UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI
Date: 26-May-2010
I, Seon Hee Jang , hereby submit this original work as part of the requirements for the degree of: Doctor of Musical Arts in Flute It is entitled: Interpretation of Extended Techniques in Unaccompanied flute Works by
East-Asian Composers: Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, and Kazuo Fukushima
Student Signature: Seon Hee Jang
This work and its defense approved by: Committee Chair: Bradley Garner, DMA Bradley Garner, DMA
6/6/2010 541
Interpretation of Extended Techniques in Unaccompanied Flute Works by East- Asian Composers: Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, and Kazuo Fukushima
A doctoral document submitted to the
Division of Graduate Studies and Research of the University of Cincinnati
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS
in the Performance Studies Division of the College-Conservatory of Music
by
Seon Hee Jang
18 May 2007
B.M., Ewha Womans University, 2001 M.M., Ewha Womans University, 2003
Advisor: Bradley Garner, D.M.A.
Abstract
Extended flute techniques include many different ways of producing non-traditional sonorities and effects on the flute and have been an important compositional staple of Avant- garde composers in the twentieth century. While many of these techniques developed exclusively within the Western tradition, many others derived from influence of non-Western flute traditions. Three East-Asian composers, Isang Yun (1917–1995), Toru Takemitsu
(1930–1996), and Kazuo Fukushima (b.1930), contributed to this performance practice style by drawing from the flute traditions of their cultures. By focusing on the unaccompanied solo flute works of these three composers, this document will demonstrate many of the important applications of extended flute techniques in the twentieth century present their East-Asian influences and provide performance suggestions for this repertoire.
ii
Copyright k 2010 by Seon Hee Jang All rights reserved
iii
Acknowledgments
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the support of my committee, friends, and family throughout this project. My advisor and flute teacher, Bradley Garner, D.M.A., has supported my entire musical life in Cincinnati. His creative and flexible approach enabled me to go beyond my initial expectations of this research and numerous hours of flute study with him and his advice were essential to my life. The members of my document committee, Jeongwon
Joe, Ph.D., and Sandra Rivers, M.S., made suggestions that were central to the whole process and their insightful comments were essential to my final version. Many thanks go to Myung-
Ja Moon, and Jae-Yu Paeng. Without their endless love and support I would not have made it through my life. My colleague and friend, Ellis Anderson, contributed countless hours of editing and revising the whole process. His help and consistent support were essential to this final version. I express my deepest gratitude to Ki-Jong Soh, for his undying support, love, and faith in me. Last, but not least, I thank my parents, Yong-Geun Jang and Hye-Ja Cho, and my grandmother, Soon-Ae Moon who taught me to strive for excellence, for supporting everything throughout my life. Without their endless love and support, I would not have as much to look forward to in my life to come.
iv
Table of Contents
List of figures 2
Introduction 5
Chapter I. Extended Flute Techniques in Twentieth-Century Music 8
Chapter II. Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukishima and the Influence of East-Asian Flutes 30
Chapter III. Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Isang Yun 42 Performance Guideline for Etudes 51 Performance Guideline for Salomo 54 Performance Guideline for Sori 56 Performance Guideline for Chinesische Bilder 59
Chapter IV. Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Toru Takemitsu 60 Performance Guideline for Voice 65 Performance Guideline for Itinerant 69 Performance Guideline for Air 72
Chapter V. Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Kazuo Fukushima 73 Performance Guideline for Requiem 76 Performance Guideline for Mei 78 Performance Guideline for Shun-san 81
Conclusion 82
Bibliography 83
List of figures
Ex.1-1. Vibrato notations from Isang Yun’s Images für Flöte, oboe,violin und violoncello 11
Ex.1-2. Takemitsu’s vibrato notation and his Air for flute, mm.48–50 12
Ex.2. Etudes. Allegretto, mm.68–70 14
Ex.3. Whistle tone in Itinerant, system 12 15
Ex.4. Itinerant, system 7–8 16
Ex.5. Notation for Jet Whistle 17
Ex.6. Shun-San. System 2 18
Ex. 7. Voice, system 8 19
Ex.8. Etudes, Adagio, mm.49–52 20
Ex.9. Etudes, Adagio, mm.49–54 21
Ex.10. Etudes, Allegretto, mm.32–33 22
Ex.11-1. Etudes, Adagio, mm.74–87 23
Ex.11-2. Multiple sounds fingerings for alto flute by Yun 24
Ex.12-1. Etudes, Andante, mm.46–48 24
Ex.12-2. Multiple sounds fingerings for bass flute by Yun 24
Ex.13. Voice, Systems 7–9 26
Ex.14. Sori, mm. 73–80 27
Ex.15. Mei, mm.16-17 28
Ex.16. Itinerant, system 4 28
Ex.17. Etudes, Allegro, mm. 38–44 29
Ex.18-1. Court Daegŭm 36
Ex.18-2. Sanjo Daegŭm 36
2
Ex.19. Tungso 37
Ex.20. Shinobue/Komabue/ Kakurabue/Ryūteki/Nohkan 40
Ex.21. Shakuhachi 41
Ex.22-1. Seo Yong-seok ryu Daegŭm sanjo, Jinyangjo movement (Jeongganbo) 44
Ex.22-2. Seo Yong-seok ryu Daegŭm sanjo, Jinyangjo movement (modern notation) 44
Ex.22-3. Changing timbre in Etudes 2nd mvt. mm.1-24 45
Ex.22-4. Yun’s various breathy sound symbols in Etudes 45
Ex.23. Etudes, I. Moderato, mm.78–79 46
Ex.24-1. Etudes, II. Adagio, mm. 67–73 47
Ex.24-2. Special fingerings 47
Ex.25. Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.56–62 48
Ex.26. Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.36–48 49
Ex.27. Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.50–51 49
Ex.28. Etudes, III. Allegro, mm. 38–44 50
Ex.29. Etudes, V. Allegretto, mm. 31–35 50
Ex.30. Etudes,V. allegretto, mm.71–74 50
Ex.31. Salomo, mm.1–5 53
Ex.32. Salomo, mm.16–26 53
Ex.33. Salomo, m.72–73 53
Ex.34. Sori, mm.1–4 55
Ex.35. Sori, mm.73–80 55
Ex.36. Sori, mm.125–26 56
Ex.37. Chinesische Bilder, first mvt. mm.1–6 57
3
Ex.38. Chinesische Bilder, first mvt. mm.51–55 57
Ex.39. Chinesische Bilder, second mvt. mm. 16–20 58
Ex.40. Chinesische Bilder, third mvt. mm. 27–29 58
Ex.41. Chinesische Bilder, fourth mvt. mm. 36–41 58
Ex.42. Voice, system 7–9 63
Ex.43. Voice, notation and playing instructions 64
Ex.44. Voice, end of system 2 65
Ex.45. Itinerant, preface 68
Ex.46. Itinerant, system 7–9 69
Ex.47. Air, mm.19–21 70
Ex.48. Air, m.14 71
Ex.49. Air, m.72 71
Ex.50. Air, mm.89–92 71
Ex.51. Requiem, mm.1–6 75
Ex.52. Requiem, mm.14–18 75
Ex.53. Requiem, mm.25–30 76
Ex.54. Mei, mm.35–36 77
Ex.55. Mei, mm.43–46 78
Ex.56. Mei, mm.49–51 78
Ex.57. Shun-san, system 5 79
Ex.58. Shun-san, inscript 80
4
Introduction
The history of the flute is rich with developments in the instrument itself and in techniques used in performance of it. The modern flute was developed by Theobald Boehm
(1794–1881), who in 1847 replaced the conical bore with a cylindrical tube, re-created the embouchure hole, and added keys by using longitudinal rod-axels, among other advancements.
While the structure and mechanism of the flute has not significantly changed since Beohm’s day, twentieth-century composers and performers have explored many different ways to produce sound with the flute, including pitch bending, microtones, double tremolos, key click, multiphonics, whisper tones, and many others. Flutists use the term, extended techniques, to refer to the myriad of sonorities and effects produced.
Extended techniques for the flute are noticeable in the works of many early twentieth- century western composers, such as Varèse, Richard Strauss, Berio, and Messiaen. Since 1950, prominent Asian composers have also contributed many pieces exploiting these techniques and creating new ones. The Korean-German composer, Isang Yun (1917–1995), and the Japanese composers, Toru Takemitsu (1930–1996) and Kazuo Fukushima (b.1930), all won international recognition as avant-garde composers who pioneered eastern sonorities in their western compositions. In their music, these composers drew heavily from the performance practices of the traditional flutes of their respective countries. Yun incorporated techniques of the traditional
Korean transverse flute, Daegŭm and the vertical flute, Tungso in his pieces for Western flute.
5
Likewise, pieces by Takemitsu and Fukushima demonstrate the influence of Japanese transverse flutes, the Shinobue, Nohkan, and Ryūtecki, and the vertical flute, Shakuhachi. As a result of drawing from these traditions, these three composers contributed to avant-garde flute playing and undoubtedly their music is now recognized as good examples for tracing extended flute techniques. This document will add to the literature on extended technique as well as contribute to the understanding of the music of Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukushima. It comes from the premise that a large degree of the extended flute techniques appeared as a result of composers drawing from non-Western flute traditions. I will use the unaccompanied works of these composers to show this influence extended flute techniques.
The first two chapters present background information and context for the remaining chapters which will analyze specific pieces of Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukushima. I explain the history and development of extended techniques in chapter one with an examination of the general characteristics of each feature and a corresponding musical example that will greatly aid the reader’s understanding of the possibilities available to composers and performers. Chapter two focuses on the Eastern influence in the music of the three composers, especially in terms of the traditional flutes, and how this influence contributes to the list of extended techniques. The remaining chapters are devoted to detailed analyses of the extended techniques in the ten published unaccompanied flute works of these three composers. Yun wrote four pieces for unaccompanied solo flute: Etudes (1974), Salomo (1978), Sori (1988), and Chinesische Bilder
(Chinese Pictures, 1993), a work originally for recorder. Takemitsu composed three unaccompanied solo flute works: Voice (1971), Itinerant (Meguri) - In Memory of Isamu
Noguchi (1989), and Air (1995). Fukushima’s three unaccompanied solo flute works are
6
Requiem (1956), Mei (1962), and Shun–san (A Hymn to Spring) (1969). For each piece, a guideline for realizing the extended techniques will be provided.
7
Chapter I
Extended Flute techniques in Twentieth-Century Music
During the twentieth century, the performance and compositional expectations for the flute expanded well beyond those of the previous century. Because of the rising independence of the flute as a solo instrument and a new compositional emphasis on atonality, the use of complex rhythms, the liberation of dissonance, and an expanded sense of musical sound, the twentieth century marks a significant break with the past. One manifestation of these changes was the creation, usage, and acceptance of extended techniques: techniques not previously used as a compositional resource. These techniques can be viewed as an expansion of the existing ways to play the flute and include, among other sounds and procedures, flutter tonguing, key clicks, singing while playing, and multiphonics. Though a handful of extended techniques did exist in the nineteenth century, it was not until the twentieth century that they were used extensively in compositions. To understand the atmosphere in which extended techniques flourished, one must recognize the significant nineteenth-century precursors. The Boehm flute, patented in 1847, allowed for new technical freedom and a standardization which was not known up to that point.
Late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century orchestration utilized this flute in interesting and important ways as is the case with the opening flute solo in Prelude to “The Afternoon of a Faun
(1894)” by Claude Debussy (1862–1918). While drawing from tradition, the twentieth-century
8 push for experimental sounds resulted in the development of avant-garde techniques for the flute, and the instrument’s versatility made it a focus of early twentieth- century composers.
Many composers contributed to the expansion of flute technique in the twentieth century.
In his piece, Density 21.5 (1936), considered to be the first work that explicitly demands a specific extended technique, Edgard Varèse (1883–1965) called for the performer to obtain a percussive effect by slapping the keys of the flute.1 Likewise, Luciano Berio (1925–2003) in
Sequenza for solo flute (1958), another landmark in the flute repertoire, included various extended techniques such as double stops, key clicks, multiphonics, and prolonged flutter- tonguing. Several significant performers like the Italian flutist Severino Gazzeloni (1919–1992) popularized extended techniques as they played and championed the works of contemporary composers. Books, articles, and pedagogical studies were published to explain and provide instructions in how to realize these effects. Bruno Bartolozzi (1911–1980)’s New Sounds for
Woodwinds (1967) is filled with extended techniques and tonal possibilities that excited many composers.2 The best of these, no doubt, were written by individuals who both composed and played the flute. Flutists such as Aurèle Nicolet (b.1926) and Robert Dick (b.1950) not only utilized the techniques, but also created challenging new literature encouraging the performer to become more proficient in this developing field. Nicolet provided the first collections of extended technique etudes, “Pro Musica Nova: Studies for playing Avant-Garde Music,” which introduces flutists to each technique through a designated musical exercise. Dick’s two
1 Alejandro Sanchez–Escuer, “The Interpretation of Selected Extended Techniques in Flute solo compositions by Mexican composers: An analysis and performance recommendations,” Ph.D. diss., (New York University, 1995). 3; and Ardal Powell, The Flute. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), 272.
2 Christina Jennings, “Exploring Takemitsu’s Voice,” Flute Talk 19, no.8 (April 2000): 11; Akiko Shimada, “Cross-Cultural Music: Japanese Flutes and their Influence on Western Flute Music,” The Flutist Quarterly 34, no.2 (winter 2009): 26; and Powell, The Flute, 273.
9 pedagogical studies, “The Other Flute: A Performance Manual of Contemporary Techniques,” and “Tone Development through Extended Techniques,” analyze existing effects for the flutist, noting specific embouchure placement, fingering possibilities, and air speed considerations. The modern university trained flutist must learn extended techniques to play twentieth-century music, but some maintain that these skills improve the player overall. According to Jill Felber:
Besides gaining the skills to perform new music, the flutist may find working with new sonorities and techniques to be beneficial to his/her traditional playing. Practicing these techniques can develop a greater control of the embouchure, a wider range of dynamics, and a variety of timbres.3
There are many different effects that can be created on the modern flute, but they are grouped into five basic categorizations: modification of timbre, percussive effects, multiple sonorities, articulation, and pitch variance. Each of these will be explained in turn.
Modifications of Timbre
There are seven types of extended technique that are in some way or other modifications of timbre. Vibrato/breathy trill, dynamics, and harmonics are all changes in timbre inherited from nineteenth-century performance practices that were expanded in the twentieth century. Among these, dynamics are the most basic with modern composers simply using ppp or fff to broaden contrasts even more than before. Whistle (whisper) tones/residual tones, hollow tones/wind tones/bamboo tones, jet whistle, and special fingerings were new ways in the twentieth century to obtain a plethora of different sonorities.
