Focus on the Future of Georgia 1970-1985. INSTITUTION Georgia State Dept

DOCUMENT RESUME

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AUTHCR Schabac };er, William H., Ed.; And Others TITLE Focus on the Future of Georgia 1970-1985. INSTITUTION Georgia State Dept. of Education, Atlanta. Georgia. Assessment Project. PUB DATE 70 NOTE 520p.

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 HC-$19.74 DESCRIPTORS *Educational Objectives; *State Programs; *State Surveys; *Statewide Planning; Technical Reports IDENTIFIERS *Georgia Assessment Project

ABSTRACT As part of the Georgia Assessment Project (GAP), initiated in January 1969 to provide statewide measurement of the impact of educational programs, services, and resources on children and youth, 19 position papers were prepared by specialists to assist the Advisory Commission on Education Goals. The papers, some with critiques, concern Georgia's current status and probable status in 1985 with respect to the social, economic, technological, political, and cultural environment. The subjects discussed are Georgia's econcmy,-industrial development trends and forecasts, agriculture, automation, transportation, manpower and employment, demography, the individual, social disorganization, religion, civil rights, equality of educational opportunities, governmental structure, political culture, perspectives on health care, ecology, communications systems and mass media, leisure and recreation, and the arts. (DB) FILMED FROM BEST AVAILABLE COPY cc FocusonWe oFuturegfGeorgia, 1970 -1985

U S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOL.UML-NT HAS BEEN REPRO DUCED EXACTLY .S RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR 0!1GANIZATION ()RIG INATING IT POINTS OF VIEW OR PPM IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EDU CATION POSITION OR POLICY Focus on the Future of Georgia 1970-1985

Edited by

William H. Schabacker Russell S. Clark Homer C. Cooper

Papers prepared for use by the Advisory Commission on Educational Goals of the State Board of Education Division of Planning, Research and Evaluatiogi. Office of Deputy Superintendent of Schools Georgia Department of Education Atlanta, Georgia 30334 1970 Jack P. Nix, State Superintendent of Schools

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 71-630709

Funds to underwritethe preparation and publication of the papersand staff support to the Commission were provided from TitleIII, Public Law 89-10, Elementary and Seco:Idary Act of 1965. Preface

Georgia's State Board of Education, which is responsiblefor public elementary, secondary. adult, and vocational education, initiatedthe Georgia Assessment Project (GAP) in January 1969. GAP isdesigned to provide statewide measurement of the progress of Georgia's children and youth toward achievement of those qualitiesnecessary to live successfully in the Georgia and United States of 1985 andbeyond. Information secured from GAP will be used to (1) show the measurable impact of educationalprograms, services, and resources on children and youth; (2) determine the relationship between costs and educationalbenefits; (3) identify areas of critical educational need; and (4) develop long-range educational planning. To initiate GAP, the State Board of Education appointed eleven distinguished Georgians to an Advisory Commission on Education Goals. The Commission members were selected on the basis of their broad collective experience in many areas of Georgia life andinclude by occupation a federal judge, two university presidents,a physician, two industrialists, a banker, an attorney, two business executives, anda former president of the Georgia Congress of Parents and Teachers.Even though the Commission members represented varied interests and greatly different outlooks and philosophies, they possessedone common commitment: the desire to assure a superior education for all the children, youth, and adults in the state. The tasks of the Commissionwere to 1.examine the social, economic, and political life of Georgia; 2.project the probable social, political, and economic conditionsof the state through 1985; 3.identify as goals for education the knowledge, skills, and values that will enable the citizen of Georgia to live successfullyin the furore; 4.suggest the nature of the education systemnecessary to achieve the desired goals. To assist the Commission with these tasks, highly qualifiedspecialists prepared 19 position papers about Georgia's current status and probable status in 1985 with respect to the social, economic, technological, political, and cultural environment: In addition, critiques ofsome of the position papers were prepared to provide additional analyses, corrections, or amplification. The authors of the position papers and their critics came from the academic world, business and industry, government, and the professional world at large. They were selected for their demonstrated knowledge about conditions in Georgia today and their qualificationsto state expert opinion about probable conditions in Georgia for the future. The views expressed in the papers and critiques are those of the individual authors and not necessarily those of the Commission. Because of widespread interest in the work of the Advisory Com- mission on Education Goals and the wealth of material relatedto all facets of life in Georgia contained in the position papers and critiques,

3 these have been compiled and published for general use. It is hoped that after reading the contents of this book the citizens of Georgia will have a greater understanding of Georgia's present and future, of its people and institutions, of its problems and potential. This volume has been made possible by the cooperation and efforts of many people: the authors of the papers and their critics; the staff of the Publications and Information Services Unit of the Georgia Depart- ment of Education; the staff of the Social Science Research Institute and the Center for Continuing Education at The University of Georgia; the staff of the Division of Planning, Research, and Evaluation of the Georgia Department of Education. The individuals deserving special recognition for their contributions include Virginia W. Gerrett of the Social Science Research Institute; Rena K. Griffin, Rebecca H. Harkins, Sarah A. House, Charles E. Knott, Susan C. Kudrak, Sallie P. Newbill. Anne Ray- mond, and M. Eugene Wallace of the Georgia Department of Education.

EDITORS

William H. Schabacker Associate Director for Research Georgia Department of Education Russell S. Clark Director, Division of Planning, Research and Evaluation Georgia Department of Education Homer C. Cooper Director, Social Science Research Institute University of Georgia

NOTE: Authors of wine position papers also wrote abstracts or summaries which pre /ace their detailed papers. Use of the GAP symbol indicates the bekinning of the detailed papers.

4 ADVISORY COMMISSION ON EDUCATION GOALS

Mrs. Leland H. Bagwell Rufus C. Harris, Juris.D. Housewife President Canton Mercer University Macon

Honorable Griffin B. Bell Vivian W. Henderson, Ph.D. Vice Chairman President United States Circuit Judge Clark College Court of Appeals for the Fifth Atlanta Circuit Atlanta

Jesse B. Blayton, LL.B.,C.P.A. George E. Patterson, Jr. J. B. Blayton and Company President Atlanta Liberty National Bank and Trust Company Savannah

Maurice M. Egan John T. Phillips, Jr. Executive Vice President President Administration Lilliston Corporation Lockheed-Georgia Company Albany Marietta

James L. Goddard, M.D. Jac. H. Rothschild, Chairman Vice President - Health Sciences President and Treasurer EDP Technology, Inc. David Rothschild and Company Atlanta Columbus

Stanley P. Krysiak* Robert M. Wood Professional Personnel and General Attorney Education Division Manager Sears, Roebuck and Company Lockheed-Georgia Company Atlanta Marietta

*Served on an intecm basis while Mr. Egan was out of the country.

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Economy of Georgia Joseph K. Heyman and W. Bethel Minter . 9

Critique: Economy of Georgia James L. Green . . 41

Critique: Economy of Georgia Harold L. Johnson . 45 Industrial Development Trends and Forecasts Ross W. Hammond 49 Critique: Industrial Development Trends and Forecasts H. Hearn Lumpkin . . 70 Critique: Industrial Development Trends and Forecasts John E. Mock 73

Agriculture in Georgia Fred \V. Greer, Jr. . 77 Critique: Agriculture in Georgia Stephen J. Brannen . 106

Critique: Agriculture in Georgia Thomas T. Irvin . 110

Automation in Georgia Ellis L. Scott 113 Critique: Automation in Georgia John L. Jones 136

Transportation in Georgia Richard M. Forbes 139

Critique: Transportation in Georgia Henry A. Fahl. . .149

Critique: Transportation in Georgia Emory C. Parrish . . 153

Manpower and Employment in Georgia John L. Fulmer . . . 157 Critique: Manpower and Employment in Georgia Sam Caldwell. . . . . 182 Critique: Manpower and Employment

in Georgia G. Clint Rodgers . . . .185

Demography of Georgia James a Tarver . . . . 189 The Individual in Georgia Kenneth B. Matheny . 221

Critique: The Individual in Georgia Fred R. Crawford . . 237

Critique: The Individual in Georgia Fred H. Wright. . . . 241 Growing Pains: A Look at Social Alpha M. Bond. Jr. and Disorganizations in Georgia's Future Adrienne M. Bond . . . 245 Critique: Growing Pains: A Look at Social Disorganization in Georgia's Future Genevieve T. Mill . . . 271

7 TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued Critique: Growing Pains: A Look at Social Disorganization in Georgia's Future Raymond Payne. . . . 274

Religion in Georgia Earl D. C. Brewer . . . 281

Critique: Religion in Georgia John E. Sallstron.. . . 303

Civil Rights in Georgia Vernon E Jordan, Jr.. . 309

Critique: Civil Rights in Georgia Donald Hollowell . . . 329 Equality of Educational Opportunities for Black Children and Youth in Georgia Wiley S. Bolden. 331 Structure of Government in Georgia Morris W. H. Collins, Jr. 355 The Political Culture of Georgia Donald L. Fairchild 383 Critique: The Political Culture of Georgia . Anthony M. Orum . 399 Perspectives on Health Care: Georgia 1970-1985 Harry B. O'Rear, M.D. . 403 Critique: Perspectives on Health Care: Georgia 1970-1985 P. K. Dixon, Jr., M.D.. 425 Critique: Perspectives on Health Care: Georgia 1970-1985 1 Gordon Barrow, M.D. 431

The Ecology of Georgia Robert B. Platt . . . . 435

Critique: The Ecology of Georgia John D. Withers. . . . 458 Communications Systems and Mass Media in Georgia William H. Hale, Jr. . . 463 Critique: Communications Systems and Mass Media in Georgia Dozier C. Cade . . . . 479 Critique: Communications Systems and Mass Media in Georgia Elmo Ellis 485 Leisure and Recreation in Georgia John H. Davis 489 Critique: Leisure and Recreation in Georgia . James R. Champlin 509 Critique: Leisure and Recreation, in Georgia . Hugh B. Masters and . Pauline Masters. . . . 512

The Arts in Georgia George Beattie. . . . 517

Critique: The Arts in Georgia Venn() D. Frank . . . . 528

Critique: The Arts in Georgia Hubert B. Owens. . . . 533

8 GEORCilA'seconomy todaylooks hack on 30 years of outstanding growth. both in absolute terms and relative to the United States' economy. But this growth has been achieved from a low starting point Lind Georgia's per capita income in 1968 was only $1 percent of the national average. During the past three decades the state's economy has become substantially less dependent on agriculture and much better diversified within both agriculture and manufacturing. The distribution of Georgia's employment by broad industrial classificationsis now quitesimilartothatof theUnited States, and the national economic outlook is the most important single factor in the outlook for the state's economy. By Joseph K. Heyrr,ln, M.B.A. Economy of Georgia and W. Bethel Minter, A.B. Based on our projections for the U.S. economy and assuming that Georgia merely maintainsits1968 share, the state's personal income (about $14 billionin 1969) by 1985 would rise to $261/2 billion in constant prices and to $37 billion in 1985 prices (assuming 40 percent inflation). But we strongly believe that Georgia will increase its share of U.S. income, and we project 1985 personal income for Georgia of $30 billion in constant prices and $42 billion in 1985 prices. While we expect a continued decline in agriculture's proportion of the state's employment and income, the decline should he more moderate in the future. - Even more significant,agricultureis now so much less important to the state that future gains in nonfarm employment will not be heavily diluted by any future declines in farm jobs.

- We think that Georgia will continue to outgain the nation in manufacturing Al jobs and income although its margin of superior gain may not be as large as in recent years. Location in the center of the flourishing Southeastern market will - henefit Georgia's position in manufac-

9 Luring and in other industries serving Economy of Georgia surrounding states. Review of Broad Economic Changes Georgia has the opportunity to bene- Over the Past Half Century fit more fully from the under-utilized resources of its Negro population and Georgia has experienceddramatic to revitalize the economies of its small changes in its economy during the past towns and ruralcounties. There are 50 years. A review and analysis of these signs that some progress is being made changes in some detail would seem to in these areas. a prereqqisite for any attempt to project what the state's economy may look Despite the stated strengths and op- like some 15 years in the future. portunities, we expect Georgia's economic gains to lift per capita income The year 19(9. immediately follow- only to 921/2 percent of the U.S. aver- ing World War I. was a year of great prosperityfor least age by 1985. The state continues to suf- Georgiaat as fer from concentrationin low value measured both by what had gone before added and low pay manufacturing in- and by what was to follow for a long dustries and from an unfavorable prod- period ahead. Some 58 percent of all uct mix within many individual indus- Georgians then lived on farms, about tries. Georgia is also vulnerable due to double the national proportion. Only one-fourth of the state's population was its present disproportionate share of in- then classified as urban, as compared. come from military-related payrolls. with one-halfforthe entireUnited We believe that this study has the fol- States. lowing implications for the state's edu- Georgia's relative prosperity in 1919 cational goals. is easy to understand. We were pre- The economy, like the iest of so- dominantly an agriculturalstate, and ciety, will become more complex cotton, the main source of farm in- and capable students must he pre- come, sold at an average of 32 cents a pared to cope with problems rather pound, a price not again equaled or ex- thanmerelytrainedinspecific ceeded until after World War II. skills. Relatively more emphasis should In 1919 Georgians had total personal be given to vocational training in income of $1.2 billion and a per capita industrial skills. incoine of $417. These measures are Greater emphasisisneededin obviously low compared withcorre- training for more complicated jobs sponding 1968 figures of $12.7 billion as vocational oportunities will OW. and $2,781. But in 1919 Georgia's share toward higher technology indus- of total U.S. income was 1.75 percent tries and even within the older in- and in 1968 it was 1.86 percent; it was dustries toward more highly skilled not until 1965 that Georgia's share of jobs. U.S. income was larger than in 1919. Special attention is neded to pre- Fifty years ago Georgia's per capita in- pare Negroes for a greater role in come was 54 percent of the U.S. per the economy. capita; in 1968 it way; 81 percent, but it Increasing emphasis on adult edu- was not until 1943 that the 1919 ratio cation is a necessity to aid those was surpassed. who were short-changededuca- Let us present one more fact before tionally as children and those who we leave 1919. In Georgia in that year were educated adequately for yes- we had almost $3.50 of agricultural in- terday but who need re-training come for every $1.00 in factory pay- and re-educating for the more com- rolls; nationally in the same year there plicated today and tomorow. were only 85 cents of farm income for

10 each dollar of factory payrolls. It is not cotton textiles. But Georgia's share of hardtounderstandwhyGeorgia's total U.S. personal income in 1929. at economy fared relatively poorly during 1.18 percent. was a far cry from the the1920s with this decade's curious 1.75 percent of 1919. mixture of boll weevils and other even The ravages of the Great Depression more basic causes of farm depression in Were severe in Georgia as elsewhere. the midst of a national industrial boom. With the price of cotton down to six Just as 1919 showed the benefits of al- cents and with industrial employment most complete dependence on one com- and wages off sharply. conditions were modity when factors were favorable to dismal. Georgia was an integral part of that product. so do the 1920s show the what was then described as "the nation's evils of no diversification when the main number one economic problem." De- industry or crop goes sour. spiteits unhappy condition. however. Georgia's relative economic slide dur- Georgia sufferedslightly smaller de- ag the 1920s is clearly shown by the clines from 1929 to 1933 than was true personal incomedata.Total wages. of the nation as a whole. Georgia's share farm income, dividends, and all other of total U.S. inwmc advanced by 1933 types of income received by Georgians to 1.28 percent and its per capita inin 1929 were about one-sixth less than come climbed to 54 percent of the na- in 1919, whilf in the same period U.S tionalaverage.Agriculturestillpre- income payments had risen by almost dominated in 1933, with 51.05 of agri- one-fourth. Our level of per capita in- cultural income for each SI of factory come declined to only one-half the na- payrolls as compared with a national tional average. Nationally farm income figure of 38 cents for each $1. dropped about two-fifths during this 10- year span, but in Georgia farm income Happily Georgia's economic progress was down almost three-fifths because of since the mid 1930s has been truly re- sharp declines in both the price and out- markable. Aided by federal assistance put of raw cotton. Factory payrolls in of various types the state's personal in- Georgia between 1919 and 1929 rose come by 1940 exceeded the 1929 level 15 percent, but even here we did not by 3 percent although for the nation as keep full pace with the national gain of a whole personal income in 1940 was 9 percent short of the 1929 level. Geor- 20 percent. gia's share of U.S. personal income in Although the Georgia economic pic- 1940 was up to 1.34 percent. In 1940 ture on the whole in 1929 was rather 44 percent of Georgia's population lived bleak. there were beginning to he some on farms and 34 percent was classified faint glimmerings of a better and more as urban, as compared with ratios of 58 balanced economic structure ahead. By percent and 25 percent, respectively, 20 1929 Georgia's income from farming years earlier. In 1940 Georgia's farm in- was $1.33 for each dollar of factory come was 92 cents for each dollar of payrolls, far less than 10 years earlier. factory payrolls and per capita income In1929 cotton and cottonseedac- was 57 percent of the national average. counted for 59 percent of the state's total cash receipts from farm market- The 1940s brought further substan- ings, still an extremely high proportion tialrelative gains to Georgia. During but at least some improvement over the World War II we received the stimulus 62 percent proportion of 1924: mean- of military payrolls in our extensive while tobacco, hogs, and dairy products training camps andmuch more impor- were beginning to loom larger in the tant for the long run--tens of thou- state's total farm income. In the indus- sands of our workers received industrial trial field Georgia was increasing sharp- training in our shipyards, bomber plant ly its share of the national output of and munitions and component part fac-

11 tories. These, experiences gave us and come. Currently Georgia's 16 cults of managements of many national con- farm income for each dollar of factory cerns better appreciation of our large payrolls demonstrates further shift from reservoir of educable workersworkers dependence on agriculture and isnot who had become or were becoming sur- significantlydifferentfromtheU.S. plus to their normal agricultural pur- ratio of 12 cents of farm income for suits. Whatever the primary causes of each dollar of factory payrolls. our new economic life, the fact is that The truly amazing changes inthe we gained a self-confidence in our abil- broad character of Georgia's economy ity to surge forward. At the same time over the past half-century, described in we won the respect and confidence of the foregoing text, are summarized in those in other sections who are con- Table I. stantlyseekingprofitable waysand Three central points emerge from the placesto employ capital. kaleidoscopic pictureof the past 50. The year 1950 is a convenient date years presented in the preceding discus- for appraising Georgia's relative eco- sion and in Table 1. nomic progress during the decade that Georgia's economy has drastically included the war and early post-war lessened its dependence on agricul- years. Between 1940 and 1950 Geor- ture. gia's personal income rose 241 percent as compared with a U.S. gain of 190 Georgia's economy had littlere- percent. Our share of the U.S,-total in- semblance to that of the U.S. as a creased to 1.58 percent.(from 1.34 per- whole in 1919 or 1929 or even as cent in 1940). In this decade our fac- recently as 1940, but since 1940 Georgia's economy has tended to tory payrolls quadrupled, while nation- look more and more like that of ally they trebled. In 1950 _weThad only the entire nation. 50 cents of agricultural income for each Except for the 1920s, when Geor- $1 of factory payrolls. During the 1940s our farm population dropped sharply gia suffered relatively from its abnormal dependence on agriculture, and in 1950 was only 28 percent of the Georgia's economy has consistent- state's total population. ly grown at a faster rate than the The 1950s was a period of consoli- economy of the U.S, as a whole. datinggainsratherthanoffurther Superior growth rates were espe- significantrelativegrowth.In1960 cially marked during the 1940s and Georgia's share of U.S. personalin- again in the 1960s. come was 1.63 percent, only slightly above the ratio in 1950. The trend away A Closer Look at Recent from the farm continued, however. In Developments 1960 farm population (defined more narrowly than in earlier census years) Charts 1 and 2 are helpful in examining was down to about 10 percent of the broad economic changes over the past state total and farm income was only 30 years. In this analysis we use employ- 25 cents for each $1 of factory payrolls. ment data for the years 1939 and 1967. Georgia's relative growth has accele- Chart1 compares the distribution of rated in the 1960s. From 1960 to 1968 employment for the U.S. and Georgia personal income increased 96 percent in for each of these years. The top portion Georgia and 71 percent in the U.S., and of the chart makes the comparison for Georgia's share of the national total 1939 when there was a marked lack of rose to 1.86 percent (vs. 1.63 percent similarity. Note especiallythediffer- in 1960). During this eight-year period ences in farm and in manufacturing and Georgia bettered national gains in both mining(mostlymanufacturing).In factorypayrollsandagriculturalin- 1939 farmers made up 49 percent of

12 Georgia's total workers, almost double lookatthe. composition of Georgia's the national ratio of 27 percent. In 1939 manufacturing mix and the relative per- factories and mines accounted for19 formance trends over a recent 10-year percent of total employment in Georgia period, 1957 to 1967. Employment data and for almost 27 percent in the nation are again used as the best available as a whole. source of statistical material for such As shown in the bottom two circles an analysis. by 1967 the distribution of employment Each of the first four manufacturing in broad industrial groups in Georgia industries listed(textile mill products. was quite similar to that in the nation apparel, lumber, and pulp and paper) as a whole. The share of total employ- accounts for a significantly larger share ment accounted for by. agriculture was of total factory employment in Georgia down to seven percent for the U.S. and than in the nation. 'Combined, the four seven and a half percent for Georgia. in1967 made up 52 percent of the The share for factories and mines had Georgia total and only 19 percent of the changed only slightly for the U.S. and U.S. total. (It is of interest to note that was 28 percent in 1967; but for..Georgia two ofthese industriestextiles and this group had jumped significantly to lumberdeclined in relativeimpor- almost 30 percent of the total. The other tance in Georgia's total factory employ- broad groups were quite close in 1967 ment from 55 percent in both 1939 and except that service industries were only 1947 to 40 percent in 1957 and to 31 V. 101/2 percent in Georgia against 14 per- percent in' 1967.) The four industries cent for the U.S. combined outperformed U.S. gains 20 Chart2 comparesthepercentage percent to six percent in the10-year changes in employment from 1939 to period, and all but lumber significantly 1967 of nine broad industrial categories heat the U.S. performance. that were combined into five groups in The second group consists of four in- Chart I. For total employment the com- dustries which have about the same rela- parison is unfavorable for Georgia. Our tive importance in Georgia as in the gain for the entire period of 44 percent nationfood, transportation equipment was well under the national gain of 69 (mostly autos and aircraft), stone, clay: percent. But the reason for this poor and glass products. and furniture and showing is made clear by the next pair fixtures. In the aggregate these four in- of bars showing changes in farm em- dustries make up roughly one-fourth of ployment. The U.S. suffered a drop of total factory employment in both Geor- 56 percent while Georgia had the amaz- gia and the U.S. Gains from 1957 to ing decrease of 78 percent. This had an 1967 were again substantially greater in especially adverse effect on Georgia's Georgia in total (33 percent vs. three total because farming was so important percent) and in all industries but one. tb the state back in 1939. The final group is industries which are substantially less important in Geor- Intotalnon-farm employment the picture is entirely different, with Geor- gia than nationallymachinery, metals, gia substantially outperforming the na- printing and publishing, chemicals, and tion. Georgia also widely outperformed all other. In 1967 this grouping made up the nation in six of the eight components 21 percent of the Georgia total and al- of non-farm, was about even on one most 57 percent of the U.S. total. Ten- component (construction), and lagged year gains were much larger in Georgia the national gain only in service indus- for the entire group (71 percent vs. 21 percent) and for each industry within tries. the group. Developments within Manufacturing In the 10 years ending in 1967 Geor- In Table 2 we make possible a closer gia's employment gains outstripped the

13 nation's in 11 of the 13 manufacturing employment had national value added groups and in total factory employment per employee ratios equal to or higher Georgia beat the U.S. gain 32 percent than the national average for all manu- to 13 percent-:This was accomplished facturing: this representThoderate im- despite Georgia's above average depen- provement from 10 years earlier and dence on indnstrics which nationally substantial improvement from 20 years have experienced below average growth earlier. But in1967 the other half of in recent years. This is demonstrated in Georgia's total factory employment was the bottom section of Table 2 where we stillaccounted for by four industries classifyindustries asbetweenslow (textiles,apparel, lumber, and .furni- growers and fast growers. The national ture) which had national value added slow growers in 1967 made up 61 per- per employee ratios averaging some 39 cent of Georgia'stotaland only 44 percent below the national average for percent of the U.S. total. all industries. It is possible mathematically to put a Georgia's product mix in manufac- cost-tag on this phase of Georgia's ad- turing is even less favorable as meas- verse product mix. Thus, if all 13 manu- ured by average annual pay per em- facturing industries shown in Table 2 ployee. In 1967 only one-third of our in 1957 had had the same relative share factory employment was in' industries of total in Georgia as in the U.S. and if with average or above-average pay rates each Georgia industry had still expe- and almost half was in industries (tex- riencedthe same .percentage change tiles, apparel, and lumber) with average from 1957 to 1967 as was actually ex- pay about 35 percent below the national perienced, Georgia would have had a average for all manufacturing. Another total 10-year gain in manufacturing em- one-sixth was inindustries with pay ployment of 57 percent instead of 32 rates about 12 percent below the na- percent. Instead of an absolute gain of tional average for all factory workers. 106,000 workers the gain would have been 188,000 workers. An extra 82,000 factory workers, with appropriateal- Developments within Agriculture io wance for secondary effects in trade, In Georgia economic changes within service, and other industries other than agriculture have been even more drastic manufacturing, would likely have meant thanwithinmanufacturing. Table 3 an increment of about $1 billion in per- shows Georgia's total cash income from sonal income for Georgians in1967, farm markctings for selected years and some nine percent more than the per- the percentage distribution of the total sonal income reported for that year. by major product groupings forthe Georgia's product mix in manufac- same years. turing is also adverse in other respects. The rise of 602 percent in Georgia's We refer especially to its above average cash income from farm marketings be- concentrationinindustries which are tween 1940 and 1968 is in itself remark- below average in pay rates and in value able. (It compares with the U.S. gain added per employee. In 1967 Georgia's of 432 percent in the same period.) value added by manufacture per em- Between 1940 and 1968 the price index ployee was $11,873, some 11percent for Georgia farm products rose181 less than the nationalaverageof percent. Mathematically these relation- $13,367. In the same year Georgia's ships imply that the physical volume of average pay per employee (in manu- Georgia's farm products rose 150 pef- facturing) was $5,139, some 24 percent cent between 1940 and 1968. In the less than the national average of $6,798. face of a decline of almost 80 percent In 1967industriesaccountingfor in farm employment this is an achieve- about half of Georgia's total tactory ment that bears witness to remarkable

14 gains in skills and productivity of Geor- urestwo related to consumption and gia farm operators and their equipment. dOribution and three to finance. The But cqually remar-kablcaGia.thedray specific years were chosen because they tie shifts in relative importance of va- happened to be years covered 117 the rious farm products. Cotton has been Census of Business. losing position for many years, but as According to these figures Georgia recently as 1950 it was still the most im- has experienced substantial and, in most portant single source of cash farm in- cases, uninterrupted gains in its share of comeinGeorgia.By 1968cotton national economic totals. Especially sig- ranked ninth among the12 separate nificantisthe extremely fastrelative groups shown in Table 3. rise in wholesale trade, bearing witness Poultry and eggs have been the big to Georgia's strategic location for serv- gainers jumping (combined) from six ing the expanding Southeastern region. percent in 1940 to 371/2 percent in 1968. Also significant is the fact that Georgia Inthe most recent period eggs have isrelatively weakerinthefinancial shown steadier growth than broilers. measures than in those related to trade; we still depend rather heavily on attrac- A significant portiori of the increased tion of outside capital to keep the state's share of total for other crops since 1960 economy moving ahead. And, as a so- is accounted for by soybeans. This rela- bering factor, we note thatin1967 tively new crop in Georgia accounted Georgia accounted for 2.3 percent of for two percent of the state's cash in- the nations total population; on a per come from farm marketings in 1968. capita basis we are still below the na- Before concluding this brief review tional average on most economic meas- of developments within the agricultural tires. sector of Georgia's economy attention is directedto the marked absolute and Diverse Trends within the State relative decline in the number of farm tenants. In 1930 Georgia's farm tenants Up tothis pointour. discussion has numbered 174,000: they made up 68 dealt with the record of Georgia's total percent of all Georgia farm operators economy and certain of its major in- and accounted for 51 percent of total dustrialclassifications.Our economy acreage devoted to farming. By 1950 suffered, comparatively, . during the the number of tenants had dropped to 1920s because of our earlier predomi- 85,000 and they made up 43 percent of nant dependence on agriculture, espe- all operators and farmed 25 percent of cially cotton. But we have outpaced the the state's farm acreage. In 1964 the nationalgainsinnonfarmactivities number of tenants was down to 13,500 since the early 1930s and have devel- and they were only 16 percent of all oped an economic structure no longer farm operators and farmed only nine differing greatly from that of the nation percent of Georgia's total farm acreage. as a whole. Cotton is now only one of several commodities contributing to a Georgia's Relative Trends as diversifiedagriculture.Within manu- Measured by Other Broad Economic facturing the strong growth of metal Indicators and metal-working industries, apparel, Georgia'srelativeprogressinrecent paper products, and stone, clay, and decades is also evident from an analysis glass products has substantially lessened of trends in economic indicators other the earlier predominance of cotton tex- than those mentioned heretofore in this tiles. We have made great strides in the text.In Table 4 We show Georgia's balance between agriculture and indus- share of the U.S. total in selected years try andinthediversificationwithin over the past three decades in five meas- both agriculture and industry. We have

15 closedaboutthree-fifthsoftheper educational institutions, and preferably capita income gap that existed in 1929. sonic combination of these. But indus- The 'economic changes that we have trializationis no guarantee of continu- experienced have beeiirealtTiy for the ing greWth if there is contentratiorittin stateas a whole. but they have had one industry which suffers a downtrend. widely disparate effects on different pur- (The population declines from 1950 to tions of the state. County population 1960 of Polk. Spalding. Troup, and Up- data provide a convenient handle for son Countiesin each of which textile analyzing these disparities. manufacturing is the leading industry Declineincounty populationisa are illustrative.) long-term phenomenon in Georgia. The Table 5 sums up the divergent effects number of counties suffering decade de- that economic change has had on differ- clinesinpopulation was 98inthe ent parts of Georgia. 1920s, 62 in the 1930s, 97 in the 1940s, The close correlation between size of and 92 in the 1950s. The make-up of city and population performance must the downtrend group has varied from have a significance. The presence or de- decade to decade, but there have been velopment of cities of 15,000 and up a large number of steady losers (75 has been accompanied by substantial from 1940 to 1960). The steady losers county gains over a period of years. with some exceptions generally form a With few exceptions Georgia counties broad belt encompassing the upper part with smaller communities have been of the Coastal Plain and the lower part hard pressed to keep themselves eco- of the Piedmont area. nomically attractiveatleaston the On the other side of the picture are figures through 1960. But we stress the 24 Georgia counties that have enjoyed factthat there have been exceptions. increased population in each decade and For example, nine of the 24 counties 28 others with gains in three of the four with population gains each decade since decades. The consistent gainers are well 1920 are counties not having a city of scatteredgeographicallybutinclude 15.000. Some of these have benefited most of the counties in what are now from proximity to metropolitan areas. designated as the metropolitan areas of but others are small-town counties that Albany, Atlanta, Augusta, Columbus, haveprogressedbecausetheyhave Macon, and Savannah. made their communities attractive for Without attempting statistical proof, industrial development. it seems clear that economic changes There are some indications that the underlie the population changes. The small -town counties have done better areas of greatest population decline are since 1960. U.S. Department of Com- largely those where cotton production merce estimates of county populations was formerly the heaviest and which are are available for 1966. These estimates without agricultural or industrial 'sub-. indicatepercentage changes between stitutes. The obverse of the decline in 1960 and 1966 as follows. population of many agricultural coun- 13 counties in metro ties has been the sharp rise in the num- areas +19% ber of urban and suburban dwellers. 18 other counties with Exodus from farmstourbanareas cities of 10,000 simply means concentration of unem- and up +11% ployment in the latter unless they enjoy 128 other counties . . . 6% sound and growing economies. The 159 counties (state total) +13% basis for sound growth in urban areas In a sense these figures confirm earlier must depend on employment opportu- trends, but with a major exception: the nitiesinmanufacturing,distribution, 128 counties without a city of 10,000 transportation, finance, government or show an aggregate gain, not a loss. The

16 Commerce Department estimates also 1930and1950,and rose a modest six Georgia Depart- indicatei ct decline poppu uulationsince percent in the1950s. 1960of 46 counties, only half the num- ment of Public Health estimates indicate a further rise_AILINQ percent be- i_ firmation of these indicated trends by tween 1960 and 1968, substantially less the 1970 census would he a favorable than the estimated 2(1 percent increase development. in the state's white population in the Some support for the hope that the Nam:: period. The proportion of non- population and economies of the small- whites in Georgia's total population was town counties are beginning to see bet- about 42 percent in 1920, 37 percent in ter days relatively is derived from re- 1930, 35 percent in 1940, and 31 per- cently publHIed personal income data cent in 1950: it is indicated at about 26 for counties and metropolitanareas. percent for 1968. These data are also estimates of the U.S. Quantitatively the disparity in edu- Department of Commerce, but they are cational attainment can be measured based to an important degree on hard by the median number of years of facts related to employment and pay- schooling completed by population 25 rolls of all establishments covered un- years of age and older. In Georgia in der the employment security program. 1940 these medians were 8.1 years for According to these figures personal in- whites and 4.2 for nonwhites, a dis- comeinGeorgia'ssixmetropolitan parity of 3,9: in 1950 the medians were areas accounted for 54.3 percent ofthe 8.8 for whites and 4.9 for nonwhites, state's total personal income in1940. again a difference of 3.9 years: and in This ratio rose to 56.7 percent in 1950 1960 the medians were 10.3 and 6.1, a and to 62.1 percent in 1959. But since gap of 4.2 years. The level for both 1959 there has been little change, with groups rose. but the disparity remained, the ratio at 62.7 percent in 1962 and Qualitatively the disparity in education- 63.2 percent in 1967. Looking at it oh- al attainment is no doubt even greater vcrscly, the non-metro counties suffered than suggested by the above figures. a sharp loss in position from45.7 per- Racial disparities in income are also cent in 1940 to 37.9 percent in1959, great but have been narrowing. In 1949 but since then have shown little change (earliest year for which reliable data (36.8 percent in 1967). Apparently in are readily available) the median in- the 1960s the non-metro counties have come for nonwhite families and unre- been sharing more fully in Georgia's lated individuals was 42 percent of the recent substantial economic advance. corresponding median for whites. By 1959 the ratio had risen to about 44 Racial Disparities percent. Sample studies of the U.S. De- Georgia's above average proportion of partment of Commerce coveringthe en- Negro population and the persistent dif- tire South would suggest that the Geor- ferences between whites and blacks in gia ratio had risen to about 50 percent educational and economic opportunity by 1967. The substantial disparity in and attainment are significant facts af- income applies almost equally in urban fectingGeorgia'seconomicdevelop- and rural areas. ment. Mathematically the decline in relative In 1960 Georgia's nonwhites (mostly importance of a segment of the popu- Negroes) comprised 28.5 percent of the lation that has been far below the state state's total population, two and a half average in per family income has. no times the corresponding U.S. ratio of doubt helped in lifting the state's rela- 11.4 percent. Georgia's nonwhite pOpu- tive standing in per capita income. Far lationactuallydeclinedduringthe sounder in Georgia's long range eco- 1920s, was virtually unchanged between nomic progress will be stepsinclud-

17 ing education and trainingwhich will dally in the10 years from 1970 to make it possible to bring much closer io 1980, population in the primary work- fulleconomicpotentialone ofthe ing ages (18-64)willincrease faster state's_ mostimportant,under-utilized than414e total population. The near-ter-m resources. acceleration in working age population provides opportunity for substantial in- The Future creasesinemployment tomeetthe As a backdrop for our discussion of needs of a growing economy. But, of Georgia's economy over the next decade course, it carries the potential of more and a half it seems desirable to set forth serious unemploymentifeconomic our projections or assumptions with re- growth falters. specttothenational economy. The economies of Georgia and the U.S. have Another importaht population factor become so similar, at least in broad in- involves. changesindicatedforage dustrialclassifications,that U.S. eco- groups 18-34 and 35-44. The number nomic trends are certainto have a of persons in the 18-34 group will grow marked influence on what happens in at v.it unusually rapid pace in the 1970s: Georgia. We believe strongly that the while the numkr in the 35 44 group (which will show a decline from 1965 magnitudeof changesintheU.S. economy will be the most important to1975)willincrease rapidly from single factor affecting the magnitude of 1975 to 1985. It is probably fair to de- changes in the Georgia economy be- scribe the 18-34 group as being rela- tween now and 1985. tively high on borrowing and relatively low on saving.. This is the group that We believe that the national eco- sparks family formations and related nomic environment in the 1970s and demandsforrentalhousing,autos, early 1980s will he good although obvi- household goods, and apparel for young ously there will be problems. We feel children. The 35-44 group is reaching strongly that the nation will continue to the prime of earning power, is better avoid a depressionforreasonsthat able to save, and is more interested in present space does not permit us to de- home ownership and in higher educa- tail. We quite likely will have recessions tion for its children. The two groups or pauses or slowdownsduring the combined, i.e., ages 18-44, make up a next 15 years, but we would not expect prime and dynamic portion of the entire any declines to be both severe and pro- "American market. The indicated popu- longed. lation gain for these combined groups In general we look for continuing of 38 percent between 1970 and 1985 is growth sparked by rising population, by the largest percentage increase for any further impressive developments in the 15 year period in the 20th century; it is fields of research and technology, and substantiallyhigher than for any 15 by the apparently insatiable appetite of year period that began between 1910 American consumers for the products and 1955 inclusive. and services that make for greater ma- Along with growth in demand, we terial comforts. High level demand for would expect the 1970-85 period to be consumer goods and servicestogether characterized by upward pressures on with rising labor costs, new products labor costs and prices (although such and new production methodswill cre- pressures will be less than if we were ate a strong demand for capital goods. faced with a slower growth in the labor Impending changes in the population force) and by relatively high interest mix should influence economic devel- rates. opments favorably in the next 15 years. In presenting this quick preview of During this period as a whole, and espe- the national economy, we explicitly as-

I 8 sumo thatsomehow we shallavoid price increases implies 1985 figures of stumbling into World War III. We also dhow $2.500 billion for gross national assume that hostilities in Vietnam will product and of about $2,000 billion! -virriduvIly terminate and that domestic, for U.S. personal income. political, and social pressures will mili- tate against active U.S. involvement in The Future Relative Trend future "Vietnams." Nonetheless, we rec- Of the Georgia Economy ognizethat we liveina dangerous In forecasting the position of the Geor- world, Lund we assume that the U.S. will gia economy in 1985, we wilt mean more maintain a strong military establishment toward qualitative rather thaen quanti- through gins projection period. As a tative judgments. This choice is dictated rough guess we suggest that the level of in part by limitations of tante for de- "real" U.S.. military expenditures (i.e., tailed research: in any event it is doubt- expenditures adjusted' to exclude the in- ful.that precise, numerical estinnates:for fluence of changes in prices) after Viet- various sectors of the economy would nam willfall to a rate between 1964 serve the Commission's purposes any (pre-Vietnam acceleration) and 1969, better than carefully considered quali- possibly one-third way back or perhaps tative judgments. half way back. In either event after For most long-range pluming pur- Vietnam, military expenditures would poses, itis probably suflicienn that cor- become a significantly lower percentage rect answers be given to two questions. of gross national product, and room First, what general shape will the Geor- would be found for -reduction in tax gia economy take over the next16 rates or greater federal expenditures for years? And second what steps can be pressing domestic needs, or some Com- takentoinsure maximum economic bination of these. achievement? The first question can he We shall quantify our projections in framed in terns of which of three sets terms of gross national product and per- of past conditions are most likely to sonal income, which for 1969 are indi- characterize the future. cated at about $930 billion and $745 Is it possible that the Georgia econo- billion, respectively. After considering my will slip into the pattern of 1919- ;likelychangesinpopulation,labor 1929 with performance much below force, working hours, and productivity, that of the nation's economy? vire believethatanaverageannual :growth rate of four to four a half per- Can Georgia's economy be expected merely to parallel the nation's eco- cent in "real" gross national product is nomic growth? a reasonable assumption. Over a16- Or will the state continue to outper- year period these gains would accumu- form the U.S. economy by a substan- lateto 87 percent and 102 percent; tialmargin as during the- past 30 they would point to aggregates.in terms years? of the 1969pricelevel.,of about $1,750 to$1.850billionfor . grossnational We almost hesitate to ask the question product and of about $1.400 to $1,500 whether Georgia could return to the in- billion for personal income. For prices ferior growth of the 1920s because the we Lissume a gradual da.rnpening of re- question may appear of the "straw man" cent inflationary pressures and an an- variety. Nevertheless. regional econo- t-awl average increase of Iwo percent in mies do shift from superior no inferior 1972 and subsequent years: this would performances. and vice versa,..viith little accumulate to a 40.percent total price or no warning. As mentioned earlier, rise over the 16tettrs- from 1969 to Georgia has made both shifts over the 1985. The combination of theseas- past 50 years. There are morerecent ex- sumptions for "mfr.' growth and for amples as well. Between 1939 and 1953

19 Michigan enjoyed an economic boom that Georgia's economy is unlikely to comparable to Georgia's in many ways. be a poorer performer than the national Nonagricultural employment in Michi- economy over the next 15 years or so, ganincreased 82 percent, somewhat The ease against this alternative can he more than Georgia's 77 percent gain strengthened while deciding between the in the period, and rose from 4.40 per- other two possible tilternatives. cent of the U.S. total in 1939 to 4.89 The decision between average (rela- percent in1953 and 1955, However, tive to the U.S. ) growth and above av- 1955 was the highwater mark in Michi- erage growth is more difficult than the gan for nearly 10 years. Nonagricul- rejection of the below average growth tural employment in Michigan as a per- In centage of the U.S. total hypothesis. fact, much of the re- fell to 4.25 mainder of this paper will he devoted percent by 1963 and in actual numbers to an analysis of this question, with the did not regain its 1955 level until 1964. conclusion reached that Georgia will Total personal income in Michigan took a similar path, increasing from 4.60 continuetoenjoyfastereconomic growth than the nation as a whole. percent of the U.S. total in 1940 to 5.16 percent in 1953 and 1955 and then declining to 4.49 percent in 1963. Appraisals of Outlook for Can somethingsimilar happenin Georgia's Major Georgia? It seems highly unlikely, if onlybecauseofthediversification Industrial Groups which exists in the Georgia economy This section of our paper appraises the today. As noted previously, the deterio- outlook over the next 15 years or so for ration of the 1920s in Georgia could not themajorindustrialgroupingsinto have been so severe but for Georgia's which Georgia's economy may be clas- heavy reliance on agriculture and with- sified. As noted previously, the apprais- in agriculture on cotton. Similarly, the als will he qualitative, not quantitative. Michigan economy in the early' 1950s aimed mainly at developing a judgment was much less diversified than Georgia's as to whether Georgia can he expected istoday. In 1953 manufacturing ac- to continue to increase its share of the counted for 49.8 percent of Michigan's national economy. We specifically dis- nonagriculturalemploymentand in claim expertisein many of the indi- 1958, the first year for which figures are vidual areas in which we shall express readily available, transportation equip- opinions. We trust that experts in these ment made up 34.0 percent of Michi- areas will find our opinions reasonable. gan's manufacturing employment. It is In approaching these appraisals itis safe toassume thattransportation helpful to think of industrial employ- equipment loomed even larger in the ment as falling into two broad catego- Michigan economy of the early 1950s. ries, which we call dynamic and non- In 1967 only 31.5 percent of Georgia's dynamic. A simple illustration will ex- nonagriculturalemployment wasin plain the concept. Suppose a valuable manufacturing and within manufactur- mineral deposit is discovered in some ing thelargestindustry,textilemill isolated, uninhabited area. The miners products, accounted for 25.6 percent of who come in will he engaged in dynamic the total. Furthermore, there do not ap- employment. But sooner or later they pear to be the compelling reasons for will need food, clothing, shelter, and a textile mill products to leave Georgia as variety of services including schools, there were for automobile manufactur- government, etc. The employees providers to diversify geographically outside ing goods and services for the miners of Michigan. and for each other we call non-dynamic. There arc other reasons for believing If the mine should close permanently

20 the community would become a ghost The futureforpoultryand eggs, town in the absence of some ucw dy- Georgia's two largestfarm products, namic development. appears good. One possible 'question The dynamic factors for any com- niaiis whether national per capita con- munity (including astate)are those sumption of chicken will increase at the which are based on local natural re- very rapid pace of past years. sources or which look to external mar- Georgia agriculture does look vulner- kets as their principal source of demand. able with respect to two crops, cotton Almost every broad industrial classifica- and tobacco, The drastic decline in cot- tion includes some mixture of dynamic ton which has occurred might well have and non-dynamic. For present purposes been even greater but for the system of we are arbitrarily classifyingallagri- government acreage allotments which culture.mining,manufacturing,and has tended tofreeze production. To- federalmilitary employmentasdy- bacco, of course, is under the cloud of namic: we are also recognizing that sig- the health scare and will face continued nificant portions of Georgia's transpor- efforts by the federal government to dis- tation: communications, wholesale trade, courage cigarette smoking. Fortunately, financial, and federal civilian employ- the importance of cotton has drastically: ment(i.e.,those serving markets or diminished to the point that cotton and areas much broader than the state) are tobacco combined account for only one- also dynamic. Itis on these dynamic ninth of Georgia's cash income from groups that we concentrate in the fol- farm marketings. lowing appraisals. The sum total of all There may well he new growth prod- other employment (the non-dynamic) is ucts for the state's agriculture as diffi- ordinarily somewhat larger than the dy- cult to foresee as were broilers and eggs namic, but it tends to follow closely the in 1940. Nevertheless, agriculture can- trends set by the dynamic group as a not be looked to as a source of above whole. average growth for the state's income and even less for its employment. Agriculture One of the most optimistic facts for We expect agriculture to continue to ac- Georgia's economic future conies from count for a smaller and smaller share a comparison of the past and future of employment and income both in the hearing of agriculture on thestate's nation and in Georgia, Expanding farm total economy, Even under the most output between now and 1985 will be pessimistic assumptions regarding agri- necessary to feed the nation's growing culture, it cannot he the drag on the rest population. But it is highly unlikely that of the economy,in the future as in the farm output will keep pace with total past simply because of its smaller share industrial production. Demand for food of the state's economy. is unlikely to increase much faster than Recall that between 1939 and 1967 population in a wealthy and economi- Georgia's farm employment fell from cally developed country as the U.S., and almost one-half to less than one-twelfth non-food agricultural products will con- of the states combined agricultural and tinue to suffer from the competition of non-agriculturalpayrollemployment. synthetic materials. Massive expansion Even as late as 1947 and 1957 its share of U.S. farm exports could benefit cer- was about one-third and over one-sixth, tain Georgia crops such as soybeans, respectively. As noted previously, Geor- but the export outlook is problematical, gia's 1939-67 increase in total employ- and any increase is likely to be concen- ment of 44 percent compared unfavor- trated in grains which are not a signifi- ably with the U.S. increase of 69 per- cant cash crop in Georgia. cent because of Georgia's greater de-

21 pendence on agriculture in 1939 and, marble and kaolin (usedin ceramics less importantly, hecause of the larger and as a filler in the paper and ruhher decline in agricultural jobs in thc state industries) and ranks high as a pro- than in the U.S. ducer of fulleg,:s earth (used as a..bleach- Future gains in non-agricultural em- ing and deodorizing agent) and feldspar ployment will not he so heavily diluted (used in ceramics manufacturing). How- by declinesinthe state's farm work ever, in 1963, the date of the last Cen- force. Significant gains in non-agricul- sus of Mining, Georgia's rank among all tural employment will be translated into states in mining was 26th in terms of gains for the total economy. As a matter employment and 27th in value of ship- of fact, this has already come to pass in ments. recent years. In the 1957-67 period, as In contrast to its relatively weak po- in still earlier periods since 1939, Geor- sitionin mining, Georgia's trend has gia outgained the U.S, in non-agricul- been good in recent years. While natural employment (+39 percent versus tional employment in the industry de- +25 percent) but suffered worse declined 26 percent between clines in farm employment (--46 per- 1957 and cent versus 35 percent). In contrast 1967, mining employment in Georgia increased 18 percent and the state raised with 1939-57. however, Georgia showed its share of U.S. employment from 0.66 a larger increase in total employment percent to 1.06 percent. So far as em- (+24 percent versus +17 percent) be- ployment trends go, thc state actually cause of its lessened dependence on ag- benefited from the absence of coal and riculture in 1957 than in earlier years. petroleum as these segments of the min- Had agriculture's share of total jobs ing industry suffered employment de- been the same in 1957 as in 1939or clines. 1947, then the combination of the actual 46 percent decline in agriculture Prospects appear good for continued and the actual 39 percent increase in moderate growth in the output of Geor- other jobs would have resulted in Geor- gia's present commercial mineral prod- gia's gain intotal employment being ucts, especially kaolin. While minerals less than that of the U.S. are usually thought of as a lure to In addition we expect to see a decel- manufacturing, the reaction is reversible eration in future declines in agricultural and the expansion of market-oriented employment and in farm income's share industries, such as glass container manu- of total personal income. Further in- facturing, will stimulate output of raw creases in productivity on the farm can materials such as glass sand. However, be looked for, and it seems probable the markets for the state's known minerals are that by 1985 Georgia's agricultural em- relatively small, unlikethe ployment will be less than the 112,000 markets for major minerals like oil. We of 1967. However, we would not expect believe that the absence of major min- the six percent annual rate of decline in erals will prevent the mining industry farm jobs experienced between 1957 from assuming a paramount role in the and 1967 to persist. This, too, will have state's economy. a favorable influence on total economic We cannot be certain, of course. but gains in Georgia's future. we think that it is safest to rule out the discovery of major new minerals or the Minerals and Mining large-scale development of known minerals, such as iron ore deposits, a ru- Georgia's proven mineral resources are mored development several years ago. almost exclusively in relatively minor, With these assumptions we cannot see nonmetallic minerals. The state has gen- the mining industry providing a great erally been the leading producer of thrust to Georgia's economic growth.

