, 3rd system: Flute, D4. • Pg. 16, 4th system: Flute, E1 fzp. • Pg. 17, 2nd system: Flute, A1 fzp.
68 Table 4: Suggested application of the shakuhachi technique in Slow Fires of Autumn (continued) Shakuhachi Execution on Suggested application of the technique in Performance the Modern Flute Slow Fires of Autumn Techniques (The page numbers are taken from the Harp score)
Kasaiki • Use a larger aperture and let the air • Pg. 14, 4th system until Pg. 15, 2nd system: Flute, (Wind Tone) to slightly flow over the top of the “un poco più mosso.” Play clearly focused pitches embouchure hole. To change tone with a touch of breathy timbre. colors, use different vowel shapes • The pick-up note on Pg. 23, 3rd system until the and should not be as explosive as end. Gradually reduce the breathy sound. muraiki.
Sorane • A light and airy sound can be • Beginning on pg. 3, all-sustaining pp/ppp notes in (Wind Tone) achieved by a much smaller aperture the flute part. with a higher air direction. • Pg. 12, 4th system: Flute, all-sustaining notes until Pg. 13, “Poco adagio con molto espressione.” • Pg. 13, 2nd system: Flute, “Poco adagio con molto espressione.” Melodic lines marked pp. • Pg. 22, 2nd system: Flute, “molto doloroso” until the pick-up note on Pg. 23, 3rd system.
Tamane • Roll the “r.” • Marked as fl. t. in the score. Combine with the (Flutter Tongue) • Or throat flutter (a soft gargle). muraiki technique.
Sutebyoshi • Crisp articulation throughout. • Pg. 11, 3rd system: Flute, 2nd D#3 figure. (Ab2 trill (Repetition of a • Begin the note slowly and quietly. should be considered as the “last note” in this single tone) Then, as you crescendo, gradually grouping of notes) accelerate. The tempo should quickly • Pg. 17, repeated sixteenth note figures. Push and slow down and diminuendo at the pull the tempo throughout. very end and accent the very last • Pg. 18, push and pull the tempo on all thirty- note. second note figures. • Pg. 20, 3rd system: Flute, the last grouping of the notes starting on C1. (Also. apply on the same figure found on Pg. 21, 1st system)
Yuri • A variety of vibratos: • Pg. 6, 1st system figures: Flute, sffz to pp to fz, (Vibrato) Wide and slow Vibrato should begin wider and slower and Narrow and fast gradually let it become narrower and intensive. Intense, fast/slow • Pg. 14, 4th system: Flute, intense, fast vibrato Delicate, fast/slow throughout. (In comparison, the melodic lines with • Avoid overly utilizing the vibrato softer dynamic markings in this section should be throughout the piece. performed with little to no vibrato)
Harp
There are many timbral and stylistic effects in Slow Fires of Autumn that are imitative of the sounds made by the traditional Japanese instrument, koto. This section comments briefly on how contemporary performers may bring out the characteristics of the koto. As mentioned
69 previously, the Japanese zither is performed using the tsume, a type of plectra (nail pick). The tone produced by plucking the strings with a nail pick is similar to utilizing the fingernail on the modern harp. Throughout Slow Fires of Autumn, Rochberg indicates the specific use of the fingernail technique on the harp, and the notational sign is a half-crescented, upside-down moon.
This attack with the nail creates a metallic and percussive timbre that resembles the sound of the koto. It would be sufficient to also play these gestures with extreme, forceful energy to capture the overall brassy tone of the koto. Some examples are as follows:
Figure 49: Pg. 3, first system (Harp) Figure 50: Pg. 7, first system (Harp)
Figure 51: Pg. 9, first system (Harp) Figure 52: Pg. 4, second system (Harp)
Muffling and muting techniques are another common koto performance practice. The performer may mute the koto by placing one of their left hand fingers on a string at the top of the bridge, while plucking the string with the right finger. Thus, this technique dampens and reduces the
70 overall resonance of the tone. Rochberg broadly incorporates this common practice in the composition and utilizes the symbol, to indicate the muffled sound and for the muted sound. The purpose of the muted technique in this piece is to ensure that the harp line is executed cleanly and with clarity. The overall timbral characteristic that the performer should aim to achieve is a dry and dark tone.