3 Jill Felber, “The Avant Garde Flute Manual,” (M.M. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1982), quoted in Rebeca Rae Meador, “A History of Extended Flute Techniques and a Examination of Their Potential as a Teaching Tool,” D.M.A. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2001. 49.
10
Vibrato and the breathy trill are both very important in twentieth-century flute literature.
Vibrato is produced by varying the speed of the airstream in regular pulsations, and it is the
lyric vocal vibrato that provides the inspiration and model for a good flute vibrato.4 A good
vibrato may be defined as a regular pulsation added to the basic tone of the flute, involving
changes in pitch, in intensity (loudness), or in a combination of pitch and intensity. If the rate is
too slow, the tone will have a laborious, heavy, or sluggish effect. If the rate is too fast, the
effect will be lost completely and it will approach the sound of a nanny-goat vibrato.5 Just as in
singing, vibrato is taught and developed from early on and is used constantly in normal playing
because it not only provides for a better tonal quality, but also creates intensity and gives
direction to the musical line.6 However, it can also be specifically notated as a special effect. In
the twentieth century, composers often explore sounds without vibrato or an extremely wide
vibrato, both of which would have been unusual in the nineteenth century and before. These
effects are sometimes notated with a wavy line, but perhaps more common is with a series of
abbreviations:
Ex. 1-1 vibrato notations from Isang Yun’s Images für Flöte, oboe, violin und violoncello.7 n.v. = non vibrato p.v. = poco vibrato v. = vibrato m.v. = molto vibrato v.p.c. = vibrato poco a poco crescent
4 Thomas E. Rainey, Jr., The Flute Manual: A Comprehensive Text and Resource Book for Both the Teacher and the Student. (New York: University Press of America, 1985), 116–18; and Michel Debost, The Simple Flute: From A to Z. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 260–261.
5 Frederick W. Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds. 5th ed. (CA: Wm.C. Brown Publishers,1990), 279; and Bradley A. Garner, Flute Facts: Guidelines to Better Flute Playing. (Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati Press, 2004), 3.
6 Rainey, Jr., The Flute Manual, 115.
7 Kyo-chul Chung and Sook-young Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II: Focusing on Isang Yun’s works.” Journal of the Musicological Society of Korea 11, no.9–2 (May 2006), 131. 11
Ex.1-2 Toru Takemitsu’s vibrato notation and his Air for flute. mm.48ದ50.8
n.v = without vibrato c.v. = with vibrato
The breathy trill is similar to vibrato but it is applied mainly to resemble East-Asian flute sounds such as the half-closed key sound in Daegŭm or Tungso. It is produced by breathing fast or slow, big or small, to create a bend or curve in the note, and it is notated either with the word “Breathy” or with curve signs over a straight line:
Flutists must be able to vary the width and the speed of vibrato depending on the style of the music being performed. It is also important that the vibrato can be turned off when it is not needed. The effective use of vibrato flexibility will go far in broadening the limit of musicianship and artistry. Further, East-Asian flutes make a vibrato with lip and moving head or jaw vibrato, and avant-garde composers such as the ones in this study, Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, and
Kazuo Fukushima use these effects from Asian traditions in their compositions for the Western flute.
Harmonics, also referred to as the overtone or harmonic series, are a series of notes produced from one basic tone. Harmonics are produced on the flute by fingering one note and manipulating the embouchure to produce higher pitches corresponding to the harmonic series.
Specifically, the flutist must decrease the size of the aperture in the lips, increase the intensity of
8 Toru Takemitsu, Air for flute. (Tokyo: Schott Japan, 1996). Score. 2, 4.
12 the air stream, and alter the direction of the air flow as the increasingly higher overtones are achieved. Harmonics are the simplest of all ways to vary the flute’s tone quality, and many teachers recommend the regular practice of harmonics as a means of developing flexibility and control of the embouchure.9 Natural harmonics in the flute are best achieved by over-blowing regular fingerings from low B3 to D#5.10 For instance, if low C4 is overblown, the following harmonics are emitted:
Fundamental note: C4 Harmonics: C5 – G5 – C6 – E6 – G6 – Bb6 – C7
The use of the pure sound of a true harmonic in flute literature began in the early twentieth century, and harmonics have become an essential part of the advanced flutist’s technical facility.11 Contemporary composers have more and more frequently used harmonics on the flute to create a special color. They have long called for the bright, distant effect of these harmonics and have used them for echo effects or extremely soft fade-outs on high notes. Typically notated with a small circle above the note head to indicate that it is played as a harmonic, it will sometimes appear as just the note that sounds or together with the fundamental note from which the harmonic is produced.12 For playing harmonics, the flutist should always keep the fingering of the lowest fundamental note. He or she will play the higher note like they would do when playing them with a normal fingering and change only the embouchure. One particular passage is the “Allegretto” movement in Isang Yun’s Etudes for solo flutes. Here, several harmonics are
9 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 39.
10 Robert Dick, The Other Flute. (St. Louis: Multiple Breath Music Company, 1989), 9.
11 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 39.
12 Ibid., 40; and Rainey, Jr., The Flute Manual, 108.
13 alternated with regular fingerings in wide interval succession to create a decrescendo effect. Yun uses the standard notation of a small circle above the note head.
Ex.2 Isang Yun’s Etudes for solo flutes. Allegretto. mm. 68–70.13
If vibrato, dynamics, and harmonics are all timbre modifications inherited from nineteenth-century flute technique, there are several others developed in the twentieth century.
Whistle tones and residual tones are very similar. Whistle tones, which are also called whisper tones, are individual partials of notes, which are high pure tones.14 They can be produced with every fingering, and depending on the fingering, anywhere from five to fourteen whisper tones can be sounded by forming a very relaxed lip tension, narrow lip opening, relaxed embouchure and blowing as gently as possible directly into the embouchure hole to create the whistle sound.15
As the angle of the air stream is raised, progressively higher whistle tones will sound.16 Whistle tones are soft sounds similar to high-pitched wind chimes that can improve intonation at ends of phrases, tone quality in the third octave, increase dynamic contrast, support pianissimo passages,
13 Isang Yun, Etüden für flöte solo. (Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1975). Score. 19.
14 Michael Jerome Davis, “Creative Strategies for Teaching Extended Flute Techniques: A Pedagogical Approach with a Performance and Analysis of an Original Work, Dream Weaving for Flute and Tape,” Ed.D. diss. (Columbia University Teachers College, 1993). 165; and Dick, The Other Flute, 140.
15 Dick, The Other Flute, 140; Becky Glover, “Whistle Tones,” Flute Talk 17, no.8 (April 1998): 20; Sandy Schwoebel, “Warming Up With Whistle Tones,” Flute Talk 20, no.6 (Februar 2001):16; Nora Lee Garcia, “On Whistle Tones and Articulation: An Interview with Bernard Goldberg,” Flute Talk 16, no.7 (March 1997): 9; and Powell, The Flute, 272.
16 Dick, The other Flute, 140.
14 and make awkward intervals smoother.17 According to Robert Dick, he plays whisper tones
“because they are incredibly beautiful and have an absolutely magical effect in concert.”18 The similar residual tone is a noise-like resonance of the tube of the flute, usually consisting of a very weak fundamental and a few higher partials, and is often heard with natural harmonics.19 It is very easily produced, and can be played alone or at low dynamic levels with whisper tones.
Residual tones can be played with all fingerings by forming a wide lip opening and directing a relatively unfocused air stream across the embouchure hole. Unlike whisper tones, residual tones have the full dynamic range of ppp to ff. Additionally, strongly played residual tones may include one or more clear resonances at the third or higher harmonic produced by a given fingering.20 Very soft residual tones are achieved by raising the angle of the air stream as far as possible and slightly increasing the tension of the lips.21
Ex.3 Whistle tone in Toru Takemitsu’s Itinerant, system 12.22
Another technique of the twentieth century is the hollow tone/wind tone/bamboo tone.
This effect is an unfocused sound produced when too little of the embouchure hole is covered
17 Glover, “Whistle Tones,” 20.
18 Powell, The Flute, 274.
19 Dick, The Other Flute, 141.
20 Ibid. 21 Ibid.
22 Takemitsu, Itinerant [Meguri: In Memory of Isamu Noguchi] for flute. (Tokyo: Schott Japan, 1989). Score. 5.
15 and when the air is directed too much into the embouchure hole rather than across it.23 Hollow tones are notes of decreased resonance, produced by special fingerings. They work best in soft dynamics, in the first octave of the flute, and yield a tone color akin to that of primitive instruments. Because hollow-tone fingerings are quite complex, producing a very special sonority, the effect works beautifully in soft, sustained passages. The following excerpt from
Toru Takemitsu’s Itinerant illustrates a successful use of hollow tones (notated H.T.).
Ex.4 Toru Takemitsu’s Itinerant, system 7–8.24
Wind and bamboo tones are similar to hollow tones. The wind tone is produced by blowing more air out of the embouchure and less air pressure than the Western flute.25 Tonguing is also “Hue” or “Sh” rather than “Tu.” Thus, it makes sounds that are ambiguous and empty sounding. It refers to the sound of East-Asian bamboo flutes.
A third twentieth-century effect that involves timbre manipulation is the jet whistle. The jet whistle sounds like a “swoosh” or “siren” effect and is a high pitched aural effect produced by covering the entire embouchure hole with the lips and blowing hard. The more key holes on the
23 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 31.
24 Takemitsu, Itinerant, 4.
25 Chung and Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II,” 135.
16 flute that are covered, the more pronounced the effect will be. When playing a jet whistle it is important that the flutist place the embouchure hole between the lips – pressing the lips against the embouchure plate so that no air escapes – and blow directly into the flute.26 They should be breathy, semi-pitched resonances of the flute’s tube, and vary from short, violent ‘shrieks’ to very soft, sustained sonorities not unlike residual tones.27 Angle of the embouchure hole between the lips, the vowel shape of the mouth, fingering, and breath pressure determine the volume, pitch, and timbre of jet whistle.28 This technique was first specified in Heitor Villa-
Lobos (1887–1959) The Jet Whistle for flute and violoncello (1950).
Ex.5 Notation for Jet Whislte.29
One final way to create a technique through changes in timbre involves special fingerings.
Contemporary composers indicate some special fingerings in printed music for special sounds effects. Especially, Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukushima used special fingerings in their flute music.
Special fingerings typically produce slight pitch changes.30
26 Dick, The Other Flute, 142.
27 Ibid. 28 Ibid.
29 Hun-soon Sah, “Jet Whistle,” Flute & Flutist (October/November 2006): 59.
30 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 288.
17
Ex.6 Kazuo Fukushima’s Shun-San for solo flute. second system.31
Percussive effects
Percussive effect is another category of extended techniques for the flute, and one that is completely new in the twentieth century. It includes two types: the key click/key slap and tongue pizzicato. The key click was pioneered by Edgard Varèse (1883-1965) in his famous work for solo flute (1938), Density 21.5. It is a percussive sound produced by slapping one or more keys and may be produced without additional sound coming from blowing into the flute or while clicking the tongue or striking the embouchure hole with the tongue on the flute hard enough to produce an aural effect.32 Either way, specific pitches (fingering) are notated or in the cases where there is no blowing, note heads are usually replaced with an “x” or “+.” In the case where key clicks are joined by production of pitches, they can be used to articulate all types of sonorities, including single pitches, multiphonics, whisper tones, residual tones and jet whistles, and in notation the “x” is added to the stem of the note.33 Key clicks are produced by the mechanism of the flute, usually moved with more than normal force and the air column of the instrument resonates the click to make it audible.34 The G key makes the loudest sound and is
31 Kazuo Fukushima, Shun-san [A Hymn to Spring] for flute solo. (Tokyo: Muramatsu, 1972). Score.
32 Dick, The Other Flute, 136; and Chung and Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II,” 134.
33 Dick, The Other Flute, 136.
34 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 291; and Dick, The Other Flute, 137. 18 often included when players key slap another pitch.35 Toru Takemitsu’s Voice employs this procedure frequently. In this piece, the key clicks usually alternate with normally-articulated pitches.
Ex. 7 Toru Takemitsu’s Voice for flute solo. system 13.36
Another percussive effect possible on the flute is the tongue pizzicato. This effect is produced by fingering a specific pitch and producing a hard "T" with the tongue (the throat must be closed to avoid extra expulsion of air). This effect is easier to execute than the tongue ram, as double-tonguing may be employed to produce quick streams of tongue pizzicato. Some flutists prefer to produce this sound with a forcible opening of the lips, in which case the term "lip pizzicato" is applicable. As defined by Robert Dick, tongue pizzicato is played:
With the flute and embouchure in normal playing position, the tongue is extended through the lip-opening, then, with the lips firmed, it is quickly withdrawn, producing a popping sound. The flute will both amplify the noise of the pop and will resonate the lowest two pitches produced by whatever fingering is used. Tongue-pizzicato is related to traditional French style articulation, in which the tongue is inserted into the lip opening, then withdrawn to articulate single pitches, but the motion and lip compression used in tongue-pizzicati are much greater. Tongue-pizzicato may be used to articulate single pitches effectively. This will be most striking if a very short delay is used between the
35 Debost, The Simple Flute, 153.
36 Takemitsu, Voice for flute solo. (Paris: Editions Salabert, 1988). Score. 3. 19
tongue-pizzicato and the pitch sounding. Tongue-pizzicati can be developed by the flutist to have a dynamic range of pp to ff, and are effective throughout all sizes of flutes.37
The notation for tongue pizzicato is pizz. (tongue pizzicato) with fingering note. This passage from Isang Yun’s Etüden for solo flute illustrates an effective use of the tongue pizzicato.
Ex.8 Isang Yun’s Etudes, Adgio, mm.49–5238
Articulation
A third way to produce extended techniques on the flute is through different articulations, and the two most common of these are flutter tonguing and the double tremolo. First used in the works of Richard Strauss (1864–1949), flutter tonguing is one of the oldest and most widely- used extended techniques.39 In this procedure, the flutist alters the airstream while blowing with the tongue to produce a rougher more aggravated tone and a tremolo effect.40 Technically speaking, flutter tonguing is not an articulation but a special tonal effect. It is one in which twentieth-century composers have made much use because of the unusual sonority flutter
37 Dick, The Other Flute, 139.
38 Yun, Etüden. Score. 8.
39 Rainey, Jr., The Flute Manual, 91; and Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 34.
40 Davis, “Creative Strategies for Teaching Extended Flute Techniques,” 161–62; Debost, “The Guttural Tongue,” Flute Talk 19, no.5 (January 2000): 4; and Debost, The Simple Flute, 253.