22 Timber and Forest Products tinted trends toward using smaller trees Georgia's greatest natural resource lies and new uses for poorer quality trees in its forests. They form the base not and for wood wastes will enable fuller only for lumber and paper but also for utilization of timber resources. plywood. particleboard. and other new Further innovations in forestry prac- building materials, for naval stores and tices need to he made although they wood chemicals and for cellulose for would have only a small effect on the use in man-made fibers and plastics. timber supply by 1985. It has been esti- A 1961 survey of the U.S. Forest mated that better management could ServiceplacedGeorgia's commercial more than double the net growth of forest land at 26.3 million acres, second timber, so that much remains to be only to Oregon's 26.6millionacres. done. The increase in Georgia's forest land Manufacturing from 1953 (the date of the previous The main hope for above average growth survey) was 10 percent: the rate of inin Georiga lies in further development crease does not sound espCcially impres- of manufacturing industries. Even where sive but it was two-and-one-half times manufacturing is resource oriented. as the national rate. Much of the increase with the paper and lumber industries, reflected the decline in the use of land a much larger contribution to the state's for agricultural purposes. More impor- economy comes from processing raw tant than the increased acreage are steps materials than from the value of the ex- which have been taken to improve the tracted natural resource. We have esti- quality and density of timber stands in- mated that in 1965 the stumpage value chiding a sharp curtailment of forest of timber cut in Georgia was $80 mil- fires, selective cutting practices, plant- lion. but the additional value added by ing of seedlings. and less destructive further processing in the paper and lum- methods of extracting resin. ber industries amounted to $471 million. Without these improvements Georgia Having just considered the timber re- would he facing a serious depletion of source base, we will first take up lum- its forest resources. The growing stock ber and paper manufacturing. two in- of softwood timber (trees of at least dustries of above average importance to fiveinches diameter)increased very Georgia. Next, we will consider the re- little between 1936 and 1953 and soft- maining two industries of above average wood sawtimber stands (trees of at least importance, textiles and apparel. Con- nine inches diameter) declined in vol- tinuing to follow the format of Table 2, ume. Between 1953 and 1961 the rate we will move on to those industries of of increase for both the softwood grow- average importance to Georgia and last ing stock and sawtimber picked up con- to those of below average importance. siderably and is continuing today. Even so. there are fewer large, quality trees Lumber and wood products holds the for lumber and veneer today than 30 dubious distinction of being Georgia's years ago. While the annual cut of large only major manufacturing industry to sawtimberstillexceedsthegrowth, have shown a significant loss of position growth of small sawtimber and pulp- relative to the U.S. in recent years. Be- wood is greater than the cut. tween 1957 and 1967 Georgia's employment in this industry declined 17 per- We believe that future increases in cent, almost twice the U.S. rate of de- timber growth can be maintained at the cline, and in 1954-66 value added by rate of the past 15 years. Less idle crop manufacture gained 30 percent com- land will become available for tree seed- pared with a 50 percent national gain. ing: but the improved forestry practices Georgia's inferior performance resulted of past years should be paying off. Con- partly from a poorer product mix with-

23 in .the industry,i.e.,concentration in all states in combined paper and paper - slow growing basic lumber production hoard production, accounting for about as opposed to faster growing. more ad- 7.5 percent of U.S. output. Specifically, vanced products like plywood. and part- the state's supremacy is in paperboard ly from a poorer showing in lumber for boxes and construction applications production in Georgia than nationally. rather than in paper proper. U.S. lumber production has been essen- Domestic demand for paper and pa- tially flat over the past 20 years: produc- perboard is expected to grow steadily tionin Georgia peakedinthe early and closely in line with real gross na- 1950s at over two billion hoard feet a tional product. New applications, as in year, declined to less than one-half this fiber cans, are forecast to offset any loss figure in the early 1960s and rose to 1.2 of market to plastics and other compet- billion hoard feetin1966. Georgia's ing products. Exports offer a large po- decline resulted in part from the down- tential market. trend in large, quality sawtimber. Georgia cannot look for continuation Most t.-.-tvand studies indicate a brighter vta,are for the U.S. lumber in- of the large percentage increases in paperboard production that have occurred dustry,primarily because of anex- pected upturn inresidential construc- in the past. The rise in pulpwood cut tion and despite continued inroads by from 700,000 cords in 1940 to 5.4 mil- other building materials into lumber's lion cords in 1967 has brought the state chief market. While the level of housing closer tofullutilization of itstrees. However, there still exists a margin be- starts in any one year is very difficult to project; depending asitdoes on the tween annual cut and annual growth, availability of mortgage funds, we ex- and annual growth is expected to con- pect starts in the 1980s to average 40- tinue to increase. The state also possesses the advantages of water avail- 50 percent above the1.5million of recent years. ability and proximity to markets. We believe that Georgia's paper products We expect Georgia to share in the industry will continue to grow faster growth of wood products. The proximi- than its national counterpart. ty to large eastern markets offers an advantage to Georgia in competing with The textile mill products industry re- West Coast forest products. While pro- mains Georgia's largest manufacturing jected stands of sawtirnber will enable industry bothin employment and in moderate increases in lumber produc- value added. The national industry as a tion, future growth lies more in other whole is expected to show a moderate annual growth rate in output of three to products.The technologicalbreak- through permitting the manufacture of four percent but with divergent trends plywood from southern pines has al- within different segments of the indus- ready resulted in new plywood plants in try as in the past. Increasing imports the state and more are expected. Pros- are likely to be a major problem. pects are good for the establishment of The increase inGeorgia's employ- particleboard and hardboard (Mason- ment inthe industry since the mid- ite) plants which utilize wood chips and 1950s has been due to its large position cull frees. On balance, we expect greater in tufted rugs and carpets. This segment contributions from this industry in the of the industry is expected to continue future than in the past 15 years. to show excellent gains which will bene- The paper industry has been an out- fit,the state's relative performance. standing source of growth for Georgia Within the remainder of the industry over the past 30 years. The state's first more growthislooked forinknit, pulp mill was established in 1936; in re- bonded, and other nonwoven fabrics cent years Georgia ranked first among than in the traditional woven fabrics,

24 and synthetics will continue to gain at companies Lockheed-Georgiawith the expense of natural fibers. Georgia over one-half of recent employment in has a relatively weak positioninthe the industry and General Motors and knittingmillsand synthetic weaving Ford with over one-quarter. The future mills segments of the industry. of the aircraft segment is highly impor- On balance. we think that Georgia tant to the state's industry but extremely can better the national industry trend to hazardous to predict.It depends upon 1985. However,thelargeshareof federal aerospace procurement policies manufacturing employment still in this and Lockheed'sabilitytosecureits share of government contracts or to de- . slow growing industry will be a draw- velop commercial applications forits backtothestate'soverall economic performance. planes. Consistent with our assumptions regarding defense expenditures. we be- Apparel and other textile products lieve that it would he imprudent to look have been a boon to the Georgia econo- for higher employment in the state's air- my. accounting for one-fourth of the craft industry in 1985 than presently. state's 1957-67 increase in manufactur- but this would not necessarily mean a jng jobs. The U.S. industry can hardly decline in the state's share of the na- look for more than the four percent an- tional total. nual growth in output achieved during the last 10 years. We believe that Geor- Prospects appear good for further ex- gia can continue to increase its share of pansion in the state's auto assemblies by the nation's apparel industry, although theexistingtwo manufacturers and not at the past rate. through the possible establishment of a The apparel industry can play an im- Chrysler plant. In recent years the At- portant part in bringing manufacturing lanta plants have turned out 400.000 to to small towns and rural areas because 500.000 cars while combined GM and of the relatively low level of skills and Ford sales in Georgia. South Carolina, small amount of capitalrequired. In Florida.Alabama. Tennessee. North Carolina. and Mississippi have averaged fact,it may be the only industry that over 800.000. Chrysler's sales in these many towns can attract. Southeasternstates have run around There are four manufacturing indus- 175.000 which is sufficient to support tries having about equal importance to a plant. Thus. there appears room in the Georgia as to the nation. These are present market for expanded output in food, transportation equipment. stone. the Southeast without allowing for fu- clay and glass products, and furniture. ture market growth in the area which is The state's food processing industry likely to exceed national growth. is partly market oriented, e.g., bakery and dairy products, and partly resource Combining the outlook for autos and oriented. e.g.. poultry processing. The minor segments of the industry and our faster increase expected for consumer assumption that1985 employment in incomes in Georgia than nationally in- the state's aircraft industry will be close dicates slightly above average gains for to current levels, we conclude that the the market oriented segment of the total industry in Georgia will exceed the state's food industry and the trend to- U.S. growth rate. However, we expect ward more in-plant processing of poul- that the state's rate of increase will be try is favorable for the other important less than in the past 10 years. sector. We believe growth of the state's Within the stone, clay, and glass prod- industry can slightly exceed that of the ucts industry the largest segment, con- U.S. crete and structural clay products, is The transportation equipment indus- closely tied to construction, for which try in Georgia is concentrated in three the longer term outlook is good. An-

25 other important part is engaged in pro- The growth of manufacturing and cessing the nonmetallic minerals (e.g., construction and continued mechaniza- kaolin, feldspar) in which Georgia has tion of agriculture in Georgia and the a good resouiee base. southeast provide an inducement to lo- In recent years Georgia has not quite cation of machinery plants in the state. held its own relative to the U.S. in the Georgia's lengthening history as an in- furniture and fixtures industry in terms dustrial state and its enlarged vocational of employment but has done a little bet- training program should help provide a ter by other measures. The state does source of skilled craftsmen, an impor- not seem to have capitalized fully on tant factor for the machinery and for its advantages of a hardwood lumber the fabricated metal products industries. supply, low labor cost, and the promo- Within the electrical machinery group tion afforded by the Atlanta Merchan- the absence of a major appliance plant dise Mart. We think Georgia may do a and the state's distributional advantages little better in the future. make Georgia alikely location. The Our analysis of those major manufac- planned Western Electric cable plant in turing industries which are of above Gwinnett County will add over 10 per- average or average importance to Geor- cent to state employment in fabricated gia indicates that the state has a good metals. chance of exceeding national growth The closing of the educational and rates of output and employment in all cultural gap should benefit the newspa- eight. This is an auspicious outlook, but per and periodical sectors of the states itis tempered by the moderate growth printing and publishing industry. Book expected in these industries for the U.S. publishing is highly concentrated as a whole. In 1957-67 the eight indus- old cultural centers and will FieFably tries most importantto Georgia had be slow to diversify geographically. The combined gains in U.S. employment of remaining sectors of the printing indus- only 4 percent: all other manufacturing try should move upward in line with industries, including four of below aver- overall business in the state and South- age importance listed in Table 2, and east. others even less important to Georgia Georgia's chemical industry has heavy had combined gains of 21 percent. A concentration in agricultural and gum similar pattern is expected in the future. and wood chemicals but is weak in basic Thus, Georgia not only will have to chemicals, plastics, and drugs. The lack exceed national growth in those indus- of an important mineral base will be a tries of relative importance to it but also deterrent to development of the indus- will have to maintain or better its mar- try. Prospects are best for expansion in gin of increase over the U.S. in those formulated chemicals for which distri- fast growing industries in which it has a butional advantages are important. The lesser position. Most of the fast growing state's weak position in synthetic fibers industries,suchas chemicals,drugs, israther mystifying inview of the electronics, and office equipment, can state's textile industry and the establish- be characterized as high technology in- ment of fiber plants in adjoining states. dustries. Georgia will have to produce We think that prospects are good for more technically trained workers and more rapid development of this segment make itself an attractive place to live of the state's chemical industry. for out-of-state engineers. We think that Georgia can better U.S. Military Expenditures in the growth rates and improve itsrelative State's Economy position in the machinery, metals, print- We have already commented on Geor- ing and publishing, and chemical in- gia'sstakeinmilitaryexpenditures dustries. through their effect on Lockheed. While

26 the vulnerability of having the state's tion companies. including railroads. air- largest employer dependent on one or lines, and truckers: sales of wholesalers two contract awards cannot bedis- to out-of-state customers: and services missed, the manufacture of military provided by commercial banks to out- goods in tcto is not much above average of-state correspondent banks and other importance to the state's economy. customers and by the Federal Reserve Military bases with their large flow Bank of Atlanta. of payrolls to both military and federal The importance of these industries to civilian personnel constitute a dynamic Georgia's past relative growth is clearly factor of even greater absolute and rela- shown by Table 6 which gives a picture tive importance to Georgia's economy of the relative importance of various than Lockheed. In 1968 military pay- industry groups tothe economies of ro:Is of almost $700 million made up Georgia and the U.S. in 1967. The table 5.4 percent of total state personal in- also compares Georgia's 1967 share of come: the comparable ratio for the en- U.S. employment for each industry with tire U.S. was 2.1 percent. Payrolls of its share at an earlier date. civilians employed at military bases (al- Georgia's largest gainsinshare of most $300 million in 1967) were about U.S. employment have been in the sub- twice as important to Georgia as to total comprising wholesale trade, trans- the U.S. portation, communications, federal gov- We have previously set forth our as- ernment, and finance. sumptions for U.S. defense expenditures Atlanta in particular enjoys a natural in 1985. Experience since 1950 suggests location advantage in the heart of the that Georgia will at least maintain its Southeast which has fostered its devel- share of total U.S. military payrolls. We opment as a regional center. Excellent suggest that in real terms the state's mili- facilitiesfortransporting goods and tary payrolls in 1985 might not be much people have both resulted from this lo- different from the present, but with their cation advantage and enabled its exploi- share of total state income shrinking to tation. We expect Atlanta and Georgia around 2.5 percent. to continue to benefit from the growth The military industry as a whole is of the Southeast. quite clearly of greater present relative Non-dynamic Sectors of the Economy importance in Georgia than in the U.S. The rather flat prospect implied for this Most of the retail trade, services, con- industry would therefore have a nega- struction, electric and gas utilities, and tive effect on Georgia's chances of instate and local government industries areengagedprimarilyinproviding itsshare of thetotalU.S. creasing good's and services to the consumers and economy. businesses of Georgia. The same is true Dynamic Aspects of Other Industries for parts of the industries listed in the We mentioned earlier that significant middleportionof Table6,Future portions of Georgia's wholesale trade, trends of these non-dynamic sectors will transportation, communications, finance be strongly influenced by future trends andfederalnon-militaryindustries in the dynamic industries (agriculture, could be characterized as dynamic in mining, and manufacturing) and in the the sense that they serve areas outside dynamic portions of wholesale trade, of the state to an important degree. Spe- transportation, etc. cifically, the dynamic portions of these The relationshipbetween dynamic industries include national and regional and non-dynamic trends is by no means headquarters of corporations and of mathematically precise, however, espe- U.S. government departments and agen- cially when measured by employment. cies;terminalfacilities of transporta- Productivity gains have tended to be

27 greater in the dynamic areas (especially sented qualitative appraisals of the out- manufacturing and farming). And the lookforGeorgia'smajorindustrial U.S. economy over time has tended to groups. In this section we discuss five becoming more service oriented, in part factors that largely cut across industrial reflecting the increase in leisure time. lines but which also have an important As shown in Table 6 Georgia expe- hearing on the future relative trend of rienced its best gain in share of total GeOrgia's economy. Three of these are U.S. employment inthesignificantly discussed quite briefly and to some ex- dynamic group (wholesale trade, etc.). tentconstituterepetitionofpoints itsnext bestinthe dynamic group touched on earlier in the paper. In one (manufacturing, etc.), and the smallest case the discussion includes an expan- gain in the non-dynamic group (retail sion of information. The finalfactor. trade,etc.).Inactualemployment. dealing with business climate, has not however, Georgia's greatest gain from been discussed earlier. 1957 to 1967 was in the non-dynamic Concentrationin Slow - growing In- group (+45 percent), next best in the dustriesAnobstacle to Georgia's bet- significantly dynamic group (+40 per- tering the national economic trend is the cent) and poorest in the dynamic group state's continuing above average depen- (+ two percent, with a drop of almost dence on industries. with below average half in agriculture largely offsetting a growth trends. The previous decline in rise of nearly one-third in manufactur- relative importance of such slow growing). ing or downtrend industries as cotton A special word isin order with re- textiles, lumber, and agriculture has al- spect to Georgia's service industry. Ab- ready lessened the importance to Geor- solute employment growth from 1957 gia of the slow growing industries;but to 1967 was substantial (44 percent), the problem remains and its existence but in this recent decade Georgia lost will serve as a drag (but not a road- position relative to the U.S. total just as block) to Georgia's future relative eco- it had done persistently since 1939. This nomic growth. loss in position in services is puzzling inview of Georgia's strongrelative Concentration in Low Value Added gains in most other industry groups and andLow Pay IndustriesAnother in its total economic position. An analy- special problem for Georgia's economy sis of payrolls of the service industry in has been the relatively high proportion 1968 reveals that Georgia was especial- of employment in industries character- ly weak in services to business, includ- ized by below average value added and ing advertising, in commercial amuse- pay per employee. Even within many ments and recreational activities, and in individual manufacturing industries pay professional and social services. Even rates in Georgia are below the national the advent of major league sports and average for the same industries. large national conventions has not re- To illustrate this latter point we have versed Georgia's slower growth in the compared average hourly earnings of service field. There would seem to be production workers in Georgia and in the potential for a gain in position in the U.S. as a whole for June 1969. For the years ahead simply to bring this inall manufacturing the Georgia average dustry more into line with the state's of $2.51 was 21 percent below the U.S. share of U.S. total in other fields of ac- average of $3.17. In part this was due tivity oriented toward internal markets. to Georgia's heavy dependence on industries (such as textiles, lumber, and Miscellaneous Factors Affecting furniture)which nationally had pay Future of Georgia's Economy rates below the average for all manu- In the preceding section we have pre- facturing.But of14 individual manu-

28 facturing industries Georgia was far he- average for value added per employee low (21 percent lo 25 percent )the na- and the narrowing of pay gaps within tional industry average for five, signifi- industries during the past 10 years. The cantly below (15 percent to 18 percent) future outlook is brightened by above for five and close to the national average average growth prospects for the indus- (-5 percent to +5 percent) for only tries with high value added and high four (paper, electrical machinery, trans- pay and requiring higher skills. That is. portation equipment. and textiles). Ten the future outlook is brightened if we years ago Georgia's negative gap was can develop the required skills through even larger for most of these industry education and training. groups. Many factors underlie these differ- The Small Town and Rural County encesincluding product mix within ProblemAnother important factor af- the industries, lower living costs, and fecting Georgia's economic future is the possihly less successful unionization ef- question of what will happen to those forts. We suggest that product mix is counties without major towns or cities. the most important single factor. As noted earlier, the shift away from cotton growing left many of these coun- In the process of economic develop- ties without viahle economies and re- ment. it is characteristic that in a shift sultedinwidespreadpopulationde- from an agrarian to an industrial econo- clines.Suchtendencieswerequite my the manufacturing industries that marked as recently as1960. On the naturally develop first are those requir- other hand, there is some evidence that ing relatively large inputs of semi-skilled these counties are striving to revitalize labor. This happened in Georgia and it their economies and apparently with isstill happening (as witness the loca- some success. We have already called tion of garment plantsin numerous attention to U.S. Department of Com- small towns and rural communities of merce population estimates which indi- thestate).As industrializationcon- cate a rise in population of Georgia's tinues new industries gradually come small counties since 1960 in marked in, but itis usually the parts of those contrast to decreases reported in the last industriesrequiring the simpleskills several censuses. We can also get some and producing unfinishedand semi- measure of income trends from reported finished goods rather than more com- payrolls inindustries covered by the plex goods ready for final consumption Georgia Employment Security Law. In or use. The chemical industry, usually 1959 the 135 non-metropolitan coun- thought of as a complex industry with ties without a town of 15,000 accounted high value added and high pay, helps for 22.3 percent of Georgia's total pay- illustratethepoint.InGeorgiathe rollsin such industries. In 1968 this chemical industryisheavily weighted ratio was 21.9 percent, which suggests by fertilizer plants, one of the indus- that the smaller counties in the aggre- try's least complex segments and gener-- gate largely held their own economically ally requiring a relatively low order of in the past decade. skills in its workers. The evolution toward production of We are not qualified to propose solu- goods embodying higher technology is tions for this persistent problem. Hope- moving apace in Georgia. This is mani- fully, the combination of a reservoir of fested in a changing industry mix and in trainable labor, the activities of indus- a changing product mix within industry trial development agencies (both public and is evidenced by such facts as now and private), and careful planning by having half of the state's factory em- the state's relatively new area develop- ployment in industries with value added ment councils will be successful in at- per employee equal to or above the U.S. taining solutions.

29 The Racial Disparity ProblemWe overall rating on business climate re- believe it should be obvious to all that cently. It is important that this rating he having one-fourth of the state's popula- retained and improved. tion able through education, training, and opportunity to earn only half as Summaryof Georgia's Strengths much as the other three-fourths has And Weaknesses with Respect been and is a distinct economic drag on the three-fourths. With respect to educa- To Increasing Further Its Share tion the problem is long term. With re- Of the National Economy spect to training the problem can he Heretofore in this paper we have dis- improved more quickly. Already there cussed many aspects of Georgia's econ- has been a considerable change in op- omy withthefocus on determining portunity for qualified blacks and more whether the state in the future will de- widespread opportunities seem certain. crease, maintain or increase its share of With continuing gains in education and the U.S. economy. In this section we training which we expect, the better uti- shall summarize the strengths, the weak- lization of the economic potential of nesses, and the opportunities for con- Georgia's large Negro population should verting weaknesses into strengths,all he a distinct plus for Georgia's economy headed toward arriving at an overall over the next 15 years. judgment. Business ClimateGeorgia, like many Strengths areas in the relatively early stages of in- The prepo iderant portion of the dustrialization, is a capital-deficit area. ultimate decline in Georgia agricul- Our internal wealth has grown in recent tural employment is already behind decades, but we are still highly depen- us. Earlier declines have been a dent on investment of capital by out- serious drag on gains in Georgia's siders to finance large new industrial total employment. Farm employ- plants or expansion of existing facilities. ment is now such a small part of This is true with respect to capital-inten- thetotalthatfurtherdeclines. siveindustries oriented either toward should they occur, can easily he natural resources (e.g., pulp mills) or overcome by gainsinnon-farm toward markets (e.g., regional plants of employment. large national manufacturers and dis- Georgia's agriculture is now highly tributors). The problem of dependence diversified, which provides a safe- on outsidecapitalhas become even guard not present when cotton was greater in the past year or so because of king. recently imposed limitations on the tax- Manufacturing has become much exempt status of revenue bonds issued better diversified, with increasing by industrial authorities. dependence on industries which are Outside capitalis quite sensitive to faster growing and which have the state and local business climate. For higher value added per employee maximum attraction of outside capital and higher pay per employee. a favorable climate is highly desirable Georgia occupies a strategic loca- in such matters as state and local taxation in the center of the rapidly ex- tion, integrity in state and local govern- panding Southeastern market. This ments, governments attitudes toward fact has highly favorable implica- business and the electorate, attitudes of tions for superior growth in mar- government and business on racial prob- ket oriented manufacturing plants lems, quality of schools, cultural oppor- and in regional centers for whole- tunities, etc. Georgia's success inat- sale distribution, communications, tracting outside capital would suggest transportation, finance, and federal thatit has been accorded a favorable government.

30 In the natural resource area Geor- tion of total personal income de- gia has strength inits trees (and rived from military payrolls and their ability to grow rapidly), its other defense related income. water. its climate and its great va- Opporturities riety of recreational facilities. The problem of the small town- Weaknesses rural counties is a present weak- Georgia is lacking in known major ness. but if ways can he found to mineral resources. bring appropriate industry to the Georgia is faced with possible de- available supply of labor it could clines in two of its important crops, he converted into a strength. cotton and tobacco. This vulnera- Existingracialdisparitiesconsti- bility is tempered by the facts that tute another important weakness in these two crops combined currently the Georgia economy, but as noted account for only one-ninth of the earlier, we expect a lessening of state's cash income from farm mar- the disparities and believe that our ketings and agriculture as a whole above average proportion of Negro now accounts for less than four population can become a factor of percent of the state's total personal increased economic strength. income. Georgia's below average develop- Textiles. lumber, and other indus- ment of service industries which tries which are slow growing and nationallyarecharacterizedby haverelatively low value added above average growth is another and relatively low pay ratesstill present economic weakness for the account for an above average pro- sth,,that offers the potential for portion of Georgia's total factory subs'..antial improvement. employment.Thisweakness is Conclusion minimized somewhat with respect We recognize that a considerable degree totextiles becausethisindustry of subjectivity is involved in the attempt group includes the rapidly growing to draw a single conclusion from the carpet industry whichislocated various and conflicting factors outlined predominantly in Georgia. above. Nonetheless we have no hesita- Georgia's economy would he ad- tion in expressing the judgment that the versely affected by a sharp reduc- strengths outweigh the weaknesses. We tioninmilitary expenditures be- confidently expect Georgia's economy cause of the state's above average to continue to grow faster than the na- dependence onmilitarypayrolls tional economy. A quantification of this and the presence of the large air- conclusion will he presented in the next craft assembly plant at Marietta. section in which we make a projection To place some order of magnitude of Georgia's personal income in1985. onthisvulnerabilityit may be noted that in1968combined total Projections of Income payrolls for all military personnel In 1985 in Georgia and all employees at the Earlier inthis paper we projected $900 Marietta plant were about U.S.personalincomefor1985at million, approximately seven per- $2,000 billion including an allowance cent of the state's total personal in- of 40 percent for projected increases in come. In projecting the state's per- the general price level. With an assumed sonal income in1985,we assume population then of 247 million (roughly that there will be no major decline midway between the Bureau of Census inthis component of Georgia's Series C and Series D projections), the economy, but itis a vulnerability indicated U.S. per capita income would worth noting. Our projections do approximate $8, i 00. allow for a decline in the propor-

3'1 Howwill Georgia's figures compareImplications of Georgia's with these national figures in 1985? The whole burden of the preceding discus- Projected Economic Trends for sion leads to the conclusion that Geor- Georgia's Educational gia will continue to increase its share of the national economy. In the most re- Requirements cent 15 year interval (1953-68) Geor- The picture of Georgia's future econ- gia increased its share of U.S. personal omy drawn in this paper is one of sub- income from 1.60 percent to 1.86 per- stantial absolute growth and of continu- cent or an average of 0.017 percentage ing relative growth. As pointed out ear- point a year: in the most recent 10 year lier. our estimates for Georgia depend interval (1958-68), the average annual primarily on the correctness of our pro- gain was 0.025 percentage point; in the jections for the U.S. Thus, if we had most recent five-yearinterval(1963- assumed that Georgia would merely 6;;), the average annual gain was 0.030 maintain its present share of the U.S. percentage point: and in the most recent economy. our projections for Georgia's one year span (1967-68)the annual personal income in1985 would have gain was 0.011 percentage point. We been S37 billion in current dollars (in- suggest that annual gains of 0.020 to stead of S42 billion ) and 526.5 billion 0.025 percentage point are quite pos- in 1969 dollars (instead of S30 billion). sible for the future. but we choose a In other words, the value of Georgia's gain of 0.015 percentage point as a safer projected gain in share of the U.S. economy is placed at $5 billion in current expectation. As compared with1.86 dollars and $3.5 billion in 1969 dollars, percent in 1968 this would point to a roughly 17.5 percent and 21.5 percent ratio of 2.11 percent in 1985. respectively, of the total projected gains Applying this ratio to the projected from 1969 to 1985. In rounded propor U.S. total of $2.000 billion implies total tions, therefore, we can say that four- Georgia personal income in1985 of fifths of Georgia's economic gains to about $42 billion, quite a jump from an 1985 will come from performance of estimated $14 billion for 1969. Allow- thenationaleconomy andone-fifth ing for a 40 percent price increase, from superior performance of Georgia's Georgia's personal income in 1985 in economy. terms of 1969 dollars would be indicated at $30 billion, roughly 115 per- It is our judgment that education has cent higher than in 1969. a vital role to play in making it possible for the state to equal (or preferably to Georgia's population in 1985, on a exceed) our economic projections. This basis consistent with the trends sug- is especially the case with respect to the gestedinthis paper,isindicatedat one-fifth based on superior performance. about 5.6 million. Dividing this number into the projected total personal in- The close correlation between educa- come would indicate per capita income tionand economic progressiswell of Georgians in 1985 of $7,500, some known and needs no elaboration here. It 92.5 percent of the projected U.S. per also goes virtually without saying that capita. Again allowing for a 40 percent high on any list of educational goals would be the highest possible quality of price increase, Georgia's per capita in- broad education for all and the oppor- come in1985isindicatedat about tunity for each individual to attain his $5,360 in terms of 1969 dollars, or highest potential. But there are five spe- about three-fourths higher thanesti- cial factors to which we call attention mated per capita income in Georgia of briefly in concluding this paper; we be- $3,040 in 1969. lieve these five factors are integral to at-

32 tainine or surpassing the economic pro- Special attention is needed to prepare jections set forth above. Ne:,,rot'S for a full role in Gi'4,rgia's eco- Students. especially those headed for nomic future. We emphasized earlier higher education, need preparation for that the one-fourth of Cieorg.ia's popula- coping with problems rather than train - tion that is black with per family or per in; for specific. skills. Rapid change is capita income now only about half that the order of the day. and narrow train- of whites is a source of great opportunity ing for specific skills will become out- for Georgia's future economic growth. moded. Students who are prepared to Education has a vital role to play if the adjust to new problems and new meth- state is to capitalize on this opportunity. ods will he best able to implement Geor- Increasing emphasis on adult educa- gia's continuing economic progress. tion is a necessity. In the kind of chang- Within the field of vocational educa- ing industrial world that we envision tion the emphasis shotthl be shifted dras- there will he little hope for the unskilled ticallytoward training forindustrial and the uneducated, or even the underemployment. As recently as the early skilled and under-educated. Those limited in their ability to communicate will 1960s. according to a study of Georgia be severely handicapped. Adult educa- Tech's Engineering Experiment Station. Georgia was spending 73 percent of its tion can help those who were short- vocational funds (excluding home eco- changed educationally as children and nomics) on agricultural training. Since those who were educated adequately for then Georgia has made a strong effort to yesterday but who need re-train. ng and improve and broaden its nonagricultu- re-educating for the more complicated today and tomorrow. ral vocational education. But we suspect that a disproportionate share of By directing emphasis toward solution of all five of these special prob- total vocational funds still goes for agricultural training. In no sense do we lems. Georgia's public education system can can make a vital contribution minimize the excellent job accomplished toward bringing to fruition the continu- in agricultural training. We simply point ing growth in Georgia's economy that out that the state's economy has shifted drastically away from agriculture and is projected in this paper. that there has been a lag in shifting the distributionofavailablevocational funds to the degree pertinent to today's Joseph A'. Heyman has served as senior and tomorrow's economic requirements. vice president and bank economist of the Trust Company of Georgia since 1951 ex- Greater emphasis is needed in train- cept for a two year period while serving as ing for more complicated jobs requiring financialvicepresident ofRich's,Inc.. more flexible skills. Our projections sug- where he is currently serving as a member gest that within manufacturing Georgia of Rich's Board of Directors. His civic ac- will continue to depend less and less on tivities have included vice chairman of the Atlanta Parking Commission, president of industriesrequiring simpleskills and the Family Service Society, vice president more and more on industries requiring of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce, more complicated skills. The same will president of the Community Chest, and he true in certain service industries. And chairman of the Board of Trustees. Greater within every industry the remarkable Atlanta United Appeal. Mr. Heyman is currently servingasa member of the growth of automation and near-auto- Atlanta RegionMetropolitan Planning mation indicates that an increasing pro- Commission, and as a member of the Joint portion of job opportunities will require City-County Advisory Committee for the greater basic knowledge and greater Study of the Governments of Atlanta and Fulton County. He received his Master of flexibility in adapting such knowledge Business Administration degree from the to specific areas of employment, Harvard Business School.

33 W. Bethel Minterwas elected assistant Kappa. From 1955 to 1957 he was a Rhodes economist of the Trust Company of Geor- Scholar at Oxford University, England. gia in 1965 and economist in 1968. He re- Mr. Minter served as statistical consultant ceived his A.B. degree from Emory Uni- to the Atlanta Commission cm Crime and versity where he was a member of Phi Beta Juvenile Delinquency in 1965-66.

34 SUMMARY OF BROAD CHANGES (N GEORGIA'S ECONOMY, 1919-1968 1919 Table 19291 1933 1940 1950 1960 1968 PerPersonal Capita Income Income in inGeorgia Georgia ActualPercentBillions of U.S. Total 1 75%$417$1 21 1.18% $349$1.01 $204L28%$0.60 $3361.34%$1.05 $1,0341.58% $3.57 $1,6391.63% $6.49 $2,781$12.711.86% Ratio Farm Population to Total Population U.S.Percent of U.S. Average 29.8%164.0% 48.6(7c24.5%249.5% 2 54.3% 22.9%56.8% 69.2%15.3% 74.0% 7.5%3 81,3% tAL., Ratio Urban Population to Total PopulationGeorgiaU.S 25.1%1Si58.3%1 2.e,I,1 30.8%256.2%2 34.45156.5%43.7% 45.3%464.5%427.9% 55.3%469.9%I0,3% 4 3 SourcesAgricultural Incomes Per Dollar of Factory PayrollsU.S.Georgia $0 $385 47 $0.43$1.33 $1.05$0.33 $0.92$0.34 $0.50$0.30 $0,25$0.16 $0.16$0.12 2Ratios(whichAll1Ratios figures areapply applyfromare to derived datatoNational data for from for 1930. Bureau 1920. data published of Economic by U.S. Research). Department of Commerce except 1919 figures related to personal and per capita Income SThe4Urban3Farm term population population thederives"agricultural term from fo'"cash for 1950 farming.1960income" farm and based income" 1960It or consists on"farm based definition which income" principally on consists definition narrower as used ofmainly netmore than in income thisof inclusivethat gross table used of cash farmand thanin earlier receiptsinproprietors that the usedtextyears. from refersin and earliermarketing wages to that years. paid componentof farmto farm products. workers.of -total personalIt should incomenot he confused that with Table 2 EMPLOYMENT IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Of Above - Average Change 1957-67 00 of Total in 1967 Importance in Georgia Go. U.S. Ga. U.S. Textile Mill Products --'.-11ri - 2r;- '5.6 4.9 Apparel. etc --6-3(--", +165 15.4 7.2 Lumber -175 - 95 6.0 3.1 Pulp and Paper +405 +19r; 5.4 3.5 Sub-Total +20f; + 6 i 5'.4 18.7 Of About-Average Importance in Georgia Food and Kindred Products +215 - 1 ri- 11.2 9.2 Transportation Equipment +4650 + 2(;- 10.2 10.0 Stone, Clay and Glass Products +565 + 65 3.2 3.2 Furniture and Fixtures +19q +22r; _._-), 2.3 Sub-Total +13ri + 3u; 26.8 24.7 Of Below-Average Importance in Georgia

Machinery (Including Electrical). . .-1-77r +345 5.1 20.' Primary and Fabricated Metals +985 + 6ri 4.9 13.8 Printing and Publishing +475 +205 3.1 5.4 Chemicals +405 +24% 2.9 5.1 AllOther Manufacturing +825 +205 4.8 12.0 Sub-Total -1-71r; +21r: 20.8 56.6

TOTAL MANUFACTURING . .+325- +135 100.0 !00.0 U.S Industries Showing 1957-67 Gains of 65 or Less +20% + 61.1 44.2 16% or More +58% +25% 38.9 55.8

TOTAL MANUFACTURING . . . . +32% +13- 100.0 100.0 Soumes: Derived from data published by U.S. Department of Labor and Georgia Department of Labor.

36 Table 3 GEORGIA'S CASH INCOME FROM FARM MARKETINGS AND PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION BY MAJOR PRODUCTS

1929 1940 1950 1960 1968 Total Cash Income from Farm Marketings (Millions) . . . S223 5148 S5'8 5757 51,039 P6-zentage Distribution Cotton (Including Seed) 58 7ri 38..M 21.9r; i i.6ri- 3.8C Tobacco 7 5 8.4 9.6 10.2 7.4 Peanuts 3 6 12.2 13.1 7.0 10.7 Peaches 3.7 3.9 0.6 1.4 1.2 Truck Crops 3.1 2.8 3.0 2.4 3.9 Forest Products 2.2 3.4 6.9 3.7 _._ Pecans 0 4 1.6 -).-, 1.5 1.5 Other Crops 4 3 6.5 7.6 6.1 9.3 Sub-Total Crops 83 5 77.5 64.9 43.9 40.0 Hogs 3 5 5.3 8.3 7.2 7.1 Dairy Products 5.6 7.0 7.0 6.8 6.2 Cattle and Calves 2.5 4.1 6.1 7.1 8.9 Poultry I7 2.6 9.8 23.5 20.9 Eggs 3 0 3.3 3.6 11.3 16.7 Other Livestock and Products 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 Sub-Total Livestock and Products 16 5 22.5 35.1 56.1 60.0 TOTAL 100 0% 100.0c; 100.0r; 100.05'(- 100.0r,;- Source U.S. Department of Agriculture.

Table 4 GEORGIA AS PERCENT OF U. S. TOTAL IN SPECIFIED ECONOMIC MEASURES

1939 1948 1958 1963 1967 Retail Sales 149% 1.62% 1.76% 1.87% 1.97% Wholesa!e Sales 1 45% 1.73%2.01%2.25% Commercial Banks Total Deposits 085% 1.16% 1.26% 1.31% 1.45% Banking Capital 096% 1.09% 1.33% 1.38% 1.62% Savings and Loan Association Savings. 0.61% 1.40% 1.61% 1.55% 1.59% *Not yet available. Sources: Derived from data originally published by U.S. Department of Commerce, Federal Reserve Board, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, and Federal Home Loan Bank Board.

37 Table 5 POPULATION OF GEORGIA COUNTIES BY GROUPS Thousands of Inhabitants No. of Change from Groups* Counties 1940 1950 1960 1940 to 1960 Counties in Metro Areas. . . 13 1,004 1,334 1,814 +80.7% Counties with Largest City of 25,000 to 50.000 3 116 135 164 +40.7% 15.')00 to 25.000 8 247 2S3 309 +24.9% 10,000 to 15.000 7 183 190 199 + 8.8% 5,000 to 10,000 -,-, 437 435 424 - 3.0% All Other Counties 106 1,136 1,067 1.033 - 9.1% TOTAL 159 3,124 3,445 3,943 +26.2% *Counties grasped according to population status in 1960. Source: Derived from data of U.S. Bureau of the Census.

Table 6 TOTAL CIVILIAN EMPLOYMENT (Excludes Domestics and Non-farm Self-employed)

%of Total in 1967 Go. as % of U.S. Ga. U.S. 19.57 1967 Agriculture 7 5 6.9 2.75 2.28 Mining 0 4 0.9 0.66 1.06 Manufacturing 29 2 27.4 1.93 2.25 Sub-Total (Mostly "Dynamic") 37 1 35.2 2.13 2.23 Wholesale Trade 5 9 5.0 2.15 2.46 Transportation 4 0 3.7 1.911 2.25 Communications 1 5 1.4 1.871 2.30 Federal Government (Civilian) 5 6 3.8 2.75 3.09 Finance, Insurance and Real Estate 4 4 4.5 1.77 2.06 Sub-Total (Significantly "Dynamic") 21.4 18.4 2.111 2.44 Retail Trade 13 6 14.2 1.92 2.00 Services 10 4 14.2 1.61 1.55 Contract Construction 5 0 4.5 1.73 2.34 Electric and Gas Utilities 0 8 0.9 1.721 1.98 State and Local Government 11 7 12.6 1.98 1.96

Sub-Total (Mostly "Non-Dynamic") . 41.5 46.4 1.821 1.89 TOTAL EMPLOYMENT 100 0100.0 1.99 2.11 11961 data used as earliest available; sub-totals represent mixture of 1957 and 1961 data. Source: Derivld from data published by U.S. Departments of Labor and Agriculture and Georgia Department of Labor.

38 Chart 1

DISTRIBUTION OF EMPLOYMENT (Excludes Domestics and Non farm Self Employed)

1939

U. S. GA.

1967

U. S. G A.

MFG and MINING

7-7=-7f GOVERNMENT

V SERVICES

OTHER NON-FARM

EliFARM

39 Chart 2 EMPLOYMENT CHANGES 1939 1967 (Excludes Domestics and Nonfarm Self-Employed)

-100% . -50% 0 +50", +100% +150% +200% +250% +300%

TOTAL :+::::. +69% +44% x x 1 IIIIIIII *t. !eto;;:$:S::,..,. U S GA. 1 11 IIII VIII 1111 1111111 -56% 4::,:: : :6:4 FARM

178%1111111111111 11 1 h

[TOTAL i::::P**4$::::::::St:4." + " 6% NON FARM +163% 11111I111111 1 1111 1 1111111111111111111111111111

MINING '28% 14::::4.

111111111111111111111111111111111 +63%

TRANSPORTATION& .?.444.+46% PU8LIC UTILITIES 1 11 111111111111111111111111111 +103%

1- MANUFACTURING :X ! ;,::$0::::::1* +89%

1111111111111111+1 3% 1111 1 II111 III 11111 11111111111111111

SERVICES *::::::::::::$40:%:::70.:::::::::::::$::::* +186%

11111111111111111111111111111111111111 11 11 +133%

TRADE ;:+:4.:.:::::::4:::::::::::::::+112%

1 1111111111 1 1111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111+173%

CONSTRUCTION $:::::::::::**:::::*::::::::::::::::::::::::::*:::::::::+179%

11 1 1 1 1 1 111111111111111111 111 11111 1111111+178%

+191% GOVERNMENT $::::::::::::::::::::::*::::::,:444,."44+:+.:::::.:::.:

1 1 1 1 11 1111 1 1 1111 1 1 11111111111111111111111111111111111111+274%

FINANCE& ti.:44.:44.1::::::::. *:::i::::C::::::::+120% REAL ESTATE 294% I 111 II1 II1 II11,111 II 1 1 11111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111 [

40 ECONOMISTSgenerallyassigna priority position to national, regional, and urban development patterns when appraising economic growth processes. Heyman and Minter assign such priority in a quite meticulous demonstration of historical developmental trends. In real terms Georgia's economic growth is pictured as growth in the output of thestate's economy. Such growthis measured in terms of output on a total and a per capita or a per worker basis. HeymanandMinterconsiderpast changes that have taken place in the economic and social structure of the stateas measured by changes inthe compositionofthepopulation,the changing product mix, and the dra- maticshift of the labor force from agricultural to non-agricultural and in- dustrialemployments.Theauthors focus on Georgia's past performance as compared with the national economy. The authors demonstrate that Geor- gia has in recent decades been gaining inits economic efficiency and out- putrelative tothenationalaverage. critique: This relative gainis demonstrated by dataillustrating and comparing total Economy of personal income, per capita income, Georgia retailtrade, bank deposits, and per- sonalsavings among other economic indices. These data are usedto analyze and reflect shifts that have taken place in the economy of Georgia, e.g., the reversal in rural-urban population ratios, thereversalinagricultural-industrial employmentconcentrations, the higher levels of earned income (the regionalproductmeasure)resulting from gains in economic efficiency, improved productivity, and rising value added per worker, a changing product mix, and, in general, an economic environment more conducive to economic development. Reflecting these changes Georgiahas become more economically diversified and less vulnerable to recession in any one economic sector as occurred when the boll weevil de- vastated thestate's prime source of earned income during the decade of

41 the twenties. Georgia's water, forests, ceptableif the regional-nationalpat- and climate, its varied recreational op- terns and economic relationshipsre- portunitiesandfacilities,itscentral main substantiallythesame.Ifthe geographic location as a transportation $2,500 billion G.N.P. and $2,000 bil- hub, and other advantages including lionpersonal income projections for education, which make Georgia a good the nation are correct, then the pro- place in which to work and live, are jections for the economy of Georgia combining to make Georgia increas- are .within acceptable limits. As a mat- ingly attractiveto entrepreneurs seek- wr of computational comparison, the ing economic opportunitiesfor busi- JointEconomicCommitteeofthe ness development and expansion. U. S. Congress, using a 4.0 and 4.5 Heyman and Minter "confidently ex- percent annual growth ratefor real pect Georgia's economy tocontinue G.N.P. and a 1.5 percent annual price to grow faster than the national econ- increase factor, 1966.1975, projects a omy." This is, in effect, the substance $1,205 billion(low)to $1,310bil- oftheirforecast. They expectthat lion(high)G.N.P.for1975.Esti- change, in general, will continue and mates made by the authors of $2,500 insetting forth quite specific educa- billionfor G.N.P.in1985 would tional and training type goals support double theC.E.A.projectionin10 the thesis that education provides the years. prime means tofacilitate adjustment Heyman and Minter project that 80 to a changing economic environment percent of Georgia's economic gains to and to maintain thatflexibilitynec- 1985 will spill over from the perform- essary to sustain economic growth. On ance of the national economy and 20 thelessoptimisticside,the authors percent from superior economic effi- note aconcentration of employment ciency and performance in the econ- in low wage, low productivity indus- omy of Georgia. Based on past trends tries in Georgia comprising 61 percent this seems a sound conclusion. How- of its total employment in manufactur- ever,theindustrialmix implications ing compared with 44 percent for the show Georgia gaining in slow growth, nation. The relatively less favorable in- low pay segments of the economy. If dustrial mix poses quite serious prob- thisconcentrationisnotdiverted, lems for Georgia. Even though gains Georgia will tend to fall behind even in the regional economy outstrip those as thestate economy becomes rela- of the nation, Georgia isgainingin tively more efficient in less vital eco- economic endeavors which are losing nomic pursuits. in relative efficiency, earning 'potential, The authors of this paper are to be and importance in the national econ- commendedfortheiranalysesof omy. New England, for example, which Georgia'sdevelopment.The "look lost much of itstextile industry dur- ahead," however, needs a more pre- ing the post-war period, is making little cise pinpointing ifitis to provide a or no effort to induce return of the reliable and helpful guideinformu- industry. Instead, the region has turned lating a broad set of educational goals. successfully to more dynamic, space- The critical necessity that Georgians age industries in which economic pro- discuss theinterrelationships of long ductivity,valueadded,andincome term goals in this instance, goals for earning potential far exceed what was the regional economy and education, lost when textiles migrated south. stem from two prime factors, the ac- As regardsincomegenerationin .celerating interdependencies of the na- Georgia, Heyman and Minter adopt a tional, regional and stateeconomies, straightline arithmetic projectionas- and the rapid development of a chang- suming an annual gain of 0.015 per- ing technology which dominates change centage point. This assumption is ac- inwork and lifestyles.These two

42 points are basic to an economic analy- the right to opportunity, the right to sis, and consideration of them allows privacy,therighttoparticipatein one todetectthe broad outlinesof augmentedeconomicflows,allof what may he expected to take place in which are prone to be elusiveif we the years ahead to 1985. donotattainandsustainaviable We can he sure that Georgians will regional economy and a quality edu- aspire to a better, fuller, richer. more cation for all. comfortable, and satisfying way of life. There is general recognition among We can also be sure that technology economists of the crucial role played will affect work and lifestyles at an bytechnologicalinnovationineco- ever accelerating pace. We can predict nomic development. There is a grow- withconfidencethatGeorgia's eco- ing dispositiontoconsider organized nomic environment will be shaped, as research and development asanin- in the past, by human aspirations investment in new knowledge. Dissem- teracting with technology. ination of this knowledge through the By tyingaspirationstoeconomic many facets of the education process achievement the discipline of economics istruly an investment in human cap- is tied to the behavioral sciences. There ital development equivalent in a broad isnosimpleeconomicfuturebut sense to capital investment in physical rather, thereisa FUTURE in which technology. Many economistsequate economic affairs and performance are technical progress to physical innova- a part. In my experienceithas be- tive technology and to education and comeclearthateconomicdevelop- system technology. The aspirations of ment cannot be separated in modern men are apparent in each. political economies from the achieve- Implicit in this paper is recognition ment of specific social objectives. This thatthe nature of the economy of isas true for the region as itis for Georgiaisareflection of the goods the nation and applies to economically andservicesGeorgiaproduces and advanced as wellasto undeveloped sells to the rest of the world. Export regions and nations.Aspirationsare demands generate jobs and income di- reflectedinthe demands for quality rectly and constitute primary income education. generating activities. Income earned is Economic development provides ma- then spent and respent with a multiply- terial means for achieving social goals ing effect so as to create secondary pro. such as raising educational levels; so- duction and service jobs which create cial objectives, in turn, define the need additional income and serve the needs foreconomicdevelopment.Inthis of households and businesses inthe spectrum of socialaspiration, Geor- region. Critically important in this re- gians are looking ahead to improved gard is the capability of the state of standards and achievements in educa- Georgia todevelop and useitsre- tion, health, housing, recreationalfa- sources,particularlyitslaborforce, cilities, transportation, and community effectively tocreate superior income provided amenities.Expectationsin- earning opportunities. In all its nuances clude also a lessening of environmental this is the complex nerve center of the pollution caused by "external dis-econ- economic potential of Georgia's economies" of our political economy and omy of 1985. income, vocationaltraining assistance In an environment of uncertainty tomaintainhighstandards ofeco- and accelerating technological change nomic citizenship, and high levels of encompassing broad facets of work participation in economic income gen- and life styles as they relate to indus- erating activities. Beyond social aspira- trial, product, and social mixes, fore- tionsreflectedineconomic develop- casting and defining specific goalsis ment are the rights Georgians expect, hazardous. Not only because they may

43 he wrong but also because they may terms would provide flexibility to meet lead us along faulty paths. We tend economic educational needsasthey to endeavor to make happen what we arise, assure the maximum return on expect to happen. Thisisa paradox investmentin human capital, provide of forecasting. an established means and media for The specific educational goals stated dissemination of knowledge to all seg- by the authors seem to me to be better ments of the Georgia society and econ- consideredasa by-product of wide- omy, and provide the back-up support spread participation by the educational necessary for technological innovation systeminthebroadercommunity. and its implementation through invest- Rather than set specific training type ment flows in economic facilities and goals,it seems that flexibility and ef- endeavors. ficiency are better assured by a con- Interaction of the economic-educa- tinuing interaction of the educational tion communities seems the most di- and economic (business and govern- rect, if not the only, means by which ment) communities. Goals for educa- Georgia can overcomeitspotentially tion broadly defined may be reflected adverse economic mix and become at- in the manner in which the University tractive for space age economic de- System of Georgia is tending in its or- velopment. Underlying the technologi- ganizationstructure.Instruction,re- cal economic foundation of any viable search, and service are its primary or- society is an educational system that ganizationaland functionalcompon- emphasizes qualityininstruction,in ents.Goalsdefinedinthesebroad research, and in service.

44 THE PAPER on the economy of Geor- eiaisa commendable effort, effective in its survey of the past and offering a "best guess" statement of the future by knowledgable observers. To turnthis criticism to first things first, the analysis properly links the future development of Georgia to massive investment in educational resources foritsblack citizens. The writers are correct in stating that the "persistent difference between whites and blacks in education and economic opportunity and attainment"hassignificantlyaffectedthe state's economic development. This 'conclusionshouldbeunder- scored by additionalinformation.It has been estimated, for example, by the nation's Council of Economic Ad- visors that if non-whites possessed the same education as their white fellow citizens and if their talents were fully put to usc, the country's GNP would be 3.2 percent above present levels.'This would amount to an increase of approximately 30 billiondollarsinfinished goods and services for the nation's citi- critique: zens at today's level of production. In Georgia, where the proportion of blacks Economy of is about 28 percent in comparison with the national average of 11 percent, the Georgia impact of full equality in education and economic opportunity would be even more relatively significant. Furthermore, it has been estimated by the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disor- ders that if Negro males worked in the same spectrum of jobs as do their fellow white citizens, an additional4.8 billion dollars a year would be available to the nation's economy.2 The investment nature of equal educational opportunity is apparent in the calculation of the present value of such a stream of additional earnings. With a seven percent interest rate and a term of 25 years, as an illustration, the present value of 4.8 billion dollars annually would be 55.9 billion dollars. Again, in the case of Georgia where the black proportion of the labor force is larger than that of the nation, the payoffs to

45 thestate's economy inadditionalre- cents benefit to the state. sources devoted to the education of the Perhaps sonic brief comment should disadvantaged would be more signifi- he made at this point about the need for cant.The investment nature of these additional workers. Some commentators, expenditures should be emphasized, for though clearly not the writers of the as the writers of the paper note, ad- paper on the economy of Georgia, ques- vances in educational and employment tion the strategy of making all citizens opportunities of the state's black citi- ready for employment and contrihution zens are instrumental to the future eco- to the economic wellbeing of fellow nomic development of Georgia. citizens. Visions of 20 hour work weeks It can be argued, in addition, that be- and of massive unemployment under cause of discriminationineducation the joint onslaught of automation and and employment, poor whites tend to computer Science make such jobin- he the least able whites. Poor Negroes, creases unlikely,inthe judgment of on the other hand, include along with some observers. A quick survey of the many least able, many of average to agenda of state and national needs, how- superior ability.The implications for ever, in the areas of housing, education. effective resource development of this mental health, prisons, recreation, and likelycharacteristicoflowincome the arts, not to mention the massive blacks is obvious. Dollars expended in overhauling that confronts many rural education to help put the Negro poor and urban areas, indicates a shortage to work can be expected to have higher rather than a glut of workers. For an payoffs in terms of output to the state's accelerated advance inthe economic economy than similar flows earmarked performance of Georgia, we sorely refor the white poverty-stricken. quire the full employment of all of the More detailed informationisavail- state's adult citizens who desire to parable which offers additional insight into ticipate in meaningful work. the prospective economicbenefits of Turning now to another important adulttraining and employment pro- matter, the writers present an essentially grams with low income workers.Ac- optimistic view of the future for the cording toa Department of Health, Georgia economy. Some problems are Education and Welfare study of 12,700 discussed, but the favorable "demand" Manpower Development and Training side of the future is used as a basis for trainees, each dollar spent in training optimism. The potential for growth as returned $2.24 per year in gross earn- development in the paper rests on the ings.The trainees repaid infullthe real desires of people to purchase the cost of training through federal income goods and services produced in the state. taxes in five years.3 Another study of The "demand" capability to achieve the MDTA programs found a benefit-cost targets they set out is surely part of the ratio for the average trainee between picture. The likelihood of a severe de- three and six and of at least 11 for the pression between now and 1985 is small, government throughreducedoutlays for example.But, additional "supply" on such items as unemployment insur- or environmental elements also should ance and welfare payments.4 An in- be introduced into 'the analysis. vestigation of an On-the-Job Training As has already, been noted, their dis- project with 650 trainees discloses an cussion implies the necessity of massive average net federal benefit cost ratio thrusts of resources to make the black of 3.28.5 There are, consequently, at labor force a full and equal partner in least partial and scattered datz: which both the production and consumption indicate that the education, training, and of a growing output. The state in order hiring of low income workers, trans- to achieveitspotential will have to forming them from tax burdens to tax apply massive amounts of resources to payers, would be of marked dollars and thegenerationof human capitalin

46 theNegro community.Thisinvest- come the resistances of urban life. The ment in resources is implied in their whole spectrum of urban services can paper but does not directly enter into he expected to accelerate into a signifi- their analysis. cant element in resource allocation. The forecast of Georgia's future thus must They do not raise any questions, how- takeintoexplicitaccount expanding ever,aboutthelikelyenvironmental expenditures for the diminution of en- pollution problems which shouldac- vironmental pollution and for the con- celerate in seriousness between now and tinuing urbanization of society. As an 1985. Their optimism about the future education implication of these develop- is not tempered by a confrontation with ments,itseems clear that thesocial the rising social costs that will accom- science curriculums atalllevels,but pany the increasing industrialization of particularly high school, should acquaint the state expected by 1985. students with the contemporary and future issues of environmental pollution With a growing demand by the state's and urbanization. citizenry for a cleaner environment and with a stiffening of federal regulations The remainder of this critic's remarks now relate to relatively unimportant sug- concerning pollution,itis most likely that a rollback from existing levels of gestions. The calculations presented on page 10 will not be completely clear to atmospheric and water pollutionwill take place during the coming decades. the lay reader, for the numbers of a 60 Business firms and municipalities in the percent increasein cash income, an past admittedly have not taken into ac- increase in price of 175 percent and of count thefull repercussion on others productionof155percentbetween of their economic activity.But today 1940-1967 do not clearly fall together. we can expect improvements inthe It would be better to state that farm cash income in 1967 was 700 percent, present levels of pollution, and will re- or seven times that of 1940. By 1967 quire future increases in production to the price index was 275, with 1940 as reduce the social costs of pollution. a base of 100. Thus, physical volume Thus growing proportions of our re- of production in 1967 can be estimated sources will be directed in this manner to have risen to 255 percent of the 1940 to meeting some "supply" or environ- level.The interested reader thus will mental aspects of the future.Itis im- be able to see that 2.552.75 = 7.00 possible to say whether Georgia will be with total farm cash income. The idea more or less environment-minded Than of increases of 600 percent, 155 per- the rest of the nation. The safe conclu- cent, 175 percent is not sufficiently clear sion thus is to expect that Georgia and with the wording of this paragraph, and the rest of the nation will move in an more importantly the lay reader will not essential tandem to meet this growing know how to handle the numbers in problem.This means that some re- this form.Neither adding nor multi- sources which might have been devoted plying will give the stated result, while to productionto theproduction of with the procedure outlined above, the pollutiOn, so to speak, will in the future situation will be more clear. be devoted to its elimination. The preferred procedure, next, is for The social costs of urban agglomera- the use of bar charts rather than p!.?! tion, a most likely element accompany- charts as with Chart 1. The reader will ing industrialization, also, are not in- be able to make a more clear distinc- troduced into their forecast of the future. tion between the distributions with bar As metropolitan areas continue to grow, charts. For a final minor suggestion, the congestion of people will require the the "likely changes" in population, labor use of more resources simply to over- force, working hours, and productivity

47 referred to perhaps should be briefly dis- come to a 44.5 percent average annual cussed, so that the reader can see how real growth rate in GNP. the writers explicitly weighed them to

Footnotes 1."Economic Costs of Racial Discrimination in Employment," Council of Economic Advisors, (The Price We Pay), p. 40. 2.Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1968, p.125. 3. "Education and TrainingThird Annual Report on Training Activities, Department of Health, Educa- tion and Welfare, 1965, 4.Borus, Michael E., "The Economic Effectiveness of Retraining the Unemployed." Yale Economic Essays. 1964. .5. Cost Effectiveness Analysis of On- the -Job and Institutional Training Courses," A Reportof the Office on Manpower Policy, Evaluation and Research, Department of Labor by Planning Research Corpora- tion, Washington, D. C., 1967.