Figure 53: Pg. 6, first system (Harp)
Figure 54: Pg. 12, third system (Harp)
Figure 55: Pg. 20, second system (Harp)
71 A notation that Rochberg often utilizes throughout the piece is a pedal glissando, which resembles the oshi-hanashi133 technique on the koto. By shifting the pedal while the string is resonating, one can bend the pitch chromatically.134 The pitch-bending technique is standard practice for the koto, and the gesture should be exaggerated. If the beginning note is marked with the vertical wedge accent, the performer should execute it with high intensity and a forceful attack.
Figure 56: Pg. 9, second system (Harp) Figure 57: Pg. 11, second system (Harp)
Beginning on page eleven, fourth system, Rochberg indicates the harp to utilize the thunder effect with the pedal (notation is a Z with two lines crossed vertically.) The technique is defined in the text, Guide to Playing the Contemporary Harp, which states, “when a wire string is played while holding the pedal between two notches, the string vibrates against the discs in midcourse, creating a thunder effect.”135 The final tone production of this effect creates a powerful, metallic, and buzzing sound. This particular sound resembles the shamisen, which is another traditional Japanese instrument played with plectra. The shamisen is a three-string
133 Further information on the oshi-hanashi technique on the koto can be found on page 30. 134 Mathilde Aubat-Andrieu, Laurence Bancaud, Aurélie Barbé and Hélène Breschand, “Playing Techniques,” Guide to the Contemporary Harp (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2019), 108. 135 Ibid., 105.
72 fretless lute and is normally characterized by a constant buzzing sound. Perhaps, Rochberg heard this instrument during the performance led by Yonin No Kai.
The koto is also capable of implementing harmonics, which are typically notated with the same standard notation, circle, above the note. Similar to the harp, the timbre of harmonics on the koto is pure, and the intensity and dynamic is significantly reduced. During the lullaby section on page twenty one, third system, the harmonics in the harp should be executed carefully, without much force and energy, aiming to produce an ethereal tone.
Figure 59: Pg. 21, third system (Harp) Glissando-like effects are other common technique on the koto. Similar to pitch-bending, there are various ways to perform these techniques with or without the plectra; thus there are numerous possibilities of timbres and sound effects. In Slow Fires of Autumn, there are three styles to execute. On page ten, fourth system, the glissando should be similar to uchikaki, plectrum strike/scrape. This type of glissando occurs when the strings are scraped very rapidly
73 and forcefully with the plectra. This technique produces “a distinct sound quality with a strong impact.”136 In contrast, on page twelve, fourth system, the style of playing should be the opposite of the uchikaki technique. As indicated in the score, the glissando should be more relaxed and floating; however, one should not lose the metallic tone quality. Although not explicitly indicated by the composer, I would suggest exploring the sound and timbre by using the fingernails during this glissando section. Lastly, the third glissando which appears on page fourteen, second to third system, should be executed in a flowing, elegant French Impressionistic style.
Figure 60: Pg. 10, fourth system (Harp)
Figure 61: Pg. 12, fourth system (Harp)
Figure 62: Pg. 14, second system to third system (Harp)
136 Miki Minoru, “String Instruments (Zithers),” Composing for Japanese Instruments, ed. Philip Flavin (Boydel & Brewer: University of Rochester Press, 2008),145.