20 tonguing gives. With the tongue completely relaxed and using firm breath support, the flutter tonguing is produced by rolling the tongue rapidly against the roof of the mouth as in rolling the letter “R” producing a very rapid vibration. There is no set speed for the roll, but the more rapid the tongue movement the more effective the sound. A second way to execute flutter tonguing calls for growling in the back of the throat as with the “kh,” a technique often called uvular fluttering or guttural tongue, and one that is most effective in the low register (C4–G4), or for multiphonics, extended timbres, soft residual tones and whisper tones.41 Guttural tonguing requires more air than rolling the tongue.42 The many varieties of flutter tonguing range from slight pulsations in the tone to very loud, buzzing noises, and this technique can also be applied to all the sonorities produced by air movement on the flute, including single tones, multiphonics, residual tones, whisper tones and jet whistle.43 Composers notate flutter tonguing in one of two ways: through use of three slashes through a note stem, or by writing “flatterzung (fltzg.)” and
“fluttertzung (flutt.). The technique has many uses beyond the mere “special effect.” In the following passage from his solo flute piece Etudes, for example, Isang Yun uses flutter tonguing to mark prominent notes both individually or in small groups within a dense musical surface.
Ex.9 Isang Yun’s Etudes, Adagio. mm.49–54.44
41 Debost, “The Guttural Tongue,” 4; and Rainey, Jr. The Flute Manual, 91.
42 Debost, “The Guttural Tongue,” 4.
43 Dick, The Other Flute, 136.
44 Yun, Etüden. 8.
21
While the tremolo is a kind of trill between two notes, a double tremolo, which is another extended technique involving articulation, is produced by a trill that is basically on one note similar to a percussionist’s tremolo technique.45 However, in flute technique, the double tremolo is a tremolo that involves multiphonics simultaneously. It is created when the upper note is deftly inserted during the tremolo. The upper note should have a little tenuto, similar to a melody note of a florid passage in the music.46 In Etudes, Isang Yun, used traditional notation with “Doppel- tremolo” to specify double tremolo.
Ex.10 Isang Yun’s Etudes, Allegretto. mm.32ದ33.47
Multiple Sonorities (Polyphonic techniques)
While the flute is understood as a monophonic instrument, in the twentieth century composers used multiphonics as well as singing while playing to make polyphonic sounds from the instrument. Multiphonics occurs when two or more distinct pitches are sounded simultaneously using either standard or a special fingering.48 The multiple pitches will all be a
45 Chung and Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II,” 133.
46 Aralee Dorough,” Performing Berio’s Sequenza,” Flute Talk 19, no.7 (March 2000): 12.
47 Yun, Etüden. 17.
48 Davis, “Creative Strategies for Teaching Extended Flute Techniques,” 162.
22 part of the same harmonic series.49 Multiphonics require the flutist to possess extremely precise control of the embouchure and airstream (more or less breath support as needed), as well as the memorization of nonstandard fingerings. Further limitations exist: not all combinations of notes are possible, some work only at specific dynamic levels, and the ease of production can vary from instrument to instrument. Performers find it very helpful if composers specify the fingerings to be used. The following passage from Isang Yun’s Etudes illustrates an effective use of multiphonics with both the alto flute and the bass flute.
Ex.11-1. Isang Yun’s Etudes, Adagio, mm.74ದ87.50
49 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 290.
50 Yun, Etüden. 9.
23
Ex.11-2. Multiple sounds fingerings for alto flute by Yun.51
Ex. 12-1. . Isang Yun’s Etudes, Adante, mm. 46ದ48.52
Ex.12-2. Multiple sounds fingerings for bass flute by Yun.53
51 Ibid., 5. 52 Ibid., 15. 53 Ibid., 5.
24
A second way of creating polyphony on the flute is through the extended technique of singing while playing. This technique was pioneered by jazz musicians and developed by composers seeking for new sounds for the instrument.54 It is produced by forming a normal flute embouchure and literally singing through it. Several possibilities exist for singing and playing simultaneously: singing pitches different from flute notes; singing pitches in unison with fingered notes; or singing in octaves with the sounding flute pitches.55 The latter two are most effective because the resonance of the tube is enhanced by the frequency of the vibrating vocal cords. Singing in unison or octaves with the note played is fairly easy to perform and produces little or no modulation. Singing in other intervals with the played note is more difficult, as is either sustaining a played pitch and changing the sung note or vice versa.56 Further, it is extremely difficult to play most multiple sonorities and sing simultaneously. The following is one of the most famous examples of this technique from Takemitsu’s Voice. While playing, the flutist speaks, shouts, or sings the text, “Qui va la? Qui que tu sois, parle, trasparence! (Who goes there? Speak, transparence, whoever you are!).” The excerpt also features the technique of covering the embouchure hole completely and singing through the flute while fingering specific pitches notated in the top line. It can be hummed, shouted, and spoken while playing single pitches, creating multiple sonorities that are often heard with very pronounced modulation.57
The intervals formed and the timbre of these multiple sonorities depends on the pitch and timbre both of the note played and of the flutist’s voice.58
54 Powell, The Flute, 274–75.
55 Robert P. Militello, “Voice over Flute,” The Instrumentalist 31 (January 1977): 44.
56 Dick, The Other Flute, 143.
57 Ibid.; and Chung and Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II,” 133.
58 Ibid. 25
Ex. 13 Toru Takemitsu, Voice, Systems 7–9.59
Pitch modification
The last category of extended techniques in twentieth-century flute playing involves pitch modification. Of all of the categories, this one seems to be most influenced in the desire for non- western sonorities. One of the most common of these extended techniques is the pitch bend, which is a term that covers its own meaning but is an umbrella for others such as the glissando and portamento. Pitch bending itself is the change of pitch without the change of fingering, which is achieved by rolling the flute inwards to lower the pitch and rolling it outwards to raise the pitch. Embouchure adjustments while playing the flute are a matter of course to adjust to the very different angles of the airstream for the purpose of tuning. Pitch bending utilizes this procedure first to hit the tone in tune, then to move slightly to a microtone. It is more effective with an open-hole flute, and regardless of the pitch being played, the flute will always bend
59 Takemitsu, Voice. 2.
26 downwards further than it will upwards.60 The use of transposing fingerings upwards a semitone and then bending down that semitone is a very effective means of emulating many East-Asian flutes. Yun uses this technique in his piece, Sori for solo flute.
Ex. 14 Isang Yun’s Sori, mm. 73ದ80.61
The glissando, which literally means sliding, is produced by moving from one note to another through extremely rapid scale-wise execution.62 There are two different kinds of glissandi: the fingered glissando, and the lip glissando. Fingered glissandi are only possible on certain notes of open-hole flute, so it is best for a composer to consult a performer before using them. The lip glissando has a smaller pitch range than the fingered variety, but is more flexible because just about every note on the flute can be bent to a certain extent (though pitches in the first two octaves are much easier to bend than third-octave notes). A glissando is notated as a straight line from the note head, up or down depending on its direction. Fukushima’s Mei for solo flute employs this technique.
60 Dick, The Other Flute, 140.
61 Isang Yun, Sori für flöte solo. (Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1988). Score. 6.
62 Roger S. Stevens, Artistic Flute: Technique and Study. Ruth N. Zwissler, ed. (Hollyood, CA: Highland Music Company, 1967), 60.
27
Ex. 15 Kazuo Fukushima’s Mei, mm.16-17.63
Portamento literally means carrying. This term is applied to the practice of sliding smoothly from one note to the next on many different instruments, including the trombone, voice, stringed instruments, and timpani.64 A portamento can be accomplished in a very limited approach on the open-hole key flute by gradually covering the holes of the keys, one at a time while descending, or by uncovering while ascending.65 The term glissando is commonly misapplied to portamento from note to note.66 Toru Takemitsu used portamento in his solo flute piece, Itinerant.
Ex. 16 Toru Takemitsu’s Itinerant, system 4.67
Microtones are a kind of pitch modification that involves intervals smaller than a half- step (semitone), of which the most common is the quartertone.68 The execution of quartertones
63 Fukushima, Mei for flute solo. (Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1966). Score. 2.
64 Stevens, Artistic Flute, 60; and Chung and Lee, “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques,” 138.
65 Ibid. 66 Ibid.
67 Takemitsu, Itinerant. 3.
28 requires the performer to either employ a different fingering, often by depressing a half-holed key, or bend the pitch up or down with the embouchure. Because the standard Boehm-system flute was developed in the 1840s and obviously not designed for microtones, the artificial fingerings involved will produce different timbres that are sometimes radically different from the surrounding semitones. Because of the nature of many quartertone fingerings, they are more effective at softer dynamic levels than at louder ones.69 Notation methods vary, but the following example is a fairly typical way of indicating the use of quartertones and raised and lowered inflections.
Ex. 17 Isang Yun’s Etudes, Allegro, mm. 38ದ4470
68 Davis, “Creative Strategies for Teaching Extended Flute Techniques,” 162.
69 Westphal, Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 290.
70 Yun, Etüden. 12. 29
Chapter II
Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukushima and the Influence of East-Asian Flutes
The three best known East-Asian composers, Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, and Kazuo
Fukushima, developed distinctive musical styles that combined elements of both Eastern and
Western traditions. Yun and Takemitsu, especially, were famous composers in the Western
Avant-garde movement and spent considerable time in Western countries studying compositional techniques and later teaching. Fukushima participated in Takemitsu’s Jikken kōbō (experimental music laboratory) in Japan in the 1950s. All three were attendees of numerous Darmstadt festivals, and each employed techniques being developed by progressive composers in the West in many of their pieces. However, Eastern philosophies had an important influence on the composers and manifested themselves through their works as did the music and instruments of their native cultures. Yun wrote exclusively for Western instruments but incorporated performance techniques and styles from Korean traditional instruments including the strings,
Gayagŭm and Geomungo, percussions instruments, Bak and Janggo, and flutes, Daegŭm and
Tungso. Takemitsu drew from many of the traditions of Japanese music, including Noh theatre, and from instruments like the biwa, a traditional Japanese lute. Fukishima, also adopted styles from the Noh theater and the biwa, but also turned to traditional Buddhist chant, Shômyô, as a source of inspiration. Also, both Takemitsu and Fukushima composed music for both Eastern and Western instruments.
30
Yun’s music is always concerned with the culture, history, philosophy, and aesthetics of his native country.71 He drew from Korean traditions but sought to express them with Western compositional styles, notation, and instruments. Many of his pieces have Korean names and he maintained that they contained deep significance. Although his early works show the influence of Strauss, Debussy, and Bartok, among others, and experimentation with twelve-tone techniques and serialism, his mature style explored techniques mainly for solo instruments from Korean sources. This later style is largely based on “main-tone technique,” in which a tone is stated and prolonged then ornamented with a wide variety of tonal inflections including glissandi, trills, vibrato, mictrotonal inflections, and timbral changes.72 This “phrase,” then, gives way to a new tone and embellishment figure. For Yun, the philosophy of the negative and positive pairs, Yin and Yang, had a profound influence on this technique. This style is evident in Glissées for solo cello (1970), Piri for oboe (1971), and Monologues for Bassoon (1984), but his solo flute works are perhaps the best representatives. According to Yun himself:
Even as a child, I was surrounded by our traditional flute music. I heard the Korean bamboo flute, the tanso, and our much older traditional version of the flute, the taegum, in the temple and with the farmers. In our poetry and paintings, you can often find the motif of flute-playing hermits. I think that the flute is the instrument best suited to the ornaments my music needs.73
Yun’s use of extended techniques for flute come directly from his desire to recreate the sounds of the Daegŭm and Tungso on the Western flute.
71 Andrew McCredie, “Isang Yun (1917-1995),” Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant-Garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook ed. Larry Sitsky. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002). 588-89; and Ji-sook Choi, Sangchuibeun Segieui Geojang Yun Isang [Wounded great artist in the century, Isang Yun]. (Seoul: Kyohaksa, 2000), 47-48; and Yong-hwan Kim, Yun Isang Studies. (Seoul: Sigongsa, 2001), 17.
72 Yong-hwan Kim, Yun Isang Studies, 38.
73 Eric Salzman, Liner notes for Isang Yun, Fanfare & Memorial Distanzen, Etudes, The Berlin Philharmonic, Lorin Maazel, conductor, The Scharoun Ensemble, Heinz Holliger, conductor, Tara Helen O’Connor, flute, ARC 1997-2 (New York: Arcadia Records and Music Management Inc., 1992), Compact disc. 31
Takemitsu was the first Japanese composer to reach international recognition. Largely a self-taught composer, he composed concert works, chamber works, and over ninety film scores, many of which received honors. Of the three composers, Takemitsu’s music exhibits the most diverse knowledge of progressive twentieth-century styles. In his compositions, he used serial techniques, atonal expressionistic qualities, modal scales, electronic music, musique concrete, and even incorporated Jazz elements. He was most interested in composing music that used an international modern musical language to express traditional Japanese instruments and aesthetics, and the stated goal of his music society, Jikken Kōbō, was to “create new music which would combine traditional Japanese modalities with modernistic procedures.”74 He employed many
Japanese musical concepts to achieve variety of timbres in a single tone, timelessness, ambiguity, space, and a free rhythmic quality. In his later works (1976 to 1995), especially, he sought to compose “in the nostalgia of memories of his early life.”75 He composed small instrumental works for not only Western instruments but also Japanese traditional instruments such as the biwa (lute) and Shakuhachi (flute), and took styles from both court and folk traditions of
Japanese music. Like many twentieth-century composers, Takemitsu, invented many notational devices to indicate his unique expressions and helped to expand flute techniques and the techniques of other instruments as well.
Fukushima’s musical aesthetics and aims are similar in many ways to those of Takemitsu, with whom he had much contact. With a deep understanding of his native traditional music and instruments, Fukushima captures sense of time and silence in his compositions and achieves a
74 Takemitsu, “A Mirror and an Egg,” Daniell Starr and Syoko Aki, trans. Banff Letters (Spring 1985). 19.
75 James Siddons. “Tôru Takemitsu (1930–1996),” Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant-garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook ed. Larry Sitsky. (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002). 518.
32 beauty in simplicity. His interest in and study of Buddhist philosophy and music manifests itself in his music and lends to it a meditative quality. Single tone writing and timbral variety are also important in his compositions as they were in Yun’s and Takemitsu’s. Also like Takemitsu’s later works, most of the compositions by Fukushima are relatively small instrumental pieces for solo or ensemble. When it comes to his flute music, such as Mei, he draws from traditional
Japanese court music, Gagaku and Noh-music, and integrates within Western flute techniques, glissandi, overblowing, free rhythms, and his own suggestions of performance technique.
The solo flute works of Yun, Takemitsu and Fukushima all blend elements of their native cultures with the Western art music they studied. As various flutes are among the most important instruments in both Japan and Korea, it is no small wonder that these composers are influenced by them and seek to emulate their sounds with the modern, Western flute. Also, two of the composers, Takemitsu and Fukushima, composed music for traditional Japanese flutes as well as the music they wrote for the Western counterpart.