48 INDUSTRIAL development may he definedin many ways. For the purposes of this paper, industrial development is defined as those activities which relatetomanufacturinginGeorgia and the activities of organizations to attract new industries and develop new enterprises. Industrial development is important to Georgia because itis a wealth-producing element in the economy. When manufacturing is associated with other wealth-producing activities(e.g.,agriculture and mining) and with wealth- circulating enterprises(services, commerce and tourism), a balanced and diversified economy' results. Industrial By Ross W. Hammond, Ph.D. Development Trends and Forecasts

Major factors which have a bearing on industrial development potentials in Georgia include market potentials, the labor forceavailable, thetransportation complex, and in certain areas, raw material availability. Many other secondary factors may have a bearing on any particular industriall plant location. The manufacturing makeup ofin- dustry in Georgia has been strongly influenced by the early establishment of the textile industry. This segment, with the apparel, food, and wood products manufacturers, now employs about 60 percent of the manufacuring labor force in the state. Manufactur- ing wages in Georgia lag behind the U.S. averages appreciably for almost all industrial segments. High-technology industries are relatively few in Geor- gia, although thelargestsingle employer, Lockheed-Georgia, falls in this category. In recent years a great many organizations have come into beingin Georgia with a total or partial mission

49 of encouraging industrial development. Variousstateagencies,aswellas utilities, banks, railroads, chambers of commerce, and multi-countyregional GEORGIA is one of the more heav- and federal agencies, are joined in this ilyindustrializedstates in the South. effort. Their activities include promo- cast,Ithas potential far faster than tion, research, development, and tech- average growth intheyearsahead. nical assistance to existing industry. Thispotential probablywillnotbe Ifpresent trends continue, the in- realized, however,unlesstheway dustrial mix in Georgia will not change Georgia is going about industrial de- greatly by 1985. The domination of velopment is modified. textiles, apparel, and food products industries will continue. The transportation and paper industries will expand What Is industrial as well. The lumber and wood prod- Development? ucts and the gum naval stores indus- Since words or terms tend to mean dif- tries will decline in employment. Per ferent things to different people, itis capita income in Georgia will continue sometimes desirable to define them in totrail the national average by $600 thecontextoftheir meaning ina to $700. particulardiscussion.jndustrialde- Basic interrelated problems imped- velopment is one such term which has ing future manufacturing development different meanings to different people. relate to the present per capita picture, To some, industrial development the need to attract high-technology in- means the growth of manufacturing. dustries, and the need to developa To others, industrial development cov- better educated and trained labor force. ersthe entire spanof business and From the viewpointof organization, industrialactivity, including such thereis considerable overlap and du- things as commercial activities, bank- plication of effort on the part of de- ing, finance, agribusiness, mineral pro- velopment agencies. The industrial de- ducticin,recreation and tourism, and velopment . financingpictureisonly other income-producing activities. average. Arbitrarily, but for the purposes of To overcomethese problems, the this paper, industrial development will following observations are made. (i) be defined as those activities which re- A concentrated effort to attract high- latetomanufacturinginGeorgia, technology industryisessential.(2) recognizing that this is a narrower in- Existingand "home-grown" industry terpretation than is generally used. In- must receive support. (3) The cultural dustrial development will also be con- and recreational environment must be sidered to cover the efforts ofindi- improved.(4)Georgia's competitive vidualsand organizationstoattract position must be enhanced. new industries to the area and to develop new enterprises of a manufac- In education, the following recom- turing nature. mendations are made. (1) Introduce limited vocational training inall high schools.(2) Expand basic education The Rationale for ;ndustrial programs for uneducated adults.(3) Development Survey present and futureindustrial Most of man's activities in the world manpower needs. (4) Expand coopera- can be categorized as wealthproducing tive programs at secondary school lev- oras wealth-circulating.Wealth-pro- els. (5) Provide pre-employment train- ducing activities are those which take ing for the unemployed. (6) Establish a raw material, process or finishitin an experimental education center. some way, andproduce aproduct

50 which has greater value. Agriculture is the Southeast any in Georgia. It can such a process, as is mineral produc contribute to the economy of an area in tion. Manufacturing, too, is a primary terms of new jobs, new income, more wealth producer. retail sales, more bank deposits, addi- The growing and processing of cot- tionalresidents, new homes, andall tonisan excellent example of this of the other benefits characteristically process. Cotton increases in value dur- associated withindustrialexpansion. ing the growing and harvesting period. Manufacturing jobs,in turn, support When sold by the farmer as a bale, it other service, trade, and governmental may be worth $150, and when manu- jobs in the area. The multiplyingeffect factured into 500 cotton dress shirts, it isanimportant by-product of indus- may have a mill value of $1,500. Both trial activity. theagriculturalandmanufacturing processes have added value to the orig- What Factors Are Important in inal raw material. The subsequent steps Industrial Development? of wholesaling and retailing the dress Agreat many factors havea bearing shirts affect the final price of the prod- onindustrial development in Georgia. uct, but they do not alter or change Those which are generally considered the product in any way and, hence, do the most important are markets, labor, not create wealth. transportation, and raw materials. Many activities such as service in- MARKETS.Possibly the single dustries,trade, commerce; and tour- most important factor in the attraction ism are sources of income, but they are of new industry or the expansion of not wealth producers. They tendto existing industryisthe market poten- circulate money already in the economic tial. For some industries, the demands system, and in doing so, they redis- of people, the ultimate consumers, contribute wealth. stitutetheyardstick;others are de- Generally, if an economy is to be pendent upon the volume of the mar- sound, bothtypesofactivitiesare ket for their products among the other needed and wealth-producing activities industries intheir area.If one con- must be present. However, there are siders markets in terms of people, then unusual situations where the economy Georgiais well located to serve the isdependent uponwealth-circulating growing consumer Topulation in the activities without a corresponding de- Southeast, and Atlanta certainly is the velopment of wealth-producing activi- focal point of the regional market. ties. For example, an area established Obviously, the market area of inter- by fiat(Brasilia in Brazil) may exist est todifferent manufacturers varies without the traditional wealth-produc- greatly with the product and its value. ing activitiesagriculture, mining, or A heavy, low-value product, such as manufacturing. If government support cement, cannot be transportedgreat were to be withdrawn, such a com- distances-economically because of munity might wither away from lack freight costs. Henceits market area of an economic base. Another com- is restricted in geographical size. Prod- munity, because of special historical or ucts suchaselectroniccomponents, locational circumstances, may rely al- on the other hand, can be transported most entirely on tourism as a source great distances at little cost relative to of income for the inhabitants. In such their intrinsic value, which is high. In- an unbalanced situation, even a short- dustries which are not restricted to lo- term failure of the tourist trade could cation inany specificareas because wreak havoc with the economy. their products are high in value and Becauseitisa wealthproducer, lowinweight aregenerally called manufacturing is much sought after in "footloose industries."

51 LABOR. An increasingly important jobs were available to pull in new resi- factor in industrial development is the dents from elsewhere. labor force inthe area from which manufacturers have to draw. A char- If this trend continues,itpresages acteristic of the economy of the past significantchangesforthestatein decade has been a constant demand for population above and beyond the fore- additionalemployees inmanufactur- casts which have been made based on ingand in most other aspects of the the traditional out-migration trend. Georgia economy as well. The saving grace in this labor-short- As a result,severe shortages have age periodisthat, withfevi% excep developed in various areas of the state. tions, the demand for workers has been The unemployment rate has fallen to primarily for the unskilled and semi- less than two percent on occasion in skilled, rather than the highly skilled. the Atlanta area. When one consid- The existingpopulace, plusthein- ers that the two percent includes those migration, has been ableto produce who arevirtually unemployable and these typesof workersinsufficient persons who are "between jobs,"this quantityto respond to the needs of level constitutes virtually full employ. industry as well as other segments of ment. The resultin the Atlanta area the economy. has beenacontinuingshortageof In contrast to the overall shortage of workers and a drying up of the tra- labor in the state are the pockets of ditional labor force of domestics And high unemployment to be found, us yard men, those activities which tall ually in the urban ghetto areas. Here for little in the way of education and the problem lies mostly in the fact that training. Most of those who formerly the ghetto inhabitants are uneducated servedinthese capacities have now and untrained for the available jobs. In beenretrainedfor other jobs, have a survey of the Model Neighborhood found better-paying positions, or have area in Atlanta, it was found that 500 moved out of the area entirely. manufacturing jobs were unfilled while This shortage is not confined to the unemployment inthe area was over Atlantaarcc,alone.Otherareasof 6 percent. There was simply no match Georgia have experienced shortages of between the labor skills available and unskilled, semiskilled,and skilled the job requirements. workers. One interesting aspect of this situa- Unionization iscontinuing to gain tion is what has occurred to the tradi- ground in the state as industrialization tionalpatternofout-migrationin increases. At present many small Geor- Georgia. Since the turn of the century gia communities refuse to seek indus- and until very recently, although Geor- trieswhich areunionized,although gia's population grew numerically,a others,particularlythe largercom- net out-migration existed. That is, when munities, are less restrictive in this re- thenaturalincrease(birthsminus gard. deaths) was considered, for 60 years Wage rates in Georgia are consider- thestateexperienced anet lossof ably below the U.S. average in all but people to other areas, even though its afew manufacturingcategories.in populationincreased.Intheperiod 1967, the per capita income for the from1960to1965,however,this state was $2,513 compared to a U.S. long-standing pattern changeda net average of $3,137. This situation has in-migrationof 81,000 persons was not changed appreciably in the past registered.This came about because decades. In 1947, the gap between the for the first time in this century jobs U.S. and Georgia per capita income were available not only for Georgia's figures was $646 and in 1967 it was increasing population, but also enough $624.

52 Itshould be pointed out thatthe may be importanttomanufacturers wage gap between Georgia and the from the viewpoint of providing pub- averagenrid above-averagestatesof lictransportation for their workers. the union provides some incentive for industrieslocatedinthosestatesto RAW MATERIALS. Various types consider a Georgia location. They can of raw materials. such as timber, min- expect,ingeneral, lower wage costs erals, and various agricultural products in Georgia which canbe translated and by-products, may be major fac- into potential for greater profits. tors in the location of industry.Itis vital to some industries that plants be TRANSPORTATION. A third im- near sources of raw materialssuch portant element inindustrial develop- industries are good for the nearby com- mentisthetransportationnetwork munities since employment is provided which exists in Georgia. Inthis cat- for both the production of the raw ma- egory is included the highway system, terials and the processing of the mate- the railroad network, the commercial rials in the plants themselves. and private air service, and the water- It should be recognized that Geor- borne transportation system. These are giais not one of the "have" states the means by which raw materials and when it comes to minerals. A great products are brought into and shipped variety of mineralsispresent in the out of the state. They also provide the state, and some of these are mined, transportation infra-structure for move- such astalc, kaolin, and phosphates. ments of goods from point topoint But compared to some of the leading inside the state. states, Georgia's total mineral produc- Obviously, the condition and avail- tionisnotlarge.Notwithstanding, ability of a distribution network is im- where localcommercial depositsare portant to any manufacturer concerned available,manufacturing opportunities with transporting his products to the are present. market. Larger manufacturingplants normally require accessto bothrail OTHER FACTORS. There are, and motor freight services. Some de- of course, many other factors to be pend entirely on motor truck haulage. consideredinindustrial development. This is especially true where the prod- These are generally deemed secondary ucts are low in weight and high in in importance to the four mentioned value. Air transportationis important above. However, when a specific plant to provide both executive travel con- location is being evaluated and several venience andairfreight wherethis communities may be under considera- mode of transport is desirable. tion,these secondary factorsassume greater weight and may even be cri- Atlanta is the transportation hub of tical in the final location decision. Georgia and of the Southeast. How- These factors include, among others, ever, it lacks water transportation. Al- the following though navigation may develop on the Availability of industrial sites Chattahoochee River,thispossibility Availability of existing industrial is many years away. On the other buildings hand, Savannah and Brunswickare Infrastructure7power, fuels, gas, important becausetheyare seaports and centers of waterborne commerce. water, sewerage, streets Communications To a lesser extent, bus transporta- Fire and police protection tionof small products isimportant, Medical, hospital, and public health especially in certain types of replace- facilities ment parts for machinery and similar Educational and training facilities items. On a local basis, city bus lines Hotels, motels, and restaurants

53 Recreational facilities By the early decades of the 20th Government and taxes century,apronounced tendencyto Housing move to the South from the North had Trade occurred in certain industrial segments, Cultural and religious facilities particularly in the textile industries of * Business climate New England, which were encounter Community appearance ingdifficultieswithwage increases, These factors will not be discussed profit reductions, and foreign competi- indetailhere, but they areof suf- tion.Industrial growthalloverthe ficient importance that information on country suffered during the depression them should be readily available for of the 1930's. The industrial demands responsetoinquiries from interested of World War IIfurther stimulated industrialists. manufacturing growth of the South- east, and the relatively broad base of A Quick Glance Backward industry in Georgia was furtherex- tendedto include the production of For the first 160 years in the life of wartimeaircraftandothermilitary ourcountry, manufacturingcapacity products. was largely concentratedinthe so- called"Connecticut-Chicagoaxis,"a The post-World War II period has broad belt running from the New Eng- been one of unprecedented industrial land and mid-Atlantic statesthrough expansion in Georgia in the traditional Pennsylvania and Ohio to Illinois. This major manufacturingfields, suchas is where the early centers of popula- textiles,apparel, wood products, and tion were, the sources of financing, and food processing. In addition, new inmany of the outlets toforeign mar- dustries have developed, such as trans- kets. portat;onequipment,metalworking, and the carpet industry; these have had The Southeast was largely agrarian a measurable impact on the economy innature, and many of the products and the manufacturing base. grown in Georgia found their way to the North and the East to be processed Industrial Development in and finished. The Civil War shattered most of the manufacturing capability Georgia in the 1960's whichhad beendevelopedinthe The present makeup of the manufac- Southeast,andtheReconstruction turingindustryinGeorgiaiswell- period was not conducive to revitaliz- known and documented. It is the larg- ingsouthern manufacturing. Atthe est single employment category in the end of this period, however, industrial state, as is shown in Chart 1. The trend enterprise began toreappear. ofmanufacturing employmentsince 1965, the last year shown on the chart, By the late 19th century, the textile has consistently been upward. industry was strongly re-established in many parts of Georgia. Railroads had In most other indicators, as well as expanded and covered the Southeast numbers of workers, manufacturing is in a comprehensive way, making trans- the largest industrial segment in Geor- portation, distribution, and communi- gia. It is likely to continue so for some cationagreat dealeasier. The iron time, despite a noticeable slowing down and steel industry was well advanced, in manufacturing employment growth notably in Alabama. Food processing in the United States and a tendency for was established, and thetimber re- this part of the work force to become sources were being utilized in various smaller percentagewise as other seg- ways. The present-day economic base ments, notably service industries and was being laid. government, increase.

54 CHART 1 EMPLOYMENT TRENDS IN GEORGIA BY SELECTED MAJOR INDUSTRIES, 1940-1965

THOUSANDS

400 I 1 1 1 I I I I IIIT III I 1111

MANUFACTURING

300

AGR'7ULTURE

200

TRADE

GOVERNMENT

100 Pl.K37E5

CONSTRUCTION

0 tit!All!IIIA IL...1.--1---JL...i...... L... 1940 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

Sources:U. S. Deportment of Leber, Bureau of Lobor Stotistics U. 5. Deportment of Agriculture Agricultural dons designoted by () from U. S. Census of Populotion (see text).

55 When one looksat the industries These four textiles.apparel. food. which make up the manufacturing seg- and lumber and woodaccounted for ment of Georgia's economy, some in- 59.8 percent of the total manufactur- sight can be gained into the problems ing employment in the state. The other and opportunities which confront the twoelements transportation equip- state. Textiles, apparel, food industries, ment and paperhad weekly wages and wood products together employ higher than both the Georgia and the almost 60 percent of the manufactur- U.S. average, but they represented less ing workers of the state. In 1965, the than 16 percent of the total manufac- textile industry accounted for 25.7 per- turing employment. cent of the total manufacturing em- The high proportion of persons in ployment, the apparel industry for 15.8 Georgia workinginlow-wage indus- percent, the food industry for 1L6 per- triesis very clear and significantto cent, and we A products for 6.7 per- the overall picture. The only industry cent. where Georgia wages were higher than These four industries are the tradi- the U.S. average for the industry was tional mainstays of manufacturing in in the production of paper. All others Georgia. Workers inthree of these fall below the average for U.S. indus- industries are increasingnumerically. tries. In 1965 this combination of fac- The exception is the lumber and wood torsresultedinan averageweekly industry (6.7 percent of total manu- wageformanufacturingemployees facturingemployment),wherethe about $25 less than that for the U.S. long-term trend seems to be downward. as a whole. When thisistranslated These industries have been extremely intoan annualwagedifferential important in the development of Geor- ($1,300), it becomes obvious why the gia to date and will continue to be im- Georgia per capita income consistently portant in the foreseeable future. lags behind the U.S. average by an Anotherimportant activityisthe appreciable amount. manufacture of transportation equipment, primarily the production of air- Level of Sophistication of craft and the assembly of automobiles. Georgia Industry Paper manufacturingisnext in em- In general, relatively few Georgia con- ployment size, followed by stone, clay, cerns may be said tofall inthestw, and glass, fabricated metals, chemicals, phisticated,high-technologycategory. printingandpublishing,machinery, Georgia's largest singlecompany, and furniture. In 1965 these industries Lockheed-Georgia,isinthisgroup. represented 33 percent of the state's The paper mills of Georgia must be employment. placed in this category, and they are In summary, in1965, 75 percent among the best-paying manufacturers of the manufacturing employment in in the state. In addition, there are a Georgia was concentrated in justsix number of smaller companies specializ- industries: textiles, apparel, food, ing in sophisticated products or in re- transportation equipment, lumber and search and development. wood, and paper. On the other hand, the older, more traditional industries in the state such Manufacturing Wages as the textile industry have been mak- Chart 2 shows the average wages in ing great strides in recent years in mod- the manufacturing industries of Geor- ernization and automation. The tufted gia. Four of the first six manufactur- carpet industry is among the home- ing segments in Georgia had average grown industries which have developed weeklyproduction workerswages their own equipment and automated which were less than the Georgia av- machinery, and this has helpeditto erage for all manufacturing in1965. secure a large part of the U.S. carpet

56 MANUFACTURING EMPLOYMENT AND WAGES FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES, GEORGIA AND THE U. S., CHART 2 1965 (,. 11 market (63 percent) in just two dec- Lion of agencies dedicated to this ac- ades. This willingness to change long- tivity, the development of strong and standing ways of operation manifested aggressive programs, strongfinancial by Georgia industry is significant. support at the state and local levels, In fact, recent research into the mo- and a general upgrading of the levels bile home industry ii. Georgia and the of sophistication of the industrial de- wood furniture industry in North Caro- velopment effort. linaindicates that thereis little dif- The stategovernmentof Georgia ference in receptivity to new informa- has assumed a much more active role tion and technology in these industries. through the activities of the Depart- The premise that an emerging industry ment of Industry and Trade and ele- likethe mobile homes manufacturers ments oftheUniversitySystem as would be more receptive to innova- well as the demonstration of interest tion than an established industry like on the part of other state agencies, wood furniture has been proven false, notably the education and labor de- at least in this particular instance. partments. The GeorgiaDepartment Industrial Development Climate of Education has been most helpful in the industrialdevelopment efforts, What is the industrial development cli- while the Labor Department has pro- mate in Georgia? How is the effort or- vided much information on the man- ganized and whatisthe support for power resources of the state. the effort? What types of activities are In addition to state government ac- pursued? tivity,a number of private organiza- Industrialdevelopmenthaslong tions are pursuing industrial develop. been a recognized activity in the state, ment over allor much of the state. but as an organized activity of a great This includes theutilitycompanies, many organizations,itis a compara- notably the Georgia Power Company tivelyrecentone. Theyears after and the Atlanta Gas Light Company. World War II saw only a few organ- The Citizens and Southern National izations in Georgia mounting a strong Bank and the First National Bank are effort to attract industry to the state very active in industrial development, and virtually none interestedinde- and a number of other banks are in- veloping the home-grown type of interested in nit field. Southern Railway dustry which is often so beneficial to System and we Seaboard Coast Line the economy. By the mid-1950's a few Railroad Comrany are extremelyac- organizations.mainlyrailroads,utili- tive over large areas of the state and ties, and chambers of commerce, were otherrailroadshave individualsre- pursuingvigorouspromotionalpro- sponsible for this activity as well. The grams.At that time the state effort Georgia State Chamber of Commerce was relatively weak, and while a num- has an extensive program of industrial ber of local groups were organized, development. they were uneven in their performance, At the multi-county level, the state relied mainly on volunteer labor, and isalmost completely covered by 18 few of them had systematicallyor- multi-countyarea planning and de- ganized programs. Only lip service was velopment agencies which include in- paid to the ideas of helping existing dustrial developmentresearchactivi- industry in the state expand and diver- ties within their scope of operations. sify. At the community level, there are ap- In the period between the mid-1950's proximately 50staffedchambers of and the present, a rather remarkable commerce which are interestediiiin- transformationintheindustrialde- dustrialdevelopment. Many comtekt, velopment field has occurred in Geor- nities have establishedindtntrial gia. It has been marked by a prolifera- velopment corporations devoted to g.t.,

58 tracting industry and,in some cases, ment advertising, and provideother helping existing industry expand. The services in the area of industrial de- Officeof Economic Opportunity has velopment.They aredistinguished ongoing programs which involvein- from other organizations also perform- dustrial development, and a number ing these activities mainly by their em- of other federal programs relatein phasis on the promotional selling of some way to this activity. County and locations in Georgia. municipal governments areinterested Organizations of this type include and in a few cases have staffed indus- the Georgia Department of IrAlustry trial development positions. The Coast- and Trade, the Georgia Chamber of alPlains Regional Commissionand Commerce, various banks, railroads and theAppalachianRegionalCommis- utilities, and local chambers of com- sion, both of which operate in Geor- merce and industrial development corgia, also have industrial development porations of various sorts. objectives. The result is that a remarkable net- Research Activities work of organization with industrial Certain organizations are moreheavily development activity as part or all of oriented to the research end of indus- their missions has been developed in trial development. Activities here in- the state of Georgia. It is not remark- clude the identification of manufactur- able, however, that sometimes an over- ing opportunities, basic economic stud- lap of functions and activities occurs ies,resource studies, identification of as a result of all of this activity. community strengths and weaknesses, identificationofindustrialsites,and Financial Support other allied matters which relate more The degree of financial support given to the environment in which industrial to these activities in the state is prob- development is operating. The findings ably in the order of five to seven mil- of these organizations are obviously of liondollars per year from both pri- great value to the organizations which vate and public sources. The organiza- concentrate on promotional activities. tions involved have much greater ex- Organizations of thistypeinclude pendituresintotal,butnotallof the Industrial Development Division of theseare directly attributabletoin. Georgia Tech, the Coastal Plains Reg- dustrial development activities.Also, ionalCommission, andthevarious this figureis merely the amount for area planning and development com- staff and program support and does missions.Generallyspeaking,these not include the large volume of finan- agencies are not involved in the pro- cialsupportprovidedthrough such motional selling of Georgia to industry. means as loans and industrial bonds. The types of activities which these Management and agencies pursue are several.For the Technical Assistance sake of this discussion, these activities A much smaller group of organiza- will be classified as promotional, re- tions, drawn almost entirely from the search,developmental, andtechnical highereducationinstitutionsofthe assistance. state, provides management and tech- nicalassistancetoexistingindustry. Promotional Activities These services might range from new Certain organizations focus primarily productevaluationandtestingand on dealing with representatives ofin- market studiesto down-to-earthas- dustries which may have an interest sistance on operating, expansion, and in locating a manufacturing facility in diversification problems. thestate.Theseorganizations may Organizations of this sort are found also do research, industrialdevelop- in the Engineering Experiment Station

59 at Georgia Tech, the Agricultural Ex- ground relativeto a number of other tension Service oftheUniversity of states which it now surpasses. Georgia (mainly relatedtoagribusi- If the present trends persist, the fol- ness), and some of the other institu- lowing situationcan be expected to tions around the state. exist in 1985, insofar as the economy is concerned. Georgia Industrial Development in 1985 Per Capita Income Ifindustrial development proceeds in If current trends continue, the per cap. thefuture alongthesame develop- ita income of the Georgia resident will ment lines asit has in the past, the increase along the same trend lineit industrial mix, dominated by the tex- has been fallowingsince 1930. This tile, apparel, and food products indus- would indicate that the per capita in- tries, is not liable to change much in come in 1985 will be on the order of relation to the total of industrial ac- $3.250 compared to about $2,500 in tivity. Under such conditions, the pro- 1967. However, recent projections by nounced trend of heavy industraliza- the staff of the Joint Economic Com- tion in the northern half of Georgia mitteeindicatethatagreaterthan willcontinue. Manufacturing inthe usualincreasein per capitaincome can be expected in the years ahead for southern half of the sate can be ex- the nation. Since Georgia lags the U.S. pected to grow moderately asithas in the past decade. average consistently.it would be expected that the above figures would be What is the likelihoodthatrecent conservative and Georgia's per capita i;clustry trends willcontinueinthe income is more likely to be of the mag- future? The increasing pace of tech- nitude of $4,500 by 1985. This would nological change indicates that certain stilltrail the U.S. average by $600 to changes will occur, new industries will $700, about the same amount asit develop, new products will be manu- does at present. Georgia willstill be, factured and marketed. However, bein effect, a poor state. cause of the magnitude of existing in- dustryinGeorgia andthe predom- Industry Composition inance of six industrial segments, the And Employment changes in technology and product mix The industrial scene will be dominated would have to be of substantial nature by thetextile, apparel, and food in- to greatly change the existing pattern. dustries because these industries will Some external force would be needed still findin the state a "wage haven," to alter the pattern. Some new indus- making operationinGeorgia more tries would have to come into being economical than in many other states. and expand rapidly in the years ahead in order to make any appreciable im- Thefutureofthetransportation pact on the existing industrialstruc- equipment segment of Georgia indus- ture. How many new industries are try, fourth in size in 1965, is less clear. there which can grow to billion-dollar Itispresumed thattheautomobile size in the space of a few years, as the production in the state will increase in tufted carpet industry has done? Very proportion to the population or slightly few, if any, in all probability. faster, depending on the state of the economy in future years. The aircraft One can only conclude that, unless industry, which currently is tied largely some significant changes are made in to defense contracts, will probably be the manner in which Georgia is going operating at the same level of produc- about industrialization,theindustrial tion; although many factors can affect future of the state looks only mod- this large component of the transporta- eratelyrosyand Georgiawilllose tion equipment industry,itisprob-

60 able thatthelevel may not exceed average for all manufacturers in the what itis today. Employment in the state. From this viewpoint, they are transportation equipmentindustryas extremely desirable. a whole may total 70.000 compared These industries offer a number of with 45,000 at present. This currently opportunities which. if taken, can lead is the highest paying industry in Geor- toasubstantial improvement inthe gia. and itis likely to remain so. industrial picture in the state.Forex- The decline in employment for the ample, almost half the steel used in the lumber and wood products industry, seven southeastern statesisproduced which has been inprogress for dec- outside the region, either in other parts ades, is likely to continue but perhaps of the nation or in foreign countries. at a lesser rate. This industry, which The need for more producers of steel only18 years ago employed 50,000 in the area is apparent. The best solu- people,now employsone-half that tion appears to be the so-called mini- number. By 1985,itmay well em- steel plants, which utilize scrap metal ploy only 15,000 people. The activity in electric furnaces, thus freeing them- level may remain high, but automa- selves of the old requirements for ore tion and changing processes will greatly or pig iron and coal. In the fabricated reduce labor requirements. As a result, metal fields. at least 28 products have this industry will slip from its position beenidentifiedashavingsufficient of fifth in employment in the state. market in the Southeast to justify thte Unless research into new uses is con- establishment of plants to manufacture ducted successfully, such industries as these products. the gum naval stores industry, which Undeveloped Resources earlier employed 30,000 persons and Georgia offers a number of relatively now employs less than 10,000, will dis- undeveloped resources, as well as some appear altogether by 1985. They will industryopportunities. To theextent be victimsof new and competitive that Georgians take advantage of and products, failure to seek new markets, exploit these advantages, these actions and inability to compete in an increas- willaffecttheindustrialpicture by ingly difficult labor situation. 1985. The paper industry will continue to In the area of mineral resources, the automate and expand its labor needs as phosphates which exist in many loca- well. A largevarietyof new paper tions in south Georgia may have com- products can be expected, and employ- mercialpotentials. The possibility of ment in this industry may reach 40,000 utilizing kaolins for the production of by 1985. This increase is significant be- aluminum is very real, and this process cause the paper industry is next to the depends only on the economics of the highest paying in Georgia, with weekly competitive situation. The brown ores wages well above the U.S. average for of south Georgia (and Alabama) may the industry and a great deal higher serve as the basis of an iron and steel than theGeorgiaaverageweekly industry. manufacturing wage. The greatest potential formineral Fabricated metals, primary metals, production lies in the ocean itself. The chemicals,machinery,andelectrical increasing marine research efforts now equipment areindustrieswhichare evidentinGeorgia withtheinstalla- present in Georgia but which make up tions at Skidaway and Sapelo Islands asmallerproportionofthestate's and the activity of the Ocean Science manufacturing employment than is true Center of theAtlanticofferareal nationwide for each of the industries. possibility of a technological and in- Alloftheseindustriespayhigher dustrial breakthrough in this field. The weekly wages to employees than the other traditionalareas of marine re-

61 sources, which treatthe ocean as a and problems more closely to fully un- source of food, fresh water, or as a derstand their interrelationships, transportation element, and the ecology of the coast may well support sizeable Per Capita Income activities in the foreseeable future. Al- The projections for per capita income location of national effort to develop in 1985 have been previously discussed. the potentials of the ocean can be ex- These are based on the assumption that pected to grow. certain rates of U. S. development will On the other hand,itis not now occur and that Georgia's position re- likely that Georgia will play a large lativeto the U. S. development will roleinsuchsophisticatedfieldsas not substantially change. That is to say, atomic energy or the space ventures. the magnitude of increase in Georgia will closely parallelthe magnitude of The labor force of Georgia is one change in the national figures by 1985. of the main underdeveloped resources Such a trend, with the U. S. figures of the state. Here is a body of people continually leading the Georgia figures with, on the average,less schooling by $600 to $700 per person, is based than is true in the U. S. and with rela- on the continuation of the type of de- tively little industrial training. As a re- velopment Georgia has experienced in sult, the labor force is largely unskilled the past on into the foreseeable future. in nature. In general, it appears to be Is that good enough? Should Georgia conscientious, willing to learn, and will- content to be a "have not" state, ing to work hard. The continued in- .elativelyspeaking?Most dustrialization of Georgia depends in Georgians will say a resoundingNoto these a large measure on what the state of questions. Georgiadoeswithitslabor force's education and training. Attraction of High-technology Industries Basic Problems Confronting The most easily identifiable solution to Industrial Development this dilemma is to organize, plan, and implement a program aimed at the at- In Georgia traction of high-technology industries, There are a number of symptoms of those which are also high-paying in- problemsandproblemsthemselves dustries, so that the maximum impact which should be recognized when one will be produced on the per capita in- considerstheindustrialdevelopment come picture. A massive effort will be of the state of Georgia. While many of required to do this and there are many these appear to he independent, for the obstacles. It would require a large num- most part they are interrelated. ber of successes in attracting such ins. Probably the most evident symptom dustriesordeveloping home-grown, of the industrial development problem perhaps spin-off, industries to have any is the per capita income picture. It re- real effect. lates to the traditional types of indus- There are examples of such develop- tries which have developed in Georgia mentsthroughoutthe country. The and which are, for the most part, ex- complexatBoston, Massachusetts,is panding in this environment. It relates based on the educational institutions to the overall educationalpictureas and the research and development cap- well, for there is little hope of attract- abilities in the area. Palo Alto, Cali- ing a significantsegmentofhighly fornia, also has a successful develop. sophisticated industry to Georgia un- ment of high-technology industries. less the educationallevel of the pop- One of theinteresting phenomena ulace changes and improves greatly. It attendant to such developments is that is necessary to look at these symptoms a "critical mass" is reached after a cer-

62 lain stage of growth. When a sufficient ment climate whichisconducive to number of high - technology industries their continued growth. congregate. employing large numbers Itis one thing to say. "Let's try to of people in the production of techno- attracthigh-technologyindustriesto logical items, there comes a point at Georgia." Itis quite another thing to which this grouping starts to produce do it. The demands of such industries other organizations, such as spin-offs, from the environment in which they new product enterprises, etc. At this locatearequitedifferentfromthe point the scientific complex becomes needs of the industries now existing in regenerative and self-supporting. Georgia. One of the critical require- The need for attracting high-tech- ments of such industries is the right nology industries has long been appar- kind of labor. They require larger pro- ent. No less than three major reports portions of highly educated professional of the Industrial Development Division people. of highly trained skilled per- of Georgia Tech have been devoted to sonnel, and of semiskilled persons. The pointing out the need for this effort. need for the unskilled is very limited. "Blueprint for Progress" (1959), "In- From the viewpoint of Georgia la- dustrial Development in Georgia Since bor, such an addition to the industrial 1947"(1961), and "Industrial De- scene would be largely complementary velopment in Georgia,1958-1965" to the existing industry, which hires a (1967) all point to the need of deliber- larger proportion of the unskilled and ately seeking to build up a structure of usually teaches them whatever skills are highlysophisticatedandtechnically required. High technology, to a oriented industries in the state. greater extent, would seek the better educatedandskilled.Unfortunately Morerecently,BattelleMemorial this class of worker is already in short Institute did a study of that portion of supply in the state and no great efforts south Georgia which falls within the are being made to produce such a borders of the three-state Coastal Plains labor force. For example. the largest Regional Commission. This report was scientific and engineering institution in made as a result of the Commission's the state, Georgia Tech, has an enroll- recognition that high-wage and high- ment which isincreasing very slowly growth industry is needed if the income and many of its graduates are from gap which exists between the commis- outof state and leaveGeorgia on sion area and most parts of the country graduation. The demands of present is to be closed. industry for properly trained individ- All of these reports stress the type uals are so great that itis not unheard of industry which needs to be sought. of for one company to hireallthe Electrical and nonelectrical machinery graduates of certain training courses in and primary and fabricated metals are the system of state vocational - technical examples of industries which are poor- training school. ly represented in the Georgia economy; It may be arguedthat high-tech- they are also the types of high-wage nologyindustry wi!never come to industries which should be pursued. Georgia in any magnitude untilthe Chemicals andtransportationequip- properly trained coAres of labor which ment are two other industries which itseeks are presentinthe Georgia also are strong elements in many of economy. Itis unreasonable to expect the states which have high per capita a highly sophisticated industry to lo- income. The potential for much greater cate a plant in the area and bring all developmentoftheseindustriesin of its labor with it. This is too expen- Georgia exists if the state is willing to sive an operation, and there are many make the commitment to attract them areas of the country where such a mass and to provide an industrial develop- movement of workers would not be

63 necessary. by virtue of existing avail- iuring enterprises are not good, espec- able and properly trained workers in iallyinthe absence of any state those areas. commitment to this end. On the other side of the argument. Even if such a commitment were to can the state afford to mount a massive be made and the effort implemented educationalandtrainingeffort,far successfully thesecondary conse- greater than that being made at pres- quences of attracting high-paying in- ent. on the assumption thatcertain dustry should be recgonized. These are sovght after and highly desirable in- mainly economic in nature. dustries will indeed choose Georgia as Ifa large segment of high-wage a location for facilities? The problem manufacturing were introduced into the is not unlike the chicken or egg ques- state's economy, inevitablyitwould tion. Which comesfirst,thehigh- affect the existing manufacturing struc- technology industry or the skilled labor ture. Competition for the better-quali- it needs . ? fied personnel would be accentuated, The answerisprobablyneither. putting considerable pressure on the There is, in the A:lanta area, agroup lower-wage segment of industry to be- of companies which fallin the high- come involved in an even greater salary technology category. For the most part and wage viral than now exists. In- they have been attracted to that part migrationof peopleintothestate of Ow state by the urban complex would be accelerated, putting additional which has developed and the particular strains on services and governmental manpower and technological resources units, on housing and transportation of that area. Some natural growth of facilities, and possibly heightening the this type of industry can be anticipated social ant' racial pressures which are in Atlanta even if no concerted effort is at work in the environment today. The made to fully develop this potential. If generalupgradingof incomelevels such a campaign is mounted, thepo- would increase the demands forcon- tentialfora mushroomingscientific sumer goods and services. More so- complex of industries is great, although phisticatedindustrialserviceswould it will require an effort of considerable have to be developed to supply the magnitude to bring it to fruition. needsofhigh-technologyindustries, Elsewhere in the state, the potential (e.g.,instrument repair and mainte- for the development of high-technology nance, specialized metal treating opera- industries is not quite so bright. The tions, tool and die establishments in paper industry, which falls in this cate- greater numbers). gory, tends to locate where fiber re- The alternative to mounting sucha sources and sufficient water exist, and concerted effort to develop high-tech- some expansion of this industry may nology industries is to accept the prem- be expected. The chemical industry is ise that Georgia is destined to havea likely to develop along the rivers of the second-rate economyincomparison state and at the seaports of Savannah withnationalstandards,thatconse- and Brunswick. Petrochemicals may quently educational levels will remain have a future in Georgia, if the oil im- low, and that future development of port restrictions are lifted and certain the state will merely match or fall be- free trade zones are permitted by the hind that of the nation. federal government. But these are complex locational situations tied to specific Other Problems Relating to area resources or actions of govern- Industrial Development mental agencies, which at best are un- In addition to this basic problem of per predictable and all too often subject to capita income and the need to attract change. Overall, the prospects of at- high-technologyindustries,thereare tracting highly 'sophisticated manufac- some organizational and environmental

64 problems in Georgia which are deter- community or county toissue such rentstoaccelerated growth of the bonds. but not until November 1968 manufacturing segment. The industrial was the Georgia Constitution amended development agencies of Georgia ex- to permit the General Assembly to hibit some overlapping of effort, and authorize creation of industrial reve- there is a duplication of some research nue bond authorities by any county or activities.There is no concertedat- city.However,134 suchauthorities tempt to concentrate on the quality had been created previously by indi- types of industry which are needed for vidual local amendments in 121 of the Georgia. Thisisnatural enoughin state's 159 counties. Enabling legisla- view of the factthat most of these tion would be required to establish agencies actin response to inquiries authorities in the remaining 38 coun- from industry and most of those in- ties. dustries which are considering a lo- Georgia also is not among the 40 cationin Georgia are not from the states with statewide agencies assisting high-technology segment of manufac- in industrial plant financing. A least tur'ng. 16 states have established and funded OVERLAP DUE TO MULTIPLIC- industrial finance authorities. Some of ITY OF AGENCIES. Agencies tend to them can make direct loans for indus- rely upon the research results of others, trialdevelopment purposes, generally expanding and amplifying on them in at some percentage of the total project published form. Little new informa.inn cost and at low interest rates. Other is contributed by such efforts, but these state authorities guarantee mortgages activitiesrequireaconsiderableex- as a primary activity. Some states per- penditureof manpower and money. mit loans to nonprofit local develop- With research needed desperately in ment corporations rather than to the so many areas where little work has industry directly. As long as Georgia been done, the time and labor required does not have an active statewide de- by theseduplicativeresearchefforts velopment authority, its industrial de- would be much better applied to in- velopment tool k:t is not complete. novative research in new fields where a sizeable contribution can be made. Anothervariation isthe state- FINANCING. The financial picture wide business development corporation, in Georgia is neither good nor bad, as which performs the same function as far as industrial development financing the authority mentioned above. The is concerned. The state has at its dis- major differenceisinthefunding, posalanaveragearrayoffinancial which comes from financial institutions, tools. However, there is nothing daring such as banks, insurance companies, or innovative which one could expect savings and loan associations, and rein a state which realizes that it has a lated private organizations, rather than long way to go to catch up with the from state sources. Georgia does not U. S.indices for industrial develop- at present utilize this type of financing ment. vehicle, although at least 38 states do. The conventional SOLIMIS of financ- When a state takes steps to provide ing exist in every state banks, insur- financial incentives to attract industry, ance companies, private investors, etc. it must decide how far it wishes to go. Under recent Congressional legislation, In the final analysis, it becomes a more all of the states face the same restric- basic questionHow badly does Geor- tions in revenue bond financinga $1- gia want new industry? If the answer milliontax-exempt maximum or,in is "very badly," then it behooves the certaininstances,a$5-millionlimit statetodevelopas many financial over asix-year period. Many states sources for industrial expansion asit have statewide legislation allowing any can muster.

65 If Georgia is to be truly competitive public w.as relatively uninformed about in the financial end of industrial de- the subject. velopment, it must seek to find addi- Georgia canill afford to have its tional sources of money for industrial industrial development efforts fail for development purposes. In any event, it lack of public support. Nor can those should establish and implement the who are promoting such activities do a same types of financing arrangements half-h..arted job of informing the pub- as its neighboring states with whom it lic of the importance of striving to in- is in direct competition. crease thequality and quantityof SUPPORT OF THE STATE AND manufacturing in the state. There needs THE PUBLIC. To do a good job of to be a continuing public education industrial development in a state re- program emphasizing the importance quires a marshalling of the strengths of manufacturing as the primary of all agencies involved in the field. wealth-producing activity in the state. More than this, it requires the support EDUCATION AND 'TRAINING. of the state government and the people The one factor which is of overwhelm- of the state. The support of the state ing importance to the attraction of government is needed to bolster badly high-technology industries in the future needed activities in the field, such as is an improved and expanded educa- the promotional efforts of the Depart- tional and training program. Thereare ment of Industry and Trade, the re- many other considerations, but this one search efforts of the University System fact remains: if Georgia is ever to de- units concerned with industrial devel- velop a large segment of sophisticated opment, and the broad programs of industry it must somehow provide the education and training of the Georgia trained people that such an activity Department of Education. The Depart- demands. ment of Labor needs additional sup- The basic problem inthis areais portto enableitto develop better well-known and documented. Battelle manpowerinformationsystems,in- Memorial Institute reports that only cluding the types of labor and skills 44 percent of the adult population of that are needed as well as those that the Coastal Plains Region had eight or are available. more years of schooling. In many countiesin Georgia, the majority of the The support of the people is needed adult popui-Non at the time of the last to assist in the passage of legislation census had never even entered, much helpful to the full economic develop- less finished, high school. ment of the state's resources, including The dropout problem continues and the manufacturing segment of the econ- is in a large measure responsible for omy. Most often this support can be the low average years of schooling of made manifest at election time when the Georgian. It is beyond the capabil- amendments to the Georgia Constitu- ities of the individual school or teacher tion are voted on by the public. The to do anything about this problem ex- multiplicity of the amendments which ceptinisolated,individual instances. appear on the ballot, as well as the di- Th e solution of this problem has to be verse subjects covered, makes it almost massive and effective, and it transcends impossible for the average individual school district boundaries. To date, this to evaluate the merits of each proposal, massive effort has not been forthcom- unless he is willing to study them. Most ing, and it appears problematical that of us are not inclined to do so, and it will materialize. Instead, a number frequently worthwhile amendments ap- of amelioratingsolutionsarebeing plicable to the industrial development tried which tend to help in some minor effortsinthe state have been voted ways the overall problem without really down bytheelectorate because the resolving it.

66 Insofar as industrial development of The remarks that follow are based the state is concerned, the needs are on this premise. quite defined when it comes to educa- 1. A CONCENTRATED EFFORT tion. There is a great need for adult TO ATTRACT HIGH-TECHNOL- education, there is a need for training OGY INDUSTRY IS ESSENTIAL. A in various skills for high sthool gradu- plan. toattract sophisticated industry ates, and there is a need to anticipate must be devised and implemented. This the type of training needed by industry implies a willingness on the part of all of the sophisticated variety and to pro- agencies interested in industrial devel- duce a body of individuals with these opment toassign afirstpriority to types of training. How much advance workingwith high-technologyindus- training of this sort the state can or is tries without, of course, ignoring other willing to do is a matter of conjecture, manufacturing opportunities. The dif- but some level of this training must be ferences between thisapproach and achieved if only as a token of intent to presentoperationsrelay:mainlyto attract the high-technology industries. philosophy and the allocation of effort. Study and analysis can identify the Rather than responding to inquiries al- subject areas which probably will be mostentirely,industrialdevelopment needed in the future. Just the very fact agencies would have to consciously di- of the existence of such training would rect their energies to certain types of probably stimulate the demand for the industry. trainees, but the biggest impact might 2. POTENTIAL HIGH-TECHNOL- be the psychological impact such ad- OGY INDUSTRIES FOR GEORGIA vance training might have on the po- MUST BE IDENTIFIED. Competent tentialhigh-technology industriesfor agencies must assign part of their re- the area. sourcestotheidentificationofthe types of high-technology industries and Summary of Problems and companies which may have a potential Recommendations interestin location in the state. This Many things can be done to improve information must be developed and the industrial development picture in given to promotional industrial devel- Georgia. opment organizations for their use. It must be effectively used or this effort Upgrading of the Quality of will be wasted. Industry Is Vita! 3. THE CAMPAIGN TO AT- If one accepts the premise that im- TRACT HIGH-TECHNOLOGY IN- provement of the per capita income in DUSTRY MUST BE A LONG-TERM Georgia is a prime objective, the corol- CONTINUINGONE,BUILDING laryalsofollowsthis can best be ON THE BASE OF EXISTING IN- done by a conscious and coordinated DUSTRY OF THIS TYPE IN GEOR- efforttoattracthighlysophisticated GIA. The campaign must include ad- and, hence, high-wage industries. This vertisinginsuitable media,calls on premise has been advanced many times potential manufacturersfor Georgia, in the past decade and appears to have and efforts to provide a more attractive a general acceptance in many quarters; environment for the type of industry it has been consistently advocated by in question. the Industrial Development Division of 4. PRESENT - INDUSTRY MUST Georgia Tech overtheyears. The RECEIVE SUPPORT. The develop- CoastalPlains Regional Commission ment of "home-grown" industry should recognizesitas a primary objective. he encouraged wherever possible, Industrialdevelopmentorganizations whether it be a new enterprise or the endorse the concept. expansion of an. existing high-technol-

67 ogy concern. Spin-offs from technically However, aspreviously mentioned, oriented operations, industrial- or edu- the demands of high-technology indus- cational, should be encouraged through tryforhighlyeducated andtrained thecreationofanenvironmentor persons require that additional efforts businessclimatefavorabletosuch in these areas be made if success is to development. amount to more than specific and iso- 5. THE ENVIRONMENTPIC- lated location of such concerns. TURE MUST CHANGE. Everything I. THE POSSIBILITY OF INTRO- that can possibly be done should be DUCING OCCUPATIONAL ORI- done. The personnel 'of high-pay com- ENTATION AND TRAINING IN panies generally have a greater than ALL HIGH SCHOOLS OF THE average interest in the cultural, recrea- STATE SHOULD BE CONSIDERED. tional, and educational features of an This was suggested by Dr. Grant Venn area. These features obviously must be of the U. S. Office of Health, Educa- encouraged to grow with community tion and Welfare in a position paper support. for a symposium on automation held 6. GEORGIA'S COMPETITIVE this past year in Athens. The level of POSITION MUST BE ENHANCED. this training need not be intense, and It behooves Georgia to have every pos- the vocational-technical schools would sible tool in its industrial development stillbe net.i.edfor the more sophis- tool kit honed to a fine edge. Vehicles cated training needs. suchasstatewide industrial develop- 2. PROGRAMS OF READING, ment authorities or development cor- WRITING, AND ARITHMETIC porations should be developed to pro- NEED TOBE PROVIDEDIN videaddition&sourcesof financing. GREATER NUMBERS FOR THAT Tax disadvantages in the treatment of PROPORTION OF THE ADULT industry which'may exist relative to the POPULATION WHICH IS BASIC- treatment accorded to industry by sur- ALLY UNEDUCATED. The individ- rounding states should be reviewed and uals with thistraining would notfit changed to make Georgia more com- into the high-technology picture,but petitive. The development of research they couldreplace otherindividuals and science orientedindustrial parks who might by superior education and in certain metropolitan areas should be training move up to higher-paying jobs. encouraged. This would act as a lure 3. INTENSIFIED SURVEYS OF forscientific and technologicallyori- THE.PRESENT AND FUTURE entedindustry.Infact,allchanges MANPOWER NEEDS OF INDUS- which might make Georgia more at- TRY SHOULD BE FUNDED AND tractive to outside industry should be CARRIED OUT. This needstobe considered on their merits and, where done in terms of numbers of workers justified, these changes should be instituted. needed and the skills required. These surveys currently are being done on a Improvement of the Education scatteredbasis in some areas of the Picture Is a Must state, but plans should be made to con- Georgia has made tremendous prog- duct them on a methodical, compre- ress in education in recent years, and hensive basis all over Georgia. the situation which exists with regard 4. COOPERATIVE EDUCATION- to average levels of education is un- AL PROGRAMS AT THE HIGH deniably much improved over former SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY years. The advent of the statewide sys- LEVEL SHOULD BE DEVELOPED temofvocational-technicaltraining AND EXPANDED. This combination schools has also resulted in great ad- of education and employment provides vances in training. the participant with a real insight into

68 theimportanceofproductive work wkich require education and training and puts the participant at ease when above and beyond that presently avail- he begins workingfulltime inthe able. These, too, impose their sets of industrial environment after his school- demands on the resources available to ing is completed. the state for education. Compounding 5. PREEMPLOYMENT COURSES the situation are the continually esca- FOR THE UNEMPLOYED SHOULD latingnumbers of students who are BE EXPANDED. Thesewouldbe entitled to their education and training aimed at providing the previously un- opportunities. employed with some understanding of The allocation of resources is one of industrial operations, what is expected the most difficult decisions for educa- from employees of such concerns, how tion administrators. Industrial develop- to conduct himself injob interviews. ment is the greatest single wealth pro- etc. Such courses have been pioneered ducerinGeorgia, however, andto in Georgia in recent years. One notable safeguardthiseconomicessential,a example was a course conductedin large part of the state's educational and Carrollton by the Georgia Chamber of training resources must be directed to- Commerce. ward this end. 6. ESTABLISHMENT OF AN EX- PERIMENTAL EDUCATION CEN- Ross W. Hammond is chief of the Indus- trialDevelopment Division, Engineering TER SHOULD BE CONSIDERED. Experiment Station, Georgia Institute of A willingness to innovate in education Technology. Before moving into this posi- and training might be fostered by es- tion in 1965. Mr. Hammond was a research tablishing acenter expressly forthe engineer for Georgia Tech and prior to that. industrial manager of the Lubbock, purpose of demonstrating new techni- Texas. Chamber of Commerce. He received ques or equipment or developing new his M.S.I.E. from the University of Texas. curriculawhichrelatetopreparing Mr. Hammond served. as Executive Direc- people for the new industries and jobs tor of the American Institute of Industrial Engineers for 17 months and as national of the future. president in i966-67. His present responsi- All of the above activities would, of bilities include administration of the overall course, require an allocation of pres- program of the Industrial Development Di- entlyscarceresources.Inaddition. vision. Heiscurrently involvedinall phases of area development activity includ- aside from the need for education and ing industrial, community, and agricultural trainingwithrelevancetoindustrial development. industrial engineering, man- development, there are many other de- agement engineering, and econcmic re- mands andaspects of the economy search.

69 FROM my experiences in the field of industrial development, I would agree with the basic conclusions of the writer and congratulate him on a thought pro- voking and honestly evaluated treatise. It is a real contribution to the field of industrial develc,-rnent. However, there are a few points which could be emphasized and enlarged. Reasons Why Industry Locates All factors enumerated by Mr. Ham- mond are valid.It could be stressed that, basically, industry locates where it can make the most money. Markets, availability of raw materials, and distribution figure prominently in the profit picture. To this must be added wage rates, availability of labor, productivity, and attitude toward organization. Perhaps of greater significance than can usually be attributed are governmental image, laws not unfavorable to industry, and stable officials who are industry oriented. critique: Industry also locates because of service industries in the area, or because it Industrial may render service to existing industry. This isillustratedin Georgia by the Develop- carpet industry in the Dalton area. ment Education Trends and From my 25 years experience inindustrial development and ten years in Forecasts school administration, I believe the following general plan of technical edu cation is worth consideration. Industrialartsinall junior high schoolsas an exploratory experience in the several facets of the trades A guidance program by counselors with a background in both industry and education The fallacy of the present setup is that thecounselorisstronglyaca- demically oriented and places too muchemphasisoncollegeat- p tendance for all those with high scholastic records A cooperative program during the junior and senior years with the areavocationalandtechnical

70 schools to give trainingto those Mills and equipment were obso- pupils best adapted to a particular lete. skill The local citizens were apathetic. Asales programinthehigh Low wage rates in the South en- schools to make vocational train- ticed industry. ing more appealing and togive Unions become overdemanding. greater status to trades Attend- ing college has been overempha- Wood Products sized by academicallytrained Although employment is decreasing in teachers and administrators. The the wood productsfieldbecause of old "lint-head" image of the fac- automation, thereisagreatdeal of tory worker needs to be replaced progress in development of new prod- with the knowledge that satisfac- ucts. There is a surge of interest now tion comes from using each inin plants for new wood products. dividual talent to the maximum. Mobile Homes Labor Shortage Today there are more than seventy Thisis,perhaps,irrelevantinMr. mobile home andrelatedplantsin Hammond's paper asthis is a tem- Georgia. These employ some 6,000 peo- porary problem and can change from pleprincipally menand willpro- area to area and from time to time. duce more than 25,000 homes in 1969. Modular homes is the next most prom- Raw Materials ising and logical step in this field. Perhapsitis wellto add to thelist of raw materials the large deposits of Industrial Promotional silica in Georgia. For the manufacture Organizations of high quality glass, Georgia silica is high iniron content.In the future. There is need for a greater coopera- economc measures may be developed tive effort among the many private and to separate this iron content. public agencies in the state. A professional organization,the GeorgiaIn- Movement of Textiles from dustrial DevelopersAssociation, is striving toward this goal. There is too New England much overlapping of activities par- There may be a lesson to be learned ticularly by theuniversities, and by from the movement of textilesfrom state, federal, and other governmental the New England states in order that agencies. Something should be done to we may avoid the same mistakes. Over study and remedy this situation. the years, I have talked with manufac- Other states with more coordination turers from New England, and these are whipping us to death on competi- are the reasons given for leaving that tive prospects. area. Industry was under one family's Research Center control too long. The members of A definite needexists foran intelli- the family ran out of the original gently planned research center such as talent. the North Carolina Research Triangle. Industry was taken for granted. An embryonic attempt has been started The community lacked awareness by Athens Area Chamber of Com- of the problems. merce in cooperation with the exten- Plants did not modernize. sion division. This should be developed The burden of taxation was too more fully and on a systematic plan great. by and for all Georgia.