74 CONCLUSION
To create sounds that are necessary to emulate non-Western instruments, it is essential that the performer is well informed regarding the sounds of non-Western instruments, as well as the techniques that go into executing them. Moreover, it is crucial to learn and understand the cultures from which these instruments were carefully crafted and developed. This document includes a historical study of Japan, a discussion of the different styles of the music and musical instruments that were imported to and evolved within Japan, and how these specific instruments were intended to sound. Without this knowledge, the execution of music, such as Rochberg’s, will lack authenticity and the proper cultural aesthetic; thus, the performance may misinform the audience or lose the ability to show any significant differences among traditional classical pieces.
Further, it is the performer’s responsibility to accurately deliver the composer’s intended musical story, vision, and inspiration.
The overall purpose of this study is to expand the knowledge and understanding of
Japanese musical and artistic elements in Western music. Thus, this document will help guide many young musicians and educators who seek to perform and teach compositions that contain
Japanese cultural influences. The second goal is to increase interest in and performance of contemporary music and, in particular, Rochberg’s work. In his compositional life, Rochberg shifted among many distinctive styles and techniques, and the series of compositions based on
Ukiyo-E provides a new approach to Rochberg’s style. This research not only explored
Rochberg’s creative process for the Ukiyo-E series, but it also revealed the reasoning behind his interests in Japanese music, art, and culture, which were based on his travels to Japan. This text ultimately provides a glimpse into the composer’s inspirations and intent in Slow Fires of
Autumn.
75 George Rochberg shifted his compositional style after the long illness and premature death of his son in 1964. He no longer composed serial music and commented, “it was finished, empty, meaningless.” He moved on to a new musical language that suited his creative and expressive longing. Rochberg even reflected later in the 1980s: “Modernism ended up allowing us only a postage-stamp-sized space to stand on. . . we cut the rest away.”137 Over a decade later and his departure from serialism, he composed Slow Fires of Autumn in January of 1979.
Although this piece beautifully captures Rochberg’s perspective on Japanese traditional music and concept, the piece also grasps Rochberg’s melancholic and grieving stage at the time of composition, and these emotions certainly surge through the images found within the music.
Rochberg stated the primary condition of this piece:
They are wrought of nameless and nameable images, far more of the former than the latter. And even when those that are nameable seem most evident to the ear, they, too, remain – exactly like the nameless images – ‘pictures of the floating world’.”138
Rochberg provides us with a musical composition that is deeply subjective, and which allows us to be free from limitations and paint the images of the floating world from our inner human landscape.
After exploring the many facets of this composition, a performer should be better able to grasp Rochberg’s intent in Slow Fires of Autumn. Relating the composition to the Japanese
Ukiyo-E art allows one to conceptualize the piece from a new perspective. Additionally, researching the historical development and performance techniques of the shakuhachi and koto gives performers methods to further explore soundscapes that are beyond the world of classical flute playing. It is my intention that the research within this text will provide modern flutists and
137 “George Rochberg, Composer, Dies at 86,” The New York Times, June 1, 2005. 138 George Rochberg, Five Lines, Four Spaces: The World of My Music (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 198.
76 harpists with a deeper understanding and appreciation for the shakuhachi-and koto-inspired gestures within this composition, as well as others in this style. Slow Fires of Autumn not only challenges performers to expand their ability to play instruments in a wide range of timbres and expressions, but also introduces performers to gestures that are uncommon in the Western classical repertoire.
The flute has been utilized to express human emotions in many cultures. In Japan, they were once used as meditative tools to lead people to enlightenment. Composer George Rochberg adapted the beautiful melodic nature of the flute, which is capable of conveying subtle expressions of peace and intense wails of emotions, masterfully within his composition Slow
Fires of Autumn (Ukiyo-E II).
77 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Rochberg, George. George Rochberg Complete Flute Music 1. Christina Jennings, Lura Johnson, June Han. Digital disc. Naxos, 8.559776, 2015.
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Wincenc, Carol. Telephone interview. August 26, 2019.
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81 APPENDIX A: PROJECT RECITAL PROGRAM
82