Korean and Japanese Flutes
Korean and Japanese flutes are made from bamboo; they are all single conical bores, which include finger holes, but no key mechanisms. Types of each different flute can be used in both court and folk traditions, but generally the flutes for the court were larger. This distinction of court and folk is important in both Korea and Japan as is the influence of Chinese music. The main categories of music in Korea are the A-ak, a Chinese-influenced court music, Dang-ak,
Chinese-influenced court music specifically from the Dang dynasty, Hyang-ak , Korean court music, and Sanjo, a form of Korean folk music. In Japan, the designations are somewhat similar: the Gagaku is Japanese classical court music, the Dogaku is Chinese-originating court music,
33 and the Gogaku is Japanese court music originating from the Goguryeo dynasty of Korea. Their folk music, often called sankyoku, also uses various flutes.76 In Japan, specific flutes are used for various purposes more than in Korea.
Daegŭm
The Daegǔm is the largest Korean flute; it is a transverse flute and is played in both the court traditions, Dang-ak and Hyang-ak, as well as folk music, Sanjo. It is an instrument of special importance, and all strings and other wind instruments of the traditional Korean orchestra are tuned to the Daegǔm’s B-flat.77 Its origins are spotty. The first record of the invention of the
Daegŭm comes from the Samguk Yusa (Romance of the Three Kingdoms), compiled by the monk, Ilyeon (1206-89).78 According to this legend, Shinmun (r. 681-92), King of Unified
Shilla, first made a mysterious yellow bamboo flute because of a dream in which, whenever it was played, enemies retreated, illnesses were cured, rain came after drought, and the sea remained calm.79 It became one of the three bamboo flutes of central importance in the following Unified Shilla dynasty (668-935) and kept its status thereafter.
76 Sa-hoon Jang, Korean Musical Instruments. (Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 1986), 283-286; Sa-hoon Jang, Woori Yet Akki (Our Old Instrument). (Seoul: Daewon Sa, 1990), 6-9; Keith Howard, Korean Musical Instruments. (Hong Kong, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 12-16; Tae-ryong, Son, Hangukeui Jeontong Akki (Korean traditional instrument). (Kyoungsan: Youngnam University Press, 2003), 51-55, 61-69 ; Howard, Korean Musical Instruments, 15-16, 43; and Shimada, “Cross-Cultural Music,” 27
77 Hye-gu Lee, Compiled and ed. Korean Musical Instruments. trans. by Alan C. Heyman. (Seoul: National Classical Music Institute of Korea, 1982), 27.
78 Howard, Korean Musical Instruments, 11. Three kingdoms dominant in the first centuries AD. They are Goguryeo (in the north, BC37-AD668), Baekje (in the south-west and center, BC18-AD660), and Shilla (in the south-east, BC57-AD668).
79 Hye-gu Lee, trans., Shinyeok Akhak kwebum (New translation of Guide to the study of music). (Seoul: National Classical Music Institute of Korea, 2000), 440-41; Jang, Korean Musical Instruments, 283-286; Jang, Woori Yet Akki (Our Old Instrumen). (Seoul: Daewon Sa, 1990), 12-13; Howard, Korean Musical Instruments, 43; and Son, Hangukeui Jeontong Akki, 61-69.
34
The Daegŭm is a conical pipe carved from a length of yellow bamboo with major nodes.
The court Daegŭm is around 80ದ85 cm long and has a range of Bb3–Eb6. The version used for folk music is shorter, around 74 cm long, and is tuned about a tone higher than its court counterpart. The top of the instrument is sealed with wax, it has a large blowing hole (Chwi-gong, or Chwi-gu) in a round shape like the Western flute, six finger holes (Ji-gong), one or two
(originally five) big non-stopped dipper holes (Chilsung-gong), drilled in part for decoration in the lower part of the tube, but also to define the sounding length and control the tuning, and finally an oval hole covered with a mirliton (Chung-gong). 80 Originally, the Daegŭm was the only flute among Eastern flutes that contained a Chung-gong. It is a membrane hole, in which a tissue (Galdae), cut from bamboo or reed, can be exposed to produce a unique and characteristic buzzing effect.81 The blown air vibrates the thin membrane resulting in a distinctively breathy sound and provides for different tone colors.
Apart from the buzzing sound of the Chung-gong, the Daegŭm has several other distinctive qualities. In the low and middle ranges, sounds are soft, dark and deep while in the upper registers, sharp and acute. Harmonics are achieved in these registers through hard blowing, which is different than in the Western flute.82 Vibrato, called Yo-sung, is one of the major techniques of East-Asian traditional music and is especially important for the playing of the
Daegŭm. It is produced by bobbing one’s head up and down or moving the instrument itself.
Considerable pitch adjustment can also be made by altering the embouchure across the large
80 Hye-gu Lee, trans., Shinyeok Akhak kwebum, 441; Young-gu Lee, Akki (Instrument). (Seoul; Jayu Mungo, 2003), 270; and Jang, Hanguk Eumaksa (Korean Music History). (Seoul: Sekwang Music Press, 1986), 115.
81 Howard, Korean Musical Instruments, 44; Hye-gu Lee, trans., Shinyeok Akhak kwebum, 440-41; Jang, Korean Musical Instruments, 283-286; Jang, Woori Yet Akki, 12-13; and Son, Hangukeui Jeontong Akki, 61-69.
82 William P. Malm, Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia. (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996), 208-09.
35 blowing hole. There are three types of Yo-sung: Chusung, Toesung, and Jeonsung. Chusung literally means to “push or slide up the sound” and is similar to a microtonal glissando up a quarter-tone higher. Toesung moves in the opposite way, “sliding down” and is similar to a microtonal glissando down a quarter-tone. Jeonsung combines the two and is similar to a microtonal glissando with a quarter-tone up and a downward finger glissando as in the portamento manner. The Daegŭm‘s tuning is not based on the equal temperament used in
Western music. Glissandi, various timbres, different types of vibrato, rapid crescendo- decrescendo, microtones, and irregular intervals in the various keys and modes are the important characteristics in traditional Daegŭm playing.
Ex.18-1. Court Daegŭm83
Ex.18-2. Sanjo Daegŭm84
83 This photo is permitted by Doo-byung Jang, head of department in Jounsori Jejakso, Korea.
84 This photo is permitted by Doo-byung Jang, head of department in Jounsori Jejakso, Korea. 36
Tungso
Tungso is a Korean bamboo vertical flute or pipe also known as the Tongso, or Tungae. It has a rather complicated history. Originally it was a Dang-ak (court) instrument, dating from the
Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) after the Unified Shilla dynasty, and had anywhere from five to six finger holes. It did not include a chung-gong. Later it became a Hyang-ak (folk) instrument, and is now generally 60–65 cm long, has between six and nine holes, and does include a chung-gong.
The Tungso’s embouchure hole, chwi-gu, differs from the Daegŭm and Western flute in that it is
U shaped. Its range is about two and a half octaves, and its sound is often characterized as sorrowful or plaintive. Performance practice such as Yo-sung is similar as that of the Daegŭm.
Ex.19. Tungso85
Ryūteki/Nohkan/ Shinobue
There are three main types of transverse flutes in Japanese music, the Ryūteki, Nohkan, and Shinobue. A greater divide between specific uses exists in Japanese music than in Korean and these flutes are particular to the music and function for which they are utilized. Ryūteki, ambassadors known as Gyeodangsa brought it to Japan during the Dang Dynasty (618–907).
85 This picture is also permitted by Doo-byung Jang, head of department in Jounsori Jejakso, Korea. 37
There is a similar flute, the Gomabue, supposedly from Korea, but it is classified differently than the Ryūteki and is of less importance. The Ryūteki is similar to the Daegŭm and has seven finger holes, but it is smaller, about 40 cm. It is also more elaborate with its body wrapped in twine or cherry bark. As with the Western flute, a performer can play two different octaves using the same fingerings, by blowing more or less air, the higher octave known as Seme, and the lower as
Huku. This characteristic gives the Ryūteki its distinctive piercing sound and differentiates it from other flutes. The techniques that a performer is able to achieve on this flute are similar to those of the Daegŭm.
The Nohkan is a transverse flute, around 39 cm, made of 100-year-old smoked bamboo
(susudake), used specifically for Noh theater. Traditionally, Noh plays were a mixture of narrative—mostly on themes of war—, chanting, and choreography staged by professional performers for warrior-class (Samurai) audiences. It is still popular in Japan today as a classical tradition. Among the instruments that make up the accompanying ensemble, the Nohkan is the only melodic instrument. Similar to the Ryūteki, it has an embouchure and seven finger holes, but it includes a short narrow tube called a Nodo between the embouchure and first finger hole, which helps create the Nohkan’s distinctive sharp and strong, high-pitched color. The finger holes are covered not by the finger tips, but by the first (top) inner knuckle joint, which makes a key-click sound. Unlike the Ryūteki and Western flute, where overblowing makes the upper octave possible, on the Nohkan, overblowing produces a range of flatter pitches of the note played. Further, microtones are important for the playing of this flute and are achieved by lifting the knuckle joint slightly from the holes.86 The distinctive character of Nohkan is evident in its
86 Shimada, “Cross-Cultural Music,” 28. 38 unstable scales, lack of exact pitches, piercing and forceful timbre, and pitch fluctuation.87 Wind noises and breathy sounds are also common.88 Hishigi is a special gesture in which the highest, shrillest note on the Nohkan is generally played at the beginning and end of Noh plays or other moments to punctuate dramatic high points.89
The Shinobue are the Japanese transverse flutes used for non-court music and folk traditions. It is differentiated by two main functions, the festival and the vocal ensemble. The festival flute, Matsuribayashi, which is the original type, is played with a percussion instrument because it is not tuned properly.90 The vocal ensemble flute, Uta-shinobue, is more common and plays an obbligato, accompanying a sung melody.91 Like the other Japanese transverse flutes, it has seven finger holes, but there are twelve different lengths of Shinobue. Shinobue playing utilizes several traditional performance practices including meri, kari, uchiyubi, and atari, all of which are also available to the Nohkan performer. Meri means to lower the pitch and kari to raise it by moving the chin position onto the blowing edge of the mouthpiece without altering the fingerings.92 Finger hits (quickly opening and closing a hole), are called Uchiyubi and are used to separate repeated notes. Atari is the use of finger hits to produce different pitches. The shinobue has a high-pitched piercing sound but it is less severe than the Nohkan.
87 Mihoko Watanabe, “The Essence of Mei,” The Flutist Quarterly, 33, no.3 (Spring 2008): 20.
88 Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 119–22.
89 Ibid. 90 Ibid. 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid.
39
Ex.20 Shinobue/Komabue/Kakurabue/Ryūtecki/Nohkan (clock wise)93
Shakuhachi
The Japanese end-blown vertical bamboo flute Shakuhachi is similar to the Korean
Tungso. The name, Shakuhachi, was derived from the length of the instrument in Chinese measurement, and in Western measurement approximates 54.5 cm. The instrument is made from old, dark bamboo, Odake, and has four anterior finger holes and a posterior thumb hole. It is tuned to a pentatonic scale with no half-tones, but through various fingerings and embouchures, a player can produce all 12 tones of the chromatic scale.94 The flute is held vertically, and the player blows air directly downward into the edge of the instrument’s mouthpiece (Utaguchi), vibrating an air reed. The basic timbre of the Shakuhachi is similar to the sound made when blowing across the lip of a bottle. Tone color is the major focus of playing the Shakuhachi; the sound is generally mellow and dark, and rhythm is generally freely interpreted. Other tone colors can be obtained by covering the holes in different combinations, by varying the speed of the airflows, and by tilting the Shakuhachi inward and outward. The meri, kari, uchiyubi and atari techniques of other Japanese flutes are also used here. Muraiki, one of the essential styles of
Shakuhachi playing, is an explosive, breathy sound created by a strong stream of air blown over
93 Ibid., 95; and Ferranti, Japanese Musical Instruments, 57.
94 Shimada, “Cross-cultural Music,” 28. 40 the mouthpiece.95 Yuri are horizontal and vertical head movements that produce a vibrato effect like Yo-sung in Korean flute playing. This instrument was important in religious practices beginning in the thirteenth century, when it was used by the Fuke sect of Buddhism in the practice of Suizen (blowing meditation).
Ex.21 Shakuhachi96
The following chapters will explore the use of extended techniques and performance practices derived from the traditions of East-Asian flutes in the solo flute music of Yun,
Takemitsu, and Fukushima.
95 Ibid.
96 Malm, Japanese Music and Musical Instruments, 184. 41
Chapter III
Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Isang Yun
Korean-German composer, Isang Yun (1917–95), is known as a composer who successfully integrated his native traditional music with western music. Born in Duksan and raised in Tongyoung in the southern part of Korea at a time of intense cultural transformations,
Yun began his education in the traditional Korean methods, which included philosophy, music and art, before being educated in a thoroughly modern and westernized school. From the age of seven, he took violin lessons privately and by thirteen, he was composing his own music with little outside guidance.97 During his teen years, he studied harmony with one of the Korean apprentices of the highly influential Franz Eckert (1852–1916), a German who lived in Japan teaching Western music. At age eighteen, Yun attended the Osaka Conservatory in Japan, where he studied the cello, music theory, and composition with Tomojiro Ikenouchi (1906–1991).98
During the war period, he taught music at a high school in Bu-san, Korea and managed an orphanage school. After he had received the Seoul City Award, Yun traveled to Europe in 1956 and studied music theory with Reinhard Schwarz Shilling (1904–1985), twelve-tone techniques with Josef Ruffer (1893–1985) a pupil of Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), and composition
97 Ji-sook Choi. Sangchuibeun Segieui Geojang Yun Isang (Wounded great artist in the century, Isang Yun). (Seoul: Kyohaksa, 2000).
98 Kyungmee Rhee, “KOREA: Korean Composers and Their Activities,” Asian Composers in the 20th Century. (Tokyo: The Japan Federation of composers Inc., 2002), 244 42 with Boris Blacher (1903–1975).99 In 1963, Yun took a trip into North Korea to visit a friend, an act that was strictly prohibited by the South Korean government, and Yun was forced to flee
South Korea or face a prison sentence. He moved to Western Europe (he lived at different times in both France and Germany), where he quickly developed an international reputation as an
Avant-garde composer; indeed, he was a favorite at the Darmstadt summer festivals. While he could not return to his native country during this period of political exile, it was in this time that he rediscovered the value of traditional Korean music.