71 Industry for South Georgia Setting a Goal Thisis the last frontier for industry. Itis important and should be re-em- The area should develop much more phasizedthat developersshouldap- rapidly. There are many advantages to proach industrial growth scientifically be accrued by industry'slocating in and analytically. For too long we have this section of Georgia. Water, so im- chased every rumor and every kind of portant to industry, abounds below the prospect. Wc should determine what fallline. Labor isavailable; sites are we have to offer, where we can meet topographically desirable; and there ex- a need or solve a problem. Then all ists less labor activity and a coopera- groups should pursue the kind of in- tive citizenry. Years ago, there were dustry Georgia could advantageously healthandclimateproblemsbelow support. This means research and train- thefallline. These have been elim- ing of professional industrial develop- inated by air conditioning and public ers. health programs.

72 MR. HAMMOND'S article entitled "IndustrialDe' ;clopment Trends and Forecasts" presents a reasonable and sobering evaluationof industrialdevelopment in Georgia. His analysis is most reasonable from the point of view that he has extrapolated current trends into the1980's without attempting to introduce any alternate "future" based on probable (but unpredictable)technological and social changes which will have a n,ajor impact on our industrial system. For example, some economists believe that ours is an incipient "post- industrial" society[Rostow's "beyond highmassconsumptionsociety "]in which our industrial system will soon become so productive that a14 reasonable wants (necessities plus luxuries) will be produced by a limited portion of the potentiallabor force. These econ- omistsregard the problem of the future almost entirely as questions of what to do with leisure time and excess production capacity and how to provide critique: a feeling of satisfaction and self-realization in the individual now supplied by Industrial his daily work. However, to most of Develop- us who are barely post-Keynesian in our economic thinking, itis difficult to ment see the arrival of any such utopia dui- Trends and ingthenextquarter of acentury, much less within .the timespan of the Forecasts 1980's. Therefore, Hammond has charted what I consider to be a prudent course for the future. Hammond's article is quite sobering in its prediction that unless drastic actionis taken Georgia's per capita income will not only continue to lag behind the national average, but may fall even further behind. Based on the fact - that the differential between state and nationalpercapitaincome hasre- - mained at approximately $650 over the - past two decades, there is certainly no obvious reason to suspect that we will break out of thispattern during the next 15years. The pictureiseven bleaker for some geographicalareas; e.g., whereas the income gap for the coastalplainsregions was $618in

73 1950, by 1965 it had deteriorated tc best useits limited resources to pro- $977. mote desirable activities. To date, the Hammond makes the point crystal Commission has identified the follow- clear that only a determined and major ing factors as being significant. program will help Georgia catch up The technical knowledge which with thenationalaveragewhich I makes new technology possible think any Georgian would consider to A community climate which is re- be at least a minimal aspiration. Ham- ceptive to innovation, change, and mond stresses the fact that improve- growth ments will not come easily and cheaply A political and governmental struc- and must be paid for not only in time, ture which encourages new tech- money, and labor, but in societal and nology industrial dislocations and diseconomies Availability of necessary labor and occasioned by a rapidly changing situa- management skills tion. Assuming that a consensus can be A sufficient supply of risk-taking formed in Georgia that the end objec- entrepreneurs tive is well worth the effort, then Ham- Availability of venture capital mond's blueprint for action offers con- Effective distribution and marketing crete recommendations as to how the systems situation can be remedied. Good schr is, climate, and recrea- One of Hammond's recommenda- tional faci,-s tions pertains to the attraction of high Adequate 1,,w-cost "incubation" technology industry in order to build facilities up Georgia's wagestructure.Along Taking one of these factors as an this lineitis interesting to note that example, viz., financing,itis interest- since its inception in 1964, the Georgia ing to note how closely the Commis- Science and Technology Commission sionagreeswithHammond,who has recognized the need to strengthen states: Georgia's scientific and technical base "The financial picturein Georgiais in order to help attract high technology neither good nor bad, as far as indus- industry. Thus the Commission created trialdevelopmentfinancingiscon- cerned. The state has at its disposal an the Ocean Science Center of the At- average array of financial tools. How- lantic to bring oceanography to Geor- ever, there is nothing daring or inno- gia, and is currently studying in depth vating which one could expect in a the possibility of establishing a mechan- state which real zes thatit has a long ism for bringing biotechnology or some way to go to catch up with the U. S. other segment of the rapidly-growing indices for industrial development." health science industry to Georgia. The Commission, initsJulyreport As Hammond points out so cogently: of the Nigh Technok,y Industry Com- "The most easily identifiable solution mittee, also stressed the need for more to this [low per capita income] dilem- innovative ways of financing the crea- ma is to organize, plan, and implement tion of new high-technology industries. a program aimed at the attraction of In follow-up action, it hopes to make high-technology industries, those which an impact in this area. are also high-paying industries, so that the maximum impact will be produced Important as the growth of high on the per capita income picture." technology industry may beand we This agrees with the position taken by must face up to the fact that it is defi- the Commission ininitiatinganin- nitely a long-term endeavorit should ternal study several months ago (a) to not be overlooked that a more immedi- identify those factors having an impor- ate solution to many of the ills (unem- tant role in creating or attracting high- ployment and underemployment)suf- technology industry, and (b)to de- fered by many small towns and rural termine in what way the state could communities in Georgia may liein

74 attractionofrelativelylow-paying, continuing adult education and voca- labor intensive industries. Nevertheless, tional courses. The education problem in the long run if Georgia is to get out will not be solved easily nor cheaply; of the low-income trap in which the nevertheless it must be done, for Geor- entire South finds itself, it must look to gia's future rests heavily on our success better-paying hightechnology industry in significantly upgrading the education as a partial solution. of the next generattion. To implementtheprogramsdis- In summary let me say that Mr. cussed above and described in greater Hammond has written a very compe- detail in Hammond's article, a definite tent, thought-provokingarticlewhich increase inthe level of education in will be important to anyone interested Georgia willberequired.High-tech- in the economic development of Geor- nologyindustrywillrequiremore gia. The article is sobtifing. Mr. Ham- scientists and engineers, more techni- mond "tells it like it is". But he offers cians, and more skilled' labor. This need possiblesolutionsto Georgia's indus- willprove a continuing challenge to trialdevelopment problemssolutions our educational system to provide moti- which pose a challenge to each of us. vation and ever higher levels of educa- The economic futureof Georgia de- tion to students from preschool grades pends upon our reaction to this chal- through college level, to and including lenge.

75 AGRICULTUREis a broad subject. This giant has made change faster than any industry I know. Change will eon finite to the keyword because tech- nolog] ...creasing at a rapid rate. Iforesee somewhat limited expan sioninGeorgia's agronimic cropre. sources. Our greatest expaosion areas are in livestock and poultry. Good pos. sibilities lie. ahead for beef and swine. Bu'. operation and management of these sy,items in 1985 will be quite different from today's operation and management systems. Broilers and commercial layers will continue to be leaders of farm income in Georgia. Expansion in these areas will continue. The outlook for vegetable productionis good. The Southeast is one of the fastest growing areas in the coun- By Fred W. Greer, M.A. try.Also, we have the advantages of location, land availability, and water. Our need is for more food processors. Georgia's forest industry is a great industry. However, itis in real danger due to severe taxation problems. Ad- Agriculture in Georgia justments must be made to prevent crippling this tremendous industry. The need for forest products is increasing. The opportunitytofillthisneedis Georgia'sif we handle the tax situation properly. The greatestpotentialforagricul- ture lies in the agribusiness sector. This includessuchthingsasprocessing, marketing, and distribution. This is the areathatmultiplies dollars. Agribusi- nessisthe area that means employment. Our energies must he behind the development of these industries. They support and utilize Georgia's farm and 0 forest products. The number of farms will continue I. to show some decline. But farm units will become larger and more highly capitalized. They will need more tech- nicalassistance. More of these units will become incorporated to take ad-

77 vantages of the benefits inherent in this future. Changes in the past have been type of agricultural structure. inallphases of production, harvest- There is a continuing need to keep ing, processing, anddistribution. But the general public informed of agricul. these changes will he dwarfed by those ture simportance.Itisessentialfor we will see by 1985. TechnolOgy and the publicto understandthe interre its application is increasing at a faster lationship of agriculture and industry. rate. The time lapse between discovery From farms and agribusinesses there or innovation and commercial applica- will continue to be a great demand for tion is decreasing. technological innovations, for research. Our peoplemust understandthat for development both from experiment agriculture is a fundamental industry. stations and from the private sector. It provides our basic needs. It creates Services rendered by the Cooperative new !production and new wealth each Ex;ension Service will become increas year. in short,it is the foundation of ingly important. There will be no less our survival. demand for vocational training at the Therefore, we must attempt to recog- high school and adult level. nize the changes that are coming and guide them in such a way that this Increased emphasis should be placed agricultural giantwill bestserve our on youth programs such as 4-H and needs. FFA. Our greatest resource is people. Our investmentinyouth brings the A Review greatest return. FourH and FFA are Ifeelitis important to review briefly the two programs that apply directly to where we have come from. This will agribusiness. But these programs have help us realize the speed with which a more far-reaching effect; they also we have reached where we are today. extend to urban youth. There have been more technological Programs thatwillassure a finan- advancementsin agriculturewithin ciallysoundclimateforagriculture most of our lifetimes than there were and agribusiness will be very important in all the history before we were born. in the future. In addition to a program Itis eye opening to see what has of agricultural policy, there will be a taken place in agriculture during this stepped up need for agribusiness train- century. At the beginning of the 1900's ing, research (both private and from the average farmworker in the United colleges and universities), and Exten- States produced enough food and fiber sion Services. for himself and six other persons. In 1968 he produced enough for himself and 43 others, including five persons living abroad. AGRICULTUREhas been one of Table I the fastest-moving, technologically ad- Gains in farm productivity have been vanced segments of our entire society. particularlysignificantinrecent dec- Change will continue to be the key. ades. From 1900 to 1940 the number This is because of many forces, from of persons supplied by one farmworker many directions. They include the ef- gainedonly 54percent.The next forts of research,technological inno- twenty-year span (1940-1960) saw this vations,efficiencies,laborsavingde- percentage more than double. And a vices, sophisticated uses of capital, and 64 percent increase has alreadyoc- the necessity to survive in a competi- curred during the first seven years of tive field. this decade. There is an urgency about adjusting Helping farmers achieve these im- present methods to meet changes of the pressive gains are the many workers in

78 the farm input or marketing industries. Likewise, there have been important Every farmworker is now backed up changesintheprincipalsources of by more than two nonfarm employees farm incomesome steady and some located at both ends of the food, fiber drastic. Crop farm receiptsincreasd and forest products pipeline. from $233,384,000 in 1950, to $367,- The idea of one mule per man and 423,000 in1965 to $414.970,000 in 40 acres isfast disappearing. Subsist. 1968. This is a substantial increase. but enceagriculture isathingof the nothing to compare with the increase past. Of necessity farms today are on inlivestockandlivestock,products. acommercial andvery businesslike These jumped from $119,928,000 in basis. 1950to$457,928,000in 1965to Agriculturein Georgia has under- $623,761,000 in 1968. (Livestock and gone impressive change s, especially livestock products presently make up over the past 15 to 20 years. Cash farm about 60 percentof Georgia'scash receipts have fluctuated during this pe farm receipts, compared to about 40 riod but have consistently increased. In percentforcrops).Themostsig- 1950 total receipts were $375,152,000 nificant change occurred in poultry and compared to $1,118,918,000 in 1968.1 poultry products. About 1956, or 13 The 1968 figure was $14,000,000 more years ago, poultry replaced cotton as than 1967. the largest single source of farm in- Expenses have also risen, however. come in Georgia. In 1950 poultry re- This, along with other factors to be ceipts amounted to $45,022,000, while brought out later, has contributed to a in 1968 they amounted to $374,174,. decrease in the number of farms and 000. Thisisan increase of over 83 the farm population. Farm population percent. has dropped from 320,000 in 1950 to 139,000 in 1965. This is a decrease of So the enterprise structure of Geor- 181,000almost 57percent. Figures gia's agriculture has undergone a vast for 1968 would reveal an even smaller shift. Twenty-five yeari ago more than farm population. At the same time the 75 percent of the state's farm income came from the sale of crops. This com- numberoffarmshasfallenfrom pares toless than 40 percent today. 198,191to 83,366. This is a drop of 114,825, or 58 percent. Currently, better than 60 percent of the income comes from livestock and Of course, the number of farms and livestock products. including poultry. farmworkers is by no means the standard by which agriculture and itssig- Investments in farm machinery and nificance should be measured. Today's equipment have grown rapidly. In ad- commercial farmer is operating a much dition to greater numbers of machines larger unit with a much greater amount of all types, there are larger machines, of capital. with more power and more specialized Comparing total cash farm receipts equipment. Machinery, equipment and in Georgia with the number of farms capitalhave becomesubstitutesfor and farm population, census informa- labor. tion reveals some interesting figures. In Chemical agriculture is also growing 1950 the per capita cash receipts were atanacceleratedrate. New insecti- $1,172; in 1965 they were $5,992. In cides, fungicides and herbicides to con- 1950theaveragecash receiptsper trol crop and livestock pests are be- farm were $1.894; in 1965 they were coming not only more important, but $9,955. These figures reveal some of morenecessary,eachday.Custom the growth pattern in Georgia's agri- services are becoming a common part culture. of the Georgia agricultural scene.

79 What Is This Thing to California in egg production. Almost onefifth of the nation's naval stores "Agriculture" in Georgia? and one fourth of its pecans arc pro- Today's agricultureisthe foundation duced here. of the most complex economy known Whether they knowitor not,all to man. Georgia's role is a big one. con,,umers have a close relationship to Agriculturalproducts producedhere the man on the land. For example, re- are enough to rank the state fourteenth cently milk deliveries in Chicago were in the nation, based on prices received. interrupted for just two days. and the Agricultureis important because it supply of milk was nearly exhausted supplies abundant food to satisfy our in that city. In some instances milk was exploding population. Equally import- sold only to those with a doctor's pre- ant, it provides the raw products which scription. keep a huge part of our industrial ma- But the relationship goes much fur- chine humming. ther than food supplies. Our efficient The typical farmer is quite different agriculture relieves manpower and from his popular image. Today's suc- otherresourcestoproduce non-food cessful farmer is a good businessman. consumer goods and services. Much of He isknowledgeableinplantand modern medicine, science and educa- animalscience,economics anden- tion is possible because almost 95 per- gineering. Of necessity, he must be a cent of our population is released from specialist of many fields. His capital directfarmingactivity andisthus resources are large. available for Work in other fields. And his number is declining. Fewer and fewer of these men are producing Interrelationship of more and more, on larger farms. In- Agriculture and Industry creased production to meet the needs This thing called agriculture in Geor- of the peoplerests more heavily on gia cannot beisolated and operated fewer people, people who can compete seperately from other segments of our in this day of keen competition, the state's economy. The interrelationship costrice squeeze, and advanced tech- of agriculture and industry is very nec- nology. essary, for one greatly depends upon Georgiansareoperatingapproxi- the other. This all comes together into mately 78,000 individual farms which a complex known as agribusiness. occupy more than half of the state's Only about one out of 10 Georgians land area. It takes an estimated three- works on a farm. However, agriculture quarters of a billion dollars invested in contributionto employment is much farm machinery to operate these farms. greater. The agribusiness complex sup- Included are more than 90,000 tractors pliesthefarmer andprocesseshis and an increasing amount of accessory products. In fact, more than 70 per- equipment and other specialized ma- cent of the state's industrial jobs de- chinery.Georgia hasapproximately pend on farm andforestproducts. 2,800mechanicalcotton harvesters. Two-thirds of the typical commercial These harvesters cost up to $26,000 farm's production costs arefor pur- each and are another example of high chased items bought from a host of capital requirements. Average figures sources away from thefarm. Farm do not tell a clear story at times, but families are regular customers for food, the average gross income per farm in clothing, medical care, furniture, ap 1968 in Georgia was $13,152. pliances,automobiles and thethou- Our state ranks first in the U.S. in sands of other consumer goods and production of broilers, peanuts, naval services. There is a vital bond between stores, pulpwood and pecans of im- agriculture and industry. Agricultural proved varieties. It ranks second only products must have a place to go after

80 theyareproduced.Industryutilizes mately 60 percent of Georgia's cash these products and also supplies the farmreceiptsfrom mark et ingsin needs for farm production. Itisnot 1968 came from livestock andlive- difftilt to visualize the complete circle stock products, including poultry. This formed in this chain of events linking amounted to $623,761,000. agriculture and industry. Each depends Georgiahas many naturaladvan- upon the other. tages for livestock and poultry pro- "Agribusiness" is a coined word that duction. The state is the hub of a very covers a big subject.Itincludes the rapidly growing area. Its people have sum total of all operations involved in pioneered in utilizing the latest tech- the manufacturing and distribution of nology. especially in the production of farmsuppliesandequipment;the poultryandeggs. Georgiaalsohas storage, processing and distribution of good natural resources for production farmcommoditiesanditems made oi forage for livestock. Much of the from them, as well as the actual on- land that had been used for crops, and farmproductionoperation.Another was actually ill suited for that purpose, similar concept of agribusiness isall has been more efficiently converted to those steps necessary in servicing, mar- livestock production. Of course, capi- keting,processing and distributinga tal,labor,controls and many other product from the time the product is limiting factors related to crop produc- produced on the farm untilit reaches tion have contributed to the expansion the consumer. of livestock. At one time, farm production alone Let us take a closer look at some of was the concept we interpreted as agri- the major livestock and poultry enter. culture. This is no longer true. In many prises. cases farmers are following their prod- Beef uct and are involved with it at various Georgia has experienced a definite levels of integration along its route to and strong upturn in cattle numbers in the consumer. recent years. The climate, providing a Agribusiness is a reality ... a giant long growing seasonforgrasses,is from which agriculture cannot be seg- good for beef production. Through re- regated. search and application of modern beef methods, Georgians have encouraged Productivity A Current Look growth of the cattle industry. We are a And a View for 1985 leading state in the nation in the beef Up to this point I have attempted to cattle improvement program. This pro- prepareanintroduction, reviewthe gram is processing data and providing past and to identify or define agricul- production records on over 10,000 beef ture. Now let us begin to look at the cattle at the present time and the num- statusofagriculturetoday and the berisincreasingrapidly. We have directions in which it may he moving jumped from a total of 1.396.000 cattle in 1985. and calves on farms in 1959 to a total of 1.870,000 as of January1,1969. Livestock and Poultry During this same time cash receipts Livestock and poultry have become from sales of these animals have risen more important income producers to from $62,099,000 to $92.661,000. The Georgiafarmersthanhavecrops. 1968 figure represents 8.9 percent of About 1956 or1957, livestock and the total cash farm receipts in Georgia. poultryforthefirsttimeexceeded Of the 10 states with the largest gains crops as an income source. A cur- in numbers of beef cattle over the past rent release by the Georgia Crop Re- five years. Georgia ranks seventh. with porting Service indicates that approxi- a 27 percent increase.

81 Still, Georgia remains a deficit beef provide additional problems, and third- producing area.Its potential for pro- ly. foreign beef imports into this coun- ductionislimitednot SG much by try. physical factors as economic factors. A Other areas in the world which are commercial cowcalf operation returns presently increasing cattle numbers are a low net profit on investment. Invest. in South America. New Zealand and ment and land cost, at present prices, Australia.With lowcostlandand are high. Good brood cattle are expen- labor,thesecountries areproducing sive and other capital investment ex- beef ata much lower cost than the penditures are large. Only top mr.na- U.S. If we allow imports of beef into gers of commercial cow-calf operations this country without restriction, then can make a reasonable profit. Manage- there is a possibility that we could not ment is a key factor. economically affordtoproduce beef I am convinced that feeder calves under our present costs. This factor, can he held and fedfor additional of course, relatesdirectlyto import- profit in Georgia. Grain can be shipped export policy of this country. into the state at less cost than we can Regardless of these policy situations, ship feeder calves out of Georgia to Ibelieve land costs will continue to otherstates,havethemfedthere, increase. Therefore, our producers will slaughtered,andtheircarcasses he seeking more efficient, better gain- shipped hack to Georgia. Many good ing livstock and increased profitper managers in Georgia have been able acre.Ibelieve the cost trend will be to make good profits feeding steers and such by 1985 that one cow per two heifers in this state. As in any busi- acres of land will not be economically ness, management seemstobethe feasible. The result is that we will find limiting factor. Most Georgians have more confinement and drylot feeding not had the years of experiencein of beef. The acres of land will be used cattle nianagenentthat some cattle- on an intensive basis for production of men in the midwest and far west have forages which inturn will he fed to had. However, we are learning. the cattle for more efficient utilization The number of cattle in Georgia will and a higher output of beef on a per continue toincrease. Even thoughit acre basis. We will continue to need is an enterprise with a low profit mar- research to find better ways for this ginparticularly inbeef cow-calf efficient utilization and to develop ani- operationswe stillhave large areas mals with a high gaining capacity. in the Coastal Plains which could be Our beefcattlenumbers willbe converted to pastures and other for- larger in Georgia by 1985. The number age producing units. In addition, our of units will be fewer but larger. And experiment stations and other research they will he more efficient than those units are continuing to developeffi- we see today. Georgians will he feeding ciencies of production related to breed- more steers and heifers for the fed ing, better forages, antibiotics, growth slaughter market than they are feeding stimulants and better performance test- today. One of the next major steps will ing for animals. he increased integration in beef cattle Iforeseetilt-1'edefinitesituations, industry. We probably will see a signi- any of which could greatly hinder beef ficant turn in this direction. cattle operations in Georgia, particular cow-calf units. The first pertains to in- Dairying creased land cost which necessitate a Productionandconsumption of higher return per acre to justify its use Grade A milk in Georgia is gradually for beef cattle production. Secondly, on an increase, with the increasein continued increases in ad valorem taxes population. However, the number of

82 milk producers in Georgia has been In many cases, alternative uses of the deer The remainingdairymen capital are more attractive. I see some- in:I., ateare growing larger and what of a stabilization within the dairy moreefficient.Dairyingisindeed a industry in the not too distant future. specialty field. Not only has herd size Swine increased, but average production per cow has increased as well. Pork productioninGeorgiaisa The state's 1.200 dairy farmers rep. growing business.Historically,Geor- resent an investment of at least $160.. gia has not produced top quality hogs. picture is changing 000,000. However,this inGeorgia re- rapidly. We have changed from an area In1959 dairymen used as ceived$49,734,000incashreceipts where hogs were primarily from dairy prdoucts compared to $64,- crop gleaners to first class pig parlors 544,000 in 1968. Agribusiness gener- and farrowingoperations.Efficient ated by dairying greatly increases this. management and an adequate supply Processing and distributing milk and of grain are essential. Good markets its products provides 15,000 jobs and are available in most areas of the state. an annual payroll of $35,000,000 in The competitive position of hog pro- the state. ductionisnaturallyof interest.As I am convinced that we willcon- acreages of allotted crops in Georgia tinue to see a decline in the number of have been reduced, many farmers have dairy farms. However, therewill be sought other enterprises to utilize their much larger units than we have ever labor andland. Swine productionis large scale one adjustmentopportunity available known before.Iforesee to farmers in the state. Thus we have inshifts operationsthatwillmilk seen this industry grow rapidly. around the clock by 1985, Some of Georgia is still a deficit pork produc- these units will contain from 500 to ing area. Large quantities of pork con- 1.000 animalsinthemilkingherd. Though we will continue to see milk sumed here are produced in the Mid- substitutes take a larger portion of the west and shipped into the state to be market, milk will continue to be vital slaughtered. and in demand. Thenumberofhogsdecreased 1950'sto the Investment capital needed for dairy- slightly from the late middle 1960's but now have begun to ing, already higher than for any other increase again: The number of hogs type of fanning enterprise,will con- inGeorgiain 1959 was1,728,000. tinuetorise. The dairy industryin recent years has been built on a foun- Cashreceipts from hogsthatyear totaled $52,876,000. Numbers in 1968 dation of production records, probably amounted to over 1,300,000, yet the more so than any other area of agri- much culture. Selective breeding and produc- incomeof$73,552,000was larger. tiontestinghave made for efficient production by the dairy animals. We seem to be in a real era of swine By 1985 I expect no more than half production opportunityinthestate. the number of dairymen we have to- Georgia farmers are studying this busi- day. The capital investmentinthese ness carefully and areapplying the businesses willeasily double or triple bestmanagementskills.Heretofore, what it is today. much of Georgia's swine production Dairying will take this trend because has been secondary to other farming of the high degree of specialty required activities. inanimal breeding, management and In my opinion, one ofthe most nutrition. In addition, the industry re- rapidlychangingagriculturalbusi- quires constant supervision and;kill. nesses in Georgia is swine production,

83 We are seeing quite a number of units point since 1965. The hick was $2_24,- being installed across the state and be- 903.000 in 1966. ing operated very efficiently. I look for The broiler industry provides many hog production to become highly spe- jobs through thefeedindustry.pro- cialized. It will also become somewhat duction of birds; processing, marketing of an integratedindustry. similar to and distribution. The Geo.-gia poultry the level of poultry, by 1985. This does industry utilizes more than double all not mean the swine industry will be as the corn production in Georgiarep- large as the poultry industry in income. resented by 1,455,000 acres and 58,- I do not believe swine will increase to 200,000bushelsproducedherein that extent. However, Ifeelthat the 1968. swine industry in Georgia will become The broiler industry is highly inte- closely associated with feed and slaugh- grated with feed companies andpro- ter companies which willassistwith cessors handling in most instances the financing and management of each op- entire production, processing andmar- erationfrom farrowing toslaughter keting of these birds. The production to distributing to retailers. of broilersis indeed the most highly We will see very sophisticated pro- integrated agricultural industry in Geor- ductionunits. We have already wit- gia. nessed some of the most advanced re- Georgia has been a leader in poultry search on swine breeding, feeding and research and development. I management in see no recent years. This is reason why itshould not continue to only the beginning. he in he forefront. I believe the poul- In summary, the swine industry in tryinterestsinGeorgia will become Georgia will grow quite rapidly on a much larger than at present. Disease very highly specilized, and eventually problems, along with ventilation prob- highly integrated, basis. This should be lems for housing, will he solved so that a growth industry thataffords good we will have a half million to one mil- opportunityforGeorgia farmers.It lion bird broiler operations in a con- will be highly automated, and, unlike centrated area. (These operations will the dairy industry, will afford farmers produce from one-half to one million the opportunity to handle other enter- birds per week.) The centers for pro- prises andactivitiesrelatedtoagri- cessing,handling,freezing,shipping, culture. etc., will very likely become a part of some of these larger units. Broilers There will be a larger increase in the The story of Georgia's broilersin- number of broilers, but at a more even dustryisa phenomenonitself. Most rate than we have seen in the past. The of us are aware of the fact that Geor- technological advancement andeffici- gia ranks first in the nation in produc- encies of production, such as housing tkn of broilers. In fact, Georgia pro- and processing, will probably continue duces almost one-fifth of the nation's at a rate faster than other agricultural supply. The 437,000,000 broilers pro- enterprises. This is due to the research duced in the state in 1968 would pro- that has already been done, plus the vide every man, woman and child in many biological advantages that poul- the United States with more than two try offers for experimental pwposes. broilers each. Difficult as it may seem, Ioresee by Broiler production in 1968 was 815 1985 advancements and changes in the times that of 1935. In terms of income, broiler industry comparabletothose this industry sold 5200,249,000 worth we have seeninthe past 15 years. of livebirdsin1968. The level of There will be significant advancement broilersaleshas hovered nearthis in the utilization or end product use of

84 the broileritself.particularlyinthe The commercial egg industry is here form of food products for human con- tostay.In Georgiaitisa growing sumption. industryone which we will not recognize in 1985 in comparison with to- Commercial Layers day. Georgia's commercial egg industry isarelatively new one, butithas Crops grown by leaps and bounds. In this sit- Georgia's crop resources have been a uation, there have been man; prob- source of livelihood for farmers since lems, particularly in areas of market- the first settlement of thisstate. And ing. Georgia startedinthisindustry historically, until 1957, crops held the with the latest in technology and equip- reign of being the main provider of ment. Other areas of the county had agricultural income. At that point live. obsolete housing and equipment and stock and poultry took the lead. There outmoded production practices. Geor- are many reasons for this. Georgia had gia changed quickly from an importer many small farms that were inefficient of salable eggs to one of the major and not suited or adapted for econom- exporters in the country. Our state now ical production of certain crops. ranks second in production in the U.S. Inrecentyeatstherehavebeen Commercial egg procri Lion in 1968 rapidtechnologicaladvancesinthe accounted for $174,000,000 incash form of better seeds, agricultural chem. farm receipts. Georgia's egg farms are icals,mechanizationandlargerop- increasing in size, efficiency and grade erating units. These factorsall com- of specialization. An increasing num- binedto have a definiteimpact on ber of these farms exceeds 50,000 hens Georgia's crop economy. In the future, each. Georgia is geared for production some of Georgia's crops are going to of eggs.It has done much to develop play alesserrole than inthepast a system of marketing here and has whileotherswillbecome moreim- linked with a national system. There is portant. There is one other important no reason to look for anything other factor which I feel has contributed to than a continued increase in egg pro- crop diversification, and also to an in- duction. However, the rate of increase creos (.!in livestock. That is, with cer- will be less than we have experienced tain '.igh fixed costs of land, buildings recently. Operations will become larger and equipment, yet with limited restric- and more highly specialized. By 1985 tions imposed by various crop allot- Georgia's egg industrywillhave in- ments, our farmers have been forced creased substantially from what itis to find other means and methods on today. We will find it a very competi- the farm to produce income.his also tive industry with quite a bit more in- hase contributed to the increased num- tegrationsimilar to what we find in ber of larger farm units. it broilers today. But we willstill see a Now let us review the major crop number of independent growers mar- enterprises. keting top quality eggs quite competi- Peanuts tively. Commercialpeanutproduction is The industry will continue to see its concentrated 4n the Southwest Coastal ups and downs as far as prices are Plains area of Georgia. Production of concerned. However, with larger units peanutshas become rapidlymecha- coming into being and aollinind egg nized. Harvesting methods have been marketing structure existing and grow- streamlined. Most peanuts are sold in ing initseffectiveness, we are likely bulk at harvest time. Under the pea- to see more steadiness or leveling of nut acreage program, the total acreage prices. plantedinthe nationisrigidly con-

85 trolled. Farms haveindividualallot- The peanut has made many contri- ments based on history of peanut pro- butionsto mankindin many ways duction on that particular farm. Pea- other than as a food product. Through nuts are considered by farmers to be ret,e.zchI hope that more uses can one of their favorite crops. Itis one be found for this commodity and that of their higher income producers. its market potential will be expanded. Georgia leads the nation in peanut In summary. Iforesee limited expan- production, with one-third of the U.S. sion in the peanut industry of Georgia supply. For several years peanuts have by 1985. led Georgia's other crops in providing the highest cash receipts. We have seen Tobacco peanuts more than double in the cash Tobacco has long been known to value sold from 1959 to 1968, yet on Georgia farmersinthe tobacco belt a smaller acreage Some 490,000 acres as being the most important cash crop of peanuts in Georgia produced cash tobefound.Everythingelsewas to farmers in 1959 of $47,024,000. In dropped when tobacco needed tending. 1968 an acreage of somewhat less than For severalyearsithas consistently 480,000 produced an income of $111,- been a top money crop, second only to 464.000. Georgia has experienced one cottonat one time and now second of the most rapid gains in production, only to peanuts. The 1960 value of the practically doubling the yield per acre Georgia tobacco crop was $77,335,000 in less than 10 years. compared to the 1968 value of $77,- There are rigid acreage and price 372,000. The value of this crop has control restrictions on peanuts. These varied only slightly over the years. are necessary to prevent a surplus, for Georgia produces a very high qual- our potential to produce these nuts is ity flue cured tobacco that is much in tremendous. I can on'.y see conti ,',ed demand. However, its potential for fu- tight controls. unless for some reason ture 'expansion is somewhat limited. I there is a substantial increase con- foresee no drastic changes for the to- sumption or usage requiring th;:. nee.1 bacco situation in Georgia for 1985, for increased production. except that we will probably have a Iactually foresee more restrictions smaller acreage. Thisisparticularly or reducedallotmentsforthis com- true if government restrictions are still modity, simply because productionis in effect. We seem to find that tobacco outstripping the use and consumption farms, like others, are becoming larger of these nuts. In addition, soybeans are units of operation. The smaller allot- having their impact, along with other ment farms are ceasing production due substitutes, in competition for peanuts, to labor shortage and other restrictions. Also, other areas the country have Cotton great potential for,roduction of pea- So many things could be said about nuts. Georgia will probably continue to this crop. It has so affected the econ- he a major producer, but with limits as omy of this state that a short statement to how far it can go in the future. here would not adequately coverits By 1985 I foresee that Georgia will truesignificance.Cotton,Georgia's be very much in the production of pea- leading crash crop for many years, has nuts, but with a smaller acreage and taken a lesser position in recent years. yields double what theyaretoday. As most of us know, at one time Geor- There will be fewer commerci?l shell- gia'swell-beingpractically depended ers of peanuts, but itis my hope that on the cotton economy. There have more firms that process nuts will be been many factors to change this pic- brought into Georgia and the South turemostly for the good. As a result near the source of supply. of cotton'sdecline, we have seen a

86 greatdiversificationinGeorgia agri- duction on an economical basis_ Unless culture and a more healthyagricul- legislative measures build larger prob- tural economy. By the same token, the lems for Georgia cotton producers, I declineof cottonhas createdother believe that we will still have some top problems.includinglabormigration units by 1985. Nevertheless, I believe and other effects on small rural com- the number of farms producing cotton munities and also on larger cities- will be less than half the number to- We have seen cotton slide in rank day. Acreage planted will be compar- to generally fourth and fifth positions able. This may be. a maximum fore- as a major cash crop to Georgia farm- cast as far as acreage planted is con- ers. The year 1967 represented the low- cerned. I cannot foresee bright oppor- estacreage and lowest cash income tunities, as several other areas of the ($31.833,000) of any time in Geor- world are presently of ts;ripping us in gia's history. As a comparison the de- conk)! production,partieutarlycost- cline trended down from 655.000 acres wise. in1959valuedat$85,907,000to In my opinion, the:i--4!atc..t bearing 395,000 acres valued at $31,833,000 in of all will be the response or effect of 1967. In 1968 the figures were slightly worldsupply and export-importbal- higher. Much of the Georgia agricul- ances. I do not believe that legislative tural sector has been "geared out" of measures are going to protect cotton cotton production for alternatives such in this country to the extent that it has aslivestock, poultry,soybeans a n d in the past, and to this extent anc' de- corn. These crops ,have been readily gree Georgia cotton producers will be applicable to mechanization. affected. Cotton has been a problem crop to Prices of cotton have opened the many producers. A breakthrough for door for manmade fibers tofillthe efficient cotton producers came when need at lower cost. In 1968, cotton had allotments could be transfuTed from to forfeit its crown as it was removed one county to another in the state. This from its top spot in relation to man- allows for consolidation of allotments made fibers. Man-made fibers took 52 and for a farmer to secure an allotment percent of the total fiber consumption large enough for the high mechaniza- in 1968, with cotton being 43 percent.2 :ion needed for this crop. In addition, Cotton must very definitely reckon in research has made varieties available some manner with man-made fibers in to Georgia producersthatare com- the years ahead if itis to survive. parable in fiber qualities to those grown Soybeans in the western United States. As a re- Soybeans have been called Georgia's sult, we have seen tremendous progress "Cinderella crop" and rightly so. Soy- in the quality of cotton grown here beans have made a storybook stride in Georgia. Hers : fore, much of our into the agricultural economy of Geor- allotment was invery small acreage gia in recent years. As late as 1963 scattc..ed ov.pi'nany small farms that Georgia harvested only 106,000 acres were int!.:116- .2nd uneconomical units. of beans representing sales of $4,1.27,- Today -; :' Georgia's farmers are 000 to farmers. The year 1968 saw ,?,eared aeleage and high qual- Georgia harvest over 600,000 acres of i;), production. They are producing a soybeansreturning$21,520,000to qualitycotton meeting thedemand-i growers.Soybeans haveprovideda of textile manufacturers. cash crop and alternative cor farmers I do not see a major comeback for seeking new ways to increase their in- cotton in Georgia, but I sincerely become. At present there are no acreage lieve that the top15 percent of pro- restrictions on beans, and expansion has ducers in this state will continue pro- been quite rapid. It has taken up the

87 slackfeltby so many from cotton. Corn Much of thcredit to this expansion Corn has made great progressin in Georgia should be given to the edu- Georgia. It has come from a secondary cationaleffortsa n dassistanceby crop position, or one just to provide county agents and agronomists of the feed on individual farms, to a major University of Georgia Cooperative Ex- cash crop. Our farmers have approach- tension Service. In addition, our ex- ed corn production on a very business- perimentstationshavemadegreat like basis and our better producers are strides in developing varieties to meet returning per acre yields comparable the particular needs of the areas in tothose growninthernidwestem which they are grown. Soybeans are states. Farm income from corn sales very sensitive to soil and light condi- in Georgia in 1968 amounted to $38,- tions and varieties must be adapted 883,000. This was down considerably that will more closely fit the demands from the all time high of $52.223,000 of the area in which they are grown. in 1967 the best year in Georgia corn I do not think we can expect ex- history. However, 1968 was a poor pansion to continue as rapidly asit year due to drought conditions in many has in Georgia over the last three or areas of Georgia. for SS. We have seen a rapid ex- of beans in many other areas Corn yields climbed from an aver- ...inbout the country arid have for age of 27 bushels per acre in 1959 to the al) thefirsttimereachedasupplyto time high of 52 bushels per meet the demand for this commodity. acreona statewide basisin1967. Nevertheless, research has discovered Over half of Georgia's corn production many synthetics and products for which is used on farms where itis grown. soybeans are used. They can be, grown Adding the value on corn used on the economically and rcturn great yields farms to that for cash sales places the of protein on a per acre basis. We seem total value of corn grown in Georgia in excess of $80,000,000 annually.3 tobe onathreshold of additional breakthroughs fortheiruseinsyn- Though we have made great strides thetics, food'Aid many other products here, abouttwo-and-a-half timesthe that will be beneficial to mankind. total of volume of corn production in Unless we haverigidrestrictions Georgia is used in this state annually placed on soybean production, I fore- for poultry feeds alone. In other words, see Georgia making a continued expan- we are a corn deficit producing state. sion in bean nrodtction. Varieties have I cannot foresee Georgia in the next been adapted that will meet Georgia's 15 years meeting its grain needs. And needs, and our producers are becom- I cannot believe that we should make ing educated rapidly as to the specifics an all-out effort to do this, as the mid- required for high yield production. western area foreseeably will be able to Inaddition,themarketishere. economically produce much more corn Georgia's need for additional soybean thanitis presently producing. How- meal for poultry feed alone is r tortu- ever, our progressissignificant here ous and will continue to grow. The with new varieties, chemicals, mechani- most modern soybean facility in the zation, andirrigation.Ican foresee world has just been completed in Val- Georgia having the potential to double dosta and willserve as a marketing its corn yields by 1985. We are seeing facility for handling all soybeans pro- a great influx of irrigation. In addition, duced in South Georgia and surround- plantbreedersarecontinuingtheir ing states. The future looks good and eUrts to develop a corn plant with the Iforesee a very significant expansion potential of producing from 300 to 500 in soybean potentials by 1985. bushels per acre.

88 We have seen quite an increase of silage. Our potential for livestock ex- farm grain storage units related to corn pansion lies in this area. The contribut- drying and storing. We will continue to ing factor from increased forage pro- see this for sometime. The cash crop duction in Georgia is not going to be aspect of corn is going to continue up- direct dollar income from these prod- ward here in the state. ucts but instead as marketed through and beef. In my opinion forage Forages production is going to be a major key Forage production may seem to itQ ,,.mtinued i;vestock expansion and an insignificant aspect of Georgia's fu- the means by which livestock produc- ture agricultural economy. However, I tion will be a profitable enterprise for feel I should point out this segment of Georgia's economy. farm productivity because it wrn become significantly more importai., than it is today. Forages include hay, silage, Vegetables and Truck Crops haylage,greenchop andallother Surprisingly to many people, Geor- roughages thatare normallyfedto gia's truck crop income is quite sub- cattle in this state. Georgia is naturally stantial. The 1967and1968 crops blessed with climate and resources for brought receipts to Georgia farmers of abundant production of grass and for- $43,585,000 and $40,224,000 respec- age. We havealready madegreat tively. Many things are in our favor for strides in grasses, an example of which moving forward in this field. We have is Coastal Bermuda. This grass alone in Georgia some of the finest farmers' has contributed much to the pasture markets to be found anywhere. In addi- quality and production in Georgia and tion, due to location and natural,-e. alsoto the hay segment which has sources, I believe that Georgia will be allowedfortheexpansionofthe able to attract major food companies Coastal Bermuda pellet industry. into its southern region. These will pro. In addition, due to labor shortages 'vide an increased market for farmers. and a need for higher returns and more We have made some gains in contract efficiency per acre, silage and haylage farming of vegetables, but most is still have been on the increase. Silo con- &Nit>, on a small unit, individual basis. struction has been on a rapid rise in Peas, beans and turnipgreens have Georgia, znd I feel this trend will con- madesignificantincreasesinrecent tinue. A review will show that the mid- years. Theseitemsaremechanically western area of our country is quite handledthroughouttheproduction well establishedinsilos and is even process. continuing this expansion. In compari- To a great extent, vegetable produc- son, the Southeast and Georgia have tion in Georgia is an untapped enter- really just begun to move in this area. prise that can become a better income The livestockindustryexpansionin producer for Georgia farmers inthe Georgia is requiring this in:Tease. Dairy- future.Georgiashould make every men have found that con olidation of effort to attract food processors. Vege- units, increasing herd size and the need table production would be handled by for more productionper cow, high contractual arrangements between corn- quality silage and haylage have helped nanies and growers. I feelthis is the to meet these needs. best approach to take. If we can make In addition, we are going to see the some breakthroughs with companies, a same trends in beef feeding. Presently, tremendous potential for our agricul- themost economical andprofitable tural economy lies in the area of vege. way to feed cattle in Georgia (steers table production. A change comparable and heifers for slaughter)has been to that which has taken place with soy-

89 beans could be made with vegetables in any other industry except that of tex- this state by 1985. tilemanufacturing.Yet the resource which supports this industry, growing Forest Resources trees, is in grave danger of becoming Inreviewingthenineteenareasof depleted through unreasonable ad va- study which the Commission on Educa- lorem taxes. tional Goals will review, I noticed that Let us not be mis: :d---Georgia is forestry was not included as a separate headed for a one-crop timber economy economic area. Forestry is of such ex- unless he trends in ad valorem taxation treme importance to the state's present on timber and timberland are changed. and future economy that I am includ- That one crop is, of course, pulpwood. ing it as a major topic. Its significance The Georgia law states that standing isgreater than most Georgians begin timber shall be taxed separate from, to realize. It has an important bearing and in addition to, the land upon which in that commercial farm acreages usua- itgrows. As the timber increases in ly contain a portion of timberland and size, the tax rate is increased. Under is the lifeblood of production income this system of taxation. growth which to many private individual owners as occurs the first year of the timber's life well as corporations. is taxed 29 times if the stand is har- A recentreportoftheGeorgia vested at 30 years of age. Growth put Forestry Commission showed approxi- on the second year is taxed 28 times mately 66,':00 jobs in Georgia's timber and so on through the rotation. :ndustry. These workers earned wages Allotheragriculturalcropsare and salaries totaling almost $300 mil- exempt from ad valorem taxes. Why lion. There are more than 900 forest nottreattimberasanagricultural industries in the state, and the eco- crop? Itis the one crop that has to nomic value generated by the timber be kept and nurtured for many years crop and its processing and utilization before any income can be realized. fur -tions amounts towell over one The sawtimber industryis doomed billion dollars annually. unless some more equitable system of During 1967 (latest figure available) taxation can be worked out for timber Georgia forest landowners sold almost and timberland. The promising new 1.2 billion board feet of sawtimber and southern pine plywood industrywill approximately51/2millioncords of never reach its great potential in Geor- pulpwood.Inaddition,therewere gia's economy as long as we have un- other valuable forest crops harvested feasonable tax rates on growing timber. such as pine gum, crossties, posts and The management program on Geor- stumpwood. This is the raw material gia's timberland is toward shorter and that provides 66,000 jobs, and these shorter rotations, meaning smaller and are the raw materials upon which an smaller treesand in the end the one- industry worth more than one billion crop timber economypulpwood. dollars a year to Georgia's economy is A determined effort was made in the based. 1966 General Assembly of Georgia to get a more equitable system of taxing Tax Dangers timber and timberland. Senate Resolu Unreasonable taxes can kill the state's tion15 was soundly defeated in the secondlargestindustry.Georgiais House of Representatives. Briefly, the seeking new industry on the one hand substance of this bill provided for the while greatly hindering, if not destroy- taxing of timberland according to its ing, her second largest industry. The productive capacity. Good land would timber industry now adds more to the be taxed at a higher rate than poor economy of the state each year than land.Surely thebill, haditmissed,

90 would have stabilized the tax situation or Broughton. Most of itis grown on on timber and timberland and thus some farm in a rural county'. would have been helpful to the timber In Rome thcre are more than 1.700 grower as well as to the county govern- workers in forest industry jobs. Almost ments. 600.000 cords of wood are needed fn: the citv's workers. but it is not grown in Land Ownership Pattern Rome. Georgia has a good land ownership In Augusta timber products gener- pattern.Therearealmost200.000 ate an industry valued at S23 million owners. Thismeansthattimberis annually. The wood is supplied by their available in all sections of the state tura] neighbors. and can be used to attract new wood- The timber industry is a matter of using industries. A reasonable tax pro- teamwork between ruralandurban gram will help maintain a large number forces. It should he quite evident that of owners and help maintain a varied trees are much more important as an and thriving timber economy. economic resource than as a tax rais- Time Is Money ing source. The growing of a tierrx crop takes Georgia. according to the reports of time. interest on the :ember growing the U.S. Forest Service, is now growing more timber each year than any state investmentsis oftenquiteburden- inthecountry except theStateof some. Many Georgia counties areal- Washington. Such a record was not ready taxing timberland at more than one dollar per acre annually. A land- easy to attain. It required much time, owner who pays $1.00 per acre per effort and expense on the part of thou- year for a 30.year crop of timber wil! sands upon thousandof Georgia land- pay the local government $30. How- owners.Ifthistimberresourceis ever, wisely managed, wisely harvested and if this costis compounded an- wisely taxed, Georgia's annual billion nually for the 30-year period at 6 percent, the cost to the farmer is not $30 dollar timber industry can grow to a but $79.06. If an acre of land is taxed two billion dollar industry. at $1.00 an acre for 40 years and com- After ProductionAgribusiness, poundedat6 percent thetaxcosts amount to$154.80 peracre.With The Important Link pulpwood valued at$7.00 per cord. Earlier Imentionedthe term more than 22 cords of wood per act agribusiness and made slight reference must be written off for the payment of to its meaning and significance. At this ad valorem taxes al, ne. point I will attempt to go a little deeper intothissubjef-A. Agribusiness repre- Value to Urban as Well as Rural sents a phase of business ptimarily con- WhenaGeL4giafarmerorother cerned with taking the raw product or timberlandownersellsonedollar's commodity through i,s route of pro- worth of stait141g timber, $12.10is cessing,distribution,marketing,etc. addedtothecommunity and .area There are forty-thme different types of through the harvesting, processing and agricultural industries in Georgia rep- utilizationfunctions.Muchofthis resenting over five thousand different value shows up inour cities inthe firms. It is this area that commands the form of jobs ler urban residents.In largcft work force related to the agri- Savannah, for instance, there areal- cultural segment of our economy. It is most 7,000 people working inforest alsothearea which requLesgro,at industries. The payrollis almost $45 sources of capital. It is truly the dollar million. This wood isnot grown on multiplierforagriculturalproducts. Bay, East Broad, West Bread, Barnard Producing over 4.4 billiondollars in

91 goods anti services each year. Georgia's ford the necessary capital investment agribusiness complex accounts for al- ri,:quirements needed. There has been most two-thirds of the state's economic 4i.lite a shift in this direction in very income.4 recent years. We are going to see a The backbone of this giant operation strong trend in this direction over the is Georgia's more than 1.1 billion dol- next fifteen-year period. lars worth of farm products. To pro- The pro6essing of agricultural prod- duce this output farmers spend more ucts has for a long time been one of than 7P0 million dollars on farm sup- Georgia's greatest needs. We are great plies zod other production expenses. producers of raw materials but in many This makes them very good customers instances we ship them out of state to of industry. be processed. Then the finished prod- uctis shipped hack . Thanks to Firm Service and Suppliers many sources and agencies, this trend The Georgia farmsuppiyindustry is being turned around. We are bring. benefits tremendously by furnishing the ing in more industry for processing goods and services necessary in today's these products here in our state. Still, modern agriculture. In 1967 Georgia we are deficit in this respect. A future rrners spent $252,000,000 for feed. challenge and opportunity for the state T nis was their largest single expense. lies in this area. If I can make one Stied and livestock purchases accounted point clear,itisthis great need for for , Sher $63,000,000 and fertilizer processingandmarketingGeorgia's aria lles added up to.ver $82.. agricultural products. The fifteen-year 000 F P.z.i.T.Ircandoperationof periodjustahead offers many chal- capita; items amounted to $96.5 mil. lenges and opportunities for attracting lion.Inaddition,$73,000,000was such industry to the state. Our farmers spent on miscellaneous operating sup. can supply companies' needs with the plies. Even more importantly. cash out. products and commodities. We must lays for capital items exceeded $119.- give our attention in this direction. 000.000. thus providing important sales for many small town trading centers as Imports-Exports wellas urbandistributionoutlets:. I want to point out here the significant Farm services and supplies are going to impact which import, and exports will play a more important role in the years have an Georgia agriculture. ahead through custom services, techni Our favorable agricultural trade bal- cal know-how, etc. ancethe excess of the value of our Agricultural Processing and exports over importsis one of the Marketing bright spots in today's U.S. balance of Many functions relating to the grad international payments account. Even ing, processing, packaging, and selling after this balance is adjusted for ex- of farm products have gradually moved ports for which no dollars were earned, from the farm to town. Many produc it amounts to hundreds of millions of tion operations which the farmer once dollars annually. It helps considerably didforhimself,such asfertilizer to offset some of the dollars drained spreading and crop harvesting and dry. from this country by such outlays as ing, are now being performed by alert defense expenditures, U.S, investment agribusiness firms on a custom basis. abroad and tourist spending. We export These services benefit both town and more agricultural products thanany country. They provide employment for other countryonefifth of the world's the people who live in the cities and total. These farm exports also make towns. They make services available to up one -fifthof allU.S. merchandise an individual farmer who could nut af. exports. Recently, agricultural exports

92 set many recordhighs. Fromfi....al fullyinworldmarkets. We cannot year 1960 to fiscal year 1967. their continue for any length of time on re- value rose over one-half. from 4.5 bil- strictions. protections. etc. In this in- lionto 6.8billion.then dropped to stance. our national policy and situa- 6.3 billionin 1968Y During the past tionnecessarily will dictate Georgia's two years. one out of ex cry four acres role in this phase in1985. However. of cropland has been used to produce some experts feelthat U.S. will products for export_ continue to play a greatr role in sup- Coming closer to Georgia. we are plying the world with food. If this sit- great e-sporters of poultry and poultry uation develops. particularly if popula- produ, particularly domestically. and tion outstrips technology and produc- quite d hit foreign also. Total agricul- tion ability in other countries, U.S. and tural exports from Georgia amounted Georgia farmers will stand in a better to S 1 ?.0,000,000 in 1966. position than at present. I feel that we Much has been said about the pop- should lean very he.vily toward ex ulation explosion, particularly abroad. panding our agricultural mark = t s but little has been said about the pro- abroad inthe next 15yeiirs for the th..tionexplosion, here or inother welfare of our agriculture and econ- countries. The term "explosion" may omy. )t he the proper one to use concern- Agribusiness Shopping Centers ing other countries, but we must reckon I feelitis important to mention here with the fact that world agricultural a development which will probably be productionisina strong comeback taking place in Georgia sooner than trend. Our technicalassistancepro- some people may realize. The concept grams are being designed to help coun- of agribusiness shopping centers is al- tries learn how to produce for them- ready being put into effectin some selves more efficiently. Many of our areas of the country. They are some- efforts are beginning to pay off in this what on the idea of shopping centers respect. as we know them now. except their Of course, increased production in purpose and location are different. foreign countries means greater com- These centers necessarily have to he petitionin world markets. To com- locatedinareas of high agricultural pete, we will have to price our prod- concentration. These would beagri- ucts at world market prices. cultural centers with various stores and It appears likely that world feed and businessesthatfurnishallfarmre- fiber requirements for the next decade, lated items used in repair and main- andpossiblybeyond ,willbe met tenance of equipment, petroleum sup- through the combined effect of more plies, feed, seed, and insecticides, her- substitutesandincreasedproduction bicides, etc., animal health facilities,fi- abroad. From a domestic .standpoint, nancialinstitutions, possibly livestock most agricultural economists feel that market,. and variousalliedagribusi the needs here can be with fewer nesses. crop acres thanarecurrently being farmed.Thesetrendswillcertainly Future bringpressuretoholdfarmprices One of Georgia's opportunities liesin down. II; have a profitable agriculture the expansion of existing agribusiness in such a competitive environment will industries, the creation of new firms require new and better ways to pro- and the bringing in of operations to duce even more efficiently than is cur- further process and market the state's rently being done. Prices must be main- farmandforestproducts.Georgia tained at levels that will enable U.S. riAks firstin the production of pea. farm commodities to compete success- nuts, with over athird of the U.S.