This rejuvenated respect for the music of his native country greatly affected his compositions in his later years. Nowhere can this interest be seen better than in his pieces for flute, perhaps because of the importance of the flute in Korean music. In his pieces for flute, Yun incorporated many of the characteristic styles and methods of the traditional Korean flutes with
Western practices and the Western flute. His four solo flute works, Etudes (1974), Salomo
(1977–78), Sori (1988), and Chinesische Bilder (1993), all blend Eastern and Western flute sounds in two major ways. Firstly, the basic construction of the musical ideas comes directly out of the Korean flute style, sometimes called the main tone technique, in which a single long note is sustained for a certain amount of time, then, quickly followed by a succession of notes in much quicker values. In Korean flute playing, this style, which is improvised, is varied through changes of timbre that occur simultaneously: varying vibratos, dynamic changes, breathier playing, etc. The following examples present an improvisation by the Daegŭm player Yong-seok
Seo (b.1940), as it would be notated in traditional Korean notation and then in modern notation.
These are followed by [which piece from the etudes] by Yun, in which constant changes of timbre and embellishment through trills are the focus of this passage.
99 Ibid.; and Kunz, “Isang Yun,” 696. 43
Ex.22-1 Jinyangjo movement from Seo Yong-seok ryu Daegŭm sanjo, (Jeongganbo)100
Ex.22-2 Jinyangjo movement from Seo Yong-seok ryu Taegŭm sanjo, (modern notation)101
100 Yong-seok Seo, Daegŭm Sanjo. (Seoul: Eunha Chulpansa, 2005), 11.
101 Ibid., 3.
44
Ex.22-3 Changing timbre in Yun’s Etudes with vibrato, dynamic, and breathy trill
Ex.22-4 Yun’s various breathy sound symbols in Etudes.
This style creates the impression of embellishing the central long note and this design in the music is one of the central qualities that give this music an Eastern sound. The second way in which the blend of East and West is noticeable is in the use of the many extended techniques, some from Western practices, some from Eastern, accompany this basic format. In his flute pieces, Yun employs special fingerings, key clicks, flutter tonguing, multiphonics and pizzicato from Western traditions, and glissandi, breathy trills, double tremolos, varying vibrati, and
45 microtones that are derived from Korean flute techniques. The extended techniques and performance guidelines will be discussed for each piece.
Etudes for solo flutes (1974)
Etudes for solo flutes is a concert piece Yun composed in March, 1974 in collaboration with Beate-Gabriella Schmitt and it was premiered by Chang-kook Kim in Kyoto, 18 July. Each of the five movements is written for a different member of the flute family: Moderato (Flute);
Adagio (Alto flute); Allegro (Piccolo); Andante (Bass flute); and Allegretto (Flute). The Etudes make the most out of the various timbres and sounds of these different flutes. In this piece, the
Western extended techniques used are key clicks, singing while playing, flutter tonguing and multiphonics, but the last of these is for the specific purpose of creating a specific Eastern sound.
Key clicks occur in both the first and second movements. At measure 79 of the Moderato (first movement), this technique is indicated with the words, “Nur noch mit Klappengeräusch” (noise only open and closed keys), and is accompanied with rapid dynamic change from p to ff and then a decrescendo to ppp.
Ex.23 Etudes, I. Moderato, mm.78–79
While key clicks are not possible on Korean flutes, Yun’s instructions, “immer geräuschvoller”
(keep blowing more air to create noise sound), has the effect of making this passage still sound
46 like a Korean flute. In the Adagio (second movement), the key clicks through special fingerings achieve a pizzicato effect at measures 70 and 72.
Ex.24-1 Etudes, II. Adagio, mm. 67–73.
Ex.24-2 Special fingerings.
There are passages of multiphonics in both of the two slow movements. In the Adagio, which is played by the Alto flute, the sounding pitch is a perfect fourth lower than the written note, and in the Andante for Bass flute, it is an octave lower. A special incident of multiphonics occurs in the
Andante, mm. 56–62, where there is also the other polyphonic technique, singing while playing.
47
Ex.25 Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.56–62
The extended techniques that Yun borrows directly from the traditions of Korean flutes are wind tones, various vibrati, double tremolos, glissandi, breathy trills and microtones. All of these techniques directly correspond to methods found in the playing of the Daegŭm and Tungso, and help lend an Eastern sound to this piece. One further technique, flutter tonguing, though a
Western technique, is used to come close to a vibrato sound possible on the Daegŭm. Most of the time, these techniques are used in combination. For example, flutter tonguing, microtones, both ascending/descending, microtones and a breathy trill are used in the Andante (mm. 36–48) for creating Daegŭm’s vibrato. It is important that the performer remember that these will be achieved by bobbing the head.
48
Ex.26 Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.36–48
In measures 50–51 of this same movement, Yun specifies “sehr geräuschhaft, mehr Luft als Ton”
(wind sound like effect), which is a sound very similar to that of the Daegŭm.
Ex.27 Etudes, IV. Andante, mm.50–51.
The Andante also finishes with this technique, which creates a mysterious feeling: “Nur mit Luft, ohne Ansatz” (only wind sound, lip far from embouchure). In the third movement, allegro, played by the piccolo, glissandi and microtonal pitch bending are actively used. These techniques are general performance practice of East-Asian flutes as they produce various timbre changes with pitch inflection.
49
Ex.28 Etudes, III. Allegro, mm. 38–44
In the Allegretto (fifth movement), a double tremolo with special fingerings, microtones, and pitch bending techniques appear continuously in mm. 31–39.
Ex.29 Etudes, V. Allegretto, mm. 31ದ35
Ex.30 Double tremolo with singing while playing V. allegretto, mm.71ದ74
50
All of these techniques are used in tandem with the general melodic style to reference Korean flute playing. It is also interesting that the Etudes use extended techniques far more than any other of Yun’s solo flute works.
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Mvt. Measure Tips for Realization Microtonal pitch 2nd mm. 45–46 Flexible jaw moving required. 1. bending 3rd mm. 38–42, Make embouchure relaxed and moving the instrument 44–45, 50, 52 inward or outward. 4th mm. 9–11, 17, While pitch bending, making crescendo and decrescendo 19, 21–22, 24– required. 28, 30–32, 34– 38, 44–45, 55– 56 5th mm. 6, 35–37, 49, 69–70,78– 79, 84–85,87– 89, 92–96 2. Jeonsung 4th m. 62 Bending pitches quickly with flexible lip movement inward manner or outward. 5th mm. 21–22, glissando Make crescendo with raising pitch up, and decrescendo with 31, 38–40 pitch down. 3. Singing while 4th mm. 59–61 Singing lowest note helps to create softer sounds. Be careful playing 5th mm. 72–74 of the focusing aperture and vocalize well. Make a balance between singing voice and flute sounds. 4. Key click 1st m. 79 Make more noisy wind sound and then have a strong key 2nd mm. 69–70, click. Make decrescendo until the end. 72–73 5th m. 75 5. Breathy trill 2nd mm. 4, 7, 9– Strong support from the diaphragm is needed. 10, 16, 18–19, Blow the strong air pressure with wide lip aperture. 29,31, 56–57, Windy noise is acceptable in this technique. 61–62 Express big edge of vibrato required. 4th mm. 8,23,24, 31–32, 36, 39, 41, 43, 47–48, 52–53, 67, 69 5th mm.113–114 6. Wind tone 4th mm. 50–51, Similar to Daegŭm sound, open up mouth and make little 73–76 wide aperture and keep blowing the strong air pressure. At the end of wind tone, move flute far outward. 7. Double tremolo 5th mm. 32–34, Double tremolo comes with special fingering and microtonal 71–74 pitch bending simultaneously. Moreover adding singing while playing technique is extremely hard to create soft sounds. Singing lowest note and playing flute will be helpful to produce soft sound. 51
Technique Mvt. Measure Tips for Realization 8. Tremolo with 5th mm. 24–25, To avoid loosening the tension, move instrument little bit microtonal pitch 55, 58, 63, 67 inward or outward to produce pitch bending. bending 9. Pizzicato with 2nd m. 70, 72 Be careful of fingering which is indicated on the score. special fingering 10. Multiphonic 2nd mm. 75–79, Blow the air harder and overblowing on special fingerings. with special 82–85 Embouchure should be more focused. fingering 4th mm. 56–58 11 Flutter tongue 2nd mm. 12–13, Open up the throat and place tongue as low as you can. For 21–22, 49, 51, softer sound and low register, guttural tongue will be 53, 63, 66, 69, helpful. 73–74, 87–91 4th mm. 1–2, 5–8, 13–14, 23, 39, 64–65 12 Key click like 2nd mm. 49, 52, Make a sound with pizzicato effect strong key click used Pizzicato 67, 69–70, 72– with special fingering 73, 88–89 13 Harmonics 5th mm.68–70, Find easiest fundamental note for you and then make a soft 116 sound with high pitched harmonics. In my case, one octave below note is helpful to create softer harmonics for G6, A6, B6
Salomo for solo flute or Alto flute (1977–78)
Salomo is a solo flute piece from the cantata, Der Weise Mann (1977). Yun composed the alto flute part in this cantata for Schmitt to play, but it can also be played by a concert flute. It was premiered by Schmitt in Kiel, Germany, 30 April 1979. While Yun uses fewer extended techniques in this seven minute work than he had in the Etudes, he still uses them to emulate the performance practice of the Daegŭm and Tungso and to create a sorrowful sound. In this piece
Yun uses microtones, pitch bending, harmonics, flutter tonguing, and breathy trills to create sounds of Daegŭm and Tungso. The piece begins with pitch bending and microtones with indication as 1/4 Ton Erniedrigung (nur des detreffenden Tones) (quarter tone bending only concerning pitch).
52
Ex.31 Salomo, mm.1–5.
Harmonics, flutter tonguing and echo effect are used in mm.16–26.
Ex.32 Salomo, mm.16–26.
Breathy trill sound like wind tone effect (mehr Luftgeräusch als Ton) is used in m.72–73.
Ex.33 Salomo, mm. 72ದ73.
53
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Measure Tips for Realization 1 Microtonal mm. 3–4, 42, Quarter tone up or down start with longer note value and then quickly pitch bending 67–68 move to next pitch. Make crescendo while bending pitch for better effect. 2 Jeonsung m. 5 Make crescendo while microtonal glissando moving down and then manner up. glissando Starting note should be played as the longest and then moving quickly down and up using lip glissando. 3 Flutter tongue m.19, 46, 53, Start with regular long note value and then play flutter tongue with 75, 86 strong air pressure but dynamic should decrescendo and get as soft as you can. Low register flutter tongue is better to use guttural tongue. Grace note before flutter tongue should be tonguing with accent even dynamic is ppp. 4 Harmonics m. 26, 41 Decrease the size of the aperture in the lips, increase the intensity of the air stream with fundamental note fingering. 5 Breathy trill m. 73 Breathy trill should have wind tone effect. It needs big breath and more vibrating while sustaining note. 6 Dynamics Entire piece Each phrase should be played crescendo and decrescendo. For effective pppp, make lip aperture narrow and keep the support from diaphragm.
Sori for solo flute (1988)
Sori for flute solo was composed in Sveg, Sweden in 1988. Yun dedicated it to the flutist
Roberto Fabbriciani who premiered it at Carnegie Hall in New York, 7 November 1988. The piece derives its name from the Korean word, “Sori,” which translates as voice or song. About twelve minutes in length, it is a single-movement work that like the others is based on the main- tone technique. Yun achieves a high level of expressiveness in this piece as he embellishes each long-held single tone with repetitions, alternations, grace notes, changes in dynamics, and trills.
54
Ex.34 Sori, mm.1–4
Also, each of the melodic groups makes use of extended techniques such as microtones, pitch bending, glissandi, various vibrati, and flutter tonguing. Especially important for this piece is
Yun’s utilization of quarter tones, both sharp and flat, to approximate the Yo-sung, which is a vibrato of microtones common to the Daegŭm.
Ex.35 Microtonal glissando, pitch bending; mm.73–80 in Sori.
He also emulates the Daegŭm’s soft and gentle sound in the lower register and the penetrating sound in high register through extremely varied dynamics. This piece ends with ppp flutter tonguing to produce the low register sound of the Daegŭm.
55
Ex.36 Sori, mm.125–26
A brief guideline for performance
Technique measure Tips for Realization 1 Micro tonal mm. 16–17, 21, To create Daegŭm’s sound, dynamic changes between pitch bending pitch bending 25, 28, 30, 39, is required. 52, 54, 67, 74– Usually make crescendo while moving pitches. 75, 77–80, 87– Flexible jaw moving is required. 88, 93, 103, If following note after bended note is far apart, moving instrument 111–112, 119– slightly in or out is helpful to move to another pitch. 120, 123 2 Jeonsung mm. 22–23, 75– Same direction as microtonal pitch bending. manner 76, 89–90, 108 Make crescendo and decrescendo quickly while glissando pitch up microtonal and down. glissando 3 Flutter tongue m.125–126 In case of flutter tongue with microtonal pitch bending, moving jaw or head up and down helps to create easy bending while flutter tonguing. 4 Dynamics Entire piece Be careful of dynamic ranges. Especially ppp should sound like a wind tone at the end and then disappear. Quick and big dynamic changes are required. 5 Vibrato Entire piece Sustaining long single note, start with non-vibrato and then gradually add vibrato.
Chinesische Bilder [Chinese pictures] for flute or recorder (1993)
Chinesische Bilder for recorder/flute was composed in Hohegeiss in Harz, Germany in
June, 1993. Although this piece was premiered by the recorder player, Walter van Hauwe, in
Stavanger, Norway, 14 August 1993, Yun intended it to be played on the flute. It has four movements: I. The Visitor of the Idyll, II. The Hermit at the Water, III. The Actor with the
56
Monkey, and IV. The Shepherd’s Flute. Lasting around eighteen minutes, Chinesische Bilder is similar in style to Yun’s other solo flute works. However, changes of extended techniques occurs much faster in this piece than in the other pieces. Microtones, pitch bending, flutter tonguing, and tremolo are used by themselves or often in combination. The use of staccato or various dynamic changes along with microtones and pitch bending are used to create Daegŭm’s sound.
Ex.37 Chinesische Bilder, first mvt. mm.1–6.
Flutter tonguing and tremolo occurs simultaneously in mm.51–55 in first movement.
Ex. 38Chinesische Bilder, first mvt. mm.51–55.
57
The second movement also has pitch bending, microtones and a trill at the same time, which sounds again much like the Yo-sung vibrato of the Daegŭm.
Ex.39 Chinesische Bilder, second mvt. mm. 16–20.
In the third and fourth movements, various rhythmic contrasts occur simultaneously as microtones and pitch bending techniques.
Ex.40 Chinesische Bilder, third mvt. mm. 27–29.
Ex.41 Chinesische Bilder, fourth mvt. mm. 36–41.
58
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Mvt. Measure Tips for Realization 1 Microtonal 1st mm. 1–4, 6– Straight bar line between two notes with ໖ (quartertone up) or pitch 7, 11, 29–30, opposite way. bending 33-35, 48– Start note should be played as long as in rhythm and then moving to 49 quarter tone lower or higher quickly. 2nd mm.13, 15– Be careful of dynamics between two notes. 16, 18–19, Do not loose intensity in playing continuous microtonal pitch 23, 26, 30 bending. 3rd m. 29, 66 Make embouchure flexible and have strong support of the diaphragm. 4th mm. 34–38, Control lips carefully. 40 Gesture rather than exact metrical playing. 2 Glissando 1st m. 32, 50 Straight bar line between two notes. 2nd mm. 9, 17, Using lip glissando in semi-tone apart. 21–22, 24, Using finger glissando more than semi-tone apart. 28, 30 Need flexible finger technique and embouchure. 3rd mm. 19–20, Making effective gesture, play starting note longer than the note that 22, 24, 27– follows and then quickly move to the next pitch. 30, 39–41, Be careful of lip tension while playing trill with glissando. 46, 56–57, 62, 66 4th mm. 3–7, 11–13, 19, 23–24, 26– 27, 29, 32, 38, 42, 45, 47, 50–51 3 Jeongsung 2nd m. 27, 29 Continuously bending notes up and down among three notes. manner of 3rd m. 12 Making crescendo and decrescendo might help to create effective glissando 4th m. 8, 25, 33 gesture of Korean flute’s pitch inflection, Jeonsung manner. 4 Flutter 1st mm. 9–10, Use guttural tonguing to make a better flutter tongue sound in the low tongue 53 register. Flutter tongue with your tongue is better to stay as low as it can for flexible moving. Opening up the mouth and blowing air into the flute can make flutter tonguing soft. 5 Tremolo 1st mm. 51–52 Keep blowing strong air pressure with flutter tongue while playing with flutter the tremolo. tongue 6 Dynamics Entire piece Quick changes of dynamics are important. While sustaining long notes use dynamics. 7 Vibrato Entire piece It is better to start with long note with crescendo and with non- vibrato and then make vibrato to get intensity and liveliness.
59
Chapter IV
Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Toru Takemitsu
Toru Takemitsu was born in Tokyo in 1930 and died of abdominal cancer in 1996. He lived in Dairen, China for a while because of his father’s career, but was sent back to Tokyo to live with his aunt and uncle and begin his formal education. During the 1930s and 1940s, Japan was becoming modernized, but the political powers still prohibited much of Western culture. So,
Takemitsu was taught traditional Japanese music by his aunt and did not experience Western music at this time. In 1943, when he was just fourteen years old, Takemitsu left the Keika
Middle School in Tokyo to join the army. It was during his military service in his early teen ages while working on an American military base after the war that he was first exposed to Western music. He had begun to compose music without any training at sixteen and later studied private lessons with Yasuji Kiyose (1900-1981) and Fumio Hayasaka (1914-1955). Though he gave some credit to “Kiyose’s guidance,” he described himself as primarily self taught.102 The 1950s were an extremely important decade in his musical development. In 1951, together with numerous performers, painters, poets, and other composers such as Hayasaka, he organized the
Experimental Workshop, Jikken Kōbō, in Tokyo. It was the most influential group of the contemporary arts at this time and helped to introduce many important twentieth-century
102 The brief details were taken from Toru Takemitsu: Index of His Works, published by Schott Japan Co., Ltd., 1991. In Translator’s preface in confronting Silence. Xi.
60 composers to Japanese audiences. During this time, Takemitsu’s own music became strongly influenced by Debussy’s colorful sonorities, Messiaen’s modes of limited transpositions, and
Webern’s textures and constructions.103 He started to gain international recognition through his film music and music influenced by Western composers. Because of negative memories of war time, he had rejected traditional Japanese music from his youth, but in 1964, after contact with the American composer, John Cage, he became interested once again in his native Japanese music.104 He composed music for Japanese traditional instruments such as Shakuhachi and Biwa, which were favorite sonorities of his, and combined them with Western orchestral settings.
Throughout his career, he never taught in Japan, but was a visiting professor in the United States, at both Yale University (1975), and Columbia University (1989), among others.
When it came to the interaction of Japanese and Western culture in music, his fundamental topics were the restoring of full, complex, and ambiguous meanings of words and musical ideas.105 Through his own account, we can trace his concept of music and composition:
From now on, I’d like to make the most out of unstructured time and space in the music I compose, regardless of whether I use traditional Japanese instruments or not. In making Western music, one begins composing with do and then re and creates many sounds that emanate from that starting point. The Japanese approach to a single sound is very different from that. We imagine and direct our attention to just one sound out of the infinite sounds that surround our everyday life. That single sound is extremely complex in that it condenses the infinite range of noise that it arises from. My music is made with Western instruments, yet I would like to be able to contain their sounds, in motion, within a single sound. The most important thing that we can discern from Japanese music is that every sound is precious and indispensable. Western music is based on a hierarchy of sound within the diatonic scale, whereby do is most important, then so and so forth. In Japanese music, there are many distinct
103 Narazaki, A Way a Lone, 74.
104 Ohtake, Creative Sources for the Music of Toru Takemitsu. 1; Narazaki, The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 22.
105 Jennings, “Exploring Takemitsu’s Voice.” 11.
61
sounds, but we should consider them as equal. This is so not only for sounds made by instruments but also for sounds in nature and all of the sounds made by human beings. I think music begins from the point when we begin to listen anew with open ears.106
In his three pieces for solo flute, Voice for solo flute (1971), Itinerant: Meguri-In
Memory of Isamu Noguchi for solo flute (1989), and Air for flute (1995), Takemitsu utilized many extended techniques to blend Eastern and Western sounds and qualities. Singing or speaking while playing, multiphonics, glissandi, key clicks, breathy trill, double tremolos, various vibrati, among others, all play a large role in these pieces. For each a discussion about the extended techniques as well as performance guides will be provided.
Voice for solo flute (1971)
Voice for solo flute is a seven minute work commissioned by and dedicated to flutist,
Aurèle Nicolet. It was premiered by flutist Ryū Noguchi on 9 June 1971 in the 6th Cross Talk
Concert, Tokyo. The work is composed around a line of text from the Handmade Proverbs by
Shuzo Takiguchi and the flutist speaks/sings the line in both French and English: “Qui Val La?
Qui Que Tu Sois, Parle, Transparence! / Who goes there? Speak, Transparence, Whoever you are!”107 It was suggested in the first edition, that two microphones be used, but in the second edition, collaboration with flutist, Pierre-Yves Artaud, a performance with no microphones is indicated.108 In his preface, Takemitsu credits Bruno Bartolozzi’s book, New Sounds for
106 Ferranti and Everett, “Toru Takemitsu, “On Sawari”.” In Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. 206–07.
107 Takemitsu, Voice. 5. Score.
108 Ibid.; and Jennings, “Exploring Takemitsu’s Voice.” 12. 62
Woodwind, as a source for inspiration, especially in terms of multiphonics and the quarter-tones.
Other extended techniques are inspired by the Japanese flutes, the Shakuhachi, and the Noh-kan.
Takemitsu used both extended techniques and traditional Japanese musical concept of various colors and character in every single note. As was the case with Yun’s music, the gesture of many small notes ornamenting a prolonged single note with dramatic dynamic changes is a defining feature. He draws specifically from Noh theater in the moment when the flutist is asked to speak/sing and play simultaneously. Also, Takemitsu indicates in the score a “strong accent without tonguing as on the Japanese Noh flute.” From the performance practice of Shakuhachi, he took the microtonal pitch bending techniques known as Meri/kari, which combine covering half of the hole with the finger along with pitch inflection and vibrato. He also imitates the
Shakuhachi’s various irregular vibrati with breathy sounds. The seventh through ninth systems demonstrate many of these techniques.
Ex.42 Voice, seventh system–ninth system
63
Here, we can see Takemitsu’s unique fingerings for creating tremolos and trills. He also indicates a quarter tone sharp through special fingerings. The sung text is evident in these measures as well. He gives many instructions for this piece.
Ex.43 Voice, notation and playing instructions109
109 Takemitsu, Voice. 2.
64
Specific rhythm values or meter are not notated in the score, but in the preface of the score,
Takemitsu mentioned that “One bar should last about 4 1/2 seconds.”110 Each of the various fermata signs should consist of sustained silence and the flutist can prepare the next section.
Ex.44 Voice, End of second system.
A brief guideline for performance
System Technique Tips for Realization 1 *Speaking while playing Text-voice to be projected clearly over the flute embouchure hole. Vocalize with a breathy sound and hard attack without tonguing. *Microtones with pitch Be careful of frequent change of dynamics. Moving the head up or bending down or covering the finger holes partially. *Whistle tone More breathy sound than whistle tone and make sure special fingerings. *Flutter tongue Blow the air outward to create quarter-tone sharp flutter tongue. *Tongue pizzicato Stick the tongue out and then make hard “T” with tongue. *Microtones Quarter-tone with wide and relaxed aperture. *Multiphonics Be careful of special fingering and long sustain. 2 * Key click with tongue Just key click without sound but tongue pizzicato simultaneously. pizzicato *Microtones with pitch Moving the head up or down or covering the finger holes partially or bending doing both techniques. *Speaking while playing Strong accent without tonguing while shouting with voice and then gradually speak “Juueee-Shhhhh” with diminuendo. Little longer pause is followed. 3 *Dynamic Change as quickly as possible extreme dynamics. *Tongue pizzicato Make popping sound by sticking tongue out and then in quickly with normal playing position of flute. *Shouting while playing Shouting and then playing subito piano quickly. Short shouting often occurs in this system. *Multiphonic Short shouting and play multiphonic with special fingering simultaneously.
110 Ibid. 65
System Technique Tips for Realization 4 *Multiphonic tremolo Sometimes with shouting or multiple double tremolo. *Portamento Make portamento with indicated fingering. *Glissando Make slow glissando from piano to crescendo. *Flutter tongue. Make accelerando with flutter tongue. *Shouting while playing Make short voice while playing. *Tongue pizzicato Make big audible pizzicato in here. 5 *Microtone Quarter tone up with special fingering. *Flutter tongue Make more breathy sound while flutter tonguing. *Harmonics Make harmonics with D4 fingerings. 6 *Singing while playing Lip apart but cover entire embouchure while singing text, and then hum while playing the following pitch. *Tongue Pizzicato Stick the tongue out and then make hard tonguing in forte. *Microtone Quarter-tone with special fingering. *Flutter tongue Make softer and legato with guttural tongue. 7 *Singing while playing Speaking text softly while playing notes. *Microtone Playing with special fingering. 8 *Tongue pizzicato Make big audible pizzicato. *Microtone With special fingering, make sound softly. *Harmonics. With Eb4 key as fundamental fingering, make soft sound. 9 *Tongue pizzicato Stick the tongue out and then make strong sound “T” with tongue. *Speaking while playing Lip should be off from the instrument and speak text alternated by *Flutter tongue playing notes. Whisper in pianisisimo. *Micro tones. Make legato flutter as fast as possible. Special fingerings required. 10 *Non-words singing while Like double tonguing, playing note while speaking “t and “k”. In playing sfforzando, shouting while playing the flute. *Microtone With special fingerings with various dynamics. 11 *Flutter tongue Make more legato and play as fast as possible. *Shouting, crying, Shouting and crying while speaking “da” syllable and then growling growling while playing in fast small notes. Shouting high-pitched note followed. *Multiphonic tremolo Multiphonic is first played and then tremolo in fortissimo. 12 *Microtonal pitch bending Pitch bended quarter tone up and then down quickly. *Flutter tongue From pianissimo to mezzo forte, flutter tongue as fast as you can. *Harmonics Make harmonics like whisper sound. Making better high-pitched sound, performers should find their fingerings. 13 *Tongue pizzicato and key Tongue pizzicato and key click altered or occurred simultaneously. click Key click as strong as you can. 14 *Tongue pizzicato Make sfforzando sound as much as you can. *Multiphonic With lip “moderately apart” and strong accent without tonguing. *Singing while playing Shouting and playing loudly. 15 *Multiphonic double Be careful of special fingering. This double tremolo is quite difficult, tremolo. so slow exercise is needed. 16 *Speaking while playing. Speak words normally like whispering rather than loud voice. *Harmonics. D4 as fundamental fingering and make whispery sound. 17 *Singing while playing Speaking the text into the flute while covering the embouchure.
66
Itinerant: Meguri-In Memory of Isamu Noguchi for solo flute (1989)
Itinerant is a six minute solo piece composed for mourning the death of Isamu Noguchi
(1904–1989), a Japanese-American sculptor and friend of the composer. Noguchi, whose sculptures and designs can be found in many cities both in America and throughout the world was known for the “itinerant” nature of his life and Takemitsu captures this trait in this piece through the many shifts of style and mood. It was premiered by Paula Robison at the Isamu
Noguchi Museum in New York, 7 February 1989. Like many of Takemitsu’s other pieces, a sense of flexibility, derived from the Japanese musical concept of time/space (ma), is noticeable and the composer achieves this aspect through the many instances of fermatas as well as the lack of bar lines. Various rapid dynamic changes also lend intensity to the work.
Extended techniques such as portamento, various vibrati, hollow tones, whistle tones, flutter tonguing, harmonics, and microtones are used throughout to produce a somber and mournful effect. In Itinerant, as he had in Voice, Takemitsu indicates his unique notations and fingerings.
67
Ex.45 Itinerant, preface.111
Here, we can trace his treatment of the extended techniques. Some of these, including the use of non vibrato, hollow tones, microtonal portamento, lack of tonguing, whistle tones, and harmonics are all used to conjure the similar sounds in the Japanese flute, shakuhachi, while multiphonics and the various rhythmic changes are drawn from Western technique. A following example from Itinerant shows his unique fingerings for each extended technique as well as the extremely varied dynamics.
111 Takemitsu, Itinerant. 2.
68
Ex.46 Itinerant, seventh system –ninth system
A brief guideline for performance
Technique System Tips for Realization 1 Portamento 4th system Portamento used like microtonal pitch bending. 7th–8th system Sustained first note as long as in rhythm and then make portamento. 15th–16thsystem 2 Vibrato 3rd system Strong support of diaphragm, keep air pressure going but softly 6th system blowing. 8th system Non-vibrato with small lip aperture. 13th system 3 Hollow tone 4th system Hollow tone with special fingering and flutter tongue. 7th–8th system Quickly move to next note as portamento manner. 15th system 4 Flutter tongue 1st system Jaw out and open up mouth. 4th system It is better to use guttural tonguing. 7th system 11th system 5 Harmonics 2nd system Open up mouth and blow softly. 9th system Harmonics with indicated fingerings. 16th system 6 Multiphonic 5th –7th system Blowing harder than normal playing. 7 Whistle tone 12th system Make small lip aperture and have a flexible chin to create whistle sound.