93 acreage of this crop. However. only a products that can he utilized for the portion of the cropisprocessed in benefit of consumers. Georgia. Georgia is particularly fortunate to establishedinAthens Producingallthe beef and pork have recently needed to meet Georgia's present de- the largest of the U.S. Department of mand wouldincreasefarmincome Agriculture's Regionat Utilization Re- from cattle and hogs by approximately search Centers which will house 145 $90,000,000 to SI00.000,000 annual- differentlaboratories and a research ly. This would provide opportunities staff numbering 460 people. This lab futureplant expansion and will seek new and improved uses of for the agricultural commodities in the South- added industrial payrolls. east. Georgia. of course, will he di- As the demand for food, fiber and rectly affected. This lab can provide a forest products accelerates in the fu. breakthroughforagribusinessa n d ture, Georgia has an unexcelled op- farming in Georgia and throughout the portunity to capitalize on itsnatural country. advantages,technologicalknow-how and leadership in the years ahead. Synthetics and Implications I think most of us are aware that many Agricultural Products products we use in our daily lives have Basically, we have made great progress changed considerably in one way or in areas of production of the raw prod- another in recent years. Probably one uct or commodity. I feel that we will of the major products "jumping the make even greater strides along these barrier" was the famous case of mar- lines.Technological innovations garine vsbutter. We are all familiar through research and development have with the answer there; margarine has made much of this possible. But this practically taken the market. We are is only one step. for capitalrequire. alsofamiliar with the situation with ments and other issuesalso have a fibers in which man-made synthetics ac hearing on success and progress. Still count for over 50 percent of the mar- there are great needs for breakthroughs ket. with cotton getting "the bounce." on technology. We need new answers Plastics have foundtheir way into to show how we can furtherutilize today's market and are filling many some of our more important crop and needs. forest resources. Continued erforts`must In terms of tonnage, meat substi- he made in the area of peanut research,, tutes are not a big thing, perhaps less development and marketing expansion. than one percent of the total meat ton- Other states are doing much inthe nage consumed inthis country. But name of soybeans. But Georgia has when production of these products on or should have the primary responsi- a per acre basis and on a cost basis is bility for peanuts, as we are the major considered, the meatless products show producers. quite an economical advantage. Our forest resources ar; the greatest The meat industry is in an excellent inthe southeast. Forest products re- position to take advantage of the nat. search should he continued and stepped ural preference for its products. How- up to more fully utilize the entire tree. ever, there are limits to the price dif- We have already made good progress ferential that can exist. in the areas of yields, harvesting and There are many other areas in which productiontechniques. But peanuts, synthetic products have made inroads soybeans and forestproducts ,h a v e into thetraditionalf o o dproducts. great potentialin the fields of food, There does exist a real threat to the medicine,synthetics and many end traditionalconcept of production of

94 certain typesof food and fiber.If chinery and equipment. with esery- prices commodities are raised thinghingingontheweather. Our through restricted production, orva- peopie recognize the fact that a ereat rious typesofcollectivebargaining risk of capital rests on the one factor activities without just compensation of water. Add-mama] investments are through quality or other fataars, then being made for irrigation units to as- synthetic products are bound to cap- sure having water to meet moisture ture an increasing share of the tradi- needs when rainfall is not adequate to tional food and fiber markets. Loyalty do the job. to taste and traditionis quite strong Conditions in Georgia inthe past in the food industry. However, if farm couple of years have set the stage for products are considerably higher priced widespread expansion of irrigation.I than substitutes, these substitutes will can foresee by 1985 a very significant eventually capture a great portion of increase of irrigationunits on cont- the market. mercial farms in the Coastal Plain area How does thisaffect the Georgia of our state. product picture by 1985? Itis going A leading Georgia agriculturistre- to be up to technological and practical cently expressed the thought that the innovations of using agricultural prod- agricultural future of Georgia would ucts to feed and clothe at a reasonable likely swim or sink on the basis of cost to the consumer. Efficienea-s of learning to use the underground water production and utilization will help in supply South Georgia. The Coastal providing a low cost"middle step" Plain region from Augusta, Macron and (processing.marketing,etc.)that Columbus southward contains billions could enable the farmer to receive a of gallons of water. This has been fair price and the consumer to make termedasthelargestunderground the purchase at a reasonable cost. We water supply in this country. Itis a must remember that, to prepare sub- very valvanle water resource whichI stitutes. basic raw materials and farm feelisdefinitelygoing tohave an commodities are used.Ipredict there important effect on the future of agri- will he such an advancefoent in further cultural production. I can foresee that utilization of agricultural products by thepresentinfancy of irrigationin 1985that we willbarelyrecognize Georgia will grow manyfold by 1985. thant as we do today. We have broken Its greatest impact will he in the area through in a new frontier of fast food of vegetable and forage production. items.ready-to-cookorready-to-eat products. all of which provide services Agricultural Occupations forthehousewifeinhercooking Shifts in the labor force and occupa- chores. All of this offers f^ In greater tional requirements inall fields have opportunity for expansion in the agri- changeddrasticallyinrecentyears. business segment. The shiftinagriculturaloccupations and needs have been no exception, Irrigation These needs are becoming more spe In recent years, irrigation in Georgia cific as we move toward more spe- has been fairly negligible and stillis cialized and h;ghly technical work in relatively small in relation to the total. agriculture and agribusiness. There is The exception is where high-cash crops a definite need for strong support to such as tobacco and vegetables are in. assure an adequate supply of properly volved. Most of the tobacco in Getr. trained people to meet future needs. gia is being irrigated. Large scale e*- mercial agriculture has thousands-of Human Resource Development dollars of capital outlay in land, ma- The only way our economy and civili.

95 zation can make advances is through Sersice from thehestresearchdata its people. We must he sure that our .isailablo have aided farmers in achiev- human resources receive proper train- ine fields and incomes that just a few ing -and education to fill the needs of sears ago were considered impossible. agriculture and industry in the years The dollar contribution coming from ahead. In the age of great technology agriculture in this state. made possible and advancement, there is no place for bytheExtensionService. would human manpower that is unskilled or amount to several millions of dollars unproductive. If we allow such a con- and would be many time-. more than dition to exist, chaos could result. Un- the costinvolvedinconducting the educated and untrained people cannot program_ operate businesses or technical equip- Inmoving throughtheyears to ment or machinery. 1985 we are going to have more sophisticated farmers. larger agribusiness Extension firms and a larger volume of produc- A great responsibility for carrying ade- tion. All this will necessitate Georgia's quate knowledge and assistance to the having the best available people,in people of our state, particularly those sufficientnumbers, onitsExtension in agriculture and agribusiness,rests staff to continue the present record and wilh the Cooperative Extension Service advance beyond it. The businessman - of the University of Georgia CoVnIle fanner andagribusinesspeopleare of Agriculture.I have seen the work going to demand it. Their needs are conducted by this organization. In my going to be great, and thewill rely opinion,itisthesinglemostim- on the latest research and techniques portant facet supplying farmers and to help them keep pace and stay ahead. agnbusinnss people with the latest Today's Extension Service continues know-how needed to push forward in to recognize its primary obligation to this field today. Georgia is fortunate commercial agriculture. but it is work- in having one of the very top Exten- ingon many new andchallenging sion ServicesintheUnitedStates. tasks. It is ,corking with area and com- There has been a great need for our munity development ot.inizations to people to seek and put to use experi- increase farm income and make com- mentaldatacoming fromour uni- munities mom desirableplacesin versities. Extension has carried out its which to live. It; working with many task in a magnificent manner. How- agribusiness firms371(i.with industries ever the responsibility of this job is related to agricultural productivity.it goingtobegreater and more im- is walking with more urban and sub- portant in the years ahead. urban 'ami/ies, with more low income With the many changes taking place groups, anditispromoting recrea- in agriculture,ithas been necessary tional development as another source foragencies and institutions serving of farm income. Education is its mis- agriculturetoreassesstheirleader- sion.Agriculturea n dagribusiness ship responsibilities. This has been par- must rely more heavily onthis or ticularlytrueof an educationalor- ganizalion in the years ahead. ganization such as the Cooperative Es The competent Extensionstaff of temion Service. They have a respons- county personnelissupported bya iaiity for providing farm people and staff of highly trained specialists. Eteini" others with information on which to a part of the faculty of the University, make sound decisions for today and Extension draws upon theresource.; for the future. Education is the key of the University as well as thusof tosuccessfulagriculture. Recommen- Inc U.S. Department of .Agriculture dations developed bytheExtension Itis an organization that cont4nipiy

96 re-evaluatesandredesignsitseduca- of sales. processing and marketing of tional program. agricultural products need young men The Extension programiscarried with this training and background. out in four major areasagriculture, The challenge to vocational educa- home economics, youth development tion in agriculture will he to see into and community resource development. the future far enough to make needed The demands of the giant agribusiness changes in curriculum and educational sector of our economy, plus its highly programs in order to present teaching commercializedfarms,aregoingto which is not outdated and which will he greater. The next fifteen years are prepare these young men to meet the going to place greater demands upon changes ahead. We most strengthen the resources of the Cooperative Ex- our vocational education iv agriculture tension Service of this state. We will he in high schools. failing to meet the needs and will slow our growth and development if this or- Youth Programs ganizationisnot -provided with suf- No lookinto agriculture could ficient personnel and funds to continue possibly he made without specialatten- and expand its program. tion to the youth programs which are agriculturally related. Vocational Education in Agriculture Irefertothe 4-F and FFA programs in this state. I Vocationaleducation inagriculture feel I am adequately qualified to speak programs are necessary. We are going concerning these organizations, the to need these programs more than ever need for them and the importance they in the next decade and beyond. This play both inagriculture and inciti- does not necessarily mean we will need zenshipand leadershipdevelopment. greater numbers in this program. To Our most important resource is people the contrary, we will likely have fewer, and the foundation should be star, d and therefore will need a strong pro- with our young people. gram. The writer has had the opportunity to see both sides of today's rural The 4-1-1 program inthisstateis and urban society. agriculture and in- under the direction and supervision of dustry, education and business. Fewer the Cooperative Extension Service. The people are living on farms. The trend Future Farmers of America organiza- inGeorgiawillprobablycontinue tion (FFA)isclosely related to the downward slightly. buttheneedsin programofvocationaleducationin agriculturallyrelatedindustriesa r e agriculture of the State Board of Edu- growing. These needswillhe even cation. These youth' programs are not greater by 1985. Itis a must that we related to agricultural youth only. They offereveryopportunitytoboysin- are made up of rural, rural non-farm, terested in agriculture. We must pre- urban and suburban members. sent them with proper training as part Enough good things cannot be said of their high school program. Most of about the 4-H program. It is undoubt- these boys have an agricultural back- edly one of the finest things going in ground. Thisisagreatasset when this country. Georgia should be espe- appliedinthe agriculturalfields and cially proud, as the birth of 4-H some businesses. This background and train- sixty-four years ago took place in New- ing can he broadened through proper tonCounty. Today Georgiaisthe ag training.Because fewer ofthese leader, with nearly 155,000 boys and boyswillhavetheopportunityto girls enrolled. This program should be- practice commercial agriculture on the come even more urbanized while con- farm does not lessen the need for for- tinuing to meet the needs of rural farm mal education in this field.All areas and rural non-farm boys and girls.

97 Four-H members have an opportu- "sweat and muscle" is not as great as nity to enter many varied p r o j e c t s ithas heen. However, thereisstill whichfittheirparticular needs. The a shortage of working labor on most oemandsonthe4-H programare Georgia farms. Due tothe cost price going to be considerably greater by squeeze and a general low return on 1985. This will be due to the increase many of our farms, farm laborers can- inthe number of youth eligiblefor not be offered the wages they can re thisprogram. However,eligibilityis ceive in other work. notthemain concern. Need isthe greaest concern I can see ahead. I rec- There is a scarcity of tractor drivers, ommend and encourage alleffort be- truckdrivers, farm machinerya n d hind this fine program. equipment operators, ctc. This type of The FutureFarmers ofAmerica labor will probably become even more (FFA) has a small enrollment and is scarce by 1985. designed with similar goals. However, With mechanization andincreased itis designed to meet a differentsit- technology, we are going to need fewer uation in many cases. This organiza- farmers by 1985 than we have now. tion is national in scope. The Georgia Probably only 10 to 15 percent of boys AssociationofFutureFarmersof on the farm today will remain there America stands near the top in mem- or go back aftertheir collegetrain- bership and quality of program. ing. But with the great expansion in FFA enables boys to handle projects agribusiness,the occupationaloppor- in close relationship to their study of tunities for them in this field are great. vocational educationinagriculture in Infact, thereisalready a need for high school. Through FFA theyre- more agricultural graduates than our ceivepracticalexperience withtheir College of Agriculture at the Univer- variousagriculturalprojects.Italso sity of Georgiais now turning out. provides leadership experiences which There is a very bright outlook for agri- prepare high school boys for any walk cultural graduates. The demand is of life. strong and I foresee a continuation of That there are fewer opportunities this in the years ahead. for young men to practice commercial farming as a fulltime career by no I think we can visualize that agri- means reduces the need for FFA or culture has a need also for top scien- vocational agriculture training in high tists who are not necessarily trained school. These boys needapractical with an agricultural career inmind. background and foundation for their There are many agribusiness firms and careers in agribusiness. organizationsthatarehiringmicro- In summary, I believe that our great- biologists, pathologists, mathematicians, estreturnoninvestmentiscoming etc. They also need efficiency experts, from our work with youth. I would industrial engineers and other techni- encourage investing more resources in cians. this area (4-H and FFA). This is one way to assure for the future leaders I believe there should be a change and citizens with the preparation to in the type of education that we arc meet the needs of farming and agri- providingouragriculturalstudents. business in the years ahead. We probably tendtospecialize too much. These students would probably Occupational Opportunities be more flexible and able to adapt to The great change we haveseenin rapid changesinagricultureifthey agricultural technology '-as greatly af- have a broader scientific base. More fectedourlaborrt.,.1,rements.The business coursesshouldbe included need for unskilled share croppers and in the curriculum.

98 Managers ness field, he must be further trained There is a serious shortage of quali- to meet the needs of thatparticular fied managers to meet the needs of our company.Farmfinanceinstitutions owner-operators in Georgia today. We train their men, agricultural equipment are in great need of a training cen- manufacturers teach theirs, food pro- ter to prepare men who are unqualified cessorsand,marketersfurtherpre- or do not wish to attend college. How. pare their people, service institutions ever, they could be trained for man- further develop their men and women. agement positionsatthe farm level. This need will continue. There is a serious shortage in this area But there must be more coordina- today. tion. We need to improve communica- With the high degree of specialized tions between businessmen and edu- equipment on today's farms, there is a cators. Too oftenbusinessmen hold need for people who are trainedto conferences butfailtoinvite educa- operatethesetractors, combines and tors.Also.educatorsholdmeetings various harvesters. and seminars but do not invite businessmen, in the future we must take Business Training positive actiontoestablish communi- Whatever agriculturaleducationis cation channels between educators and offered,ahighdegreeofbusiness businessmen. Thisispresently going training should be a part of it.Spe- on betweenExtensionServicea n d cifically,I am thinkinginterms of farmersandagribusiness groups.In accounting,bookkeeping,economics, fact, Extension is probably the leader record keeping,etc. Farmers of the in this area. future will have to be good business men. Farming is big business now; it Agricultural Structure will be bigger in the future. We must Methods of Operation not have men trainedas good pro- We have seen definite patterns begin- ducers of crops and livestock who do ning to emerge insize and scale of not know how to -keep or evaluate rec- farming. There seems to be some defi- ords or how to read and understand a nite trend toward the future. The writer profit-loss statement. This not only will would like to discuss'the type of farm. handicap the farmer in his day-to-day ing structure which will produce our operations, but it will put him at a dis- commodities and products in the years advantage in obtaining the capital he ahead. will need. A farmer cannot .expect to The Individual Family Farm walk intoa bank and request large The family farm has been the back- amounts of credit without being able boneof America'sagriculture.The to present the banker with the infor- many changes we have discussed thus mation he needs in order to make a farillustrate,ofcourse,thatthings knowledgeable andfairdecisionre- have not remained the same. This has garding the request. certainly been true with family farms. Thousands of these farms chose not Agricultural Industry Training to change and therefore had to cease In additionto the job faced by our their operation. With the technological educationalinstitutions,t h ereisa advancements made in agriculture, all growing need for corporations within an of them could not have existed even if industry to train and develop their peo- they had chosen to do so. The family pie to do their particular jobs. The col. farm as we knew it. and even as we lege or university can prepare a per- know today, will not exist a few de- son in general terms. However, when cades from now. There will be family thisindividual goestothe agribusi- farms, however, and these will be busi-

99 nessesinthe truestsense. And they Kinds of Corporations willhe big businesses. The most common type of corporation Family farms that cannot crow to a foundin farmingisan incorporated profitablesizeandthose withpoor typeoffamily farmbusiness.This managementwillheabsorbedinto larger than average family_ farm usually larger units or he turned into part- time has evolved either from a family part- or retirement enterprises. Gross annual nership or largeirdividualoperation sales of $10.000 have been used in the thathasreachedacertainsizein pastbyeconomistsasthedividing terms of assets. inheritance taxes and line between adequate and inadequate transfer of assets t.trom one generation family farms. This $10.000 figureis to another have mode conditions desir- probably out of date now. or should able for formation of a corporation. he anyway, with today's costs and in- Thus many farms that appear to he vestments. In fact.it may take gross one man operEdonstolocalpeople sales of $40.000 or more to yield earn- may infact he family corporations. ings needed to hold talented farm fam- When we speak ofcorporation ily members and labor. farms, most people think of the out- It takes superior management to op- side corporation, publicly owned. Some erate afarm. Family members must of these have existedin farming :or be wise in the ways of financial plan- many years. Others have more recently ning and capitalutilization.It means expanded. going into farm production forsaking the once major goal of full tocomplimenttheiragribusinessin- ownership of all resources and relying terest. Also. some have gone into farm- more on borrowed capital. rented land ing because they sec business opportu- and other resources. Operators of fam- nities in producing farm products. ily farms must gear up for quality control. They must know market require - It is also well to keep in mind that ments and find efficient ways of pro- there are a few special income tax ad- ducing. timing. sorting. assembling and vantages to a corporation that are not transporting products. available to an individual. The family farm of tomorrow will It should be pointed out that cor- be larger than the family farm of to- porate farms comprise only about one day. These farms/ will become more percent of all the commercial farms in specialized.eveninareasofwide the country. Presently these firms op- agriculturaldiversification.Ibelieve erate about seven percent of the land that contracting to larger firms or to in farms. but they account for a some- corporation farms or agribusiness firms whathigherproportionof salesof will come on. the scene very strongly. farm products.Corporations other The familyfarmwillplayanim- than thefamily type represent only portant role in our state's agricultural about two-tenths percent ofallcom- future, asithas in the past. But by mercial farms and about two percent 1985 we willnot recognize them as of gross farm sales. we do today. Production of corporate farms tends to he concentrated toa great extent Corporation Farms inbeef cattle.feedlots.poultry and When we speak of corporation farms, fruits and vegetables. Public farm cor- what do we mean? Most people inter- porationsarefreauently involvedin pretcorporationfarmingas alarge manufacturingandsellingfarmin- conglomerate, stockholder owned and puts orin processing and marketing operating several thousand acres. This the commodities they produce. More may be one form of corporate farm- thantwo-thirdsofallfarmingcor- ing, but itis not the predominant form. porations are family businesses. And

100 not all corporations are large. Nearly certainbenefits from largescale op- two-fifths had sales of less than cration. they also pay a penalty in the S40.000 in 1967. lack of personal interest and financial A recent USDA survey of corpora- involvement on the part of managers. tions having agricultural operations in Georgia showed there are atotalof Looking Ahead 220 farming corporations in the state. Specialization is a key word in agricul- Of these. 29are individual corpora- ture's future. However. I believe that tions. 146 are family corporations. 38 theagriculturalmanagementrevolu- are other types. and seven were un- tion is pointing toward different forms classified. These 220 corporation farms of specialization.In the past. speciali- accounted for only 0.56 of one percent zation tended to move in the direction of all commercial farms inthis state. of individual. highly specialized farms. They were somewhat largerinaver- with only one or two products to mar- age size, accounting for 2.98 percent ket. Such farms tend to he quite vul. ofalllandincommercial farms in nerable to wide variations in their lim- Georgia. These corporate farms aver- ited market. In the future we will prob- age 1.710acres.comparedto333 ably see more farms which are more acres for all ccnunercial farms in this diversified in their total .structures but state. highly specialized in each unit of the There is an increasing trend to the structure. For example, there will be incorporationof farmsinGeorgia. more farm businesses thatwill bring Farming is becoming more and more together under a single management of a business and is being handled as control several highly specialized divi- such. These large scale operations are sions. There will he a hog division, protecting themselves inthe event of a beef division,a corn division, etc. abusinessfailure. For example, the Each divisionwIl he manned by a owners of a corporation may he liable highly skilledstaffofspecialists,all for a smaller personal loss than other under one overall management organ- owners wouldhe.Their lossesare ization.Businesses organizedinthis limited to the amount invested by them manner retain the advantages of diver- in the corporation. sification.yet thelarge volume pro- Farming by cDrporationisnot a duced by each divisionwill justify a new development in agriculture. USDA' very high degree of specializationin indicatesthat,whilethe number of each. corporations has increasedinrecent Now, I am not suggesting that cor- years. almost one-half of the corporate porate farming should. or necessarily farms today were started before 1960. will, become the predominant form of The structural form of business or business in American agriculture. But ganization holds an important key to I am suggesting the need for careful, meetingagriculture's capital needs. open.minded appraisalofitspossible Farm managers must give more capital advantages. T h eultimateobjective considerationtothepotentialadvan- must betofindforagriculturethe tagesofthecorporateorganization. mosteffectivewaysof raisingand Family corporations seemto have Managingcapitalwhilemaintaining many advantages. I am not yet con- the independence and flexibilitythat vincedthatlargeconglomeratecor- agricultural managers desire and need. porations have merit. Their success or What aboutthetypeof farming failure in agriculture is yet to be de. structureinGeorgia by 1985? Indi- termined. Reports of some operations vidual private family farms willcon- indicate disapnointmcnt in their farm- tinuetopredominate. They willbe ing activities. While they stand to reap more highly specialized and business-

101 like intheir operations. They will be out the work of college experiment sta- large commercial units. Family farms tions the nation's agriculture would be that are incorporated will be similar to, atleast 30 years behind where itis but larger than, the average private today. Georgia's stations,strategically family farm. There will be an increase located throughout the state, are findin the family corporations because of ing answers to meet the needs and con- the advantages of larger size farm units ditions of our state's climate, soil and and the benefits of incorporating.In people. Theirresearchembracesall addition. we willprobably see more crops andlivestocks.soils,pestcon- agribusiness firms expanding their op- trols, engineering. conservation of nat- erations to the farm level. All in all, ural resources. economics, timber utili- itspells a greater need for human re- zation and marketing. They arealso source development, training andre- working with today's newest sciences. search to meet the needs these changes including those dealing with electron- in structure of farming in Georgia. ics. computers, radiation, solar energy, radioactiveisotopes,foodforouter Agricultural Technology space and genetics. And Research Research work needed by 1985is Research and technology have prob- going to be even greater. We must ably been more advanced and affected give our full support to the continued more people than any other single inwork of our experiment stations. dustry. The advance in agriculture has Industry Development been faster than in any other industry. With the need so great, we cannot rely Butagriculturalresearchhasbene- entirely upon public research and de- fited everyone. We are the best, fed velopment through our educational in- people on eartha result of teamwork stitutions alone. Agribusiness firms and of research scientists, educators, farm- industriesthatdeal,selland service ers,processorsa n dmanufacturers. agriculture must also increase their ef- Other greatcontributions concerning forts in this field. Much of our chem- human health and welfare have been icals, seeds, machinery, techniques, etc., invitamins,traceelements, wonder have been discovered and developed by drugs such aspenicillin and strepto- private agribusiness industry. This must mycin, medicines for heart patients and continue. The entire burden cannot he capsule foods for astronauts in space. handled by the experiment stations of Agriculture has teamed with medical our colleges and universities. scienceinstudies of cancer,goiter, radiationfrom atomicfallout,tooth Labor, Bargaining, Farm decay,arthritis, undulant fever a n d tuberculosis.Four agriculturalscien- Organization tistshavereceived Nobel Prizes in Farmers have not had an effective farm medicine.Development ofrecreation organization to fulfill their every need. areas, insect control, lawn management There have been several major farm and ornamental landscaping allstem organizations in this country with va- from agricultural research. ried purposes and, sometimes, consid- erablefriction between them. In ad- Experiment Stations dition, diversity of opinion and goals Research is the life blood of America's within an organization have caused in- economy, a vital tool of progress. The ternalproblems. As weareaware, agricultural experiment stations in farm numbers have declined tothe Georgia are recognized as among the lowest level in history. Within the next bestinthe nation. They have made few years we will probably have only many contributions to the state. With- about one million farmers attempting

102 to meet the needs of our entire coun- far in this century. The challenge for try. plus additional requirements from agricultureisto decide how fastto abroad. So organizationisgoing to move toward a completely commercial become more effective than we have agriculture. one :hat can produce, pro- seen in the past. Many individual com- cess and market at the lowest possible modity groups have been effectively or- cost. ganized. Some of these have obtained Capital costs today in agriculture are considerable bargaining power inthe market place. nearly twice as large as labor costs, on anaverage.They willcontinue Farm laborwillneedto become to more skilled than ever before. The de- grow more rapidly in the future. Thus mand for skilled labor to operate tech- the efficientacquisition and manage- nicalequipmentisneededin many ment of capital is becoming more and areas.Agriculturaloperations must more important in tbe successful farm compete with the market to find quali- operation.Capitalishighlymobile. fied people. Wage rates in agriculture Farmers must compete foravailable in 1985 probably will be comparable to new capital with allother businesses, those paid similar labor in any other including largecorporations suchas U.S. Steel and IBM. They must also area. Unskilled labor in agriculture will compete with the federal government also be in line with unskilled labor in and with other farms. anyotherindustry.Unlesspresent trendschange, wewillhave labor Agricultural credit is now one of the unions in agriculture by 1985. major facto'rsinagriculture and will With the long range expansion and become more so by 1985. The reason growth potential of our country,itis isobvious.Withlargeroperations, unlikelythatwewillhavesurplus largeamountsofmachinery,large labor. In a growth situation laboris amounts of chemicals, spiraling land quite mobile and tends to seek its best costs,etc.,capitalrequirementsare opportunity and highest wages. Agri- increased. As of January 1, 1968, mort- businessopportunitiesandneedsin gage debt in Georgia (from financial the labor field are large. The demand institutions)amountedto$464,002.- will be greater in the future. However, 000. Non-real estate debt (from finan- this need primarily will he for skilled cialinstitutions) amounted to$201.- or semiskilled labor. And this calls for 300,000. This is a total of $665,005,- training facilities to he made available 000. And this does not include the to meet this need. tremendous volume of tm.le debt or Agricultural Finance merchant credit from equipment and machinerydealers,fertilizerandag Requirements chemical companies, etc. The totalis Capitalrequirementsforagriculture somewhere in excess of 1.3 billion dol- arc growing. primarily because of the lars.Borrowings fromtheseinstitu- size of the farms and the degree of tional sources (banks, Farmers Home mechanization. As the average farm Administration, Production Credit As- insize continues to increase, so will sociation, Federal Land Bank, lifein- vestment in land, buildings and equip- surance companies, etc.)isexpected ment.Thetransitionofagriculture to more than double in the next ten from solereliance upon capitalgen- years. eratedbytheenterpriseandbank credittotheintroductionof equity The demandformore capitalis capital from outside agriculture could going to be greater than ever before. he as dramatic as any development thus It must be available.

103 Land Usage einal land will he put to recreational The use of land in this country is def- uses. thus giving further opportunity to initely going to have its effect on farm- part-timefarmersormarginalfarm ing activities. Our increasing popula- lands. tion and spreading suburbia have al- Agricultural Policy ready madeanimpact.Population growths. the need for housing, com- Everything that has been stated in this munitydevelopmentandexpansion paper can he completely changed by will use more and more of our land. legislativepolicy atthestate or national level. Legislative attitude toward As land values rise and taxesin- domestic problems andalsotoward crease. many farmers can no longer foreign trade can have the most sig- afford to use their land for agricultural nificantbearing on thefuture. Con- purposes. In many instances they are gressionalaction onrestrictionsand forced to sell and move their operation controls versus freedom and no con- to other areas. trol would change the agricultural sit- We have also reached a critical sit- uationentirely. A delicatebalance uation in Georgia where much agricul- must be maintained between price and tural property is unfairly taxed. Many income benefitsthat can be derived farm properties are taxed on their mar- from collective bargaining. Otherwise, ketable base rather than for purpose. the potential loss of markets that might Some farmers have been forced to sell resultfrom lowerpricedfood and because of increasing ad valorem taxes fiber substitutesisgreat. Prices must based upon the market price of their bemaintainedatlevelswhichwill property rather than upon its use. This enable U.S. farm commodities to com- can he a very dangerous situationin pete successfully in world markets. the years ahead. l strongly recommend The declining politicalinfluence of that farm land be taxed according to agriculturewillmakeitincreasingly itsuse and productivity,not onits difficultto maintain support for gov- market value. ernment price support programs. Some In the future. particularly in some of these programs may be hindering of our richer farm areas, I believe agri- rather -thanhelpingto increasethe cultural zoning must come into effect. demand for farm products. At any The most arable. level and highly pro- rate, legislative measures pertaining to ductive land is being used for commer- agricultural programs and policies are cial and residential purposes, if it hap- going to determine to a great extent pens to he in the right place. I. see the the future of farming and agribusiness. needfor zoning inorder to insure Those in legislative positions must be that good farm landis available for made aware of the importance of agri- futureproductivity.Marginal,more culture to our entire future. They must sloping and non-productive land should realizethat,if this farm machineis be used for housing and business. We allowed torun down, itcannot be must look far enough ahead to pre- cranked up ov,trnightandputinto serve our best land. Figures indicate fullproduction again.Itisnot like that conversion to commercial or in- turning a faucet on and off. The flow dustrialuse each year requires some of agricultural products must be steady 500.000 acres of farm and ranch land and ortlerly. Our future depends on it. in the United States. There will he a continuing need for Fred W. Greer. Jr. received his Master's Degree in Agricultural Economics from the land for recreational purposes. We will University of Georgia in 1963. In July 1964 have more leisure time and a larger he was employed by Citizens & Southern population to use it. Some of our mar- National Bank to work in the Agricultural

104 Department. He was promoted to agricul- Plant Food Educational Society. Mr. Greer tural officer in 1966 and to assistant vice is a member of the Board of Control. Agri- president in October 1968. Mr. Greer is business Club of the Atlanta Chamber of currently serving on the state 4-H Advisory Commerce. and vice president of the Uni- Board and the state Advisory Board for versity of Georgia Agricultural Alumni So- Vocational Education in Agriculture. He is ciety. He was named Most Outstanding director of the Georgia Agribusinesy Coun- Senior in the College of Agriculture at the cil and committee chairman of the Gtorgia University in 1962.

TABLE I PERSONS SUPPLIED BY ONE FARMWORKER*

Year Persons supplied in U.S. Persons supplied abroad Total 1900 5 7 1920 7 1 8 1940 11 0 11 1960 4 26 1968 38 5 43 *Source:Table compiled from information obtained in The Farm Index, July 1969

AGRICULTURE .. . . .

1.Georgia Crop Reporting Service. Georgia Farm Report. (Aug. 12. 1969). 2.U. S. Deportment of Agricultu, The Farm Index. (ERS. July 1969, Vol. III. No. 7) p. 20. 3.Georgia Crop Reporting Service. Georgia Agrico Itttrat Facts. (Athens. Ga.. l959-1966). P. 9. 4. Georgia Progress, "AgrihusinessGeorgia's Fast Growing Giant," (Feb. 1969). p. 22. 5.Ibid. 6.Fife, I-aVon S., "Maintaining the Competitive Position of Agriculture," (Farm and Industrial Equipment Institute), p. 6. 7. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Our Foreign Agricultural Trade," (ERS, Bulletin No.912), p. 5

105 MODE RN agriculturetranscends the traditional concept of rural farming. Though still rural and natural resource based, farming is now made up of large-scale. specialized, capital-using andraw-materials-generatingbusiness firms. Such farms must responddi- rectly to market forces and engage in an everincreasing volume of trade withnon-farmbusinesses.Similarly non-farm businesses depend on farms for either markets for goods and services or for supplies of raw materials. This inter-locking of business interests produces arural-urban,agricultural industrial complex that vitallyaffects the economy of Georgia and particularly our welfare as consumers. In this context, the complex and dynamic characterofagriculturerequiresa broad conceptual framework as well as substantial analysis and insight in order to assess and project itsstatus. Mr. Greer ably responds to the challenge. The agribusiness concept which Mr. critique: Greer advocates and adopts for his paper iscrucial for a comprehensive Agriculture view of agriculture. It clearly reveals the fallacy of using farm numbers and in Georgia farm employment as criteria for assessing the economic status and import- anceoffarming inour economy. Rather the concept focuses on the expanding base for economic growth that technologicalchange,increasing productivity and the resulting structure of farming afford. Itis, therefore, appro- By Stephen J. priate to emphasize the growingeco- nomic interchange between farms and Brannen, eon-farmbusiness which Mr. Greer documents and to assert that there is Chairman, a need for greater understanding of the Deportment of character of agriculture. This ispar- Agricultural ticularly important for thequantity, form, and content of educational activ- Economics, itiestobetailoredtoagriculture's College of needs in 1985. Agriculture, Mr. Greer's perception and enthu- siasmlead him through comprehensive University of coverage of the subject of his paper, Georgia To his credit he is unequivocal instat- ing his opinions. He is excessivelygen-

106 erousinpraisingtheresearchand ority over trees and grass in the output educationestablishmentanddisarms for 1985. Even with expansion of the the critic by inserting his conclusions outputalongtheselines,agriculture regarding thefuturethroughoutthe and forestry can meet future market paper along with topical analyses of requirements with less acreage because the curent situation. of increasing productivity. Consequent- Irrespectiveoftheanalyticalap- ly, the role of agriculture as the con- proach chosen,however, one isled servator and supplier ofnaturalre- inevitably to the same general conclu- sources for future non-traditional de- sions about the status and future of mands of society should be recognized agriculture. its character and structure inassessingagriculture'seducational are changing rapidly. Fewer farms will and policy requirements. Subsidization requiremore capital,lesslandand of conservation and of education re- labor and generate a much larger vol- garding natural resources is compatible ume of output. Educational levelsin with the longer-run nature of society's agriculturewillhavetobehigher. goals and time perspective. Managerial and informationsciences I agree with Mr. Greer's initial prem- must attain equivalent importance with ise that technological change character- the biological and physical sciences in ized agricultural developments of re- agricultural education for the future. cent decades and will continue to foster The primary focus of Mr. Greer's unprecedented adjustments within the paper is on commercial agriculture with agricultural industry. It should be em- extraordinary consideration of its pro- phasizedthat technological change is duce structure. In general his assess- itself a product of research and educa- ment of major changesisconsistent tion that is funded as a matter of pub- with my own expectations for com- licpolicy.Consequently, concluding mercial agriculture. I believe the gen- the position paper on policy issues ap- eral changes inagriculture's resource pears to be an afterthought when the requirements,itsgeneralroleinthe conditioning influence of policyisa economy. and the policy environment part of the analytical framework for in which it must operate are more im- both the present and future status of portantfor educationalconsideration agriculture. than whether forageis harvested by In agriculture, public policies of machines or animals. Further emphasis three basic types have been influential. onthese pointsshouldsharpenthe One is the developmental type which focus of the position paper. supports research and education activi- Inclusion of forestryiscertainly a ties that have resulted in development logical ext msion of the scope of the of capital using technology.I would paper.Farming and forestry control argueforthe continuationofthese four-fifths of our natural resources and policies but suggest that there are op- together represent the source of space portunities to modify the substance of andrelativelypureenvironmentto theactivities sothattheresults of meet the future demands of society for technological change cause less painful natural resource services. In this sense adjustments for rural people and insti- the position paperisdeficientin is tutions. assessment of the future product-mix The second type of policy is com- of agriculture and forestry. Changing pensatory innature.These policies consumer preferences accomnanied by attempt to redress the disparities that growth in population and incomes sug- develop between individuals or groups gest that recreational services, expan- in our society. Price support payments sionof aquaculture and the produc- fall inthis category. They affect eco- tion of ornamentals of other floricul- nomic adjustments by attracting larger tural products are likely to claim pri- output and delaying out-migration. New

107 approaches are needed in this type of edge required w make the institutional policy. and human adjustmentsdictatedby The third type of policy is regulatory changes in the structure and resource or restrictive in nature. Sanitation re- mix of agriculture. The present status quirements. supply controls, zoning, of agricuIiLre begs for increasedem taxation. etc. are in this category. I an- phasis in education on the socio-eco- ticipate heavier impact of these kinds of nomic implications of technology. policies on agriculture. Mr. Greer ably In 1964 less than one-fourth of the presents the issue of farm and forest farms in Georgia-20,473accountcd property tax levels.Research and edu- for S2 percent of the products sold. cation about the relative effects of such The remainingthree-fourthsofthe policies on the ability of agriculture in farms rexeseot human and naturalre- this state to remain competitive will have sources that cannot escape the power to be strengthened. of technological and economic forces The relative influence of these types in rural areas. The majority of these of policies between now and 1985 is resources must either move into larger unknown. Public policy as a function of farm operations or outof farming. the political process can be modified Fortunately, hoWeyer, Ibelievethat through an informed citizenry. Herein agriculture in Georgia has already ex- lies an increasingly important role of perienced the most drastic and pain- education. fulstructural adjustments, particularly in terms of human resources. Share- Effects ofFarmTechnological cropping and hand labor have been Change on Rural People virtuallyeliminated. The number of farms in the economic classes capable And Institutions . of adjusting in size and output to re- In earlier times agriculture employed main competitive has increased. In ad- our natural resources, a large proportion dition,the number of full time farm of the labor force, limited amounts of workers onGeorgiafarmshasin- capital and generated a surplus as its creased earh census period since 1954. contribution to .economic progress.It Because of the high average age of sustained the local community and fos- persons in the farm work force, the ma. tered its.growth. The commercial char- jority of them willneed tobe re- acter of agriculture today is a product placed by 1985. These factors point to of market forces and publicpolicies the likelihood that more than10-15 consistent with the goal of economic percent of the farm youth could find development. This goal and those forces employment opportunitiesinagricul- are too powerful to roll back. They ture. force us to larger farms, to substitute capital for labor (and land) and to- Farm Population and Rural ward a smaller farm population. Rural Institutions More Stable by 1985 communities and institutions decline if The emerging structure of agriculture farmingis _theirsole ccnnomic base in Georgia promises much more mod- and no compensa;ory increase in other erate reductions in farm numbers, farm types of employment is developed. employment and farm population by Growth in farm output and lower 1985 than those that have occurred real costs of food are implicit elements since 1955. Consequently, the role of of national policy which keeps supply farming as a supplier of human re- of farm productsso abundant that sources to other sectors of the econ- farm prices remain relatively low. Un- omy will be diminished. In fact, farm- fortunately, neither public policy nor ing may become a strong competitor researchand educationhasdevoted for the work force in rural communi- enough resources to provide the knowl- ti(:s. The farm work forceI envision,

108 however, willbe atleast semi-skilled Implications for Education operatives.Part of the challenge we fats- isthatof according farm employment the higher status that is con- Relating education to agriculture's fu- sistent with its developing character. ture needs will require modifications so This view does not alter the basic thatitparallels the agribusiness char- premises or conclusions of the posi- acter of the industry. Technical edu- tion paper with respect to the accele- cationwillbe essential foraskilled ratedpaceoftechnologicalchange, farm work force. College degrees, al- unprecedented increasesin capital re- ready becoming common among farm quirements and growthin farm out- operators,will be more generally es- putwithattendantincreasesinthe sentialfor success.Inthis respectI potential for agribusiness development. support the emphases on research and Itdoes suggest cautionihprojecting educationoutlined in theposition substantial reductionsinthe clientele paper. In addition, I believe that estab- for educational programs atalllevels lished youth and adult education pro- in rural counties. grams shouldincludemore "know- There has emerged a family income why" content along withthe "know- dualismincommunities wherenon- how." Education for effective citizen- farm opportunities are available within ship and leadership in agriculture must commuting distances. This dualism in- includesocialsciencesandbusiness volves a combination of extensive type curricula. With appropriate emphases, farming (grass and trees for example) education can contribute not only to and non-farm employment by either agricultural efficiency but also to less the farm operator or members of his painful and more orderly interchange family. The positiveeffectsofthis ofresourcesandproductsbetween dualism arereflectedin higher fam- agriculture and other sectors of Geor- ilyincomes, stableor growing rural_ gia'seconomy,as economicgrowth communitiesandinstitutions.Fewer takes place. The educationalchallenges ruralcountiesare now experiencing of agriculture will be undiminished in net declines in total population. 1985. ASTHE AUTHOR of this position paper indicates, agriculture is indeed a broad field with many facets embracing a wide range of disciplines. Because of the complexity of our social and economic structure, there is no such thing as a portion of our social or economic framework living and being apart from the rest of society. There is a thread of interdependency woven throughout our socioeconomic existence. Because of this interdependency and acceptingtheconceptthatasound and aggressive agricultureisbasic to all other social and economic growth, Ifelt that substantial changes in agriculture must and will occur. I and in general agreement with the author of the position paper as to the identification of agriculture, including agri-business and forestry. He has adequately and factually described the current agricultural complex in terms of product productivity and economic contributions in the business area.I see no need to reflect further on these partic- ulars. critique: The thrust of this critique will be to Agriculture point out and further emphasize sonic topics which, in my judgment, will he in Georgia highly significant to further growth and orderly development of agriculture in Georgia. The two keys which will unlock the treasures of the future for all people are EDUCATION and RESEARCH.

Education Agricultural education must not be limited to those actually engaged in agribusiness or farming. The entire student body atthe high school level should be exposed to the history and impact of American agriculture.These courses should be a part of the academic curriculum and not restricted to vocational agricultural and home economics classes. This need is outstandingly significant in view of the probability that approximately 98 percent of the high school population in 1985 will have no farm

110 background or experience.It seems to ployment upon completion of the course. me that sonic knowledge and under- Counseling withcoperators and manage- standing of agriculture, basic asitis ment of agribusiness would be an in- to our economy and survival, must be tegral part of such a program. taught all students along with math, art, literature, history, and the sciences. Research Leadersineducationmustmove It has been said that an unwritten goal boldly forward in new fields of training of agriculture has been to reduce the for men in the field of agri-business and hours of physical labor required to pro- for the on-the-farm worker. Leaders duce a bale of cotton, ti bushel of corn. with imagination must look to the fu- a ton of peanuts, a gallon of milk. ture and delineate the problems and op- This goal has been accomplished. portunities of the next decade. When But to continue to progress down the this, is done, a new curriculum will re- road toward eliminating or still further sult which will allow for creative think- reducing physical labor in farm coming and learning by the teacher and the modity production will take more em- student.Surely agriculture would fail phasis on research. We have been using to reach its potential unless this is done. up our basic research knowledge at an But, more importantly, the living stand- alarming rate while concentrating on ards of all people in this country would applied or short-term problems in agri- slowly sink. culture. More emphasis on biological I do not propose to offer here a blue- researchthe fullerunderstanding of print for agricultural education, but I the life processeswill he needed to do want to offer sonic valid points which achieve even greater productivity and I think are of importance to the future. efficiency in agriculture. District or regional training programs If we fail to expand our basic re- should be established which would offer searchprograms specialized instruction inagriculture,the inevery phase eventual result could he a shortage of of agribusiness, farming, and forestry. information vital to applied research as These programs should require full-time it affects the farmer and the crops, live- attendance and extend over a two to three month period. stock, and timber products which he The curriculum markets. should he broader than just how to do a job, that is, driving a truck or tractor. One further point should be noted in It should involve all of the ramifications relation to the potential. in the future of why, what, how. supportive mainte- for feed grains and certain forage crops nance. safety, etc. Beyond this. and of in Georgia.The Coastal PlainS area equal importance, the faculty and cur- of the state has one of the greatest riculum must be oriented to instillin known underground water reservoirs, the student an understanding of his re- theartesianstrata,now largelyun- lationship to those about him and a de- tapped. Georgia's huge poultry industry sireto achieve.Adequate motivation offers a great market for feed grains, and proper attitudes would be key words which now largely come from the Mid- for thefacility and the schoolmost west. As new varieties are developed in people already know how to do a better the future and as yields per acre con- job than they are doing. tinue to climb from increased produc- This school should be initiallyre- tion knowhow, it appears possible that stricted to students who already have a Georgia could experience a great surge job and where their employers are willin feed grain production. Since the state ing to grant them academic leave. Such is deficient in the production of both leave could carry reduced pay by the cattle and hogs. this increase in grain employer with a contract that the stu- and forage production could leadto dent would return to his former em- increased emphasis on both of these types of farm enterprises.In addition. pork, just as it has already become in pasture acreages of improved grasses broilers and eggs, ranking first nation- such as Coastal Bermuda should con- allyin broiler production and second tinue to increase providing additional in eggs. quantities of forages available for use In summary. substantial changes in as silag and hay crops. in addition to presenteducationalpatternsaffecting grazing. agriculture will be necessary in the years This development couldresultin ahead to keep pace with the dynamic Georgia becoming a much more impor- changes which will occur in the state's tant state in the production of beet and agriculture during the next LS years.

1 I 2 AUTOMATION presents a challenge to all of us! In the 19th century the poet Robert Burns penned the following lines.

But, Mousie, thou art no thy lane In proving foresight may be vain: The best laid schemes o' mice an' men Gang aft agley

Still thou art blest. complied wi' me! The present only touchcst thee: But, Och! I backward cast my e'e On prospects drear! An' forward, tho' I canna see. I guess an' fear! Automation By Ellis L. Scott, Ph.D.in Georgia As we approach the advent of the 21st century, the trepidations abovt planning 11 and forecasting expressed by the poet in 1. the 1800's still command our attention. But plan we mustif we are to fulfill our responsibilities for the continuity ziad growth of our society. Therefore, we strive to improve our capabilities to lay schemes and anticipate the consequences of our decisions. In this spirit this paper is submitted. To begin this analysis we shall postu- lateseveralfundamentalpropositions concerning automation. Automation is a technology. For the purposes of thisreportitisim- portant to distinguish between science and technology. Science is one form of knowledge, acquiredina manner we refer to as the scientific method. Tech- nology, on the other hand, is knowledge applied, presumably to serve some human purpose or need. This distinction is relevant if we are to avoid certain confusion in discussing the educational and other social implications of automation as a technology. - Vice-Admiral Hyman G. Rickover in arecent speechatthe University of Georgia made these comments. Not everything hailed as progress contributes to happiness. It troubles me that

113 we are so easily pressured by purveyors have constituted one of the major prob- of technology into permitting so-called "progress" to alter our lives, without at- lems in the application of new technolo- tempting to control itas if technology gies. were an irrepressible force of nature to One response to this need to see the which we must meekly submit. larger requirements in the effective ap- The difficulty, Admiral Rickover sug- plication of a technology has been the gests, may liein a confusion between development ofa methodology called science and technology. systemengineering.The systemsap- Science has to do with discovering the proach stresses functional interrelation- true facts and relationships of observable ships of all component elements, includ- phenomena in nature. .. technology is ing non-hardware elements; the tools, techniques, procedures manner . . . Sci- whereby the totality functions to achieve ence, being purethought,harms no one .. . but technology is action and often explicit objectives; the nature of input- potentially dangerous. output relationships, and the whole sys- In this distinction, so aptly phrased by tem's relationships to the environment in Admiral Rickover, lies the challenge of which the systemis embedded.Itis automation, the way to better understand therefore unwise to think of automation and apply the wealth of technology that simply as a technology in whichman is is available and the necessity to apply it engineered out of the system and. thus. in the interest of society as a whole; the need not he considered as a critical ele- need to make the educational system ment in the system. In automation, re- more flexible in meeting a technological gardless of the changing role of man or his remoteness from operations, the society's requirements; the challenge to con- plan in depth for the impact that in- cept of man-machine relationships remains a significant aspect of the tech- creasing automation will have on busi- nology. nessorganizationandtheeconomic structure; the challenge to be imaginative Many technologies existside by invisualizingsocialchanges thatlie side.Many technologies to serve diverse ahead and creating new social organiza- human purposesexistinthis world. tions and practicesin harmony with Some of these technologies are not com- these changes. monly recognized as such. We are only Our concern with technology must now beginning to think in terms of edu- consider elements of technology other cational, social, and economic technolo- than hardware.There is a tendency to gies. The explicit recognition of these think of automation and other technolo- technologies will be necessary for effec- gies primarily in terms of machinery. tive control of man's environment. We The sophistication reflected in the design tend also tothink only of advanced of computers and process control mach- science-based technologies. But these are inery tends to reinforce this preoccupa- only part of the story. Not so many years tion with hardware. This preoccupation ago our own agricultural technology was ignores much that is critical to the under- largely tradition-based rather than resting standing of the technology and its social on a substructure of scientific knowledge. implications. The non-hardware elements This non-science based agricultural tech- of a technology include personnel, or- nology isstill common throughout the ganization structure,policies and pro- world. One of the major issues today is cedures, training plans, and the like. In the reconciliation of these various tech- computer-based technology this software nologies.Automation now challenges includes the computer programs designed older methods! and written to enable the system to func- Automation takes many forms and has tion. The lack of concern with software many definitions.It includes industrial elements and failure to consider carefully process control, materials handling, ser- their implications for total performance vices automation, paperwork automation,

114 and information-decision systems. Yet, questionsof technicalfeasibility,but our knowledge of how to successfully ap- with questions of economics and of poli- ply these varieties of automation may be tics and with psychological considera- hampered by prescientific conceptions of tions. Applications to loge systems are their essence and utility. There are strong limited by the present state of systems emotional connotations associated with theory. Applications are limited by costs such terms asrobot and mechanical and requirements to justify irew invest- brain. We lack relevant facts about auto- ments.Inmany casesapplicationis mation. Our planning is inadequate, and limited by a lack of understanding of the new means for social control may be re- process thatis to be controlled or auto - quired. One result of the inadequacy of mated. it is limited by the rate of social the planningisthe gap betweenthe changeacceptance of ideas, acceptance existence of the technology and its ap- of different ways of doing things. plication. This lag seems to be character- New technology raises many issues, istic of any new technology, and its ef- and it may take oilier technologies to re- fects may include the loss of available solve them: With the emergence and de- benefits. velopment of new technologies, problems The world has been thrilled by man's and issues arise, many of them unanti- landing on the moon. Yet, rocket tech- cipated, which stimulate the development nology lay fallow for many years. The of other' technologies to cope with these late Dr. Willy Ley pointed out that all problems and issues. Dr. Frederick L. essential components for the solid-fuel, Bates has stated: V-2 type rocket existed in 1910, although the V-2 did not fly until 1944. Dr. Ley Technology consists of a system of stra- said that a somewhat simplified V-2 roc- tegies and tactics for producing desired ket could have been builtin 1910 if end products through the use of human action augmented by tools and machines. somebody had the right idea to put exist- Given this definition, itis apparent that ing ingredients into the right order. The allareas of lifeinvolve technologies. conclusion drawn by Dr. Ley was: There are, therefore, educational technologies, religious technologies, recrea- We now know atleast100 times as tionaltechnologies,technologiesfor much as the engineers of the year 1910; familylifeas well as those normally we probably have all kinds of ingredi- thought of in the area of economic pro- ents lying around we now need the duction, consumption and distribution. man who has the idea of putting these Automation must be viewed as part of ingredients together in such a way that this larger system of technology. There- they make a superior spacecraft. Maybe fore, automation as a process must be theingredients areinexistenceright viewed as being imbedded in a larger now. The idea is not! process of technological change. ..The automation process, which consists in the At the sametime thatthe body of changeover in technology from the use knowledge possessed by man has in- of man-operated to self-operatcd or computer machine systems is a part of the creased many foldthe foreseeable fu- larger social change process which has ture has shrunk. Dr. Ley said that two been going on in human society since its decades ago the foreseeable future was very inception. This social change process 15 or 20 years; today itis five or six. is a natural phenomenon which results from the operation of systems of inter- One reason is that what happens in auto- related causes or influences. mation, for example,isnot simply a function of the state-of-the-art but depends on social, economic, and educa- The following sections describe the tional phenomena and the "fall-out" from nature of automation, survey its current other technologies. The transistor devel- and projected status, and attempt to draw oped in the electronics field proved in- out some of the implications of automa- valuiible to space scientists. tion for societywith special reference Automation must deal not only with to education.