69
Technique System Tips for Realization 8 Special 1st system Press Ab fingering trilling with 4,5,6 finger (Ab4). fingering 4th–9thsystem 11th Press A4 fingering added 4,5,6, and D# fingering(A4). system 15th– Be careful of quick changes of alternation of each fingering. 16thsystem 9 Dynamic Entire piece Various change of dynamic should be observed carefully. Take your time at the end of each phrase with the fermata with big diversity of dynamics.
Air for flute (1995)
Takemitsu’s last piece, Air for solo flute, was premiered by Yasukazu Uemura at
Katholisch Kirche Oberwil in Baselland, Switzerland, 28 January 1996. A six minute piece, it was dedicated to flutist Aurèle Nicolet on his seventieth birthday. It is also a good example of the use of traditional Japanese aesthetics and musical concepts such as ma, but also yoin (echo).112
For example, measure 19 demonstrates the echo effect where the same motive is repeated with a freeness of meter..
Ex.47 Air, mm.19–21.
In this piece, virtuosic extended techniques are rare but microtonal pitch bending/ portamento, non-vibrato, trills with special fingerings, harmonics, flutter tonguing, and rapid dynamic changes are used to reproduce the sounds of traditional Japanese traditional flutes. Similar to
Yun’s use of the main-tone technique, Takemitsu strives for various expressions, elements, and
112 Shimada, “Cross-cultural Music.”29.
70 meanings that come close to Japanese musical concepts. The following examples show this main-tone compositional manner with changes in timbre, alternating between harmonics and regular playing, and ornamental notes.
Ex.48 Air, m.14
Ex.49 Air, m.72.
Ex.50 Air, m.89ದ92.
71
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Measure Tips for Realization 1 Portamento m. 40 Indicated as portamento but bending quarter tone lower. 2 Flutter m. 24, 42 For making soft flutter tongue, open up mouth and blow into the flute. tongue Better low sound, use guttural tongue. 3 Harmonics m. 14, 38, 43, Jaw out, D4 fingering with slide open up the G key little bit for Ab5 49, 72, 89 harmonics. For C#6 harmonics, press C#4 without left first finger. For E6 harmonics, add 2nd trill key. 4 Vibrato m. 48, 50 Make crescendo and decrescendo quickly while non-vibrato playing. 5 Special mm. 52–53 For making trill, trill with C#4 key(E5). fingering Pinky down and trill 4,5,6 finger(C#5). Trill with B3(G5). Trill with 2nd trill key while pinky down(F5)
72
Chapter V
Extended Techniques in the Solo Flute Works of Kazuo Fukushima
The composer and musicologist, Kazuo Fukushima, was born in Tokyo, 11 April 1930.
While information on his life is scant, in 1953, Fukushima joined Jikken Kōbō, where he began his compositional career in the atmosphere of progressive music by contemporaries such as
Takemitsu. He received some recognition when his extremely virtuosic piece, Ekagura, composed for the flutist Ririko Hayashi, won a prize at a contemporary music festival in
Karuizawa in 1958. The following year, Stravinsky recommended the work for performance in the Los Angeles Monday Evening Concerts.113 Fukushima was invited to the Darmstadt music festival in 1963, where he performed some of his music and lectured on both modern Japanese music and traditional Noh-plays. Also in 1963, he received a travelling fellowship from the Japan
Society of New York and visited America. Upon returning to Japan, he took a post at the Ueno
Gakuen College in Tokyo, where he is still currently, professor of music and director of the
Nihon Ongaku Shiyō-shitsu (Research Archives for Japanese Music), which he founded in 1973.
He has written numerous books and articles on traditional Japanese music such as court music and Buddhist chant.
Performance practices and techniques from traditional Japanese music as well as
Japanese philosophy are readily apparent in the solo flute works of Fukushima. He uses a variety
113 Kanazawa, “Fukushima, Kazuo.” 337. 73 of extended techniques in his three pieces, Requiem for solo flute (1956), Mei for solo flute
(1962), and Shun-san (A Hymn to Spring) for solo flute (1969). Various vibratos, multiphonics and special fingerings are all employed to create ambiguous sounds of Japanese flutes. Also, he adopts the Japanese concept of time and space in these works. For each piece, I will discuss the extended techniques and provide performance guidelines.
Requiem for solo flute
Requiem is a five minute solo piece composed in the mid-1950s, while Fukishima was part of the Jikken Kōbō, and premiered by the composer himself in 1959. It is an early work in his career and one based on serial technique; however, it also shows the influence of traditional
Japanese philosophy and Noh-music. The programmatic aspects of Requiem are derived from his memories of World War II and the concept of death within Buddhist thought. Extended techniques, such as flutter tonguing, glissandi, and special fingerings, produce mournful feelings in this piece and the sound of the Nohkan and Shakuhachi.
The piece begins with a statement of the tone row, P2 [2,5,6,4,3,0,7,E,1,T,9,8], which is then repeated. In measures 6–18, the same tone row is heard but now with repeated notes and grace notes. The I2 tone row [2,E,T,0,1,4,9,5,3,6,7,8] serves as the basis of measures 19–31, with part of this row used in measures 32–38. Balance is achieved as Fukushima uses the retrograde and inverted retrograde of the opening tone row for the end of the piece, R2
[8,9,T,1,E,7,0,3,4,6,5,2] and RI2 [8,7,6,3,5,9,4,1,0,T,E,2].
74
Ex.51 Requiem, mm.1-6
Fukushima uses various grace notes and flutter tonguing with a succession of rapid notes to create the airy sound and pitch inflection of Japanese flutes. He also uses a wide dynamic range from molto ffff to ppp with his flutter tongue technique.
Ex.52 Requiem, mm. 14-18
Instances of repeated notes and rhythms with varying timbres help to produce the mournful, dark, and sorrowful sound of the Japanese flutes.
75
Ex.53 Requiem, mm. 25ದ30
A brief guideline for performance
Technique measure Tips for Realization 1 Flutter m. 13, 17, 28 Blowing air harder and rapid flutter tongue with accent on each note. tongue 2 Harmonics mm. 42–43 To produce high pitched whispery sound of Japanese flute, make harmonics as soft as possible.
Mei for solo flute (1962)
Fukushima’s Mei for solo flute is a repertoire standard and a required piece of many competitions. It was commissioned and premiered by Severino Gazzelloni, 23 April 1962, at the
25th Festival of Contemporary Music in Venice, Italy.114 The piece which lasts about five minutes was dedicated to the memory of Dr. Wolfgang Steinecke. In the score’s inscription,
114 Kazuo Fukushima, Mei for flute solo. (Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1966). Socre.
76
Fukushima states “Mei, the Chinese character of which is written (), signifies [the] dark, dim, intangible. This music was composed for the late Dr. Wolfgang Steinecke of Darmstadt, who died in a tragic accident. According to ancient Japanese legend it is believed that the sound of the flute has power to reach the dead”115 In this piece, Fukushima draws from the traditional
Japanese concept of music ma to focus on silence by alternating repeated notes and rests.
Extended techniques, such as multiphonics, portamento, microtonal pitch bending, glissandos, key clicks, special fingerings, flutter tonguing, are used along with a variety of dynamics to produce the timbre effects of the Ryūteky, Shakuhachi, and Nohkan.116
Ex.54 Mei, mm. 35–36
This piece requires a great deal of embouchure control to realize the various portamentos.
According to Fukushima, these portamentos produce a pitch that is relatively unstable, but that this is only a suggestion to achieve gestures derived from Japanese aesthetics and character of the flutes.117
115 Ibid.; and Watanabe, “Essence of Mei.” 17.
116 Watanabe, “Essence of Mei.” 19.
117 Ibid.
77
Ex.55 Mei, mm. 43ದ46.
Ex.56 Wide dynamaic changes in Mei. Mm. 49ದ51.
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Measure Tips for Realization 1 Portamento/ mm. 5–6, 8, Move lip flexibly down or up. glissando 10–11, 13–14, Sometimes, finger glissando, and half finger holing is needed. 16–17, 19, 32– Be careful of ending pitch. M.61 has to be fixed as Bb4–A4 quarter tone 33, 46, 57, 61 glissando like m.12. 2 Microtonal m. 7, 9, 10, 12, Half holing fingering help to produce bending pitch. pitch bending 26, 44, 45, 55, Lip flexibly moving down or up. 58, 59 3 Multiphonic mm. 25–26 With fundamental fingering C4 and overblown to G5 and C6. Harmonics Make sound G first and then play C. 4 Flutter m. 35, 41 Tonguing on grace note and then make accent without tonguing while tongue flutter tongue. 5 Key click m. 36 Without tone sound, only key click on the notes. 6 Dynamics Entire piece Exaggerate indicated dynamics as much as you can.
78
Shun-san [A Hymn to Spring] for solo flute (1969)
Fukushima composed his ten minute Shun-san (A Hymn to Spring) in 1969 as a collaboration with flutist, Ryū Noguchi, who premiered it on 17 February 1969, at the Tokyo
Metropolitan Festival Hall.118 Shun-san is a very good example of the use of multiphonics. After reading New Sounds for Woodwinds by Bartolozzi, Fukushima sought to employ new sonorities from extended techniques such as multiphonics and special fingerings. But these sounds were still used to reference traditional Japanese , especially the Noh-kan and Shakuhachi.
Every single note in this piece has its own special fingering. There are extended techniques such as portamentos, double tremolos, flutter tonguing, microtonal pitch bending, various vibrati, whistle tones, and wide dynamic changes besides the multiphonics. That there are no bar lines or meter in this piece requires the performer to thoroughly create all of the musical gestures through the realization of the symbols.
Ex.57 Shun-san, fifth system.
118 I use the present second edition (1977) for this document. There are several differences between this edition and the first private edition including some special fingerings which were changed according to the advice of flutists, Noguchi and Hiroshi Hari. 79
To create the sounds of the Noh-kan and Shakuhachi, Fukushima devised his own symbols.
Ex.58 Shun-san, inscript.
Shun-san is the most difficult piece to play among Fukushima’s flute music. Flutists should learn each of the special fingerings and follow the composer’s own suggestions for lip and air pressure carefully.
80
A brief guideline for performance
Technique Measure Tips for Realization 1 Special Entire piece Be careful of the moving fingering. Take time in each special fingering fingering sound. 2 Flutter 5th , 6th system Open up mouth and jaw out while flutter tonguing between big leaping tongue notes. 3 Microtone Entire piece Make flexible lip aperture while playing microtones with special fingering 4 Vibrato 5th, 11th system Make breathy sound more and wide vibrato from non-vibrato. 5 Whistle tone 12th system Make small aperture and lip out. Strong support of diaphragm required. For making ppp, I suggest harmonics in here. 6 Double 5th, 7th system Make more noise sound and be careful of moving fingering. Tremolo tremolo probably heard in highest pitch. 7 Portamento 6th, 7th, 11th Lip glissando and half finger holing at the same time. system Take time while bending between the notes. 8 Multiphonics 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, More sound on higher pitches than lower pitches. Each fingering and 9th, 10th, 11th sound effect need to be exercised. Listen to the Japanese flute sound first system suggested.
81
Conclusion
This study has examined the use of extended techniques and performance practices of
East-Asian traditional flutes in the solo flute works by Isang Yun, Toru Takemitsu, and Kazuo
Fukushima. It is designed to help flutists perform, interpret and better understand unaccompanied flute music by three East-Asian composers. Most of what we refer to as "extended techniques" in
Western flute music have been part of the traditional musics of the non-Western world for thousands of years. It is only recently that we have begun to acknowledge the enormous influence of world music on our own Classical tradition. As we explore the relationship between
East-Asian music and Western music in the unaccompanied solo flute works by Yun, Takemitsu, and Fukushima, we discover that Western music has been enriched by that of East-Asian cultures and extended techniques. Composers and flutists today are enhancing our musical experience by drawing from this remarkable palette of sounds and techniques. Flutists have been both challenged and rewarded by these new sounds and techniques. There is a great deal of freedom in terms of tonality, structure, and expression in this music, but it requires the player to master new skills. They also must gain a better understanding of the physical aspects of sound production and to consider the character of non-Western music and instruments. Musicians should not forget to study the background of each composition; by learning about the culture that inspired the composer, we can become more advanced in how we think about and play Western music, and we can create new musical forms and styles that are traditionally neither Eastern nor
Western, but a fusion of the two.
82
Bibliography
1. Books and Dissertations
Bains, Anthony. Woodwind Instruments and Their History. London: Faber and Faber, 1962.
Barnett, David. The Performance of Music. New York: Universe, 1972.
Bartolozzi, Bruno. New Sounds for Woodwinds. Reginald Smith Brindle, trans. and ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.
Bondurant, Kathleen Alice. “Twentieth–Century Flute Performance Techniques in Selected Compositions.” Ph. D. diss., New York University, 1984.
Brindle, Reginald Smith. The New Music. New York: Oxford University Press, 1975.
Burt, Peter. The Music of Toru Takemitsu. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Chapman, Frederick B. Flute Technique. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1973.
Choi, Ji-sook. Sangchuibeun Segieui Geojang Yun Isang (Wounded great artist in the century, Isang Yun). Seoul: Kyohaksa, 2000.
Choi, Sung-man, and Eun-mi Hong. trans. and ed. The Musical world of Isang Yun. Seoul: Hangil Sa, 1991.
Cohn, Authur. Twentieth–Century Music in Western Europe. New York: J. B. Lippincott and Co., 1965.
Davis, Michael Jerome. “Creative Strategies for Teaching Extended Flute Techniques: A Pedagogical Approach with a Performance and Analysis of an Original Work, Dream Weaving for Flute and Tape.” Ed.D. diss., Columbia University Teachers College, 1993.
Debost, Michel. The Simple Flute: From A to Z. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Dick, Robert. The Other Flute: A Performance Manual of Contemporary Techniques. 2nd ed. St. Louis: Multiple Breath Music Company, 1989.
______. Tone Development through Extended Techniques. St. Louis: Multiple Breath Music Company, 1986.
Everett, Yayoi Uno and Frederick Lau. ed. Locating East Asia in Western Art Music. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2004.
83
Feliciano, Francisco F. Four Asian Contemporary Composers. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 1983.
Ferranti, Hugh de. Japanese Musical Instruments. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
______and Yôko Narazaki. ed. A Way a Lone: Writings on Tôru Takemitsu. Tokyo: Academia Music Ltd., 2002.
Fisk, Josiah. ed. Composers on Music: Eight Centuries of Writings. 2nd ed. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1997: 455–60.
Floyd, Angeleita S. The Gilbert Legacy: Methods, Exercises and Techniques for the Flutist. Cedar Falls, Iowa: Winzer Press, 1990.
Garner, Bradley, A. Flute Facts: Guidelines to Better Flute Playing. (Cincinnati: University of Cincinnati, 2004).
Gärtner, Jochen. The Vibrato: With Particular Consideration Given to the Situation of the Flutist: Historical Development, New Physiological Discoveries, and Presentation of an Integrated Method of Instruction. Regensburg: Gustav Verlag, 1981.
Gibson, James R. “Part I: Requiem. Part II: Toru Takemitsu: A Survey of His Music with an Analysis of Three Works.” [Requiem, Landscape I, Masque]. Ph.D. diss. Cornell University, 1979.
Howard, Keith. Korean Musical Instruments. Hong Kong, New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.
______. Perspectives on Korean Music Volume 1: Preserving Korean Music. Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, c2006.
______. Perspectives on Korean Music Volume 2: Creating Korean Music.. Aldershot, England; Burlington, VT: Ashgate, c2006.
Howell, Thomas. The Avant-garde Flute: A Handbook for Composers and Flutists. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974.
Hughes, David W. “Japan.” In Ethnomusicology: Historical and Regional Studies, ed. Helen Myers, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993, 345–63.
Isang Yun Peace Foundation and The Musicological Society of Korea. Isang Yun’s Musical World and the East-Asian Culture. Seoul: Yesol, 2006.
Ishida, Kazushi. “Japan: Japanese Composers.” In Asian Composers in the 20th Century, ed. The Japan Federation of Composers, Tokyo: The Japan Federation of composers Inc., 2002, 222–38. 84
Jang, Sa-hoon. Korean Musical Instruments. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 1986.
______. Korean Musical Instruments. Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 1986.
______. Woori Yet Akki (Our Old Instrument). Seoul: Daewon Sa, 1990.
Kanazawa, Masakata. “Fukushima, Kazuo.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell, 9: 337. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Kato, Shuichi. Form, Style, Tradition: Reflections on Japanese Art and Society. John Bester, trans. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970.
Kim, In-Sung. “Use of East Asian Traditional Flute Techniques in Works by Chou Wen- Chung, Isang Yun, and Toru Takemitsu.” D.M.A. diss., University of California, 2004.
Kim, Yong-hwan. Yun Isang Studies. Seoul: Sigongsa, 2001.
Kirkpatrick, Linda. The Pedagogical Techniques and Methods of Flutist William Montgomery. Lewinston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2006.
Kishibe, Shigeo et al. “Japan.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell, 12: 815–90. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Kunz, Harald. “Isang Yun.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell, 27: 696–97. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Lee, Byong Won. “Korea.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell, 13: 801–19. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Lee, Hye-gu. comp. and ed. Korean Musical Instruments trans. Alan C. Heyman. Seoul: National Classical Music Institute of Korea, 1982.
______. Essays on Traditional Korean Music. Robert C. Provine, trans. and ed. Seoul: Published for the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch by Seoul Computer Press, c. 1981.
______. trans. Shinyeok Akhak kwebum (New translation of Guide to the study of music). Seoul: National Classical Music Institute of Korea, 2000.
______and Mi-sun Yim. Hanguk Eumak Yiron (Korean Music Theory). Seoul: Minsokwon, 2005.
Lee, Ji-sun. Yilbon Jeontong Gongyeon Yesul (Japanese traditional Performance Arts). Seoul: JNC book, 2007.
Lee, Young-gu. Akki (Instrument). Seoul; Jayu Mungo, 2003.
85
Malm, William P. Music Cultures of the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1996.
______. Traditional Japanese Music and Musical Instruments. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 2000.
McCredie, Andrew. “Isang Yun (1917-1995).” In Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant- Garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook, ed. Larry Sitsky, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002, 586–92.
Meador, Rebecca Rae. “A History of Extended Flute Techniques and a Examination of Their Potential as a Teaching Tool.” D.M.A. thesis, University of Cincinnati, 2001.
Meylan, Raymond. The Flute. Alfred Clayton, trans. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd, 1988.
Montagu, Jeremy. The flute. Buckinghamshire, UK: Shire Publications Ltd, 1990.
Morgan, Robert P. Twentieth – Century Music: A History of Musical Style in Modern Europe and America. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1991.
Morris, Gareth. Flute Technique. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Morton, Brian. The Blackwell Guide to Recorded Contemporary Music. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell, 1996.
Narazaki, Yoko and Masakata Kanazawa. “Takemitsu, Tōru.” In The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. S. Sadie and J. Tyrrell, 25: 22–25. 2nd ed. London: Macmillan, 2001.
Nicolet, Aurèle. Pro Musica Nova: Studies for Playing Avant-garde Music for Flute. New York: MCA Music, 1974.
Ohtake, Noriko. Creative Sources for the Music of Toru Takemitsu. Hants, England: Scolar Press, 1993.
Park, Sun-wook. Yun Isang, Kkeutubneun eumakeui Gil (Isang Yun, Endless path to the music). Seoul: Sanha, 2006.
Pellerite, James. A Modern Guide to Fingerings for the Flute. Revised and Greatly enlarged 2nd ed. Van Nuys, CA: Alfred Publishing Co., 1988.
Pincherle, Marc. The World of the Virtuoso. Lucile H. Brockway, trans. New York: Norton, 1963.
Powell, Ardal. The Flute. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002.
86
Pratt, Keith. Korean Music: Its History and Its Performance. London, Seoul: Faber Music in Association with Jung Eum Sa, 1987.
Provine, Robert. “Korea.” In Ethnomusicology: Historical and Regional Studies, ed. Helen Myers, New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1993, 363–76.
Radice, Mark. A. Concert Music of the Twentieth Century: Its Personalities, Institutions, and Techniques. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2003.
Rainey, Thomas E., Jr. The Flute Manual: A Comprehensive Text and Resource Book for Both the Teacher and the Student. New York: University Press of America, 1985.
Read, Gardner. Compendium of Modern Instrumental Techniques. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1993. ______. Contemporary Instrumental Techniques. New York: Schirmer Books, 1976.
Rhee, Kyungmee. “Korea: Korean composers and Their Activities.” In Asian Composers in the 20th Century, ed. The Japan Federation of Composers, Tokyo: The Japan Federation of composers Inc., 2002, 239–53.
Rinser, Luise and Isang Yun. Yun Isang: The Wounded Dragon. Seoul: Random House, 2005.
Sanchez–Escuer, Alejandro. “The Interpretation of Selected Extended Techniques in Flute solo compositions by Mexican composers: An analysis and performance recommendations.” Ph.D. diss., New York University, 1995.
Schmidt, Christian Martin. “Etudes for Solo Flutes.” In Yun Isang Yeon Ku (Research of Isang Yun), ed. Yong-hwan Kim, Seoul: School of Arts Press, 2001, 53–66.
Siddons, James. “Tôru Takemitsu (1930–1996).” In Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant- garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook, ed. Larry Sitsky, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2002, 509–24.
______. Toru Takemitsu: A Bio–Bibliography. Westport, CT: Greenwoo Press, 2001.
Soldan, Robin, and Jeannie Mellersh. Illustrated Fluteplaying. London: Minstead Publications, 1986.
Son, Tae-ryong. Hangukeui Jeontong Akki (Korean Traditional Instrument). Kyoungsan: Youngnam University Press, 2003.
______. Hanguk Eumak Gaeron (An Introduction to Korean music). Seoul: Minsokwon, 2000.
Stevens, Roger S. Artistic Flute: Technique and Study. Ruth N. Zwissler, ed. Hollyood, CA: Highland Music Company, 1967. 87
Stokes, Sheridon W., and Richard Congdon. Special Effects for Flute. Culver City, CA: Trio Associates, 1970.
Stone, Kurt. Music Notation in the Twentieth Century: A Practical Guidebook. New York: Norton. 1981.
Takemitsu, Toru. Confronting Silence: Selected Writings. Yoshiko Kakudo and Glenn Glasow, trans. and ed. Berkeley, CA: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995.
Toff, Nancy. The Development of the Modern Flute. Bloomington: University of Illinois Press, 1986.
______. The Flute Book: A Complete Guide for Students and Performers. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.
Vinquist, Mary and Neal Zaslaw. Performance Practice: A Bibliography. New York: Norton, 1971.
Watkins, Glenn. Soundings: Music in the Twentieth Century. New York: Schirmer Books, 1998.
Weisberg, Arthur. Performing Twentieth-Century Music: A Handbook for Conductors and Instrumentalists. New Heaven: Yale University Press, 1993.
______. The Art of Wind Playing. New York: Schirmer Books, 1975.
Westphal, Frederick W. Guide to Teaching Woodwinds, 5th ed. Sacramento: Wm.C. Brown Publishers, 1990.
Wye, Trevor. Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books. London: Novello, 1988.
Yoon, Shin-hyang. Yun Isang. Seoul: Hangil Sa, 2005.
Yun, Isang. My Way, My Utopia, My Music. Seoul: HICE Publishing Co., 1994.
II. Articles
Burnett, Henry. “Minezaki Kōtō’s Zangetsu.” Perspectives of New Music 27, no. 2 (Summer 1989): 78–117.
Cage, John. “The East in the West.” Asian Music 1, no. 1 (Winter 1968–69): 15–18.
Chou, Wen-Chung. “Asian concepts and Twentieth-Century Western Composers.” The Musical Quarterly 57, no. 2 (April 1971): 211–29. 88
______. “Asian Influence on Western Music: Influence or Confluence?” Asian Culture Quarterly 5 (1977): 216–26.
Chung, Kyo-chul and Sook-young Lee. “Study on the 20th century’s Modern Techniques of Flute II: Focusing on Isang Yun’s works.” Journal of the Musicological Society of Korea 11, no.9–2 (May 2006): 123–157
Debost, Michel. “The Guttural Tongue.” Flute Talk 19, no.5 (January 2000): 4.
Dorough, Aralee. “Performing Berio’s Sequenza.” Flute Talk 19, no.7 (March 2000): 11–13.
Garcia, Nora Lee. “On whistle Tones and Articulation: An Interview with Bernard Goldberg.” Flute Talk 16, no.7 (March 1997): 8–11.
Glover, Becky. “Whistle Tones.” Flute Talk 17, no.8 (April 1998): 20–21.
Hansen, Polly. “Robert Dick: The Other Flutist.” Flute Talk 4, no.1 (September 1984): 2–16.
Heiss, John C. “For the Flute: A List of Double-Stops, Triple-Stops, Quadruple-Stops, and Shakes.” Perspectives of New Music 5, no.1 (Fall/Winter 1966): 139.
Hong, Eun-mi. “Yun Isang, Another Renaissance.” Musicology 13 (January 2006): 121–42.
Jennings, Christina. “Exploring Takemitsu’s Voice.” Flute Talk 19, no.8 (April 2000): 11–13.
Kim, Yong-hwan. “Yun Isang’s Life and Music.” Music and Korea 11 (May 1996): 12–48.
Lee, Hee-kyung. “A Comparative Study of Adopting Tradition in the Contemporary Music of East Asia Three Countries.” Music and Culture 8 (March 2003): 57–88.
______. “For the Minor Music: Yun Isang in the Contemporary European Music.” Musicology 9 (2002): 295–313.
Lee, Kyung Bun. “Yun Isang in the View of Korean Musicologist: Critique on the Year of 2001 Symposium of the Musicological Society of Korea.” Music and Culture 6 (March 2002): 69–91.
Lee, Mi-kyung. “The Influence of Korean Music and Philosophy to Isang Yun’s Music.” Musicology 9 (2002): 167–93.
Militello, Robert P. “Voice over Flute.” The Instrumentalist 31 (January 1977):44–46.
Palazzo, Alexis Del. “Teaching with Extended flute Techniques.” Flute Talk 28, no.7 (March 2009): 17–20.
Sah, Hun-soon. “Jet Whistle.” Flute & Flutist (October/November 2006): 58–59. 89
Schwoebel, Sandy. “Warming Up with Whistle Tones.” Flute Talk 20, no.6 (Februar 2001): 16.
Shimada, Akiko. “Cross-Cultural Music: Japanese Flutes and their Influence on Western Flute Music.” The Flutist Quarterly 34, no.2 (winter 2009): 26–30.
Shin, In-sun. “Yun Isang I.” Music and Korea 28 (October 2004): 14–41.
______. “Yun Isang II.” Music and Korea 30 (October 2005): 13–39.
Sparrel, Walter-Wolfgang, “Yun Isang is the most important composer in Korean Culture and in the 21st Century Korean Music.” Minjok 21 56 (November, 2005): 24.
Stallard, Dean. “Even Beginners Improve with Extended Techniques.” Flute Talk 23, no.5 (January 2004): 12–13.
Stevens, Roger S. “Writing for the Flute.” Flute Talk 28, no.6 (February 2009): 20–24.
Takemitsu, Toru. “A Mirror and an Egg.” Daniell Starr and Syoko Aki, trans. Banff Letters (Spring 985): 19–21.
Vinci, Jan. “Using Extended Techniques in Fukushima’s Mei.” Flute Talk 18, no.3 (November 1998): 14–16.
Yoon, Shin-hyang. “Yun Isang’s Compositional World and the Issue of Nationality.” Nangman Quarterly 63 (2004): 29–52.
______. “Yun Isang’s Main-tone Technique Seen in the Perspectives of A Formative Art.” Musicology 11 (2004): 129–61.
______. “An United Artistic Thoughts of Composing, and Inter-Cultural Way of Communication: Focused on
Yun, Isang. “My Country, My Music.” Eumak DongA 60 (March 1989): 34–36.
III. Scores and recordings
Fukushima, Kazuo. Mei for flute solo. Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1966. Score.
______. Requiem for flute solo. Milano: Edizioni Suvini Zerboni, 1966. Score.
______. Shun–san [A Hymn to Spring] for flute solo. Tokyo: Muramatsu, 1991. Score.
Seo, Yong-seok. Daegŭm Sanjo. Seoul: Eunha Chulpansa, 2005. Score. 90
Takemitsu, Toru. Air for flute. Tokyo: Schott Japan, 1996. Score.
______. Itinerant [Meguri: In Memory of Isamu Noguchi] for flute. Tokyo: Schott Japan, 1989. Score.
______. Voice for flute solo. Paris: Editions Salabert, 1988. Score.
Yun, Isang. Chinesische Bilder [Chinese Pictures] Berlin: bote & Bock, 1994. Score.
______. Etüden für flöte solo. Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1975. Score.
______. Salomo für solo Alt-Flöte oder Grosse Flöte. Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1977/1978. Score.
______. Sori für Flöte Solo. Berlin: Bote & Bock, 1988. Score.
______. Fanfare & Memorial Distanzen, Etudes, The Berlin Philharmonic, Lorin Maazel, conductor, The Scharoun Ensemble, Heinz Holliger, conductor, Tara Helen O’Connor, flute, ARC 1997-2. New York: Arcadia Records and Music Management Inc., 1992. Compact disc.
91