115 Figur* 1 AUTOMATION PROCESS PROCESS COMPUTERSDataComputers Lagging MATERIAL ACCoUNTIAGRetailIndustrial Scales Scales INSTRUMENTATIONPROCESSSensorsTransducers OUTGOINGINCOMING RAW FINISHED MATERIALS PRODUCTS ACINCOMINGHIGH POWER VOLTAGE PLANTSUPPLY DataDataCoteDigital Acquisition MemoryReduction Recording DataBotchingAutomaticCherkweighing Processing Prepackaging DensityPositionMoistureTachometers Control Control DigitolAnalog so Analog to DigitalConversion LosersNuclearFlowVibration Control Absorption Control iiimea.1 DISTRIBUTIONHIGH VOLTAGETransformersCircuitStarters Breakers CONTROL ANO CONTROLPROCESS DRIVEDigitalInvertersRectifiers Drive Control PRIME MOVERSAC Motors integral(Baelional H.P.) & POWERMECHANICALChainsCouplings TRANSIISSION & Sprockets SuppliesEmergencyProtectionRelays DevicesPower ControlOperator's Panels Controls MechanicalGearmotorsDC Motors ADJ. integral(fractional H.P.) & TransmisMountedVBeltsReducer & sBearings Sheavesions s Process Disconnect Devices ServoElectrical Melnik ADJ. SpeedSpeed Drives Drives COMPONENTSELECTRICALCapacitorsR esi slots PRIMESPECIAL MOVERS PURPDSESteppingLinear Motors Motors MECHANICALTRANSMISSIONCOMPONENTSUnmounted POWER Bearings t 5""i'"C"!!!!!!FifIl!PushPotentiometers Buttons '"ti Ff;1-10i ILOMotorsSubFractional for Batterypf,nrnlinn rt MHflilt c..uptinciaChainsBrakes - Cleveland,Reliance Electric Ohio Company together already highly mechanized in- What Is Automation? dividual operations. Itis a way of work "The new thing which automation based on the concept of continuous flow, rather thanprocessing by intermittant brings is that for some interval machines hatches of work. can function without direct human We are beginning to look at our indus- control." trialprocesses as complete, integrated Theodore A. Smith. RCA systems from the introduction of the raw material until the completion of the final There are many forms of automaton and product.. . . One way ofdefining automation is to say thatitis a means of the term has many definitions. As with organizingorcontrollingproduction many areas of inquiry these days, the processes. study of automation requires a high toler- Automation can be said to be any con- ance for amhiguity. Although the ante- tinuous and integrated operation of a rationalizedproduction'systemwhich cedents of automation go hack many uses electronic or other equipment to centuries and as with nearly everything regulate and coordinate the quality and else it can he traced to biblical times, the quantity of production. term as now conceptualized is relatively When I speak of automation I am referring tothe use of mechanical and new. In 1947 the Ford Motor Company electronic devices to regulate and control announced the organization of an "Auto- the operation of machines. It represents mation" departmentinthe manufac- something radically different from the turing engineering division. D. S. Harder, mere extension of mechanization. Itis a new technology, arising from electron- than vice president for manufacturing, ics and electrical engineering. had coined the term to describe the link- The essential feature of this new step in ing of successive machines by automatic mechanization (automation) is the appli- work transfer and positioning devices. cation of electronics to the control of mechanical and chemical processes. The This process has since become known as mechanical brain or electronic computer Detroit-type automation. isthe central feature of this develop- George Terborgh of the Machinery ment. and Allied Products Institute says that One could elaborate on the above list. the term caught on and the result was a but resolution of the definition problem confusion of tongues rivaling the Tower is not one of the objectives of this paper. of Babel. In his book, TheAutomation Nevertheless, key terms stand out in the Hysteria.Tcrbough reports: "Searching definitions examined, improvedmethods. for the meaning of automation islike mechanizationof manualoperations, nailing jelly to a wall." progressive process, continuous flow, in- A good source of definitions is Bright's tegrated systems. organization and con- compilation from testimony at the 1955 trol, rationalized production, regulation Congressional hearings. andcoordination electronics, mechani- In a general way, the term automation cal and electronic brains. represents technological change which is John Diebold, whose name is also asso- surely nothing new. Automation isnot essentially different ciated with the coinage of the term auto- from the process of improving methods mation, has made this observation. of production which has been going on As it has developed in the United States, throughout human history. automation takes many forms and can Automation may be defined as relegation be classified in several ways. One such to a machine of operations previously classification is as follows performed manually. Computersautomatic handling of in- Automation is not a revolutionary tech- formation by use of electronic systems nique but a continuation of our progress "Detroit"Automation integrationof in mechanization. machines linking together, by means of We define automation as the automatic automatic transfer devices of the ma- handling of parts between progressive chines of production production processes. Process Control Systemscomputer and For practical purposes.. . we define integrated control systems for operation automation as continuous automatic proof process (oil, chemical, atomic' plants duction, largely in the sense of linking Numerical Controlthe use of tape and

117 other automatic control devices to direct sion may he next. operation of machines and machine sys- Small and versatile television cam- tems. eras have extensive applications in com- Why dofirmsautomate? Diebold bination with remote controls. Television states a number of reasons. is an indispensable part of control sys- Our experience has shown that the mo- tems in many plants. tivations for automating have been very diverse. Apart from the fact many con- Proximity switches have markedly sidered ita band wagon on which they improved in speed of response and ac- should climb, the overriding factors dic- curacy. Also addedisthe capacitive tating a decision to automate usually were, and still are, (1) to cut production switch, the inducive switch and the infra- costs: (2) to reduce labor requirements; red detector. These can detect the pres- (3) to do existing things faster; (4) to ence or position of an object from .001 do things not possible before; (5) to in- inch to several inches away. crease productivity: (6) to aid in deci- Fluidics has circumvented some of sion-makingbyprovidingfullerand faster information. theproblemsofelectroniccircuits. One representation of the automation Fluidics now allows equivalent logic cir- process is shown in Figure I, at the end cuits to he placed in magnetic and elec- of this section. The diagram exposes the tric fields or in explosive areas impracti- contents of the automation "black box" cal for electronic circuitry. as conceived by a firm specialiingin Feedback circuits are much more automation. sophisticated. producing a running record of the system's performance. Itis informative also to take note of specific techniques and methods now em- Raw materials have changed, an ex- ployedin automaton applications. C. plosion of plastics with manifold proper- English Evanson, President of TAB En- ties. These materials have been a boon to gineers in Chicago, has identified a rep- automation designers. resentative number of these which have Papers today havequalitiesun- cropped up in the past 20 years or so. dreamed of a generation ago. The same The magnetic wire of World War can be said for glass and ceramics. In the II has become today's magnetic tape with metals field new alloys, new combina- many applications. tions, new shapes, powdered metals. are Both analog and digital computers now at the designer's command. have been applied extensively to the con- Lubricants are made for eve7y tem- trol of processes and machinery. Some- perature, condition, and expected life of times these are linked together as hy- equipment. brids. Plug-in components and subassem- The era of solid state circuitry is blies have enhanced equipment mainten- fully with us, so that computers can be ance. larger infunction and smaller in size Freeing of fresh and cooked foods with little problem of heat. hasfoundedawhole new industry. Lasers are used for machining, to Another boost will come with the intro- balance rotors, measure distances, and duction of cryogenics to industry. Con- ventional freezing is accuratelyguidetunnelingmachines too slow for the underground. fishing industry and pulpy food items Computerized microwave and mod- such as tomatoes. Faster cryogenic freez- ulatedlightsurveying equipment had ing, opens up new applications. begun to replace the standard transit on Micro-wave energy is an outgrowth our highway program, only to be replaced of radar of World War II.It will have by the Laser Transit. an impact on industry where quick dry- The science of holography has been ing or heating is required. founded. Now we have three dimension- In the metals field, electrical dis- al printing, and three-dimensional televi- chargemachining,electricchemical

118 machining and electron beam machining it could be partly or completely obsolete have emerged. Laser welding of small by the time the project is installed. How- ever,a more realisticreaction isto parts. ultrasonic cleaning. welding, and recognize that change is with us and to inspection and Electra- magnetic forming constantly maintain review points both are new processes. during the project and also afteritis In the machine shop the greatest installed. change has been N C. numerical control There may be other scary implications of machining. of Evanson's statement about there- Transport means, available 20 years duced lead-timeintechnology. What ago, have been integrated with equip- does it mean in terms of the discrepancy ment as a system these days. This inte- betweenthehigh-technology and low gration with equipment, the increase in technology nations of the world? What standard units, and the development of will be the effect of this change on our controlledconveying systemsarethe social institutions? most marked advancements in the ma- Bates has reminded us of the elonga- terials handling field. tion of technology. Materials handling outside the plant At this point in time, technology could includes new uses for pipelines, such as be described as extremely elongated. By elongated, we mean that at one extreme slurries,tomove granular materials. are technologies based on the operation Overland conveyors can move excavated of the human organism as a thinking material, construction material, coal, and and acting mechanism unaided at times fill over long distances. by even simple tools. At the other extreme, we have in existence systems of Vibratory howls have been devel- production which combine sophisticated oped for storage, cleaning, and feeding computers with intricate systems of ma- units. chines. Even in the most advanced so- Magnetic belts have been developed ciety, this statement holds true. When we view the large picture of the entire to separate ferrous items, to convey and world of man, technology becomes even to also carry magnetic instructions along more elongated stretching from the most with the loads. primitive to the most modern. . . . In most of the world, family life, religion, Floor carts have become radio con- education, agricultural production, gov- trolledor magneticallycontrolled by ernment, and recreation, and for the most lines on the floor. part, the production of goods and ser- A whole new line of loaders, stock- vices are carried on with a pre-mechan- ers, and line storage equipment has been ized or pre..machine technology. We must recognize, therefore, that by viewing man developed. Air glide has been developed from a world perspective there exist side to allow a man to move about a pallet by side the most primitive and the most load of a ton easily. sophisticated technological schemes. The above developments noted by One of the questions that needs to be Evanson represent some of the items now answered is whether there shall ever be a stage reached at which this elongation available to the automation designer. His of technology will be reduced, and most field has become even more stimulating or all of human productive activities will and exciting. be carried on through the utilization of self-operated machinery. Evanson has been led to conclude: The staggering impact of these examples isreally how short the lead-time has Current Status of Automation become for a theory to emerge from a Considering the current state-of-the-art, laboratory and be installed in practical use. Before the advent of automation, it one is amazed that our society is not usually required about twenty years for more automated than it is. Experts seem a theory to be put to productive work in to agree that technology can automate industry. This length of time is fast de- any manufacturing process an industrial- creasing to about two years. The scary implication of this is that if one has a ist desires. The capabilities in agriculture three year program under development and agri-business, forestry, and transpor-

119 tation are likewise impressive. The capa- Mill uses 50 employees in an operation bilities of computer hardware have al- usually requiring 150to 200 workers. ways kept well ahead of our abilities to In agriculture and agri-business the ap- exploit them, But, then, automation as plications have been manifold, reflecting an explicit concept is only about two de- a dramatic reduction in the production cades old; and, until recently. this was labor force but also stimulatinv, much about par for the introduction of a new new industry in Georgia. The develop- technology. The gap between the avail- ment of improved plantvarietieshas ability of a technology and its applica- stimulated increased efforts in mechani- tion seems to he narrowing. Indeed, the zation and automation. Changes in culti- gap itself is becoming ;,n object of inten- vation practices and harvesting have also sive study. The lag appears to be related made feasible increased mechanization. tofactors, suchastheresistanceto One automated device for grading and change by both labor and management. sorting tomatoes operates on a hydraulic failuretoassemble componentsand principle utilizing the differences in spe- equipment into systems, and cost consid- cific-gravity of ripe, green and intermedi- erations. ate degrees of maturity of this vegetable. On theother hand.asone looks Automated feeding of chickens and live- around in Georgia one cannot help but stock has made possible large-scale enter- he impressed by the extent to which auto- prises in Georgia. Almost everyone in the mation is already applied. Every type of state is aware of these developments. In enterprise has been affected to a signif- short, the adaptation of mechanization icant degree. Furthermore, some of the and automation to agricultral practices applications in Georgia can be ranked has been phenomenal. Everything seems among themost sophisticatedto be be done for the convenience of the found anywhere. machine. Those who remember how In the textile industry Jefferson Mills things were done a few years ago may atJefferson.Ga..isanoutstanding have very few recollections of adapta- example. This firm's president, Morris tions made for the convenience of man. Bryan. Jr., has been personally responsi- Forestry and forest product industries ble for this outstanding example of auto- represent another major area for automation in Georgia. Jefferson Mills did mation applications in Georgia. Telfair more than simply install new machines Timber Company can he cited as an ex- the firm rationalized the complete pro- ampleinpulpwood.Telfairbuilt a slasher in 1965 for its yard in Milan. A duction process, eliminating or consolidating many of the steps involved. The tree is cut and hauled in three lengths to process of innovation and improvement the slasher. The slasher cuts the trees is only part of the story. The design ex- into 5.3 inch lengths for loading on rail tends to the physical plant. organization cars. Two slashers do the work of eight men in the woods. In 1968 four crews structure,and managementpractices. From a designer's point of view it may producedthe same amount of wood be described as a classic systems effort of that 10 crews did in 1962. Forestry operations, great elegance and beauty. likeagriculture,are becoming highly rationalized, scientific operations Jefferson Mills' SOuthworth Division is so that automation systems can be ef- a 5 million dollar plant which has been fectively employed. called the world's most modern textile Brick makingisanother example. plant. The production process inthe Merry Brothers Brick and Tile Company push-button mill reduces the stepsin in Augusta is engaged in a multi-million production from 17 to six, according to dollar expansion of its brick producing publishedreports.Six new typesof facilities. A new fully-automated unit is machines were developed for the plant. said to have a capacity of 200.000 bricks According toBusiness Week.the Georgia a day.

120 Printing andpublishingisanother airlinereservationsisreprescntativo of Georgia industry in which automation these pplications. The computerized in- has made significant inroads. The Athens formation system of the Southern Rail- Banner- Heraldis produced through one way System.locatedinAtlanta,has ofthenation'smosttechnologically- made thc operation of that complex of advanced newspaper production opera- railroads a model for thc nation. Detailed tions. Whena Balmer-Heraldreporter and updated information on;illship- sits down at the typewriter to hunt-and- ments and cars is available at all times. peek. the typewriter produces a punched Southern's customers. the shippers. have paper tape. This tape is input into the direct access to the system and can in- computer which justifies the lines, hy- terrogateitabout the status of their phenates the words at the end of a line shipments. One of Southern's most intri- and outputs another tape. This second guing applications is the system of sen- tape is fed into a photon machine which sing devices which detect hot boxes on produces columns of type on photo- rail cars. When a train with a hot box graphic paper at very high speeds. These passes one of these devices a message is are passed into page formats, made into generated and transmitted through the plates, and run off on high-speed offset system so that it is received very soon by presses. Not a linotypc machinc or stick the engineer of the train by telephone. of type in the place! By the timc this The message tells him that he has a hot article is published new applications will box on his train. third car back. rear no doubt be planned if not already im- wheel,right-handside!For the highway plemented. traveler,Holidcx and similar compu- The banking and financial community terizedreservation systems assure him has a major stake in automation, a fact of overnight accommodations. of which most bankers seem aware. The The paper making process is highly crcdit cardisfast moving us into the automated today with extremely sensitive checklist society. some say. Tellersin controls over a host of conditions in the Atlanta banks talkto computers with manufacturing process. Petroleum refi- keyboard devices. And the computers ning, pipeline transportation is frequently talk hack in spoken English. providing regarded as one of the most highly auto- information on customer accounts! Cus- matedindustries.Lockheed'sInlerloc does tomersatPeabody and Co.,tocitc management information system another example, can punch a few but- many things,including the automatic tons and instantly obtain about 12 items preparation of manuals which accom- of information on any stock listed on the pany Lockhccd products shipped to cus- New York Stock Exchange. The recent tomers. paperwork fiasco on Wall Street is also Public systems; such as police and law evidence of the push toward automation enforcement agencies, have information in the world of finance. systcms in operation or under develop- The communications industry is also ment in Georgia. There arc also interest- becoming highly automated. Southern ing new applications in the medical and Bell sharesinthe Bell System's huge public health fields. Patient's data in hos- computerized communication's network. pitals may be acquired from automated This network not only provides switching sensing systems and processed through capabilities but can accommodate mes- computers and displayed to doctors, nur- sage queues, so that if thc line is busy ses, and other hospital personnel. the message can be stored and transmit- One of thc prominent automation suc- ted later. cess stories in Georgiaisthat of the Transportation is another major area Southwire Company at Carrollton and wherc automation is having its impact. itspresident, Roy Richards. According Delta Air Lines' Deitamatic system for to theNew York Times,Mr. Richards

121 has built Southwirc into the largest pri- tems for long-range technological, eco- vate producer of aluminum and copper nomic, and social forecasting. rod, wire, and cable in the United States. One way of looking to the future is to And Southwirc has lead some of the look back for a comparable period of giants of the industry in automating the time and trace the developments in the production of aluminum and copper rod. intervening years. In 1955, for example, Southwire's lead in automation won the very few electronic computers were in- attention of the Western Electric Com- stalled outside government and educa- pany. which joined withthe Georgia tional R and D centers. Today there are Company to adapt its continuous alumi- more than 60,000 computers installed in num method to copper. In 1963 West- the United States and half again that ern Electric and Southwire had devel- many more on order. In 1955 there were oped such a machine. Southwire now de- few persons who programmed computers signs,installs, and starts operations of or served as systems analysts. In 1970 these continuous systems for other manu- these are flourishing occupational fields facturers. and persons so trained are in great de- The construction industry is beginning mand. to experience the influence of automa- Another way to seek out the future is tion. The success of mobile housing is to seek out incipient developments in attributedby some observers to con- today's society and to forecast that these straints on technological progress in con- now uncommon practices will be wide- ventional housing. spread in 15 years or so. Automation at The above illustrations are intended to Jefferson Mills and elsewhere in the tex- convey a sense of the status of automa- tile industry can be expected to be typical tion in Georgia todayits nature and of the textile industry in 1985. Automa- scope across many areas of business, tion as a concept of 20 years' duration commerce, industry, and government. seems tobe emerging fromitsem- Unfortunately, we do not have an "auto- bryonic stage to full development. Auto- mation barometer" to provide in statisti- mation may be said to be an idea whose cal format a profile of automation in time has come. Ideas tend to mature Georgia. The Graduate School of Busi- sooner these days, and the basis for tech- ness Administration at the University of nological growth doubles every 20 years. Georgia hopes to develop one. It should Automation in our era has come of age be clear from the preceding examples along with two powerful allies, systems thatautomationis awell-established theory and systems engineering. phenomenon in Georgia today. Explorationofour underwaterre- sources will be far advanced by 1985. The Next Fifteen Years It is an activity in which Georgia has a greatinterest. Our oceanographicre- To use Ley's terminology, the year 1985 search is now proving out methods of is beyond the foreseeable future as that stayingunderwateratconsiderable term was used 20 years ago when Ley depths, two or three miles; and mining coinedit.Conventionalextrapolation and drilling far out to sea will be under- methodsforforecastingtechnological way in 1985. Electrofishing may then be developments are useful for short periods a popular method of harvesting fish very say five years. Beyond that span of inexpensively. The fishcatchwill,of time we need new methods for technol- course, be processed automatically. The ogical forecasting, and these, in fact, are Japanese and the Russians are already being developed as the obvious need for well along on this. Inland water resources long-range planning becomes more ap- will be similarly exploited. Substantial in- parent in business, industry, and_govent- dustrial and governmental research and ment. Perhaps one of the things we can development facilities will be located in hope for by 1985 will be effective sys- the area to support these activities.

122 In the production of 1985 machine metal cutting from engineer's idea to parts, a number of new machining con- inspection of thefinished productre- cepts will be employed. One method will quires overcoming one major obstacle. be to use small computers to operate a A way has to be found to modify the single machine. Another approach will computer's set of rigidinstructions to betocontrolbatteriesof individual account for expansion of metal during machines from a single remote computer. the cutting. To do this, adaptive control A third approach will be computer con- is being developed with sensing tools and trol of transfer lines between machines. other devices. Cincinnati Milling Ma- Another method will he hatch machining chine Company began development of groups of machines linked by a con- adaptive control in the 1960s. By 1985 veyor and controlled by a computer. The it will become truly the thinking machine methods represent a form of automation and will have many applications. Most with a high degree of versatility. automobiles in 1985 will have adaptive control in their brake systems. Aircraft Basic elements of this versatility in- flight control systems in 1985 must he clude these assets, the systems will ac- adaptive, as human reaction time is sim- cept families of parts in odd lots and ply too slow for projected aircraft and random mix; the machines will be linked traffic patterns. by automated material handling equip- Adaptive control, and thatis a key ment; the computer will keep track of phrase, will also be extensively used in incoming parts and direct them to the optical devices. Earth-orbiting telescopes approrpriate work stations. The computer will use them. These telescopes will be willsetschedules, control production 20 feet in diameter and will operate in a cycles, select tools, and monitor main- zero-gravityenvironmentwithadded tenance. thermal strains from sun and shadow. These batch manufacturing systems of Adaptive logic controls will be rather 1985 will then be conventional systems. commonplace in 1985not only in pro- Even newer plants will have automatic duction but in many other fields of ap- assembly, automatic material handling, plication. A number of adaptive control and automatic packaging. Test and in- concepts will be employed. The major spection will be automated, of course. varieties will be on-line feedback, pre- Total plant output will be at the com- determined logic, on-line optimization, mand of the computer in the automated and self-organizingsystems. Some of factory. It was two years ago, in 1967, these systems may be bionic systems that computers ran only 400 processing modeled from control systems of living plants from refineries to paper mills to creatures. They will include feed-forward steel rolling plants. The computer got its as well as feedback features. They will firstblue-collar job back in1959 at be on-line and real-time. Pattern recogni- Texaco's Port Arthur refinery. By l tion capabilities will be well established. there were also 13,000 numerically con- Self-organizing controllers will not suf- trolled machine tools used by industrial machine makers and aircraft companies fer the handicaps of the old-fashioned, pre-programmed computers. By 1985 in the U.S. The integration of computers and numerically-controlled tools in the these should provide an elementary form intelligence, wherein non- 1970's will be highlight of what has been ofartificial living matter acquires some of the re- called the second industrial revolution introduction of the computer-controlled sponses and qualities of living intellect. factory. Electronics and aircraft manu- Artificial intelligence has been a subject facturers will probably lead the way of intensive scientific study through the two of the leaders being Boeing and 1960's. IBM. Functional elements of ti.ese adaptive To achieve full electronic control of control systems will have many charac-

123 teristics. Sensors now constitute the lar- age of management information systems gest segment of the current process con- utilizing large-scale and very fast compu- trol market. In 1985 sensors will be able ters. Today's computers operate in nano- to provide measurement of properties of seconds. billionths of a second. In 1985 materials being processed. optical proper- we may well be in the picosecond era ties, dimensions, surface finish, metallur- with our computers performing arith- gical characteristics, chemical composi- metic functions in trillionths of a second. tion, and molecular structure. Sensors Managers and administrators of 1985 willprovideflow measurement, non- will all be deeply involved in the use of contact measurements of moving ma- computers. terials. and increased reliability in mea- By 1985computerswillhewell sure of temperature, pressure and flow. adapted to the natural languages of man. The use of control valves and actua- Terminals connected to the computer will tors will he extensive in remote operation be on every manager's desk. These will andautomaticsequencing.Recorders accommodate, graphic and audio inputs and indicators will have changed so that and outputs. Every home that has a many variables can be read from a single touch-tone phone will have a computer indicator. This will demand from opera- input device, and the housewife of 1985 tors more sophisticated monitoring tech- will use it as such. Her inputs to the niques than visual observation. supermarket will originate from the food ()thew forms data acquisition than in- preparation center in her home a unit strumentation will be widely utilized in once known as the kitchen). Every busi- 1985. Many of these devices will be ness operation, large and small. will be linked to digital computers for account- utilizifig the computer in some fashion. ing and purposes other than on-line con- The computer will have such an effect trol; a major use will be in management on business that we will not be doing decision-making and planning. The opti- business as we are today. These computer mizing methods of process control will systems will be used to support day-tohave been also enlarged and extended day operations and the flow of informa- to management. tionfor management control purposes Data networks of various kinds should andfor management decision-making be quite common in Georgia in 1985, and long-range planning,Infact, by serving industry, education, government, 1985 much of the decision-making may andpublicagenciesof many kinds. be programmed and automated. These networks, similar to today's tele- The computer-based information sys- phone system,willcarrydigitaldata tem of 1985 will provide many kinds of transmitted to and from computers and environmental feedback on how the total between computers. Television networks business is operating, including informa- will link school systems. Libraries will tion on customers' behavior. It will oper- utilize facsimile transmission facilities. ate in a closed-loop fashion and will take It will be difficult to overestimate the corrective action to adjust the business magnitude of the impact of the computer to environmental conditions. The system on all phases of life in Georgia in 1985. will tie in all the persons in the organi- As the computer-utility concept comes zationon-line!Itwill provide upda- into fruition the computer will be as ting of profiles on the information needs easily available to all as a telephone is of all persons in the organization. today. EDP applications will apply to This type of system as envisioned by every kind of enterprise, public and pri- Earl C. Joseph of UNIVAC will vate. The professions including medicine ...allow the user to question the system by asking, 'what happens ifI do and the law, will also be profoundly af- this?' The 'what if' requires a powerful fected by the computer. programming system to back it up. The computer needs to run a simulation of The year 1985 will see the coming of the total operation of the company, in-

124 eluding the customers. governments who do nut use such sys- To illustrate how these systems work, I tems by 1975 or 1980 will simply not would like to set up a hypothetical ex- be able to compete in a society which ample. Suppose I am the manager and does. put into the computer my PERT up- In 1985 we can expect that automa- dating information, (PERT is a planning tool that allows the computer to tion technology will he nearly double determine whether I will meet my sched- what itis today. Analysts genetalIN' say ule. The information I put in is my best that the rate of growth of technology is guzss of where I am and how long it exponential.doubling about every 20 will take me to do certain items.)If I put in my current input this week and years. The henefits and ill effects of tech- the computer runs the analysis program nology also seem to grow at an exponen- and determines I am going to have 13 tial rate. weeks negativeslack.Iam going to One important fact of 1985 is that miss my schedulebyalmostthree months! If I am working on a six-month technology will be predominantly of the project, three months late is pretty bad new technology variety. Charles B. Fish- what does the computer do? Itcalls er.president of Canada's R-dio Engi- me up on the telephone and makes me neering Products draws a sharp distinc- painfully aware of this fact. tion between the old technology and the Next week . . .instead of calling me up and telling me that I am going to be new. late. the computer also calls my boss. The older is folk-technology. based on You can see how the computer is start- manual skills. long experience, trained ing to control its environment! judgement. and painstaking learning. This is what we mean when we talk of crafts- The management information systems manship today. It is rapidly and properly of 1985 will have very large-scale ran- disappearing inindustrializedsocieties, and will soon survive in these societies dom access memory devices. These sys- only as rather conscious handicraft. art, temswillrequirefileprotectionand recreation. and sports. security, many' levels of electronic locks Modern technology. Fisher says. depends and keys. Input-output devices will be on an entirely different approachthe application of scientific knowledge and very esoteric by today's standards; the logical analysis to each problem. Thus terminal of 1985 will be an intelligent the electronics expert feels free to offer terminal and will do many of the things solutions to steel-making problems, the that computers now do. analysts of weapons systems are sought to resolve problems of urban renewal New communications systems of 1985 and mass transportation. may truly get us out of the Gutenberg The younger generation of engineers and rut. as Marshall McLuhan might like to scientists have never learned the folkview it. By 1985 some observers say we technology of their elders, nor do they will have gone to paperless books. Books need to. will be edited by computers and revised We are now in a period of transition electronically. The computer will correct between the two technologies. By 1985. spelling,take out redundant material, the newer science-based technology will point out omissions and inconsistencies. be in full flower wkh automation as one and suggest fresh ideas. The book will of its signal achievements. The technolo- go to a publisher who will distribute it gy gap in Georgia, between the old and electronically. The abstract of the book the new, will have narrowedthe elong- will he displayed on the console on the ation of technology in our state will have reader's deskperhaps by picture-phone. shortened. Some of us may in 1985 look Mr. Joseph of UNIVAC also has this back occasionally with nostalgia to the to say tranquility of the 1960s. Those of us working in the computerized managementinformationsystemfield arepredictingthatsuch systems will Implications evolve and come into mass use by executives. We further predict that those Given the state of our present knowledge managers, companies,politicians,and about how technology affects society, the

125 best we can do isto forecast probable longer believed. developments and anticipate some of the The total education gained in the "sys- many issues that seem likely to accom- tem" is inadequate for an adultrole because things are changing so rapidly. pany them. This section reflects the views The educational disparity between some and opinions concerning the educational people and some parts of the country is implications of automation expressed by sogreatasto cause permanentin- participants at the 1969 Georgia-Reli- equality. It is generally recognized that all learn- ance Symposium on Automation and So- ing does not take place in the education- ciety held at the University of Georgia. al system. The participants wcre experienced and Our present educational system does not knowledgeable persons from allparts serve the poor, the inner city or minority groups, and those who need education of thenation, representing education, most. government. industry, and the scientific community. A major concern of the Dr. Venn concluded that in an auto- Symposium was education and its rela- mated society education isa necessity tionships to automation. for everyone, a fact which simply wasn't The stage for the panel discussions on true three decades ago. From these theses automation and education was set by Dr. and this conclusion, the four panels con- Grant Venn of the U.S. Office of Edu- secutively addressed the issues and ques- cation. Dr. Venn's emphasis was placed tions of education as it relates to automa- on how a nation must change its education. tional system to prepare individuals to A large segment of the general public control and live more effectively in a has historically viewed education as a technological society. A secondary in- selecting out processthose who sur- terest in automation was its application vived the course were rewarded with to help individuals learn more effectively. wealth and the benefits of non-material Education as a process viewed from the cultural values. The system had estab- viewpoint of the school as its dominant lished credibility.It was a channel to mechanism was seen to face the critical affluence and the good life. The general question of change. Can the school at public still perceives education as doing all levels of instruction adapt effectively a basically good jobbut questions are to serve the needs of a rapidly changing being asked. With the new technology, technology in a relatively stable society? the new society, what kind of role or How can the educational establishment function must the school play? What monitor changes in the environment, as- should it be asked to do and expected to sess the implications of these changes, do? and modify the educational structure to What wasn't necessary, or profitable cope with them? Is the school simply an to do, a few decades ago may now be adaptive mechanism, or is its role more necessary. The question must be resolved dynamic? as to the responsibilities of schools in the Noting some things which have hap- total educational process. Will the tech- pened in our society since the educa- nical school serve the needs of an auto- tional system was established, Dr. Venn mated society adequately if the larger enumerated these points. society does not serve the educational role it once provided for technical train- The nation's work force can no longer absorb large numbers of uneducated. ing? There are things that people don't Education has become the bridge be- learn in schools. If this training is not tweentheindividualandarolein provided now outside the school, what society, must the school's response be? Large segments of our people find them- One of the present aims of the schools selves locked out of our culture because of youth, illiteracy, or old age. is how to teach the so-called disadvan- The myth that educational quality is the taged. Fifty years ago kids were dropping ability to select students "out" is no out of school all along the line from the

126 first grade to go to work. Unskilled labor in 1967 we used only 40 percent of our was available and didn't require school- labor force to produce and distribute ing; now these kids can't get work. Very material goods and 60 percent for non- few jobs are available today which do material things such as education, health not require some degree of literacy. services, recreation. social services, engi- There is a serious lack in the educa- neering and science, accounting and man- tional system, in contrast for example, to agement. If this kind of change takes industry where there are motivational place, isn'tit reasonable to expect that and incentive guidelines for profitability the nature of human individual choice and efficiency of operation for expansion will largely determine the direction en- of the enterprise. The changing character terprises will go? If so. we must ask of the labor force places much greater what kinds of things people will want emphasis upon intellectual skills and so- from an affluent societynow that they cial skills and less upon physical strength can afford to pay for things other than and manual dexterity. One consequence material goods. Right now it seems they has been new opportunities for women in want more health services, more educa- this the labor force. In the decade of the '50s, tion services, more recreation.If half the new jobs were taken by women! trend continues, what kinds of people Part of the problem then from the point will be required to provide these ser- of view of boys from working class fam- vices and what sort of education should ilies is that their image of the male oc- they get? cupation as something involving physical The kinds of analyses being made by strength and manual dexterity is opt the scientists in the think-tanks suggest more way out; it is being taken over by the and more consideration be given to co- machines. Their image of female work is operative education between schools intellectual and social. and industry coordinating the work For children of middle-class families between them to facilitate the entry of this is not a handicap. They see their people into the work force. Another view fathers who are in intellectual occupa- is to hold the place of the drop-out in tions, sales, or areas using social skills. case he wishes to return and to facilitate So again we have the problem of shift- his re-entry into the school. Also con- ing from one generation to anther. How sidered is the notion of pacing and spac- much do we really know about the na- ing in the educational program to better ture of the shiftand the value of skills, serve individual needs and interests. attiudes, and behavior that produce a We have a tendency in our society to skill? placethe lowest social value on the We are now at the point for the first things that are most essential, For exam- time in the history of man that every ple, a food service worker has little so- man must have the basic skills of learn- cial statusyet we all have to eat. One ing. This means communication skills, company took one of its food service verbal skills, and the capability to enable workers, sent him to a culinary institute every man to continue to learn and rein New York to go through one of their learn throughout life. This is a different summer training programs. He came kind of thing thaninthe past. The back a completely revitalized person. He school establishment is at least giving lip wears his chef's hat at a little more rakish service to the concept. Learning how to angle than ever before. This nation has learn has become an important objective not dealt with the fact that many skills in education. which are vitally needed in our society In material production we lean heavily are not looked upon as proper skills for upon individual choices and the free which people should aspire, we've been market; now we are able to produce and snobbish aboutit and we turned our distribute goods so that at last estimate backs on the whole problem. Automa-

127 tion in the kitchen and the automation ductivity increase through the mechani- of the pre-preparation of food may be zation and rationalization of its proce- one solution, but automation in the serv- dures, with a tremendous reduction in ing of food may not be. the labor force. Yet much of that labor Why should education in our society force which remains as hired workers is he restricted to a single point on the oc- poorly trained and has the problem of cupational spectrumwhether itis the low status. Still. the hired farm worker low end or the high end? If automation is a member of one of the vital occupa- does indeed mean more free time for tions; he is one whose services are in individuals, then why can't we develop great demand. It is possible to train farm additional skills? Perhaps the intellectual workers, to professionalize their occupa- can do manual work as well if he enjoys tion so that it becomes more attractive tinkering with a motor. Individuals might to the worker and more dependable to he trained for a dual role. They could the employer. Some of the stigmas as- then work six months each year in one sociated with these occupations are gov- occupationalroleand theothersix ernmentally imposed; for example, these months in some totally different activity. workers do not qualify for collective bar- There isa fallacy that because the gaining, do not qualify for workman's hours of manufacturing are lessening the compensation, were not protected by total working force hours are lessening. minimum wages until recently. As people move into nursing and teach- Perhaps we are talking about a new ing and so on, their work hours do not type of farm worker. The facilities to decrease. Studies shrw thatin typical train this man and the public willing- communitiesthenun.' VIofhours ness to train him are often not there. worked per week by the labor force There are many cultural barriers to this hasn't changed in 20 years. Although type of training, race relations being orr working hours may be lessening in manu- of the major impediments. There is the facturing industries, the shift to services has offset this trend in the society at fear that large scale training of farm large. Even in workers will lead them to demand more areas where the work pay and lead them off the farm into other week does decrease, there is a point at occupations. which workers start moonlighting. Two kinds of questions are raised. Nevertheless,increasedautomation One has to do with what technology will bring aboutincreasedleisurein generates or demands from education for some fashion.Increasedleisure must people who have to work with it. The necessarily have educational implications. other question is associated with occupa- These implications are a concern of adult tional roles. We have millions of -per- education. Ironically, the majority of the sons in this society who lack education, states in the country right now, through and the gap between these people and statutes or constitutional provisions, pro- their ability to become involved and to hibit the expenditure of funds for the participate in the on-going work of so- education of persons over 21 years of ciety as functioning individuals is becom- age. In these states, adult programs must ing greater and greater. It appears that he self-supporting. Those persons who more and more money will have to be need the education most have to over- spent for remedial and corrective mea- come an economic barrier which makes sures at a very severe level of difficulty. it more difficult for them than for others. The society has not yet been willing to Perhaps education can be applied to invest enough money in terms ofa tran- professionalize low status occupations in sitional kind of preventive program. We the production and service industries. In must fit together the educational facili- agriculture, for example, we have an ties and programs with the consumer of industry that has had an enormous pro- the educational productbusiness and

128 industryin a cooperative arrangement be responsible for their dropoutstoo to begin to get to some of these prob- many. and they lose accreditation. An- lems. This may be the pattern a decade other. that the schools be responsible for from now. the student's entering directly into the In the meantime in the schools, we work force. responsible for getting him a have many of our young people who job in the same way they feel responsible cannot see the school program as refor getting a student into college. levant to what they want. The schools Doing different things in the schools in this present condition are not seen as willcreate new methodologies. There viable vehicles for these people to be- will be various kinds of teaching games, come effective individuals. Why can't we programmedinstruction,andclosely build into our schools more variety right paced methods of conditioned learning. now? This is necessary to provide the re- Business and industry can lend signifi- quired options. cant support to the development of these One recent study indicated that the methodologies. Schools may be expected childrenofcollege-educatedparents to contract directly with industry for knew less about the occupational options their development. The companies open to them than did the children of through their organizational ability have parents who had not been to college. learned to be able to do things effectively The general objective of the children of where the education system does not the college-educated is to get to college. have the ability to move in quickly. But, in terms of career concepts and the There are such contracts with the adult role, these children are narrow and Youth Corps, the Job Corps programs, uninformed. and in some of the aircraft programs; Pressuresareevolving from many perhaps Boeing's on-the-job training in groups to change the patterns in our the Tacoma-Seattle Complex has been schools. We still have the normal curve. the largest. There have been contracts Those institutions listed as great educa- with the steel worker's union and the tional institutions are those which have steel companies on the new fast train run the highest degree of selecivity in the from Washington, D. C., to New York. students they admit. Quality is often in- However, there has been little contract terpreted more in the selectivity of the work with children below the age of institutionthanin how wellitdoes sixteen and this is an area of concern whatever its objectives may be. Educa- for companieslike General Learning tors tend to be sensitive about the educa- and IBM. tional achievements of particular sys- The Scandinavian countries are tak- tems, yet these data will be necessary if ing a look at children's learning while we are to systematically assess the ef- receiving wages for so doing. The bright- feeveness ofeducationalenterprises. est kids may even be interested in medi- When it was first proposed years ago cal training and even at that early age of that there be information about public twelve may work locally with the physi- health, the doctors were all up in arms. cian. The fact today is that many of our It was said to be a reflection on the children are economic liabilities. There community if a high incidence of vene- is a need for them to become involved in real disease was foundeither a dirty real on-going things, such as participat- community or bad doctors. However, ing in a training program at Reliance when it was found that there was hook- Electric Company or working with a worm in the South,thatinformation local carpenter or the doctor. A skill helped to initiate a program for its era- can be a motivation, can develop self dication. Today we need more informa- dignity and can open up perspectives on tion on the kinds of schools we have. the occupational options available. One proposal offered was that schools Although automation may be increas-

129 ing productivity in the manufacturing lion jobs unfilled because the skills are area, this is not so apparent with ser- not available. More and more younv vices. Services begin to price themselves people appear to have the desire to rno. e up in the market, and skilled trades in into two-ear and four-year college pro- the service sector become virtually un- grams which do not meet the needs of known. Insmall townsif you want society. even though these needs are pro- something done these days you may find jected 20 years in advance. How do we that you have to do it yourself. So. while plan tofillthese important positions we are talking about training people for which even automation will not elimi- the service sector, must we not face up nate. such positions for example. as the to the fact that there are occupations physician? What kinds of changes can and services which are rapidly disap- we introduce into our schools to help pearing? meet these needs? Before much ctn be This is true for the youngsters, and done there are certain institutional ar- it is true for the older people. There are rangements and legal restraints which many service occupationsinto which must he faced up to. retired persons might goticket takers, We are going to have to do some- movie operators, jobs of this kind. Tech- thing about the compulsory education nology has either eliminated these jobs laws; we are going to have to do some- or else the workers have priced them- thing about the minimum wage laws; we selves out of jobs. How will the educa- are going to have to do something about tion apparatus we are seeking to design the child lalx.r laws! Our educational face up to this fact? unitstowns and countiesare archaic. There is an increase in the number We are just now by accident developing of paraprofessionals in many areas, but social,cultural, economic, and educa- in nursing there is a tremendous short- tional units that need to be defined in a age of paraprofessionals. Certainser- different way. For example, New York vices have been priced out of the market City has more in common with Bergen so societyistraining paraprofessionals County, New Jersey, and Bucks County, for temporary service jobs. Because these PennsyNania, than it does with Buffalo. paraprofessionals do not remain on the There are also ticklish questions of job, society is confronted with the never federal-state relationships. The state must ending task of trying to recruit and train share in problems with the federal gov- new paraprofessionals. It is doubtful that ernment. There is the issue of the alloca- these entry jobs will ever lead to profes- tion of financial support for the schools sional careers. and the issue of the allocation of con- One solution then to the problem of trols. As a percentage of gross national low level occupations is to make them product, we are spending no more on entry positions in a career development education today than we did during the pattern. We can establish another option depression. We now spend about 51 bil- patternifwe make paraprofessional lion dollars for education, about 35 bil- work a training period which will lead lion for the public schools and about 15 upward in a career pattern rather than billion for higher education. The federal requiring four years of college for all contribution for public schools is a little professional level jobs. Some persons will over eight percent. be attractedtothese paraprofessional Automation as change requires new positions which do offer mobility, and patterns and creates problems. But lack they will stay in these positions because of change would also create problems. they are able to realize their aspirations Industry tends to bear the blame for and develop their skills. problems attributed to automation. In- There are currently reputed to be dustry, therefore, needs to recognize the somewhere between three and four mil- problems, real or mythical, which are

130 attributed tothis technology. Industry education isfitting our people to work needs to define what these problems are in the highly technological society that and to make the "effort to solve them. we are coming into. Education may be Any changes in society as far reach- the answer. Looking to the past. we see ing as those in the post-industrial re-volu- that labor unions had a big role in education are changes made possible by the tionwiththeapprenticeshipsystem. ability of people to change and to be- which provided the skilled people of the have differently. As they behave differently, they can do jobs differently and pastthe bricklayers,thecarpenters. and so on. Today thin; apprenticeship sys- they can perceive the world differently. tem is missing. The unions today are liv- All these changes that have to take place ing like 19th Century craft guilds, and are concerns of education. The issue is they are very much dominated by the how do we bring about the situation in depression psychology of a limited num- which persons can learn what they need ber of jobs. The challenge to unions is to know so they can have productive, to participate in the educational process significant lives in a society that is quite in terms of the needs of the times and different from that society their parents in the catalytic process of getting people knew? Industry would really like to help, but jobs. businessmen always want to see some- In the 1930s there was a cleavage be- thing concrete before they start any- tween the craft unions and the industrial thing new. Business is already playing unions. In general, thereis reluctance an important role. the Symposium on on the part of an industrial union to Automation and Society sponsored by perpetuateacraftsystem.Industrial the University of Georgia with Reliance unions tend toresistspecializedcraft Electric Company being one manifesta- training because they want to maintain tion of this effort on the part of industry. equality among their workers and not set There are many problems in the pro- up separate groups. There are now some cess of change not caused by automa- reverberations about this among skilled tion. Automation results from, rather workers in industrial unions among peo- than causes, many changes. Every time ple who have gone through three- or the status of a person is raised without four-year apprenticeship programs. Ap- prentice-trained workers as a part of the hisincreasinghiscontributioninan amount equal to the amount his com- total labor force have been declining per- pensation has increased, automation is centage-wise for some time. invited. In industry as wages were in- If not apprenticeship. then what train- creased,thosetasks which were not ing should be used to prepare workers economically viable were automated. Au- for entry into the labor force? Industry tomation was the result rather than the frequently does not want men without cause. Automation is also a response to experience, and without a job the work- the scarcity of labor and facilitates an er cannot get the experience. The prob- expanding economy which might other- lem then is how to provide the potential w:se be constrained by deficiencies quan- worker with this experience. Vocational titative or qualitative, in the labor force. training programs are one answer. Some The important emphasis is not to place unions have recognized this need and blame but to consolidate forces to come have supported vocational training pro- to grips with the problems of a rapidly grams. How much of the responsibility changing technologyof which automa- for the training problem should rest with tion is a significant segment. The impor- theunion? Unionresponsibilitylies tant thing is to recognize the existence of largely in the training or retraining of the problem and try to do something their own people, not in training people about it. who have not yet entered the work force. A central problem in automation and The preparation of young people for

131 initial entry into the work force is an- training of people internationally is not other aspect of the problem. In pro- new to American society: many of our grams across the country which involve technical people have come out of Ger- federal money, thereare some eight many and other parts of Europe in the million persons involved in vocational last century or so. training. Over three million of these Training in an industrial setting tends eight million are adults. Two parts of to he effective because of that setting. these programs are the apprenticeship Students punch time clocks, work in program and thereturning-upgrading shifts. and are exposed to many instruc- program which raises the levels from low tors rather than one. Some of the young skills to the n:ore complex skills required people who are the poorest performers by today's technology. in school do well in training in an in- Unions have probably received more dustrial environment. What works for than their fair share of the blame for the urban person poses special problems deficiencies in the apprenticeship pro- for those from rural areas. The latter grams. Apprenticeship has never really don't have the industries in their com- been picked up by industry, and we can't munities to provide the training. Lack just blame the unions. Itis a partner- of job opportunities in their home com- ship! munitiesforces them tomigrate. A Job mobility is another aspect of the weakness of the Smith-Hughes agricul- training problem from the point of vicw tural program was that it trained young of the individual employer. Industries men to be farmers when there were no can invest large amounts in training only farm jobs available. How do we provide to lose the service of these employees to rural youngsters opportunities for de- other firms. It takes about $50,000 to veloping skills required for employment train a computer programmerhis pay elsewhere? for two and one half years, computer One problem is the lack of training of time, training time for instructors, super- teachers themselves in the new technol- vision and so on. The average computer ogies and their implications. We are just programmer and analyst has changed now turning out our first generation of jobs several times before heisthirty teachers with automation backgrounds. years of age. This is one of the very leathers appear reluctant to be retrained serious problems in training in industry. themselves; they are not going to the Society has not lost his services, but the trouble, the effort, the time to learn. particular industry whichrovided his What we lack in our educational sys- training has. tem is long-range planning. We need to In Japan. the largest industries have identify the occupations that are needed the best vocational-technial schools built in the next five to ten years. We need to right into their industries. There is not plan the education system to provide not much in the way of public expenditure. only the facilities but also the teachers. industry is losing these people and is This is an investment problem and it is questioning whether it can afford to con- an input-output problem. Nobody seems tinue putting money into these school. Is to be doing these things. We do not have this then an area in which the public dol- a complete planning process with educa- lar must be invested for he benefit of the tion and industry and government. total general economy of the cduntry? We must plan for the next few years From the point of view of economic to create the skills we want from the development, a rigid labor force would people who are available. The gap be- not be desirable. This is an international tween people and jobs can be resolved if problem: responsibility doesn't stop here. education assumes the responsibility for Training in industry by industry may be placing its graduates in responsible jobs. the best form of vocational training. The If we marry the placement system with

132 the educational system, the gap can be tern. The middle class parents in the past closed. Today schools are training for have controlled the system and wanted some unknown set of requirements! their youngsters to go on to college were In the past the work force itself was the ones found on the school boards. working essentially as an educational Now in the cities the lower class families system. Work was simple enough and have suddenly discovered education and non-technical enough that one could get want to get in on the act. The education- a job and work up and get an education. al establishment is now becoming other- With the closing of that educational sys- directed. and who the other is becomes tem we haven't substituted anther route very important. There will be many bids for entry. The person who phases out of to take over. There is a new dynamics education phases into the market place of pressure groups. including business at some level, even ifitis the welfare and industry. There will be a balance in market. The trauma of the transition which each group will have to consider now faces people of all ages as old oc- the interests of all othersthat's the way cupations phase out. The high school or American politics operate. college graduate faces a transition, after One change is already taking place. years of schooling, to the market place School boards in this country have been where a different set of values is found. dominated by other than busy indus- The transition may be easierfor the trialists or scientists or technologically- dropout than for the graduate. oriented persons. The old type didn't There are several kinds of problems know much about ten-year planning or in education which have evolved from cost-effectiveness analysis. All of a sud- the rapid shifts in the nature of occupa- den school boards are becoming stocked tions due to automation. There is one with these people who ask the superin- group which doesn't get educated at all tendent about his plan for a year from and is not able. for a variety of reasons. now. This change in the make-up of to startfirstgrade. Thereisanother school boards is causing quite a pulsa- group of students who are able, can tionin the educational establishment. make good grades. but have gotten sick The government must take a big part in of school and are in some stage of re- this new managerial approach because volt. Thereisanother group thatis a great deal of money spent on education showing some mobility. They are the is government money. disadvantaged who do get into college The following is Dr. Ralph Tyler's and survive. The college has to deal with summary of the discussions at the Geor- many kinds of students. gia Reliance Symposium. How can the nation change its educa- Automation has an impact on educational system to prepare individuals to tion in two ways. 'ft has e,e'veloped tech- live more effectively in a technological nologies and devices that aid the learning process, and it has been a powerful fac- environment? Should the system train tor in setting new tasks for our schools the individual for a job? To what extent and colleges. The major time in these dis- are we concerned with how individuals cussions was deeoted to the latter sub- can live as individuals and as people? ject. Shall we educate the whole man? Shall Automation and the applications of we educate people for the leisure we are science and technology to agriculture, told automation will bring? industry, nation: defense, and the Health services have sharply shifted the com- In the next few decades the pressme position of the U.S. labor force. Last on the educational establishment is go- year only five percent of those employed ing to come from American industry. were in unskillled occupations, while the Up to now the establishment has been increasing demand was in technical, man- pretty much an inner-directed entity. It agerial, and service occupations in the has also been a closely knit political sys- health services. education services, rec-

133 reation services, social services, and sci- mersed in an urban, industrial society. ence. engineering, accounting, and ad- The children come to school without the ministration. Thus, very few people, who kinds of background experiences on have little or no education or training, which the curriculum and teaching have are able to find jobs while the strong &- heretofore been based. They are not able turd is for people with more than high to succeed in the educational tasks which school education. When this situation is have been set for them. To reach these compared with the past and present, great children, our educational efforts must re- educational changes are clearly neces- late to their whole way of life. This sary. Heretofore, about 20 percent of our means sh.Irp changes in curricula and in children have not attained the level of iearnint :nd teaching activities, begin - education required for employment above ni*sg in the early childhood years. Simi- the unskilled level, 40 percent have not lar problems are faced as new groups attained the equivalent of high school enter high schools and colleges. graduation, and less than 15 percent have The discussions commented on the dif- reached the level of college graduation. ficulty of effecting changes within estab- The new requirements of our complex lished institutions like our schools and technological society thus set three new colleges. Proposals were made that we tasks for our educational institutions. develop competing educationalinstitu- To enable all, or almost all, children tions to stimulate new and improved to gain a functional elementary educa- practices. The need for cooperation be- tion tween industry and education was em- To enable three-fourths of our youth phasized so that the transitions and entry to gain a functional high school educa- points from school to work could be tion made more flexible. Also, the important To enable atleast one-half of our potential of cooperative education, the youth to gain effective post-high school planned alternation of work and study, education could be more widely adopted. More In addition, the change taking place in imaginative use of new technologies to occupations requires the reeducation of aid student learning was also seen as a an increasing number of people whose means for meeting the new educational jobs have become obsolete so that they tasks. may be able to gain employment in new Furthermore, the groups identified the jobs that are becoming available. important help in education furnished by The discussion highlighted some of the the interaction of students themselves. obstacles that would need to be over- Children and youth do leach each other, come in order to accomplish these new and systematic efforts to develop arrange- tasks. Many of the children who have ments for older children to tutor younger not been reached by our schools came ones, and for teams of children of the from pre-industrial backgrounds where same age to work together on some of the ways of life are greatly different from the learning activities could enhance the the conditions they now face. For ex- effectiveness and efficiency of education. ample, the families of tenant farmers in In general, the discussions took an op- the Mississippi Delta have had little con- timistic view about the possibility of our tact with printed material and reading. accomplishing the new educational tasks. They have used little, if any mathema- A thorough-going review of American tics. They have lived a subsistence econ- education in terms of a system analysis omy not one in which money was of learning and teaching should reveal basic. When working, they were per- promising ways of stimulating, guiding, forming unskilled tasks, but the need for and facilitating learning that, although labor was sporadic so that regularity, new to schools and colleges, offer prom- punctuality, saving for the future, effi- ise of marked improvement in our na- ciency in operations were largely un- tional efforts in education. known. With the applications of modern agri- Dr. Ellis L. Scott is professor of man- culture to the Delta, these families are no agement in the College of Business Ad- longer needed there, and they are moving ministration at the University of Georgia to the cities where they are suddenly im- and is also director of Automation and

134 Society Studies. Prior to joining the Uni- the Social Science Research Council. He is versity of Georgia faculty in1964, Dr. co-editor of two recently publishedbooks, Scott was associated with System Develop- Automation and Societyand EDPSystems ment Corporations. the RAND Corpora- for Public Management.His current teach- tion. the University. of New Mexico and ing and research interests include automa- Ohio State University. He has received tion in society, systems analysis, and man- post-doctoral fellowships from the Nation- agement information systems_ Dr. Scott real Foundation for Economic Education and ceived his Ph.D. in sociology and anthropology from Ohio State University.

References

1. Vice-Admiral Hsman G. Rickover. -A Humanistic Technology-" (Address at the Unisersas of 4..(corgia. Feb. 16, 1969). 2.Dr. Willy Ley, The Next 30 Years in Space." (Lecture at the University of Georgia, Feb. 17. 1969). 3.Bates. Dr. Frederick L,,The Impact of Automation on the Organization of Society,- (Position Paper, Georgia-Reliance Symposium on Automation and Society. 1969). 4.Smith. Theodore A., Keynote Address, (Georgia-Reliance Symposium on Automation and Society; See Georgia Business. March 1969). 5.Terhorgh. George. The Automation Thsteriu. (New York. Norton. 1965). 6.Diebold, John, quoted in Terborgh, op. cit. 7.Evanson, C. English, Position Paper on Technology, (Georgia-Reliance Symposium on Automation and Society: 1969). 8.Joseph, Earl C.. "The Coming Age of Management Information Systems," (Financial Executive, Aug. 1969). 9.Charles B. Fisher. quoted in "Technology: The Agony and the Ecstasy," Cs'ec., From. June July 19691, 10. Amber, George E. and Amber, Paul A., Anatomy of Automation, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. 1962). 11. American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations. Labor Looks at Automation. (Washington: AFL -CIO, Revised 1969). 12. American Management Association, Keeping Pace with Automation. New York: 1956). 13.Butz. Roger W., Understanding 4utoniation. (Cleveland: The Penton Publishing Co.. 19661. 181 pp. 14.Dunlop, John T. (Edl. Automation and Technological Change. (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1962). 15.Faunce, William A.. Problems of An Industrial Society. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), 16.Friedman, George. The Anatomy of Work. (Clencoe: Free Press, 1961). 17.Philipson, Morris. Automation: Implications for the F la ler (New York: Vin- ge Books. 19621. 1$.Rosenberg. Jerry M.. Automation. Manpower. and Education. (New York: Random House. 19661. 19.Shils, Edward 8.. Automation and industrial Relations, (NA.. York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston. 19661. 20.Simon, Herbert A.. The Shape of Automation for Men and Management. ( New York: Harper and Row, 1965). 21.Silberman. Charles E. and the Editors of Fortune, What Mantigers Should Know About Automation, (New York: Harper & Row. 1966). 22.Smigel, Erwin 0. (Ed). Work and Leisure. INew Haven: College and University Press. 1963). 23.Somers. Gerald G. et al. AdMuing to Technological Change. I Ness York: Harper K Row. 1963). 24.United States Department of Labor. Bulletin No. 1287, Impact of Automation, (Washington: Depart- ment of Labor, 1960). 25.Walker. Charles R., Modern Technology and Citili:ation. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962).

135 READING Dr. Scott's paper leaves very little doubt that the phenomena of automation is not only present in Georgia but well advanced and here to stay_ He also implies that the surface has barely been scratched in the application of the concepts of automation in ways which affect our daily activities and indicates that the pace of such application will greatly acceleratein the next decade and one-half.I can only agree. In general, the benefits of automation have not yet been experienced by the general public in any degree approaching that of the business community. This is because automation requires money and change. It is difficult to determine which of theseisthe most obstinate problem butinany event the business environment, with its varying degrees of militaristic lines ofauthority,isbetterable toco- ordinate its efforts in marshalling the necessary resources and obtaining the desired benefits. The general public, on the other hand, has such a diversity of interests and so many different goals critique: that in our democratic environment it is very difficult even to determine what Automation advances will bestservepublic and nationalinterests much lessachieve in Georgia them. Nonetheless, as Dr. Scott correctly indicates, application of automation techniques will advance and resulting benefits and conveniences will be made available to or forced on the public. Since these benefits and conveniences must in some way be paid for, the question then becomes whether or not the average individual will be capable to pick and choose between them so as to maximize his return and - minimize his cast and stress. In fact, the individual without this capability may not even be able to effectively structure his day to day environment with the result that he may not be able to control the course of events in his life. We already see thiseffect with some people in their unwise use of easy credit. The slowing effects of capital out-

136 layrequirements,technologicalopti- seem that he is correct in saying that mism,laborunionresistance,slow only through close academic-industrial public acceptance of change, lack of planning and cooperation can there he understanding of the problem by our any hope of "respectablizing" many technologist, cause me to be somewhat categories of service jobs. Since these less optomistic than Dr. Scott as to the will be the bulk of the jobs (and cer- stage we will be at in 1985. There is tainly thevast majority ofthe jobs little question, however, that at least in available toaverage individuals), we concept, the types of things presented must somehow through the academic by Dr. Scott will indeed come to pass process, confirmed and expanded in in- before the turn of the century. dustrial practice, begin to nurture in Given the slowness of changes in the minds of our youngest children the our educational system alongwith the thought thatitis respectable to serve factthat we havenotyetdefined others and one is not a failure if he (much less refined) what needs to be doesn't become a "boss." When one taughtattheelementaryandhigh realizesthatinorder tobegin this school levels to equip the average in- process the service job of teacher itself dividualtosurvivewithreasonable must achieve status in the eyes of the peace of mind in this environment, one pupils and this "status" largely results cannot disagree that itis already time from family attitudes, the immensity of to begin evolving an educational ap- the task becomes evident. proach and program. As indicated by Dr. Scott, automa- The schoolsmust concentrate on tion itself must be applied to this prob- basic understanding of principles in a lem. Somehow we must engineer sys- problem solving environmentnot rote tems of teaching which on one hand memorization. Dr. Scott suggests that allow each student the opportunity of industry should take an increased re- progressing step by stepto the level sponsibility for job training since inwhich he is able (or willing) to achieve dustry seems to be more successful in and yet leave him prepared to enter this type of activity. This is bound to some appropriatelevelofindustrial be true since industry knows more pre- training at any step of the way. This cisely which jobs must be filled and does not seem possible withoutthe what thetrainingrequirementsare. further development of programmed Theschools must provideinputto learning techniques which have the so these training programs in the form of aptlycalled"adaptivecontrol"and students who at any givenlevel of whichinessence allowsindividually achievementareequippedwiththe tailored instructions to each student. In general attitudes and basic understand- fact, I believe that only through such ings that make them viable trainees for techniques will the job of teacher re- an appropriate skill level. gain status simply because very few Now certainly itis neither possible teachers can successfully (in the eyes nordesirablethateveryindividual of parents particularly) customize the should betrainedin computer pro- six or eight increasingly complex sub- gramming or systems engineering, and jects-they teach to the individual needs we should not attempt this even though of 25 to 35 children. Therefore, the itis the computer that will bring to teacher must be relieved of some of pass the dramatic changes envisioned. the burden of routine instniction and Dr.Scott'swell takenpoint on the be more available to serve the psycho- emergence of "service" jobs as a major logical andemotional needsofthe segment ofthe employment picture students. In other words the teacher emphasizes the importance of the psy- must become atrouble-shooter and chological aspects of the new educa- problem solver for non-routine instructional approach he advocates. It would tional needs of the students.

137 This too emphasizes the great need sions. While he modestly eschews any for joint study and development ofan pretense of 15 year foresight, his extra- overall strategy by bringing together polation of the trend of eventscer- the combined know-how and talents of tainly is accurate as to practical con- the educational and industrial worlds cept without regard to timing. Timing leading to a cooperative and coordi- of such events is itself dependent upon nated education program. All that's at the educational process. His analysis of stake is the future of our descendants, the interdependence of the educational our state, and our nation. and industrial aspects of this problem In summary, I generally agree with is certainly incisive. Dr.Scott'sobservations and conclu- It is time to begin.

138 TRANSPORTATION in Georgia is a collection of various devices and systems, most of which operateindepen- dently. Most transportation facilities are regulated, operated, financed, and built by a wide variety of public and private organizations, with a wide variety of interests and objectives. Little coordination exists between elements of thetransportation system. In reality, the widely varying elements and objectives may create a transportation "anti-system." Transportation in Georgia suffers from a basic comprehensive policy vacuum and financial disparities, both in terms ofinvestmentsandoperations.The transportationnetworkalsoiscom- promised by lack of coordination and a lag between certain of the facilities and terminal and interchangeservices,as By Richard M. Forbes, M.A. wellas tendency of someequipment Transportation in Georgia manufacturers to produce equipment that is not suitable for the facilities currently available for that equipment. Public attitudes about transportation and related public issues emphasize the automobile and negate some of its direct effects such asairpollution and urban/suburban sprawl and its costs. Relatively few changes in the transportation network can be visualized in lit the period between 1969 and 1985 because of a general attitude in thesociety which seems to prefer no changes or at best gradual changes. This attitude apparently is shared by most designers, manufacturers, and operators. Thus new devices representing significant technological changes will not be offered or adopted. Changes will be of a minor and gradual nature, made in the name of efficiency and to prevent disaster from problems such as air pollution. Little will be done in the name of improving environment. Transportation facilities will continue to be made to serve obvious needs as they exist, rather than be used as a posi-

139 tive force to create change and enhance the federal government playinga signifi- development potential because of the cant role. lack of overall comprehensive policy and "Transportation" is not a system. Be- an adequate expression of goals and cause of its many elements, many man- objectives for (and by) the state. This agers, many funders, and many users, problem will be complicated further by it is more of a vast "anti-system." the fact that the managers of the elements of the system tend to serve only A great deal of information is avail- what seem to be their best interests rather able on individual modes of transportation within the state. However, little has than those of society in general. been assembled on the interrelations of Education in Georgia will not be af- thetransportation fected to any significant degree by the network.Virtually transportation network. The forces that nothing has been collected on the volume will or coverage of the various origins and affecteducationarealreadyin destinations of the many kinds of trips motion and those are associated with made by people and products around urbanization. and through the state. In a search for ir information on the transportationnetwork in Georgia, not one mapwas found which presented informationon where THIS paper is not a technical analysis all of the major pathways of the various of transportation or any of its elements. networks exist. Nor was therecompre- An attempt was made to investigatespe- hensive data on volume of traffic cifics of transportation within the state, whether people or tons or cubic feetor especially in state planning context, but gallons. No symbolic maps or presenta- littlecomprehensiveinformation was tions of any kind seem to be available available on transportation. One report which present the role of the various published by the State Planning Board cities in the state as terminalsor ex- does present information on the facts of change pointsor the volume and im- transportation, mode by mode, as it exists portance of the exchange and interchange in the present, but no projections, inter- movements. Transportation data are not relationships,or goalsareexpressed. analyzed on a "cascading" or cumula- Consequently one must conclude that tive basis. Certain types of dataare not changes in transportation will occur, but evenavailablebecause movement of it is highly probably that the changes will certaintypes of goods,ininterstate be very gradual and will reflect thecon- commerce for example, are regulated, tinuingtrendtourbanizeandsub- and therefore statistics are maintained urbanize the state, especially the northern by federal agencies which do not require portions. Guidance and firm policyem- dissemination on a state-by-state basis. anating from Georgia does not seem Many companies do not make available likely in the near future. Neither does it specific information beyond the require- seem reasonable to expect truly coordi- ments of state or federal law or regula- nated federal policy. Further, translating tion, for the reason that competitive dis- policy into firm regulation is complicated advantages may result. by the fact that transportation facilities This introductory statement is neither are both public and private, and are an excuse nor an apology for the "state regulated by a group of public agencies, of the transportationart." Ratherit many of them federal, with substantially might be considered an announcement different policies, attitudes, responsibili- to the reader that an analysis of "Trans- ties, financial resources, and motivations. portation" in any-general dimension with In addition capital for construction of a geographic or political boundary is transportation comes from a wide variety likely to be highly generalized and based of sources, both public and private, with upon an amazing lack of dataunless

140 the study is to he an enormously com- trality of Atlanta and, thus, Georgia. plicated and expensive undertallng. This The construction of Interstate Highways should be done, probably by the state. with their focus on Atlanta and the rise In the absence of a comprehensive anal- of the motor truck magnified even more ysis, my comments must be considered theAtlantaareaasatransportation more in the nature of an essay which center. will attempt to convey a set of impres- The other urban centers of the state sions about transportation and what it do not enjoy the same level of trans- may be in the year 1985. portation activity experienced in Atlanta because of the lack of either people to serve or industrial activities to service. Transportation activity apparently drops Present Transportation off rapidly as urban areas diminish in Circumstances in Georgia size throughout the state. The Georgia of today is a collection of transportation corridors which focus on a few points within and at the edge of Transportation Issues the state. One major focal point, Atlanta, dominates the origins, destinations, interchange, and terminal movements of the Vacuum in Policy entire state transportation network. In Itis almost unnecessary to discuss the general it seems safe to observe that the problem of urban congestion caused by more urban an area the more likely it is the heavy demands for space inthe to contain a great concentration of all transportationnetwork.Mostpeople, types of transportationfacilities which however, think of the congestion caused will be more extensive on a per capita by the automobile and, specifically, the (or density) basis than can be expected problemsofrushhourtraffic.The in less urban or less extensive circum- universality of the problem frequently stances. The Atlanta circumstanceis obscuresotherurbantransportation further enhanced because of its begin- problems. Thelackofcoordinated nings as, literally, Terminus which col- policies with regardtotransportation lected and dispersed materials for the facilities and terminals breeds excessive entire Southeast. The continuance of transfer movementswhich generate that role has helped increase the availa- unique forms of congestion and traffic bility of transportation in Atlanta, and volume. Motor trucks and streets are therefore, in Georgia. used for many of the transfer move- Georgia in some respects isa "one ments from random origin points to dis- hundred percent location." This "hot," persed delivery points as a substitute for commercial aspect of the state, especially potentially more efficient systems such with regard to all of the southeast, was as long haul conveyors or tunnels. The created by the early venture into the lack of interrelated, coordinated policy railroad business by the state and the at all levels is a most important issue. happy accidentof geography which It matters not whether the policy should made Atlanta the place to pass through deal with one city's transportation prob- to go east or west for all southerners lems as they relate toall modes and and those who wanted to serve southern devices, or comprehensive policy at the markets. The development of the At- state or federal level. Fragmented bits lantaAirport,coupled withairplane of policy can be found which are com- capacities (distance and load), existing prehensive to some degree for railroads, markets, interchange potential, and the or airports, or motor trucks, but not to subtle effect of a cummulative pressure all three, because the regulations them- for service, further enhanced the cen- selves deal only with the one mode.

141 Financial DisparitiesCapital and rates, or to subsidize the operations Investment of atransportation mode, have also Units of the transportation network vari- created inequities in rates between com- ously enjoy or suffer from vastly different peting transportation modes and media. policies with regard to the facilities they Somc observers feel strongly that taxes use for their respective operations. Many on motor trucks are far too low, which pleadings can he discovered by (or thrust gives them a great advantage over rail- upon) observers of the transportation roads as they compete for cargo. The scene which tell of the sufferings of One regulation of railroad freight rates has or another facility. The railroads once also been an issue of considerablenega- benefitted from great and wonderous tive importance to the south in times subsidies of land. Today the trucking in- past, and in some circumstancesitis dustry enjoys the subsidy of operating conceivable the same issues could be upon publicly constructed facilities (es- raised again. Public operation of certain pecially the freeways) in circumstances type facilities such as urban mass transit which many experts say is unfair sub- can skew the cost of transportation for sidy. Truck operators on the other hand the urbanite under some circumstances. think they pay their share or more of Taxes imposed upon vehicles, fares,or thetaxes. The railroadsat the same fuel can also distort operating costs to time are losing business to trucks because the extent that a transportation facility of rate structures created in somere- can become non-competitive or priced spects by the "free" roadbed enjoyed by out of the market. The tax on fuel con- truckers. Waterways constructed by the sumed by the Atlanta Transit Company Corps of Engineers open routes which buses combined with the three percent offercompetitionforrailroadcargo. sales tax on all fares is an example of Public funds used for construction of an inequity that imposes mainly upon airport facilities to meet demands placed disadvantaeednersons who have no upon them by ever larger aircraft raises transportation alternative. Large numbers the issue of freight as a significant com- of people other than the poor must have petitor for cargo now carried by truck some form of transportation available to and railroad in much the same fashion them. Young people and old peopleare that the railroads lost passenger business two relatively large groups who cannot to the automobile and the airlines. Many qualify for drivers licenses, for example. other inequities can be found. In addition, the need to relieve traffic Virtually all modes of transportation congestion should produce policy which at one time or another have benefitted would encourage the use of transit vehi- from subsidy. The problem is that in cles of all types. Tax policy should not some cases the subsidies remain, while increase the cost. Reality would seem inothers they have been eliminated. to dictate the use of a subsidy of some Certain kinds of subsidy are oriented sort. to geography or political units, such as choice to build rural roads in the face of Technology and Product Availability rapidly multiplying demands for urban One part of the transportation problem roads. In some cases this is caused by a must be associated with the devices that parsimonious or impecunious legislature are used to perform the transportation trying to extend funds too far, or simply job. These include not only the vehicles exercising a bias, or as a manifestation such as the airplanes, trucks and auto- of ignorance. mobiles, but also the roadbeds, the airports, freight stations, and transfer points. Financial DisparitiesOperations To the extent that these facilities and The creation of public policies which the devices they serve meet needs and make it necessary to regulate activities serve society, Georgia has a transporta-

142 tion network. On the other hand, as the or switching speeds, or cutting transfer devices fail to change, or change more time (except for the use of piggyback rapidly than other elements of the trans- vehicles). portation network facilities, services may Automobilemanufacturerssuccess- be out of balance, compromised or in- fully build in one kind of obsolescence, flicted with special burdens. stylishness, and yet resist technological Consider the problem faced by major change even if it is in the interest of the airports. In Georgia only Atlanta meets lives and safety of the auto buying pub- the criteria for a major hub. Airframe lic.Relatively few changes have been manufacturers and airline operators have made in the internal combustion engine a vested interest in operating efficiently. to limit the emission of hydrocarbons As efficiency in many respects is equated the poisonous major creator of smog. with size,aircraft have doubled and Little work has been done on alternate redoubled incapacity. The impact of power sources. Virtually no changes have this is that planes carrying 300 persons been made by manufacturers to improve will soon be landing in Atlanta. The the safety characteristics of cars and immediate future will see aircraft pas- trucks themselves. The only changes that senger capacity reach 500. Few, if any, have been installed have been reluctant changes will be needed to develop air- responses to commands by the federal craft capable of transporting 1,000 pas- government. Many, many more need to. sengers. But what of the airports? Usu- be made, in the opinion of safety experts. ally federal and local funds are used to Urban rapid transit represents another build new faCilities. These funds are set of attitudes which tend to limit prod- limited and there is a good possibility uct design and development. A very that aircraft will be flying long in ad- highpercentageofthemasstransit vance of the development of adequate market exists in the older major cities terminalfacilities. The dilemna seems of the United States. Since those systems unreal. Why not regulate the aircraft were developed, in the main at the be- size in order to conserve public funds? ginning of the Twentieth Century, the Or, why not require airlines and air- vehicles that serve them must be designed frame manufacturers to furnish the com- with relatively minor changes that can plete terminal facilities? Many alterna- be made to fit into the old tunnels, station tives present themselves as answers to the spacing, and roadbed alignments. Since problems of keeping pace with the manu- the manufacturers seem to feel that the facturers' products and technological in- older cities will represent a very major novations, yet our society fails to use share of the mass transit market "for- any of them. The responsibility belongs ever" they plan very few changes for to the federal government, yet a high vehicles, or propulsion equipment. Tech- percentage of the cost of a new terminal nical improvements are being made to mayhavetobebornebylocal controlsystems,tickettaking devices government. and similar "exterior" components of the Modernization of railroads is an inter- mass transit systems. Cars themselves esting case. Only recentlywithin the last are neater, lighter weight, and quieter, ten years reallyhave the railroads be- but they operate at about the same speeds gun to change attitudes about ways to with about the same capacities on the haul freight. New box cars and cargo same oldlines. When extensionsare devices were put into service which per- made to existing systems, the old design mitted significant changes in freight rates. standards dominate because equipment Other steps were taken to modernize must operate on both old and new sec- operations. However, little or nothing tions. Likewise when engineers design seems to have been done to speed ship- a new system in a new city, they tend ments by increasing operating speeds, to make proposals which reflect existing

143 mass transit technology (which in reality affair"continues.Ithas changed the is of late Nineteenth Century origin), landscape, both urban and rural,the because manufacturers have that type of economic system, politics (especially in equipment or design skill or production the suburbs), life styles, and attitudes. ability immediately available. No new The passive acceptance of the impact of tooling or development activityisre- the car and all other rubber tired vehicles quired. The steel wheel on the steel rail operating freely will probably not be is still the "way to go." Gauges, capaci- easily changed. ties, speeds, and in some cases alignments Certain other public attitudes might have been modified and improved, but also be mentioned. There seems to bea today's rapid transit and mass transit tendency for the public to be suspicious technology is based on improvements to of many of the changes that are occur- ideas which were not considered revolu- ring in the national society. The propen- tionary, outlandish, or impractical three sity seems to be to resist changes that quarters of a century ago. can be easily perceived. Yet many of the changes are taking place gradually---and Public Attitudes thus are not seen because they are some- The love affair of the American with what evolutionary and are not subject to his car is the best single example of the scrutiny or protest. Air pollution isan existence of an attitude which creates example of a change that in most places problems for the transportation "indus- has been gradual; yet, once it arrives it try." The willingness of the suburbanite seems to be accepted, or at least is not to fight traffic at speeds frequently aver- fought vigorously. aging less than ten miles per hour on The citizens' public attitude toward his trip to work and then back home taxes seems to be growing more and indicates a fierce identification with the more definite each year. This is a uni- family or individual automobile. In spite versal phenomenon yet it seems to be of hazards (including poisoned air), high extremely active on the local govern- capitalcosts, high storagecosts, and mental levelprobably because people enormous time delays because of con- feel that heavy protests can be manifest gestion, the average American seems to and implemented in a local government. be remarkably content with his automo- circumstance. The reluctance of citizens bile's place in the "infinite urban scheme to be subject to an ever-increasing tax of things." Granted the alternatives to an burden has been and will continue to be automobile are sometimes grim: high a negative factor in changing public density living in a dirty city, riding like policy and responsibilities. Georgia, with sardines in a pokey transit vehicle, ex- its rapid change from rural farm circum- posure to weather while changing from stances to rural non-farm, urban, and one mode to another, walking on part suburban lifestyles and the increased of the trip, limitations of trip frequency cost of providing urban type services, because of schedules and demands, plus tax agonies will be a dominant feature limited geographical service. The libera- of public policy debates. Services to a tion of urban and suburbanman and low-density,spreadout suburbanor his family brought about by the auto- rural non-farm area are more expensive mobileisone of the most profound than in an urban area or in a central city phenomena of the Twentieth Century. because of the enormous numbers of It is not a complete liberation, however, people who bring about an admixture of and the price of the liberation has been problems, making the entiiz environ- high.In exchange for "freedom" ,of ment more expensivetoserveade- movement and location, society is now quately. subject to pollution, death and maiming, The Future of Transportation delay and inefficiency. Yet the "love Most likely,the state of Georgia 15

144 years from now will not look or feel too pleasure of users. Changes of this nature muchdifferentthanitdoestoday. might be the development of a transit Changes will have taken place, and these bus that sat fewer people in more com- changes will be obvious to politicians, fort, or the rearrangement of transporta- public managers, and merchants. Citi- tion corridors inthe city and inthe zens, however, may not recognize the dif- county sothatatrip would become ferences because the changes most likely aesthetically pleasanta delight rather willtake place in a gradual fashion. than a "drag." This kind of change More people than ever before will be liv- would increase capital costs of trans- ing in the cities and in nearby suburbs. portation facilities, but they might make The countryside will likely accommodate touring once again a pleasure, if safety more people than before, but many of was alsobuiltinto the transportation these residents will not be oriented to corridors. Safety, however, may be one farming. The ruralnumbers willbe oftheby-productsofanaesthetic greater, yet they will represent a smaller roadway. percentage of the state's population. It is highly probable that many more people TransportationIts Role in terms of absolute numbers and pro- The transportation network is an am- portions will be living in the northern bivalent phenomenon. On one hand it parts of the state. reflects the physical arrangements of the The second type of "managed" gradual society it serves. On the other,it can change will be that type which is oriented shape and mold the physical circum- to providing a little more efficiency. Fall- stances in which the society exists. Man's ing into this class are those changes that early history and development was con- would make it possible to get into the ditioned mightily by transportation cir- city a little fastera new freeway, for cumstances. Urbanization did not arrive example, might do that or a bus that until minimum transportationfacilities would carry more people for about the were availableat leastfor farm to same operating costs. Certain changes of market movement of goods. The sweep this type have been built into both exist- of urbanization in the Nineteenth and ing and proposed rapid transit systems Twentieth Centuries was made possible around the nation. Transit cars are made by a variety of transportation devices out of aluminum, more efficient motors such as the steam engine and the electric areused, automatic deviceseliminate motor, then the internal combustion en- personnel and costs are thus lowered. gine. The development of the nation These tactics avoid the problems asso- was a function of the availabilityof ciated with the heavy efforts and some- transportation.The very existence of times large expense associated with the Atlanta is a result of transportation and development of new systems that may its importance to the entire southeast. be more effective and less expensive in One must concede that transportation the long run. The most efficient way to is a better "creator" than it is a "server." solve urban transportation problems may Part of the ambivalence associated with be to develop a completely new vehicle transportation as it is analyzed by spe- for use in the urban area, with its own cialists of all sorts is that the roles of right of way, at a different scale both in transportation are often not fully ap- terms of time and of distance, yet no preciated. For example, the installation activity can be seen except for some of a transportation facility in a corridor computermodelstudiesofvarious can generate a response in the form of alternatives. substantial investment on adjoining land A possible third type of "managed" and thus create a new environmental change may come into being. This would circumstance. This role may or may not be a change oriented to the comfort, and be appreciated by the managers of trans-

145 portation investments or transportation differenttransportationdevices.The operators. On the other hand, a preoc- regulation is required under various laws cupation with giving"service" some- and in the case of some states' constitu- times causes the managers to "bend" the tional provisions,regulations therefore transportation corridor (or investment) must be in the public interest. Again to the extent that negative effects result serviceseems to be a good description and growth is directed into places not of the attitude. However, the differential wishing growth, or into circumstances pattern of regulation imposed by differ- notableto meetthespecialneeds ent agencies may, or may not provide broughtaboutbythetransportation for a maximization of relative efficiencies engendered growth. between different modes. The "watchword" today in virtually Servingpublicneedsthroughthe all quarters, public and private, isser- manufacturing and marketing of many vice.Transportation must serve every- automobiles is one of the avowed pur- thing and everybody. And this is true. poses of the industry. Profitisalso a Transportationmustservethecom- motiveas it is with many other manu- muter, the manufacturer, the farmer, the facturers and operators. The production poor man, the vacationer, the car builder, of an overwhelming number of cars may the merchant, the school child, the re- not be completely in the public's interest, tired person, in short all elements of the or meet true public needsespecially if society rich or poor, organized or not. the vehicles are less than safe and also Almost without exception personnel poisonous. Likewise the highway depart- involved directly or indirectly in trans- ments that build roads for multiple use portationoperation, manufacturing of may not build the safest roads, or build transportationgear,developmentof roads in the best locations. transportation facilities, or the regula- The real issue for transportation plan- tion of transportation tends to think of ning and development is whether any his role as being one ofproviding ser- (or every) transportation facility should vice.Service to the public, or the many only serve, or whether the facility should publics dominates the thinking of the be used to guide or influence growth, "vendors." Highway departments build development, or the maintenance of those highways and freeways so that people places and peopleitserves. Should a can drive where they want to go. They transportation facility be placed so that also serve the truckers and the busses. it meets an existing demand, or should The varieties of service and levels of it be located so that the service is offered demand may, however, be vastly different, in a location where growth is desirable yet all of the facilities are open to every which is equipped to handle the growth user and potential user. Which of them and development usually brought about is served best? Which is poorly served? by the installation of a facility? In an Are there inequities in levels of service urban or suburban context, should the or costs because of the compromise ef- freeway be built where people now live fected in a universal design? Recently which may experience growing problems in Atlanta discussions were held about or should it be placed in a location with the creation of "busways" for the exclu- all the necessary elements to take the sive use of mas3 transit vehicles. When forecast growth, with comfort? Should will the discussion turn to "truckways"? a transit line or freeway be located in The point is that compromises do affect a place just because there are potential users, and the concept that the service customers or users rather than ina is the "be all" and "end all" may not be location with fewer people, but with an completely appropriate. infinitelybetterpotentialfor growth, Separate state and federalagencies development, and environmental satis- regulate, at different levels of interest, faction?

146 Obviouslythequestionscannot be The basic disorganization of the ele- answered out of hand. Simple sugges mentsofthetransportation . network tions do not suffice, but it seems fair to reflect the rouralism and the disrupted observe that much of the activity in the changing society that has been dominant transportation arena over the last several recently. Until articulate goals are ex- decades has been oriented to meeting pressed and acknowledged by the ele- the immediate needs, In serving ina ments of our society, the best that can passive fashion. The option of installing be expected of the transportation net- a transportation facility so that it gen- work is more of the same disorganiza- erates a response and thus guides growth tion. The strongest and most popular in a positive way has seemed to be be- managers will prevail and the units they yond the interest of the management of manage will"contribute" and extend all types of transportation activities. This their modesquite probably at the ex- discussion does not mean to imply that pense of other options. This will happen a creative location of a transportation in spite of the economies that might be way is not service-oriented: merely, that effected through the use of other modes. a creative outlook about capital invest- Quite probably the heavy investments ment may serve better and broader ob- will be made under the limitations of jectives than an investment whichis conventional technology with gradualism narrowly oriented to a simple meeting of as the major modifying force. Most likely existing demandand a forecastde- investments will be made with relatively mand based upon the old ground rules little concern for interconnection with and conditions. other transportation modes. The odds would seem to favor little or no concern Transportation Objectives fortrueeconomicinsightregarding And the Future valuesof competing modes, ultimate Even at a creative peak, the investment service, growth impact, or the creative of funds for a transportationfacility use of large investment to accomplish must be oriented to serving a social goal basic objectives. and a community need. There ace many This paper must conclude that trans- existing options for implementing social portation in Georgia will be little differ- goals, but transportation in one form ent 1 .,1 or 15 years from now. Since or another is likely to be a party to most little change isvisualized infacilities, of the options. Transportation facilities optiol;s available to individuals or in the can be used effectively if, but only if, the attitudestowardstransportation,little social. economic and political goals are Impact can be seen on the educational spelled out. and if the responsible inves- system of the state. There is no doubt tor (public or private) responds to the that sweeping changes in transportation expression of the goals. technology arepossible.Personalized, One of the greatest weaknesses of the exterior powered, automated, high speed many societies of the United States and vehicles on a guideway can be developed all of its subordinate constituent bodies and installed on a test basis within five is the inability to clearly express goals years and can be used to solve urban for the nation, the state, the city, and and suburbaneven ruralcommuting in many cases, even for the individual. prob:lems. Very high speed (300 miles Lack of an expressed goal deprives the per hour) vehicles can be used in tunnels, transportation investment of any signifi- or at grade within special rights-of-way cant impact on "goal reaching." Invest- to minimize air space congestion around ments are thus plowed into the ground airports,leaving planesfor transcon- willy nilly, resulting in the expansion of tinental and intercontinental travel. Com- the ambivalent nature of society and of muting radius can be extended to 50, the transportation device itself. 100, even 200 miles from central cities

147 using technology and hardware that can worthwhile for all people. Educators and be produced in relatively short periods their institutions must present students, of timefive to 10 years. The arrange- and the rest of this society, with courage ments of our cities and the state can be and daring and imagination to live with very substantially rwdified if the present the new technology, whatever it may be. policy of gradualism is avoided. But re- The chaos that exists today will be form and change do not seem to be compounded beyond belief because of characteristic of this society at this time. thedominanceofthe"anti-change, Bravery and a willingness to experiment gradualism, passive" attitudes unlesi they are lacking at the basic level of our are wiped out. Leadership in education societythe individual. Because of this, can do the wiping. If it does, when a the society's leaders have not manifested similar paperiswrittenin1985 on goals or objectives which would lead to TRANSPORTATION the author's re- an attitude conducive to reform. sponse will be vastly different. There is The Role of Education no reason for optimism today. The society as it exists today is a mani- Richard M. Forbes. associate professor festation of the conditioning it has re- of real estate and urban affairs at Georgia ceived. Obviously our people have not State University. is a former chief planner for the City of Atlanta and former Direc- been conditioned to accept change as tor of Planning for Fulton County. Mr. rapidly asit occurs. Neither have our Forbes has held many planning consultant citizens been able to adapt and adjust to positions for business.industry. govern- the urban phenomena which dominates ment, and research organizations. He has held other planning positions at the Atlanta life today. The educational institutions RegionMetropolitan Planning Commis- must condition students, and all people, sion,theUniversityof Arkansas. and to the circumstances beyond the immedi- North Little Rock. Ark. He is a member ate issues of pn education. Our people of the American Institute of Planners, the American Society of Planning Officials, the must learn to enjoy change. Our people Board of Trustees for the Arts Festival of must be able to respond favorably and Atlanta, Inc., and past president of the actively to the suspense and adventure Atlanta Chapter of the American National Theatre and Academy. Mr. Forbes re- that changes create. Our people must ceived his Master of Regional Planning learn to use change as a positive force degree from the University of North Caro- that can make lifebetter and more lina at Chapel Hill. References Appel. Fredric C.. "The Coming Revolution in Transportation,(National Geographic.CXXXVI. Sept. 1969), p. Boulding. Kenneth E..The Meaning of the 20th Century.(New York: Harper and Row. 1965). Chintz.Benjamin. City and Suburb.(Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: 1964). Eldredge. H. Wentworth.Taming Megalopolis,(New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967). Georgia State Planning Bureau.Status of Transportation in Georgia.(Atlanta, Ga.: circa July. t968). Hamilton, William F., II and Nance. Dana K., "Systems Analysis of Urban Transportation,"(Scientific American.CCXXI. 1969), pp. 19-27. Martin, Roscoe C.,The Cities and the Federal Systems,(New York: Atherton Press. 1965). Meyer-Kain-Wohl.The Urban Transportation Problem.(Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965). Owens, Wilfred.The Metropolitan Transportation Problem.(Washington. D.C.. t966). Schmandt. Henry J. and Bloomberg. Warner,Jr., The Quality of Urban Life.Vol. III, (Beverly Hills. Calif.: Sage Publications, Inc.. 1969). Smerk. George M..Readings in Urban Transportation,(Indiana: University Press. 1968). Smith. Wilbur. & Associates.Coastal Plains Regional Transportation Study.(Coastal Plains Regional Com- mission, Washington. D. C.. 1969). Speas, R. Dixon. & Associates.State-Wide Airport System Master Plan, Phase I.for State of Georgia Planning Bureau. (Georgia State Planning Bureau. Atlanta. Ga., 1968). Sweeney, Stephen B. and Charlesworth. James C.,Governing Urban Snciety: New Scientific Approaches. (The American Academy of Political & Social Science, Philadelphia, Pa.. t967). U. S. Dept. of Housing & Urban Development. "Science and the City," (Washington. D.C.: U. S. Govern- ment Printing Office. MP-39. Jan. 1967). The Urban Advisors to the Federal Highway Administrator.The Freeway M the City,(Washington. D. C.: The U. S. Government Printing Office. 1968). Voorhees. Alan M.. & Associates. Inc., Policy and Technical Coordinating Committees of the Atlanta Area Transportation. (Study, April t969). Wise. Harold F.. & Associates and Voorhees. Alan M.. AStudy Design Prospectus for Georgia Comprehen- sive State-wide Transportation Planning.(Washington. D. C., Dec. 1968). Mandelker. Daniel R.,Case Studies in Land Planning and Development, A Supplement to Managing Our Urban Environment,(New York: The 'Hobbs -Merrill Company, Inc., 1968).

148 TRANSPORTAION in Georgia, as viewed academically by the author of the position paper, is characterized as an anti-system suffering from a comprehensive policy vacuum and financial disparities,bothintermsof investments and operations. The transportation network isalso compromised by a lack of coordination and a lag between certain of the facilities, terminal, and interchange services. Not being satisfied with literally con- demning transportation in the state, the author offers no hope in the next five to10 years.In his opinion, reform and change do not seem to be characteristic of our societyatthis time because bravery and a willingness to experiment are lacking at the basic level of our society. . . theindividual. Hence, it would appear that the present 932 transportation firms and the 165 transportation equipment manufacturers and suppliers in Georgia should somehow withdraw theirpresent investment in plant and equipment, lay off thousands of employees, and seek critique: more socially meaningful business ventures somewhere else. Transpor- In addition,the two million auto- tation in mobiles in the state should be relegated to the scrap heap and old "Dobbin" Georgia reactiviated forservice.Thisaction would certainly remedy the air pollution problem which the authorseems obsessed with, and which he dispropor- tionately attributes to transport modes. It would alsorelieve the urban congestion problem and avoid the investments which are now "plowed into the ground,willynilly,resultinginthe expansion of the ambivalent nature of society and of the transportation device itself." With regard tothe need for goal establishment, beit social, economic, political, or educational, as this Com- mission is charged, I concur with the author. It would appear, however, that with the diverse disciplines being covered by the19 position papers, the creation of concomitant goals would evolve. Theseareneeded, assuming

149 theauthor'spremisethat theyare intransportation in thenextfiveto totally lacking today. Itis incompre. 10 years, but the author is convinced hensible to this writer that the prime that the policy of gradualism will pre- regulatory agency in the state, the Pub- vailinapparentlyallsectors of the lic Service Commission, and its federal economy. So, why bother? counter parts, the Interstate Commerce On the assumption that the author's Commission, Civil Aeronautics Board, views of transportation, society, and the andFederalMaritimeCommission, individual are overly despondent, we only regulate, and do not develop and must then put rorth to this Commis- recommend through the legislative pro. sion, for their consideration, facts, fig- cess, changes necessary and in conform. ures,andrecommendationsinthe ity with future needs and goals. event,that somehow, some day, so- In this area we have on the federal ciety may discover the need for goal level theDepartment of Transporta- establishment; that transportation firms tion, whichischarged with therewill do more than just provide service; sponsibilityofdevelopingnational and that freeways and transit lines will transportation policies and programs. be located in low density areas which An integral part of this department is offerbetterlongrunpotentialfor the Office of Urban Systems and En- growth development and environmental vironment.Therealsoexists within satisfaction. the D.O.T., a separate Administrator for Urban Mass Transportation. Some Basic Research Effort Required state governments have already emu- And Some Sources latedthefederal transportation plan- To place the role of transportation in ning concept. Such a structure formally Georgia inits proper perspective re- recognizes the need for state goals in quires basic research of present day transportation, throughcoordinated activity. Some publications appropriate and developmental planning, which the to this task are listed in the attached author espouses. bibliography. The Census of Transpor- The question which now must be tation, conducted by the Bureau of asked of this position paper is, "does Census,DepartmentofCommerce, itservethespecific purpose of the gives invaluable information with re- Commission with regards to identify. gards to origin, destination, flow, com- ingthepresentand projectingthe modity, identification,and travelsta- future of transportationinthe state, tistics on a national, regional, and state and does itoffer suggestions with re- basis. gards to the type of educational sys- The Railway Carloading Freight Bill tem necessary for the future transpor- Sample, conducted for many years by tation environment?" The author indi- theInterstate Commerce Commission cates that his is not such a presenta- and now under thedirection of the tion, rather an essay conveying a set Department of Transportation, further of impressionsabouttransportation compliments the census report but on and what it may be in the year 1985. asingle modal basic. The regulated Itisironicthat whiletheauthor general commodity motor carriers of realizes the responsibility of educators this state, conducting both inter and and their institutions, he offers no sug- intrastateactivity,participateinex- gestions for goals by which necessary tensive traffic and flow studies through change can be accomplished. Nothing theirrespectiverate-makingassoci- is mentioned about any transportation ations. curriculum which might be required to The scope and magnitude of trans- meet the needs of tomorrow. There is port activities as measured by invest- recognition,however,ofthetech- ments, sales, employees, etc. are com- nological changes which are possible mercially available through Dun and

150 Bradstreet,Inc.'spublicationDun's formsoftransportationinvolvethe Market Identifiers.Information about movement of both people and goods, the other segments of the state's econ- particularly in terminal facilities where omy arealsoavailablethroughthe the demands for the accommodation above publication. of passenger and freight together con- Theresearchshouldalsodiscuss stitute the total terminal demands. Fin- prospectivelevelsof population and ally,data available from the various employment and of the various com- planning commissions and state offices ponents ofthe economic structure dealing with the transportationspec- manufacturing,wholesaling,retailing, trum (PublicServiceCommission, and related service industries. Further, State Highway Department, Revenue the research should consider separately Department, etc.) must also be con- the movement of goods and the move- sidered as basic input. ment ofpeople. These two primary In a study of thisnature dealing components of the overall transporta- with intrastate activity,itis important tion picture are inter-related, for most that the proper emphasis also be given

STEP #1STUDENT EXPOSED TO LIBERAL ARTS History Political Science English Sociology Literature Geography Languages Chemistry Math Other subjects 1 if STEP #2STUDENT EXPOSED TO BUSINESS "CORE" (one or two courses in each area) ECONOMICS Statistics Economics Emphasis directed to- Finance Business Law MARKETING ard micro-macro aspects Marketing Accounting "Emphasizes marketing f transportation, re- Management Other subjects mrce allocation, impact strategy, channels of dis- f federal investment tribution, selling prac- olicy, and economic tices, warehousing, nalysis of transportation STEP #3 TRANSPORTATION research, and spatial 'roblems." EDUCATION theories." Principles of Transportation Air Transportation Motor Transportation FINANCE Physical Distribution and Logistics MANAGEMENT emphasizes capital National Transportation Policy "Emphasis directed to- ructures, money mar- Public Utility Economics ward policies, production "ats, budgeting, cash functions, social respon- )Nvs, and relevant capital sibilities, organizational leories." STEP #4FINISHED PRODUCT theories, and human "Well versed student possessing a relations." knowledge of liberal arts, business core courses, and transportation education stressing economics, finance, marketing, and management."

Figure 1 Flow Chart for Transportation Education

151 to the interstate implications of trans- the Racine, Wis. School District Project portation. Georgia's transportation net- has many implications which should be work will be influenced greatly by ad- considered.Basically. it recognizes joiningstates and by South Atlantic thattransportationistheeconomic portactivity.Provincialism must be linking functiontotheentiresocial avoided if such a study is to ifmean- studies field and has completed a pilot ingful. project at the elementary school level under the guidance and leadership of Educational Needs the Delta Nu Alpha, National Trans- And Activities portation Fraternity. Instruction book- Withbasicknowledgeavailableto lets are now in process of development. project transport activity to 1985 by A recentreport by Dr. Margaret all modes, at a given level of employ- Blair, Director of Vocational Educa- ment and further stratified by type and tion for New Jersey, reported progress nature, the educational needs of this in their effortsat the introduction of segment of the economy can be de- atransportationcurriculumatthe veloped. The most concise study ever ninth grade level. attempteJ in this area was completed In the Atlanta area there are numer- in 1965 by the Battelle Memorial In- ous vocational and adult educational stitute.i This study sponsored by the efforts in transportation. Most recently American Society of Traffic and Trans- the Georgia Motor Trucking Associ- portation, which functions as the ination inaugurated an evening school dustry's professional certification body, curriculum on not only transportation comprehensively projectedthetrans- courses, but also along theinter-dis- portationeducationalneedsofthe ciplinary approach. The O'Keefe High nation. Since publication ofthisre- School courses have for many years port, transportation educators working been the mainstay of this type of edu- inthis area and consulting with not cational attainment. These efforts are onlytransportationfirmsbutwith particularly importanttothosebusi- manufacturing concerns to whom trans- nessesseekingtransportation-oriented portation and distribution costs play a employees. Faced with the ,realization major role in the marketing their that not allof the present or future products, have evolved an inter-disci- gainfullyemployed members_ of ow plinary curriculum which could form society will be exposed to higher vitt- the basis of higher transportation educationalopportunities,theneed for cation. Figure 1 is a flow chart show- knowledge,specificoftheindustry, ing the inter-disciplinary approach to and general of the economy, is a criti- transportation education. cal area of educational needs thr...; must In the elementary educational field, not be overlooked.

Footnotes

1.Georgia State Planning Bureau,StatusofTransportation in Georgia,(Atlanta, Ga., July, 1968). Wilbur Smith & Associates,Coastal Plains Regional Transportation Study,(Coastal Plains Regional Commission, Washington, D. C., 1969). Speas, R. Dixon & Associates,Statewide AirportSystem Master Plan, Phase I, for State of Georgia Planning Bureau, (Georgia State Planning Bureau, Atlanta, 1968). Voorhees, Alan M. & Associates, Inc., Policy and Technical Coordinating Committees for the Atlanta Area Transportation Study, (April 1969). Harold F. Wise & Associates & Alan M. Voorhees, A Study DesignProspectus for Georg,. Compre- hensive State-wide TransportationPlanning, (Washington, D. C., Dec. 1968). 2.Christner, Charlotte, A Study of Transportation Education Needs, (summary report by Battelle Memo- rial Institute, Columbus Laboratories, Dec. 31, 1965; published inTransportation Journal,Vol. 5, No.3, Spring, 1966), pp. 5-60.

152 THE position paper by Dr. Forbes on "Transportation in Georgia" was read with a great deal of interest from the viewpoint of one who is a manager of one of the transportation modes. In preparing the critique. I found myself agreeing with many of hi,. findings and dis- agreeing with others. The need for a coordinated statewide transportation policy as voiced by Dr. Forbes is of daily concern to transportation managers at thestatelevel. At present, this concern cannot be translated into action to prepare a policy containing transportation goals and establishing procedures through which these goals may be achieved. The organization of state government does not contain one single agency or department that is responsible for planning, implementing or even coordinating activities ofall forms of transportation in Georgia. In the field of airport planning and construction, the State Planning Bureau is responsible for generalized planning of a statewide airport system. The De- critique: partment of Industry and Trade is responsiblefor coordinationwithlocal Transpor- officials and with the Federal Aviation tation in Agencytodeterminestandardsand design for a new airport or addition to Georgia an existing one. In the case of metropolitan airports, local officials normally perform the coordination with the FAA. If any state financingisforthcoming, the Legislature' includes as a line item in an Appropriation Bill funds for the state's share of the construction cost. State funds are then transferred to the State Highway Department for a contract letting or for payment if the contract is let locally. The Highway Depart- ment cannotutilizemotorfueltax revenues to construct, inspect, or supervise construction of airports. The Depart- 111 ment, through a statute permitting co-

- operation with local, governments, does supervise consultant engineers employed locally. - In the field of urban mass transit there is no state agency or department with any responsibility for planning or im-

l53, plementation even though the stateis that highways are financed by a "horn of authorized by statute to pay five percent plenty." Little do they realize that each annually toward the cost of construction year the Highway Department needs an of an Atlanta rapid transit system. additional $34 million just to meet basic It is not expected that this disjointed needs of the traveling publicnot de- transportation picture will continue. The sires. With inflation, the amount of this draft of the proposed new state constitu- deficit increases each year. This is an- tion would change the name of the other part of the explanation of why Highway Department to the Department highway departments are not overly in- of Highways and Transportation and terestedinexperimentingwithcity provide authority for the Legislature to development. establish by legislative act new divisions The Atlanta Transit System is faced of the department to plan, construct, with financial difficultiesas are other and/or coordinate all forms of trans- privately owned transit systems. I agree portation. If this proposal is adopted by with Dr. Forbes that transit fares should both the Legislature and the people, the be exempt from the three percent sales formulationof astatetransportation tax. While he did not mention it, I feel policy could then become a reality. that the Atlanta Transit System should In Dr. Forbes' discussion of financial not be required by Atlanta to pay a three disparities in relation to transportation percent tax on gross receipts. If the gross problems, he failed to mention the most receiptsarenotexempted,thecity important of the financial disparities should subsidize the transit system by at lack of funds for both capital invest- feast this amount. I do not believe that ments and operations. This applies to fuels used by buses on public highways both public and private transportation and streets should be exempt from motor modes. With sufficient capital, most of fuel taxes. These taxes arethe only the transportation problems in Georgia fundsavailableforconstruction and could be solved. mainten....c of these facilities. The total Theresultsofthecomprehensive amount paid is directly proportional to transportation study of Atlanta (Atlanta the total amount of use. Area Transportation Study) re-empha- The discussionof technology and sized the need for a rapid transit system. product availability was most interesting The system recommended was a com- although I must take exception to certain bination of rail and exclusive busways. statements. The question was posed to The system could have been monorail, why airlines or airframe manufacturers aircars, cars in a tube powered by com- are not requiredtofurnish complete pressed air, or any other exotic facility terminal facilities. While, I know of no to move people. The point is, the type case in which complete terminal facilities system makes no difference since,at have been furnished,itis proposed in present, there is no financing available. Atlanta that the airlines pay a large part If any system is to be constructed, the of the planned expansion of the Muni- only existing plan for financing is a ref- cipal Airport. erendum in which the people will be No exception is taken to the discussion asked to vote to increase their property on urban rapid transit and the failure to A referendum for this purpose in No- develop totally new transit systems. The vember 1968, was soundly defeated. fault does not lie with the equipment Unless some other means of financing manufacturers since the equipment and can be devised, it will be most difficult techniques are available. The fault,if to convince the people that rapid transit it is a fault, lies totally with local officials should be financed by increasing their and conservative citizens who have no property tax burden. desire to expend public funds in tremen- The general public is of the opinion dous amounts on experiments with un-

154 tried equipment and procedures. city while a transportation planner be- The Director of the Research Division lieves thatitshould be used for the of one of the major automobile manu- movement of people and goods. City facturers recently stated that the auto- growth or development is a secondary mobile, 20 years in the future, will be or fringe benefit to the Ansportation little changed from' the one of today. planner. Also. monies arelt available This prediction was not based on tech- to construct a developmental system. The nology but on the desire of the conserva- accusation is intimated that transporta- tive,slow-to-change American public. tion planners are obsessed with an at- Any major change in the automobile, tempt to provide service. Transportation either for safety or new power plants planners, particularly highway planners, to decrease air pollution, will probably are not happy with this role in its en- be the result of federal legislation. This tirety. Consideration must be given to is due mainly to the tooling costs of the motorists first since he pays for the major changes, the profit motive of the total highway program through motor industry, the competition between manu- fuel taxes. In most instances, joint con- facturers, and what the public wants or sideration could be given for service to is willing to accept. motorists and to promote orderly and There is no doubt that transportation planned city growthIF a city plan of thefuturewill betheresultof exists, IF the plan has been approved by "managed" gradual change. A drastic local officials and the people, and most change in transportation during a five of all, IF the local officials will force to 10 year period would either stop the development of the city, according practically all commerce within the na- to the plan, by controlling zoning and tion or require the massive expenditure the issuance of building permits. The of funds, both public and private,if job of the transportation planner would commerce were to continue or necessi- be much easier if all of these ifs were tate the waste of a tremendous public facts. Highways are designed to carry and private investment. As an example, traffic expected to use the completed the average life of an automobile is 10 facility. Land use, existing and future, years andatruck approximately15 determines the corridor traffic that will years. A mandatory change in power be generated. Changes in the land use plants would then require 10 and 15 plan invariably occur after highway con- years, respectively, for the vehicles to structionis completed which resultin be so equipped without massive expendi- the highway operating above its design ture of funds. Equipment is now avail- traffic capacity. A case in point is the able that would permit the automatic Atlanta Freeway System. The answer to steering, stopping, etc., of automobiles this dilemma is not planningeither city by means of a cable buried in the road- or transportation. If transportation sys- way. The costs of installing the cable tems are to result in orderly, planned and necessary equipment on all motor city growth and are to provide efficient vehicles would be staggering. Existing travel for its citizens, the public must public andprivate investmentinall be made aware of the probletns through forms of transportation dictates that all education. Officials, with sufficient fore- major changes will he gradual. sight, must be elected who will demand Dr. Forbes' discussion of the role of that a plan be prepared, adopted and transportation was made from the view- then utilized for the orderly growth of point of a city planner. It is an excellent the city. They must have adequate intes- statement of the philosophical differences tinal fortitude in at to resist economic between transportation and city planners. and politiaf pressuvei ,Nr major change The cityplanner believesthattrans- of this adopt -J plan. MAI- actions must portation should be used to develop a not be governed b y the necessity of

155 getting elected again next term. Their for comuing from sur- actions should be governed by what is rounding bn been made possi- best for the majority of their constitu- ble only thrv41: lb,: availability of good ents in the long run. roads. Tramporzatior: in the near future One other point should be made con- may not Men& ttc exotic systems discerning the cooperation between city and cussed by rw. Forbes but the construc- transportation planners. The transportation of eacl'c new road, be it freeway or tion planners prefer to cooperate with farm-to-mar'f4:1, wi l!. have an impact on cities having plans for growth and devel- education in Gavgia. opment. Too often, after beginning work I do not agroe that the role of educa- in a city having such a plan, the city tion is to condition students to accept planner who prepared it moves to an- change joyfully. I believe that its role is other city. The individual employed as to explore and identify the ingredients a replacement then disagrees with the which will result in a better society accepted plan which starts a new ball- not to impose irrational ideas or systems game. on an unwilling society.Peoplewill Dr. Forbes forecasts little change in usually change their way of life when it transportation in the next 10 to 15 years. becomes necessary but are unwilling to Therefore, based on this forecast, he do so when they are not convinced it is states that transportation will have little a necessity. impact on the educational system of the state.I must take exception to these Itis encumbent upon education in statements. Transportation has a daily the training of engineers to provide to impact on education in Georgia. Road the student both the basic tools of en- networks throughout the state provide gineering and the stimuli to their imagi- easy access to all schools. Good roads nation so that transportation in the fu- have made possible school consolidations ture will not be a glorified reproduction in the past and will continue to do so of today's transportation systems. Educa- inthefuture.Existing road systems tors should notstressthe design or would permit consolidation of several construction of a particular kind of sys.; county school systems into one better tem. Instead, they should teach more of system to provide a higher standard of the economics of transportation of people education if the political climate were and goods and the need for more efficient systems. favorableinthelocalsystems. The growth of the junior college system is I think there is reason for optimism living proof of the impact of transporta- today, probably more so than at any tion. The construction of junior colleges time in the history of mankind.

156 MANPOWERin the Georgia economy is growing in size and also in quality of the work force. Population growth during 1960-68 was larger by 70 percent than during 1950-60. In the decade 1975-85 it is expected that population growth will accelerate further, providing an annual increment to Georgia's population of 108.000. or 39 percent higher than during 1960-68. Approximately 37.6 percent of the states population is in the civilian labor force. Expected population growth during 1975-85 should provide 40,500 new workers yearly looking for jobs, with net unemployment of 1.500 or 3.7 percent: the net job growth will therefore he 39,000 yearly. By John L. Fulmer, Ph.D. Manpower and Employment in Georgia Two distortions in the state's population aggregate exist, from the low birth , rates of the period 1930-45and from post WWII nighbirthratesduring 1946-59. The low birth rates of 1930-45 produced a deficiency of 25 percent which is reflected in age class 25-40: the high birth rates of 1946-59 are associated with a significantly higher entry rate for workers in age class 16-19 than usual. On the one hand, the Georgia economy must cope with a scarcity of managerial, skilled, and related personnel in age class 25-40, and on the other hand with a more than normal number of inexperienced workers entering the labor force for the first time. The ratio of men in the labor force is normally double that for womcn. But entry of women into the labor force during 1960-70 exceeded slightly the number of men and entry of females may he almost as many as men during 1970-80. The result will be a substantial gain in the labor force in number of women relative to men.

157 Quality of labor force is a function of Total job openings yearly will therefore education andtraining.Comparative be 99.400. statistics, based on the 1960 Census of Yearly job openings for white collar Population, indicatethat the median occupations are estimated at 51,400 dur- level of education of the Georgia population is 17 percent below that for the ing 1975-85 and job openings yearly for nation. Workers of the white race in blue collar occupations. 48.000. The ra''o of total jobs available for blue col- Georgia have 70 percent higher level of la,occupations is expected to decline educationthan nonwhites. But there dt.ng 1975-85 due to an absolute de- were for hoth races in Georgia in 1960 cl.:iein number of jobs available for approximately 350,000 adults 25 years laborers and for agricultural workers. of age or older who were classified as For all classes of occupations job open- functionalilliterates with less than a ings will be most numerous in (1) serv- fifth grade education. iceoccupations,includingdomestic Employment of the work force repre- household. (2) professional and techni- sents economic use of the productive cal, and (3) clerical and kindred. capacity of the population in the Geor- Distribution of occupations by race gia economy. Productive use of the a- and sex indicates that 41 percent of bor force in output meets the goal of the white males are employed in profes- statefor economic growth. For the sional and technical occupations and as worker, the ability to participate in pro- semiskilled production line workers, 50 duction entitles him or her to a claim percent of nonwhite males as laborers against output as income which is the and operatives and kindred occupational basis of spending by income units to classes. 56 percent of white females as gain a certain goal in the standard of clerical and operatives, and 71 percent living. of nonwhite females are employed in In April 1967, there were 1,680,400 private household types of occupations workers employed in the Georgia econ- and as service workers. omy. One worker in 20 was in agricul- Unemployment represents failure of ture and almost one worker in 20 was the economic system to utilize human employed in construction. Agriculture resources in the production process. It is a declining industry, while construc- also indicates failure on the part of the tion will be a rapidly growing industry worker to achieve an independent, pro- during the next two decades. Almost ductive life, achieving personal goals of one worker in four was employed in income and standard of living. In 1967, manufacturing, while two jobs in three 53,000 or three percent of the Georgia were in trade and services including gov- labor force was unemployed and failed ernment, transportation, and public util- in terms of desirable economic stand- ities. Trade and services are expected to ards. be the fastest growing category in the In addition to the specific and meas- Georgia economy in the period ahead. urable unemployed, there exist in Geor- Manufacturing will expand at a slower gia even more serious prohlems regard- rate of growth and will probably not ing under-utilization of labor resources. maintain its position of one-fourth of the jobs in Georgia. An estimated 380,000 job holders work less than halftime during a typical year. The net job creation yearly of 39,000 In addition there are 100,000 unidenti- jobs,requiredtoabsorbpopulation fied unemployed, those workers who growth during1975-85,willbeex- have withdrawn from the labor force panded by 2.5 times in order to cover from discouragement over finding any also the 60,400 vacancies yearly caused job at all. Also an unknown number, by death and retirement' of workers. but, itis believed, a highly significant

158 number of individuals are occupying graduated 4.454 during 1966-67 and jobs which do not properly or efficiently there were 15.725 graduates from voca- utilize their training or skills capacity tional programs in secondary schools. as workers. All have vocational skills for the job market and the total supply of these Differentials in unemployment reflect factors of location, race, sex. and age. trained high school youth should he The 1960 Census of Population shows measured against total demand antici- inthefollowing occupations: that rural farm areas have lowest unem- pated ployment rates but probably relatively 17.000 job openings yearly during 1975- high under-utilization of workers and 85 in clerical and kindred types of oc- unidentified unemployed. Rural non- cupations: 8.200 job openings yearly in farm areas have higher unemployment sales: and 6,200 job openings yearly for ratios than urban centers which are dy- craftsmen and foremen plus a substan- namic and rapidly growing by and large. tial number perhaps of the 23.700 job Yet slum or poverty areas in large cities openings yearly for service workers. have the highest unemployment rates of many of whom are in the health and re- all. Nine poverty areas of the 12 identi- lated occupations. fied in Atlanta in a 1966 survey had 25 The impact of vocational skills on the percent unemployment and 29 percent job market is vividly reflected by varia- part-time employment. tions in unemployment ratios of workers Compared to the Georgia economy with vocational skills compared to those as a whole, males have 13 percent lower without vocational skills. According to unemployment, but females have 22 data from the Georgia Department of percent higher unemployment. The ra- Education and the U. S. Office of Edu- tio of unemployment among nonwhite cation for 1966-67, graduates of area males exceeds the state ratio by 40 per- vocational-technical schools had an un- cent and nonwhite females by 55 per- employment ratio of only 1.7 percent cent. and from vocational programs in secondary schools, 2.5 percent, compared Variations of unemployment ratios by to an unemployment ratio of 14.2 per- age show the highest ratio for age class cent for high school graduates and 18 14-19, 2.5 times that for the state. In percent for high school dropouts. this age class white males have an unemployment rate twice the state aggre- TheStateofGeorgiagraduated gate ratio, white females 2.3 times, non- 55,000 from high school in 1966-67, of white males 2.2 times, and nonwhite fe- whom roughly half went to college, males 3.3 times. leaving 27.000 without a vocational skill. There were also 20,000 high school Output of trained workers against de- dropouts, and another 30,000 from pub- mand reflects the performance of col- lic schools discontinued schooling be- leges and vocational schools relative to tween grades. Against this total of ap- the needs of the state. In 1966-67 Geor- proximately 50,000 failures from school gia colleges graduated 8,800 plus 2.500 may be compared an estimated 85,000 with advanced degrees. The job vacan- openings yearly for basic entry jobs in cies against which this output may be the Georgia economy, half of which assessed are 60 percent of the 18,200 openings can be filled by persons with job openings yearly expected during less than a high school education, often 1975-85 in professional and technical eighth grade or less. But in order to fill occupations plus perhaps a portion of basic entry jobs satisfactorily the worker the 8,000 job vacancies yearly for pro- must have basic education or the eighth prietors, officials, and managers. grade level at least, possess communica- Area vocational-technical schools tion skills, ability to get along with fel-

159 low workers. have satisfactory job atti- toexecutive developmentprograms. tudes. and ability to manage personal There is a serious problem of communi- affairs in a complex world. Job require- cation between industry and education ments for this large number of workers. on how best to coordinate education in who could be made suc,lessful workers the public institutions with mining in and could expect to move up the job industry. This is a new frontier which ladder through company training pro- needs to be penetrated in order to gain grams. can be met only if public educa- many of the objectives outlined in this tion will provide a program of general paper. education for the world of work parallel to academic education which is prepara- tory for college entrance requirements. Exploration of the world of work and careers beginning preferably at the seventh grade should be offered to reinforce the program of general education for the world of work in order to pro- videmotivationforcontinuationin school.

The Georgia economy has 100,000 MAN POWER reflects humanre- handicapped. 100,000 unidentified un- sources; employment means utilization employed. and perhaps 380,000 partial- of human resources. Manpower includes ly employed. All need special programs the concept of totalpopulation and of training, job placement, and counsel- labor force participation. While labor ing to assure job success as well as perforce as an economic resource is an im- sonal success. The National Alliance of portant factor of production. quality of Businessmen's 1968 plan, which is con- labor force constitutes the focus of in- tinuing, was based on direct and imme- terest in economic development. This diate placement of the "hard-core unem- reflects on the entire educational system ployed" (which fits most of the above and training programs provided both by classes) directly into a basic entry, job. the public and also by private industry. The worker was oriented to the job and But mere growth of population and la- trained to its requirements by a trust- bor force without sufficient economic worthy and highlyqualified worker growthto provide jobs,particularly who, acting as a coach, trained the hard- good paying jobs, leads to population core employees in job skills, communi- pressure against limited resources, in- cation skills, goals of the company, and adequate output, and social unrest. Con- also acted on the side as a persona sequently, discussion of this topic leads counselor. to a consideration of the supply :factors of labor against the demand conditions Industry has important training pro- for labor in the economy. grams designed not only to integrate new employees intocompany v.ork practices and goals, but also to provide Manpower training to assist advancement of workers up the career ladder, so necessary to Population Growth gain high efficiency and maintain morale Population growth in Georgia, at a very of the work force. For each dollar spent slow rate from 1930 to 1950, accele- by education at every level,. companies rated slightly from 1950-60 and has in the United States spend 50 cents on shown a significant pick-up in the rate alltypes of training programs, from of growth since 1960, as the following programs for workers in basic entry jobs figures indicate.

160 Grow* for During the depression era. 1930 to Census Period Yeefly 1941. and also during WWII birth rates Year Count fin millions) Increase wereoff25percent. Consequently. 1930.. 2.908 there is a I5-Year trough. or an extended 1940.. 3,124 216 low formation. moving over time not 1950.. 3.445 321 32 only through the state's population but 1960 .. 3.943 498 50 also through that of the nation. In 1965 1968.. 4.568 625 78 the 16-19 age group nationally was al- Projections most 40 percent larger. relatively, than 1975. . 5.271 703 100 other age classes. On the other hand. the 1985 .. 6.3c! I .1180 108 25-40 age group was comparatively small relative to other age groups. These The growth rate of population from distortions in the population age groups 1960=68, converted to a yearly growth will cause a relatively large supply of rate Nisis, was 70 percent greater than labor in the 16-19 age group for several during1950-60.andtheexpected yearsahead asth..1group moves growth during 197545 shows a further through the population aggregate. On acceleration of 39 percent over 19610-68. the other hand. the 25-40 age group is Population growth means labor force already producing a relative scarcity of growth which parallels growth in the highly competent persons for middle economy. Growth in the economy and, management. and this will continue for of course, relatively more jobs mean perhaps a decade.Since1965,the that a higher percentage of the natural younger age group has also produced a increase has been kept in Georg or in relatively large number of students in other words, out-migration has been re- college. While this bulge so far as col- duced. In the period 1950-60, Georgia leges are concerned will disappear about lost 30 percent of natural increase by 1970. a higher percentage of high school out-migration; in the period 1975-85,1 graduates wanting a college education projections assume some in-migration. will continue the rising trend of college Another factor associated with rapid enrollments. population increase has been the fast growth of the large urban centers in Labor Force Georgia, suchas Atlanta, Savannah, Augusta, Macon, and Columbus. Dur- Labor force consists of all those persons ing 1950-60, these centers accounted in the population, 14 years of age or for 95 percent of the state's population older. according to the U. S. Bureau of growth. Census, who are employed or who are actively seeking a job. In 1960 the labor Urban centers are not only generators force in Georgia was enumerated as of economic growth and therefore ma- 1,516,000,2 a ratio to total population jor sources of jobs, they also give rise to of 38.2 percent (37.6 ratio for the civil- a broad cross-section of economic ac- ian labor force). The ratio of the male tivities, with major emphasis on trade, population in the labor force was 51.4 finance, and service types of businesses. percent and for females, 26.2 percent. In contrast, rural territories suffered a Thus, the labor force ratio for males is loss of 122,000 population during 1950- double that for females, and this ratio 60. The projected total population for rises until age class 25-34 for males, Georgia in1985 is 6,351,000, repre- which has a labor force participation senting an annual increase of 108,000 ratio of 94.1 percent. The female labor from 1975.Itis expected that large force participation ratio rises until age . urban centers will accountfor about 60 class 35-44, which shows a ratio of 49.4 percent of thestate's growth during percent. In recent years the labor force 1975-85. participationratioforfemaleshas

161 shown a rising trend due to increase in The large bulge of youthful persons en- clerical and sales jobs which have a tering the labor force from high post prime attraction for women. Another WWII birth rates magnifies the impor- factor is that rising educational level of tance of education fortified by voca- females and prosperous conditions have tional training not only to the job place- been factors attracting more than a ment process but also in terms of de- usual number into the labor force. Sta- mands in the economy for an increasing tistics from the Manpower Report of number of trained workers with proper the President for 1969' indicate for the job attitudes.Greater emphasiswill decade 1960-70 a rise of 5.7 million need to be given to the training require- women entering the labor force comments of youth and also to the some- pared to 5.1 million for men, ooth fig- what more specialized training needs of ures for the United States. For the females. decade 1970-80 the expectation is for entry of an additional 5.3 million. females and 7.6 million males nationally. The conclusion, therefore,isthat in- Productivity crease in size of female labor force in The ability to produce output is a key current and future decades will reduce factor not only in the utilization of sharply the male-female labor force par- workers. but it is also a very important ticipation differential. While the specific factorinfluencing economic develop- figures cited above pertain to the nation. ment and rapidity of economic growth similar trends toward relatively more between nations and also between re- females in the labor force in Georgia gions or areas within a nation. The are also indicated. ability of workers to produce is one of the basic factors, along with capital in- The significance of the age and sex vestment per worker. determining level distribution of the labor force is related of income and the standard of living of to quality of the labor force. The rela- a population. The Manpower Report of tive rise of females in the labor force the President4 provides the following means a larger supply of workers for estimates of productivity for broad in- clerical, sales, and service types of jobs. dustrial categories.

162 Yearly Percent Increase le °septet Per Man blow 1960-61 1967-68 Nonagricultural industries Manufacturing 2.3 Nonmanufacturing 3.4 3.7 Agriculture 7 9 0.73 Composite 3 4 3.3 aLong term average is about 6%

A composite yearly gain in produc- Development of People tivity of 3.3 percent per manhour per- Through Education mits an equivalent wage increase with- A highly important consideration in pro- out inflation, accompanied by a parallel moting labor productivity and a rapidly rise in purchasing power and in standard growing and prosperous economy are of living, a major aim of democracies in educational outlays on human develop- the western world. It is noted that high- mete. Properly implemented, human re- est gains in productivity have occurred sources development leads not only to a in agriculture where major emphasis is more productive labor force but also to placed on scientific investigation with a citizenry which is more capable of application of the results to production participating in the democratic process. technology_ In agriculture and manufac- The educational attainment of adults turing. heavy outlays on research and 25 years of age or over in Georgia, as development usually lead to a rising reported in the 1960 Census of Popula- ratio of capital investment per worker. tion, is shown in the following table.

Years of Schooling White Nonwhite Completed Number Percent Number Percent Zero 23,907 1.6 42,761 8.5 1-4 years 131,271 8.7 157,314 31.3 5-8 years 463,330 30.7 183,500 36.4 High School 1-3 years 306,955 20.3 61,840 12.3 4 years 336,329 22.3 35,056 7.0 College 1-3 years 136,368 9.0 10,451 2.1 4 years 113,135 7.5 12,634 2.5 TOTAL 1,511,295 100.1 503,556 100.0 Median years of schooling . . 10.3 6.1

Over three-fourths of nonwhites had menial types of jobs. And the tragic part less than an eighth grade education in is that 355,000 fall in this clIss. Based 1960: 40 percent of whites had less than on national ratios for 1967, there are an eighth grade education. Almost 10 an estimated 60,000 functional illiterates percent of whites had less than a fifth currently holding jobs in Georgia; an- grade education, the level that is classi- other 330,000 have an educational level fied as functionally illiterate. This com- between the fifth and eighth grades. pares to 40 percent for nonwhites. What can one really do for people who have While the white race is comparatively less than a fifth grade education? They better off in literacy, the educational are capable of holding only the simple, level as reported above reflects a very

163 poor and inadequate development of government. and miscellaneous services. Georgia'smostimportantresource. Transportation and public utilities may Overall. nonwhites are only 60 percent be expected to show only an average as well prepared for the world of. work rate of gain in jobs. ChartIdepicts as whites. The composite median.ears these changes graphically for the na- of schooling completed for all adults in tion. Whitt: the general trends in Geor- Georgia. irrespective of race. in 1960 gia are such that the state's economy was 9.0 years. This means that educa- over time will become more like that of tion in Georgia lags that of the nation thenationcompositely.the changes by 1.5 years of schooling. or 17 percent. shown in the chart in terms of relative growth rates are considered to apply to Numerous studies have shown that Georgia. the earnings level rises more than proportionately with the level of education The conclusion is that the trendis of working adults. In Georgia in 1960, toward types of industries producing one year of schooling for males added tangible services and away from output $400 yearly to 'income: for females the of materialthings. Construction isa yearly increment from one additional growing activity of considerable conse- year of schooling was $250. Research quence from the standpoir,i of training by the author during the mid-1950's on needs because of the great need for the returns from annual outlays on edu- housing as a result of the relatively large cation indicates that there is a 16 per- number of young people entering the cent return on the annual investment in labor force and forming families, an im- education for Georgia.5 pact directly from the post World War II high birth rates. Aside from housing which involves a tangible of some import. the big emphasis on job prepara- Employment tion will. therefore. be on imparting the ability to deal with and satisfy people. IndustrialTrends The variety and numbers of jobs in an economy reflect the ability and the in- Occupational Trends terest of the population to participate in Occupational change in an economy is the economy as producers adding to an indication of the demand by industry output and as consumers helping to uti- for workrs of a certain level of sophis- lize output through the wages that have tication in science and technology, man- been earned as contributions to produc- agement. customer service, community tion. A Georgia Department of Labor and business services. It also reflects the Report6shows1,680,400employed ability of workers to tolerate simple rou- from the civilian labor force, as of April tine types of activities in factory, store, 1967. On the basis of these data, one or service establishments. Analysis of worker in 20 is employed in agriculture, the employment patterns in Georgia by almost one worker in 20 in construc- occupationaldistributionindicatesa tion, one worker in four in manufactur- shift toward the professional and tech- ing, and two workers in three are em- nical occupations, service workers, and ployed intrade, finance, government, clerical and kindred types of oecupa- utilities, and services. Projections of the lions. Occupations showing a lesser rate Georgia economy indicate significantly of relative gain will be managers, of- fewer jobsinagriculture,relatively ficials and proprietors, and sales work- fewerinmanufacturing, althougha ers. Craftsmen and foremen and oper- larger number absolutely, and a signifi- atives and kindred workers willlose cantly larger number in services, includ- some ground relatively but will con- ing wholesale and retail trade, finance, tinue to show yearly gains in the number

164 of jobsabsolutely. Laborers are ex- From the standpoint of impact on the pected to decline slightly in number of work force, education and training, we jobs while agricultural workers will de- need to consider along with net growth cline strongly. requirements for trained workers, the replacement requirements for workers Chart II pictures thc relative growth who die or retire. Based on national co- of broad occupational categories in the efficients the replacement needs are 1.55 nation's economy. The chart is useful for each new job required in the aggre- for analysis in providing a frame of ref- gate to maintain growth of the economy. erence for thc strength of trends that are Replacement needs, however, vary great- developing. Table A portrays the trends ly among occupations. Calculations of in occupations in two broad categories total labor requirements by occupations "White Collar" and "Blue Collar" oc- for Georgia, including both the need for cupations. The white collar occupations labor to support the expected growth of will show relatively the greater rate of the economy and also for replacement gain. The blue collar occupations are of workers who will leave the job mar- in general shrinking in importance ex- ket due to death and also from retire- cept for the category, "Service Workers ment, are provided for 1975-85 in Table including Household," which is expected C. It is noted that total replacement re- to grow both relatively and in absolute quirements are expected to be 60,400 numbers in the years ahead. Consider- jobs yearly and the new job openings -ing all occupations together,itis ex- from growth in the economy, 39,000 peeled that the following occupations johs yearly. These two figures give an will be the largest gainers in relative estimate of 99,400 jobs yearly which importance. will need to be tilled by new entrants Professional and technical into the labor force in Georgia or from Clerical and kindred in-migration of workers. The size of the Service workers training job is equally impressive. For the professional and technical occupations the estimated job vacancies will he 18,200 yearly; clerical and kindred occupations show 17,000 vacancies yearly Projection of Job Openings Yearly for the period 1975-85. There will be By Occupations, 1975-85 a need for 23,700 service workers year- Distribution of employment to occupa- ly,includingprivatehousehold, and tions is useful in getting a picture of the these along with operatives or produc- economy relative to the yearly number tion line workers with 15,300 job vacan- of jobs available. Such a picture shows cies yearly will require a good basic edu- the potentials of the job market and the cation plus job attitudes for the world demand for training and education. Esti- of work. Note that the net vacancies for mates of number of jobs open yearly both classes of laborers are expected to and the sources of these jobs are of spe- be only 2,800 jobs yearly, which con- cific value for both purposes. Estimates notesserious forebodingsforschool have been prepared by applying the ra- dropouts and those with poor education. tios in Table A to the net growth of jobs projected for the Georgia economy for 1970-75 and for 1975-85. The results are presented in Table B. The total num- Relationships of Educational ber of jobs created yearly by growth of Level to Occupations the Georgia economy is estimated at In terms of how educational level re- 34,200 during 1970-75; for 1975-85 the lates to various occupational categories yearly number of jobs created is pro- provided in Table C, a 1962 study of jected at 39,000. this factor by Henneman and Yoder7 is

165 of the greatest possiblc significance for 4. The average laborer, farmer, and education andtrainigrequirements. domestichadonlyelementary They found that there exists an occupa- schooltrainingorless(eighth tional hierarchy in terms of education grade or below). as follows. 1. The average professional and technical worker had at least a college degree. Yet workers with less than a high The average clerical worker, sales school education were holding a certain worker, manager, and proprietor number of jobs in each occupational cat- had at least a high school degree. gory, apparently by virtue of promotion 3. The average service worker, semi- on-the-job, in all occupational classes in skilled operative, craftsman, and 1967, according to studies by the U. S. foreman had some high school Department of Labor and reported in editcation. Manpower Report Number 13.8

Percentage of Workers Holding Jobs in United States with Less than a Occupational High School Education Category in 1967 Professional and technical 4.0 Managers, officials, and proprietors 25.0 Clerical workers 17.4 Sales workers 27.6 Craftsmen and foremen 50.2 Operatives 61.1 Private household workers 76.0 Service workers 54.6 Agricultural workers 73.1. Farmers and farm managers 64.1 Nonfarm laborers 71.2 Total 39.0

In a total national employment in I967 there is opportunity, or at least there of 70,570,000, there v ere 27,552,000 has been in the past, for those who have jobs held by workers with less than a not been able to finish high school or high school education. The ratio is about college. The problem here is the need for two in five, resulting from ?xtensive on- communication skills, ability to relate, the-job training and serious application and job attitudes. It is believed that op- of workers to the requirements of the portunities of this sort will be somewhat job. The least opportunities for workers lessened in the future because of the in- to take jobs with low educational level creasingly technical nature of work or and work themselves up the ladder are requirements for special talent or train- in professional and technical (4 percent), ing to please customers and the public. clerical workers (17.4 percent), managers and proprietors (25 percent), and sales workers (27.6 percent). In the Occupations by Sex and Race other occupations, where such workers AnalysisofoccupationsinGeorgia have found that jobs exist, they have one based on the 1960 Census of Popula- out of two jobs, but, except for crafts- tion, in order to determine the highest men, the technical skills are not very four occupations by race and sex, pro- sophisticated.Itisencouragingthat duced the results.

166 Percentage of Total Employment Occupational Represented by Each Category Class in 1960

MALES White 1.Operatives and kindred workers 21 2.Craftsmen, foremen, etc. 20 3.Managers, officials, and proprietors 14 4.Professional and technical 9 Nonwhite 1.Laborers 25 2.Operatives and kindred 25 3.Craftsmen, foremen, etc 8 4.Service workers 6

FEMALES White 1.Clerical and kindred 31 2.Operatives and kindred 25 3.Professional and technical 13 4.Service workers 8 Nonwhite 1.Private household 52 2.Service workers 19 3.Professional and technical 7 4. Farm laborers 5

The top four occupations accounted craftsmen, while nonwhite males find for 64 percent of jobs for white males, chief job outlets in those occupations re- 64 percent of the jobs for nonwhite quiring a much lower degree of skill, males, 77 percent of (:)he jobs for white i.e.,assemi-skilledproductionline females, and 83 percent of the jobs for workers or as laborers. nonwhite females. The data show that both classes of female workers tend to be heavily concentrated in two occupa- Basic Entry Jobs tions: white females, clerical and oper- An important aspect of the job market atives; and nonwhite females, private everywhere, particularly with respect to households and service workers. When jobs for high school dropouts and even eitherclassoffemalesgetshighly some high school graduates who do not trained in college, they concentrate in have specific vocational skills, is basic profes::,;onal and technical occupations, entry jobs. Basic entry jobs are the jobs with teaching being the major occupa- at the lowest starting point on the job tion for both. In the case of males, con- ladder in four major areas of employ- centration of jobs occurs at the point ment in business enterprise. They are where either a degree of skill is required clerical and office; plant, factory, or opin the case of whites or little or no skills erations; maintenance mechanics; and in the case of nonwhites. White males janitors and waitresses. The typical types find major job outletsas semiskilled of jobs found in each of these categories workers on the production line or as are as follows.

167 Office and clerical Clerk, clerk-typist, and stenographer Plant, factory, or operations Laborer, ;wiper, trainee, tray handler and stock cl:rk Maintenance mechanics Journeyman worker, apprentice and trainee Janitors ands waitresses Helper, orderly, but more frequently hired directly for either class aNo relationship really, but a catch-all class.

Based on the ratios of basic entry jobs Kentucky,9 the estimated total nurnher tototal employment establishedina of basic entry jobs in Georgia is esti- 1967 Manpower Survey in Louisville, mated in the following table.

illustrative Projection of Number of Ratio to Total Bask Entry Jobs Category Employment for Georgia Clerical and office 10 13,400 Plant, factory or operations 49 62,700 Maintenance mechanics 04 4,600 Janitors and waitresses 03 4,800 6.6 85,500

Hiring criteria for basic entry jobs more rigorously than most other indus- vary with the job category and to some trial categories. extent by broad industrialcategories. Hiring criteria in broad terms are as The utilities, for instance, generally set follows. higher hiring criteria and employ them Clerical and office 18 years of age, 12 years of schooling or equivalent; skills for the job and a good personality Plant, factory, or operations. . .18 years of age; 8-12 years of schooling (flexible); physically fit; craft skills or aptitude Maintenance mechanics . 18-25 years of age; 8-12 years of education, but 12 years of apprenticeship; physically fit; mechanical aptitude Janitor and waitress Age and education flexible; physically fit; and often for janitors, clearance on police and credit records The upper age requirements for ini- entering the Georgia labor force poses tialemploymentinbasicentry job special problems of training, job place- classes tend to be set at age 50-55, de- ment, and counseling. Information has pending upon limitations established by previously been presented which shows pension programs. degrees of concentration of females in While the criteria are for the most major occupational outlets. The follow- part reasonably achievable and flexible, ing data, which have been compiled on the burden is placed on the educational the basis of nationaldata,lo indicate system to provide communication skills, where females are employed by indus- simple arithmetic competence, and job tries. While the data do not pertain par- attitudes. ticularly to Georgia, they are useful in identifying by analogy industriesin Jobs for Females Georgia where women are probably The large increase relatively of females most heavily concentrated.

168 Percentage of 'fatal Employment Industry Female (1966) Manufacturing Durables 19.3 Instruments and related products 35.4 Nondurables 38.2 Textile mill products 44.4 Apparel and related products 79.8 Printing and publishing 30.0 Utilities Air transportation 23.6 Communication 49.8 Electric, gas, and sanitary services 15.0 Wholesale trade 22.3 Retail trade 44.3 Finance, insurance, and real estate 50.2 Services Hotels, motels, etc. 49.3 Miscellaneous business services 34.1 Medical 78.7 Education 45.0 Government Total for all establishments 34.0

Based on national employment data prepare individuals for the demands of for 1966, given in the preceding table. the world of work. For the individual, itis apparent that opportunities for fe- unemployment reprbsents a tragic fail- male employment are largest in:(1) ure to gain personal eco- services, especially medical. hotels, and nomically, it means inabilitynability to partici- education; (2) finance, insurance, and pate in the production process and to real estate; (3) retail trade; (4) com- gain a part of the output for use by the munications: and (5) nondurables individual and his family. manufacturing, with special emphasis Underemployment also exists today on apparel and related products and along with employment. This represents textile mill products. The jobs available over-training for the job and is a meas- in manufacturing are primarily produc- ure of the extent to which the trained tion line, semiskilled workers. abilities of workers are not fully utilized. Both of these concepts. unemploy7 ment and underemployment, of under- Unemployment and utilization of human resources in labor Underemployment are in terms of those elements of the Utilization of human resources is a goal population which are active in the labor of society, of the economy, and of pro- market. But there is another concept of gram makers. Unemployment is a mea- human failure in the job market. This sure of the inability of the economy to concerns that group of individuals in utilize available human resources. Un- society whose failure to find work has employment from theworker'sside been so long and discouraging that they measures lack of preparation to meet have given up in the search for work the job demands of the labor market. and have withdrawn from the labor Indeed, it can also measure the failure force. This group has been visualized of the educational system to properly by labor economists for some time. yet

169 until recent years, there has been no workers unemployed, or 4.5 percent. good measure of the size of this group The urban areas of Georgia ivhich re- of potential workers, although such data ported 62 percent of the jobs And 60 as are available are not by state or area. percent of the unemployed, or an unemployment ratio of 4.5 percent. The extremes in unemployment, however, were found in rural farm areas and rural non- Patterns of Unemployment farm areas, which reported 3.0 percent Patterns of unemployment for Georgia and 4.9 percent of unemployment re- by location, race, sex, and age can be spectively. By categories unemployment identified only from the 1960 Census of of whites was 60 percent of nonwhites; Population which is the most detailed and males 66 percent of females. The and comprehensive source of statistics following tabulation shows how unem- available. In 1960 the State of Georgia ployment varied with sex, race, and lo- afforded 1,385.000 jobs but had 65,000 cation in 1960.

Percentage of Civilian Labor Force Unemployedn Urban Rural Rural Category Nonfarm Farm Total MALES White 32 3.8 1.9 3.3 Nonwhite 6 5 5.6 2.6 6.7 FEMALES White 4 6 5.6 4.5 4.9 Nonwhite 6 5 7.9 9.1 7.0

The percentages show how unem- had. and factories are not being attracted ployment varies with sex, race, and lo- to small towns in rural areas. cation. Opportunities for a wide variety of jobs at varying levels of skills are In urban centers itis noted that un- vastly better in urban centers, but job employment among white males was 50 requirements are more demanding in percent of thatfor nonwhite males; terms of education,skill,experience, among white females the ratio was 75 and job attitudes. Both white and non- percent of that for nonwhite females. white males in 1960 had lowest unem- Opportunities for employment in urban ployment rates in rural farm areas, but centers far exceed those for other areas, this statistic ignores the fact that heavy but the problem of high unemployment migration of the better educated and among nonwhites be associated more highly trained is from rural areas with low levels of educational achieve- to urban centers. White females had ment, poor or inadequate skills, and somewhat lower unemployment rates in poor job attitudes in competing effec- rural farm areas because of the oppor- tively for job openings. Often the fault tunities for self-employment or occupa- isinabilityoftransportationtoget tion as housewives. Nonwhite females workers to distant points in order for h,ad highest rates of unemployment in them to hold a job effectively. Unem- rural farm areas because demand is pri- ployment impinges heaviest on non- marily for male laborers. Except for whites and females. Relative to the over- nonwhite males, rural nonfarm areas all composite unemployment percent- had highest unemploymeut rates. Lack age, female workers experience 22 per- of employment opportunities is the big cent greater unemployment, nonwhites factor, as there is no farm work to be 40 percent more unemployment, and

170 nonwhite females 55 percent higher un- ning May 2,1966. 46,384 interviews employmentaccordingtothe1960 were conducted. Of these 8,479 or 18 Census of Population. By age classe, percent were of whites and 37,905 or S2 unemploymentishighest among age percent were of nonwhites. There were class14-19: abovethisageclassit 5,699whitefemalessurveyedand steadily drops to the lowest point at age 26,153 nonwhite females. Consequent- class 40-44 for males and 50-54 for fe- ly, the results reflect greatly the domi- males. Unemployment is of serious pro- nance of nonwhite females in the sam- portions for youths in age class 14-19. ple. Fewer than 1,000 of the persons For males the unemployment ratio is interviewed were under 16 years of age. double the overall ratio for the entire Eighteen thousand four hundred seventy civilian labor force; for females, 21/2 (18,470) or 40 percent were earning times; nonwhite males 2.2 times: for lessthan 5400 yearly; an additional nonwhite females age 14-19 unemploy- 5.765 reported no previous work ex- ment rates arc in a ratio of 31/2 that for perience. The distribution of those in the labor force in general. the survey in terms of work status was as follows. The relationship of educational level tothe unemployment ratio may be Percentage gained from the following ratios which Category of Total pertain to 1966-67 graduates from vo- Working 39 cationaltype programs.12 For those Not workingin school 7 .post-high school persons who gradu- Seeking work 25 ated from an area vocational-technical Not seeking work 29 school, the unemployment ratio was 1.7 Total 100 percent; for those who finished a vocational educational program from sec- Itis noted that unemployment (in- ondary schools the unemployment ratio voluntary) is 25 percent or more than was 2.5 percent. A contrast with high eight times that for the State of Georgia. school graduates cannot be obtained di- Factors related to unemployment are rectly because such data are not avail- low educational level (65 percent less able for Georgia. At the national level,'; than high school) and lack of skill (78 however, the unemployment rate for the percent). Only 12 percent of the whites 1966-67 high school graduates was 14.2 and 15 percent of the nonwhites had percent: for high school dropouts, 18 received any vocational education. percent. The effect of training on success in getting jobs is thus overwhelmingly in favor of vocational training. Underemployment While unemployment ratios for urban Underemploymentreflectsincomplete centers tend to be lower than for other use of labor resources and is therefore areas of the state, except rural fairn for an economic waste to society and costly some classes of workers, studies show to individuals in terms of income. Based that unemployment in a large urban on data from the 1960 Census of Popu- center tends to be concentrated in pov- lation relative to the number of weeks , erty areas. This conclusion was reached worked in 1959, it was found that 14 by a Georgia Department of Labor percent of males worked 26 weeks or study during June 1966 and reported in less during the year and 31 percent of "Atlanta Human Resources Survey. "'4 the females worked 26 weeks or less The study was conducted in nine of the during the year. In current terms this 12 poverty areas of Atlanta as identified meansthatapproximately380,000 by Economic Opportunity Atlanta. Dur- workers in Georgia are working on a ing the six weeks survey period begin- job less than 26 weeks a year, or less

171 than half-time. About half of the total ployed. In other words, aside from the work force worked 50-52 weeks during specificpersonsidentifiedas ,unem- the year. Obviously many workers, espe- ployedata given moment of time, cially females, failed to work full-time studies show that the unidentified un- through choice, but loss of time from employed, excluding those who have lay-offs, shifts betweenjobs and inability permanently withdrawn from the work to find jobs represents imperfections in force, is almost twice as great. The latest the labor market. All of these factors report on number of unemployed in result in heavy penalties against the in- Georgia, as of April 1967, is shown as comes of persons and families, and fur- 52,700. Application of the ratio of 1.9 thermore, the output of the economy is indicates that the state has approximate- reduced below its full potential because ly100,000unidentified unemployed. oftheseimperfectionsinthelabor These will include the following classes market. of workers, as identified by the U. S. Department of Labor.15 Another form of under-utilization of the work force is placement of workers "Persons with limited education are in jobs that do not utilize training or more likely to be out of the labor skills, which also results in a loss to in- force than those with more educa- dividuals and to the economy. It is de- tion. sirable to utilize each worker to the A large number of older workers limit of his or her skill capacity and including many with retirement keep each job holder developing through benefitsboth need and wish to con- trainnig toward a higher type of job, tinue in paid employment. gaining better pay for the individual Many women who want to work, worker and higher output for the com- eithertosupport themselves and pany and for the economy. Data or their families or to supplement their measurement of the size of this type of husband's income, report that they imperfection in the labor market are not cannot do so for lack of child care available. facilities. Illness and disability prevent many persons from working in physically Unidentified Unemployment demanding occupations and some- A third form of under-utilization of hu- times keep them from working at man resources concerns those persons any job. Long-tent disabilities also who have withdrawn from the work tend to discourage persons from force through discouragement over in- even looking for work." ability to find a job despite repeated efforts. It is not possible to estimate this This last source of under-utilization form of under-utilization of manpower of labor which we have identifiedis in the Georgia economy from published quite large. While startling, it does em- reports. But it can be deduced indirectly phasize the big job that must be done to from national data. estimates inthe prepare people for work, to find jobs 1968 Manpower Report of the President for them, and to counsel them on the reveal a rate nationally which is highly job in order to develop satisfactory and indicative of the status of this problem efficient workers for industry. in the Georgia economy. For the United States as a whole, there were 2.8 million Factors Related to Unemployment unemployed in 1968. The number of Much has been written on the causes of persons neither working nor seeking unemployment, and it is not possible in work but who expressed a desire for a a brief space to summarize satisfactorily job was estimated at 5.3 million. This is all the causes. On the demand side of a ratio of 1.9 to the number of unem- the job market, the technical, skilled,

172 and psychological factors required of heavy dragagainstgrowthofthe workersareinconstantprocessof economy. change. We have noted previously how job patterns are shiftiraT ....ward more Training Needs technicalandskill .,.ments in manufacturing and in the ,ervice sector Looking ahead to the period 1975-85, towards persons with good basic educa- previous analysis has shown a market tion but also with abilities to understand demand for 99,400 workers yearly. Of people, meet the public, and satisfy inthese the 18.200 openings for profes- dividual customers. Rapid advances in sional and technical work: 7s will require technology provide new processes and the highest degree 'of training: 60 per- products which workers must adapt to. cent of these will require college.In This requires workers with astuteness some sense the 8,000 vacancies for pro- and enough general education to learn prietors, officials, and managers will re- the new quickly and to apply it. In this quire either college work or a degree of process the worker needs the help of technical and managerial competence company training and also assistance from other sources. Output of college from public education through adult studentsin1966-67 was 8,800 plus 2,500 with advanced degrees. In the educations. case of clerical workers, sales workers As far as the youthful worker in an in some sense, and craftsmen, foremen, entry position is concerned, he or she etc., the expected vacancies yearly will must be alert, have good general educa- be 17,000; 8,200: and 6,200 respective- tion, and be motivated to make applica- ly, or a total of 31,400. Current output tious to requirements of the world of of graduates from the area vocational- work. Somehow in the home and in the technical schools is 4,454, and from vo- school the worker needs to acquire an cational programs in secondary schools, appreciation for the world of work, a 15,725. Thus the two programs together desire to learn about it and become a have an annual output of 20,179. This participant, and to develop also pride of does not encompass all of the future de- accomplishment. The dropout from high mands. Many service workers inthe school, the child from a broken home medical and related health occupations or from a home that is poverty stricken require skills training. The expected an- where the father or mother or both hold nual vacancies of service workers during low-paying,menialjobs,and where 1975-85 are projected at 23,700. there has never been a promotion, will nothavethesequalitiesofefficient workers. If the worker is mentally han- Requirements of Changing dicapped or has psychological problems Technology and has come to be frustrated by re- During the last five years the author has thzre has never been a promotion, will completed two large studies of man- also be a dropout from work, shifting power needs in different states. In the repeatedly from job to job. It is obvious process of these studies he has had the that the problems of unemployment, good fortune to interview top managers underemployment, and unidentified un- in approximately 100 large companies. employment are complex. Their roots This sample of companies reprepted are widespread, and it will take a total all segments of the American economy effort by schools, higher education, com- from construction firms to governthent. pany training, supplemented by special The conclusion from these intensive in- programs, to break through into some terviews isthat the world of work in measure of successinsolvingthese Georgia is complex and in continuous multi-faceted problems, so degenerative process ofchange. Overriding all of the human spirit and imposing a changes are improvements in technology

173 which are in continuous process of in- "Exhaust burner has caused and is caus- troducing new products, new processes, ing many problems. This company feels and opportunities for development and itwill require new mechanical skills. growth of industry. All of these changes Developing technologyisparticularly make demands on the job holder for im- rapid in the auto industry. Auto manu- proved skills, new skills, and new techni- facturing may come around to making cal know-how of a high level of sophis- component parts as such and they could tication. Companies adopt new tech- simply he replaced and not repaired. If nology where it promises a contribution, this happens, perhaps the auto repair providing itis financially feasible. But business could be based on simpler at times they have been almost overskills." whelmed by the complexity and speed of technological change. Small com- The effect of an advancing technology panies in particular find difficulties in coupled with synthetic raw materials is capitalizing on the potentials from new illustrated by forecasts of probable de- technology. The main conclusion from velopments in a large clothing opera- the different studies is that in one case, ',ion.Management forecastsdevelop- we found a need for 30 new technicians: ment of batteries of large electronic in another study, there was a need for machines which will fuse clothing in- 26 new technicians. The technicians in stead of sewingit,displacing sewing many cases represented simple adop- machine operators, in a period of from tions of types of occupations in tech- 10-15 years. ay that date it may he ex- nology which were known and avail- pected that disposable clothing will be- able. In other cases, we have discovered gin to have a considerable impact. An- entirely new technicians emerging in other illustration concerns a large bot- the economy. However, there are di- tling plant in a midwestern city. it has verse trends in the skilled and semi- recently installed an electronic line, op- skilled occupations. The trend is toward erated with seven workers. The main a dichotomy in skill patterns as a result function of the workers is to monitor of rapid trends toward automation of the electronic controls. At the end of production operations. the production line, cans are loaded automatically on a fork-lift truck in stacks Large automatic or semi-automatic of line-loadedpallets. Lateritis ex- production machines are reducing work- pected that loading will go directly to ers in many cases to machine tenders, the freight car. requiring relatively fewer skills on the production line. But maintenance and From this analysis, we see that tech- upkeep of production equipment are re- nological change is the force which requiring that maintenance mechanics be quires change on the part of companies upgraded to technicians with know-how and their workers. Education must rein electronics reinforced by knowledge spond to this need by new and revised also of pneumatics. and often also of curricula and by becoming- flexible to hydraulics. The need is for quick diag- the needs for remedial education re- nosis with preventive maintenance in quired by workers at every level of so- order to prevent down-time of expensive phistication on the job ladder. The fol- machines. Likewise, in the consumer lowing is a summary of technological market for durables, the complexity of trends in Georgia.16 large household appliances is placing a A trend toward use of microwave premium as never before on quick main- technology in communication is de- tenance and repairs in the interest of veloping. good consumer relations. A trend from DC circuitry to AC cir- A large auto dealer who was inter- cuitry is developing, although there is viewed in a recent study concluded that, some reversal to DC circuitry where

174 variahlc speed control is important. quirements of construction workers, A rapid move to a more intensive use designers, estimators, and supervisors. of computers is developing in practi- Technological progress has caused a cally all aspects of the Georgia econ- variety of administrative labor-saving omy. The most widespread uses are devices to emerge, including micro- in managerial accounting, data pro- film, copy equipment, data-transmis- cessing, and machine tool operations sion systems, direct communication with the use of programmed tape. systems, and material handling de- Phenomenal growth is occurring in vices as well as the computer with its use of electronic components and sys- varied services. tems of all types. Electronic com- Education and training to meet the ponents are being added to many pro- world of work must he a joint function duction machines and sub-systems. of public education and of training in Automaticequipment, frequently industry. The worker in an entry level electronically controlled, is replacing job is typically poorly educated without human effort in the inspection pro- vocational skills. Yet in order to gain cesses. competence in his first job and also to Standardsfor product quality arc make progress up the job ladder over growing morerigorous.Statistical the years, the worker must he capable procedures of quality control, based of learning the simple, routine processes on the use of sampling and control of the job, learn to get along with .fel- charts, dominate the methods. low workers, and manage his personal New materials, new machines, and affairs in order that he may be a satis- new proceses are being developed factory worker. The worker in an initial and used as soon as practical. This basic entry job must also learn how to trend is well illustrated by synthetic take care of company property and textiles, shoe materials, and exotic equipment and how to satisfy the com- metals. It is also illustrated by devel- pany's customers. He must above all opments in nuclear physics. have integrity of work. The function of X-ray inspection of airplane parts educationinmeetingtheserequire- assemblies and sub-assemblies before ments of the world of work is to pro- maintenanceis standardpractice. vide basic communication skills, the so- The applicationofelectronicsto . ciologyof human relationships, human medical problems is developing rap- values and how to live and get along in idly. Electronic instrumentation for a complex world. Industry's function in bio-medical and bio-physics uses is creating satisfactory and efficient work- quite pronounced. In this area espe- ers is to provide training in the specific cially, information storage and re- job skills, particularly for basic entry trievalis an expanding technology. jobs, social skills with fellow workers, There is a trend toward enginv-,:ting and enthusiastic support for company design of windowless industrial build- goals. ings and some other types of buildings to obtain accurate light control That preparation of people for the at less cost for heating and air con- world of work is an intensive cooper- ditioning. Craft skills and trades are ative effort of education and of industry tending toward replacement by fac- is indicated by the fact that for each tory built pre-fabricated, pre-assem- dollar spent by allthe institutions in bled building units. These adVances, public and private education, companies together with scientifically improved in the United States economy spend 50 paints,materials and mechanically cents on training programs for workers implemented construction methods, at every level up to the executive.17 In are radically changing the skill re- fact, many companies willsubsidize

175 wholly or in part a college education. toacademiccoursesofinstruction. even into graduate school, for promis- There would he a series of balanced ing workers. What is needed by allis a courses to develop general job skills. in- more complete knowledge of these two creasing in levels of competence and ex- programs.Also, more seriousefforts perience, and to provide proficiency in need to be made on the part of both the three R's, manual skills, job atti- groups to coordimite more completely tudes, etc. These courses would be de- both aspects of training people for the signed to give a certain level of compe- world of work. tence in general job skills for basic entry General Education for positions.I propose the following spe- The World of Work cific courses to start. We have seen how Georgia industry Manual skills for males and house- takes workers at every level, including keeping skills for females perhaps 85,000 yearly inbasic entry Job attitudes. including how to find and hold a job jobs. But difficulties are encountered by industry in properly integrating 'these Three R's pertinent to the world of work workers into the work force. They lack Factory visits and study, including thetypes ofcommunicationskills needed by industry; few have good job employment experience attitudes: and many do not know how to Terminology and vocabulary building for the world of work manage their personalaffairsinthe world of work. The problem here con- History of industries cerns school dropouts, which may equal Communications--how to get along 50.000 yearly, of which perhaps 20,000 with fellow workers and with super- are dropouts from high school. There visors should he a type of schooling which fits Profits and the free enterprise system large numbers of pupils for direct entry Office machines. including calculators into the world of work through a more and adding machines generalized approach to education, re- Elements of bookkeeping inforced by methods which develop en- How to live in a complex world thusiasm for the world of work. Standards of personal conduct What is needed is a concept of educa- Responsibilities of citizenship tion along with an academic education Home and family which is oriented to the world of work. Personal finance and its management Upon completion coreof beginningperhapsinlategrammar ofthis school. The main objective would be to courses, the pupil could select one of provide by age 18 general job skills for two alternatives. He could accept a entry into basic entry jobs. The purpose basic entry job in industry, take on-the- would be to open the door to employ- job training for specific job skills, and ment in these jobs without discrimina- gain potentials for advancement from tion and at the same time provide poten- company training programs; or he could tials for development of skills on the select a second alternative: he could en- job and for personal advancement up ter a vocational school to pyramid onto the job ladder during the working life of the general job skills specific job skills for entry directly into companies in jobs each individual. This concept will require formulation, at a higher level of skill and pay. Later, independently for academic education. he could return to the vocational school for programs either to update a skill or of a basic vocational core of courses for development of general, not specific, to broaden his skills. basic entry job skills. The program of Special Training Needs training envisaged would be for all pu- The program just outlined could remedy pils not specifically fitted for or assigned many of the problems associated with

176 school dropouts. But there are special degree of success. The major thrust of problem areas in gaining better utiliza- this program is to hire the hard-core un- tionof theState's human resources employed for a basic entry job. suspend- which require specially designed curing usual employment criteria. After ricula and training programs to meet the placement in a basic entry joh, the hard- peculiar needsofeach group. Some of core employee is assigned to a"Buddy," the groups needing special help in pre- another worker who has succeeded in paring for a job are 100.000 handi- holding the joh successfully' and who is capped persons in the economy, 100,000 further qualified in having compassion. unidentified unemployed or the hard- The "Buddy" not only teaches neces- core unemployed, and 380,000 workers sary job skills in a sort of internship ar- classified as partially employed. rangement, but he also helps the worker The basic difficulty with all of these to acquire social and communication special problem groups is that basic edu- skills with other workers. He counsels cation did not "take," and a significant the worker relative to any of his per- percentage cannot write their names. sonal problems, such as handling Often there are psychological needs, and money.credit,andotherproblems there are complex problems of adjust- which develop in a complex society. In ment to humans and to society in gen- order to succeed, a requirement is that eral. The job attitudes which are so im- top officers make a firm commitment to portant to holding a job over a period of full support of the program; that the time are practically non-existent. Except top officer or president order that the hard-core he employed and all red tape forthehandicapped and employed adults who areilliteratesallother cut to permit it; and that they be trainW classes fall in the category of the'"hard- to make effective and efficient workers. core unemployed." The National Alli- Another requirement is that supervisors, ance of Businessmen's developed a plan unions, and other top workers be given under the 1968 program for direct em- sensitivity training for acceptance of the ployment of the hard-core unemployed hard-core employee with goodwill, un- which is succeeding with a surprising derstanding, and sympathy.

TABLEA TRENDS IN OCCUPATIONAL STRUCTURE IN GEORGIA Percentage of Total Occupational Class 1960 1970 1975 1985 White Collar 0.-, 1. Professional and technical 8 8 10.3 11.0 2.Proprietors and managers. etc 8 6 9.1 9.2 9.3 3.Clerical and kindred 12.1 13.3 13.8 14.7 4.Sales 6 9 7.3 7.5 7.8 SUBTOTAL 36 4 40.0 41.5 44.0 Blue Collar 1.Craftsmen, foremen, etc 12 1 12.5 12.2 11.6 2.Operatives 11.1 212 20.6 19.4 3.Service workers, including private household14.6 15.2 16.5 18.0 4.Laborers, except farm 64 5.5 5.0 4.0 5. Agricultural workers 8 4 5.6 4.2 3.0 SUBTOTAL 63 6 60.0 58.5 56.0 TOTALS 100 0 100.0 100.0 100.0

177 TABLE B ESTIMATED NET GROWTH IN THE GEORGIA ECONOMY BY OCCUPATIONS FOR SELECTED PERIODS Number of Job Openings Yearly Occupational Class 1970.75 1975-85 White Collar 1.Professional and technical 6 200 6,900 2.Proprietors and managers 3 400 3,800 3.Clerical and kindred 6,400 7.400 4.Sales 3 200 3,600 SUBTOTAL 19,200 21.700 Blue Collar 1.Craftsmen, foremen, etc. 3 200 3,400 2.Operatives 5 000 5,400 3.Service workers, including private household 10 000 9,800 4.Laborers, except farm 000 - 200 5.Agricultural labor -3 200 -1,100 SUBTOTAL 15 000 17300 TOTALS 34 200 39.000

TABLE C ESTIMATED JOB OPENINGS YEARLY FOR PERIOD 1975-85 Yearly Job Openings From Occupational Class Economic Replacement Total Growth of Workers From Death and Retirement White Collar 1.Professional and technical 6 900 11,300 18,200 2.Proprietors, managers, etc. 3,800 4,200 8,000 3.Clerical and kindred 7,400 9,600 17,000 4.Sales 3,600 4,600 8,200 SUBTOTAL 21,700 29,700 51,400 Blue Collar 1.Craftsmen and foremen, etc. 3,400 2,800 6,200 7.Operatives 5 400 9,900 15.300 3.Service workers, including private household 9,800 13,900 23,700 4.Laborers, except farm - 200 2,200 2,000 5.Agricultural labor -1,100 1,900 800 SUBTOTAL 17300 30,700 48,000 TOTALS 39 000 60.400 99,400

178 CHARTI PROJECTED INDUSTRY GROWTH RATES TO 1975 Projected Employment Growth Less More No Than Than Decline Industry Change Average Average Average Government

Services

Contract Construction

Wholesale and Retail Trade

Finance, Insurance and Real Estate

Manufacturing

Transportation and Public Utilities

Mining

4.--Agriculture

Source: U. S. Department of Labor, BLS, "A Look at Tomorrow's Jobs," Repr nt from Occupational Outlook Handbook, 1966-67.

179 CHARTII RATE OF CHANGE FOR MAJOROCCUPATIONAL GROUPINGS TO 1975 ProjectedEmploymentGrowth Less More No. Than Than Decline Major Occupational Group Change Average Average Average Professional, Technical and Kindred Workers

Service Workers

Clerical Workers

Skilled Workers

Managers, Officials and Proprietors

Sales Workers

Semiskilled Workers

Laborers (Nonfarm) ---o

Farm Workers

Source: U. S. Department of Labor. BLS, "A Lookat Tomorrow's Jobs,- Reprint from Occupationa! Outlook Handbook, 1966.67.

180 Dr. Arlin L. Fulmer. a faculty member and was .city commissioner of Decatur in of Georgia Institute of Technology, re- 1963-64. Dr. Fulmer has served as conceived his Ph.D. from the University of sultant for many state and national com- Virginia. Dr. Fulmer is a consultant expert missions and companies including the U.S. on economicproieetions and economic Study Commission. SouthernBell Tele- forecasting. marketing research and market phone and Telegraph Co.. the U.S. Depart- forecasts. manpower planning and train- ment of Labor. Board of Regents of the ingprograni inindustry,hiringand University System of Georgia. and is cur- training the hardcore unemployed. He is a rently consultant for Office of Appalachian member of the American Economic Asso- Studies, U.S. Corps of Engineers. He has ciat'on. American Statistical Association. served on the faculties of four other institu- and the Southern Economic Association. tions including Clemson University, Uni- He served as president of the Atlanta Chap- versity of Virginia. Emory University. Uni- ter of the American Statistical Association versity of Kentucky.

Footnotes

1. Lyle, V_ C.. Georgia County ,Population Projections. as Developed by thr Georgia Social Sciences Advisory Committee. (Industrial Development Division. Engineering Esperiment Station. Georgia Institute of Technology. Feb. 1968), p. 16. 2.Includes also 65.900 in the armed forces. 3.U. S. Department of Labor, Statistics on Manpower, (A Supplement to the Manpower Report of the President. March 1969), p. 80. 4.Ibid., p. I33. 5,Fulmer, John L.. "Neglected Factors in the Educational and Economic Progress of the South." (Jour- nal of Public Law. Vol. 5, Number 2. Emory University. 19561, p. 376. 6.Georgia Department of Labor. Georgia Civilian Labor Force Estimates by Area. April 19(4) and April 1967. (Employment Security Agency'. Sept. 1968). pp. 2-3. 7,Henneman. H. G.. Jr.. and Yoder. Dale. Labor Economics. Second Edition. (Cincinnati: South-Western Publishing Company, 1965). p. 37. 8.U. S. Department of Labor. Credentials and Common Sense: Jobs for People Without Diplomas. (Man- power Report Number 13. Manpower Administration. Dec. 19681. p. 3. 9.Fulmer. John L. and Ellis, Herman E._ Manpower Survey: Louisville Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area. Summer 1967, (Bureau of Employment Secutity, Kentucky Department of Economic Security. Frankfort, Kentucky, Aug. 1968), p. 97. 10,U. S. Department of Labor. Tomorrow's Manpower Nerds. Volume II. National Trends an.. Outlook: Industry Employment and Occupational Structure. (Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bulletin No. 1606. Feb. 1969) . pp. 3-121. 11.Based on Civilian labor Force and Civilian Employment. 12.Cieorgia Department of Education, Folloicotp o! 1966-67 Vocational High School and Area Vocational- Technical School Gradnatec, (May 1968). pp. 2 and 58. 13. Simon. Kenneth A. and Grant. W. Vance. Digeo of Educational Statisiins. (1968 Edition, Office of Education. U.S. 11;sartment of Health. Education and Welfare, Nov. 1968). pp. 51. 86. and 116. 14.Georgia Department of Labor. Atlanta liftman Resources Survey: All Areas. (Prepared by Research and Analysis Section,-7mplovment Security Agency, June 19661, pp. 1-A to 6-A. 15, U. S. Department ofI Manpower Report to the President, Including a Report on Manpower Requirements. Resources. Lltilization. and Training. (Transmitted to Congress March 1968), P. 23. 16.Fulmer. John 1... The ChaRrenge: Training !or Jobs. Meeting Technological Change, Increasing the Rate of Economic Growth, (Employment Security Agency, Georgia Department of Labor. 1963). pp. 16-17. 17. Henneman and Yoder. /or. cit.. p. 37. Data are for 1965 which must he related to total outlays on education in U.S.. as reported by U. S. Office of Education for 1965, 18. Fulmer. John L. (Editor), Proceedings of 1:rinference: Metlmds of Job Development for the Bard-Core Unemployed. Oct. 1-2. 1968, (Industrial Management Venter, Georgia Institute of Technology. Jan. 1969), pp. 1-15.

181 THEPOSITION paper on "Man- power and Employment inGeorgia'. prepared by the distinguished Professor of Economics, Dr. John L. Fulmer of the College of Industrial Management at the Georgia Institute of Technology, is well prepared. objective, and comprehensive. It is, however, difficult at best to forecast what the manpower situation in Georgia will be in 1985. Dr. Fulmer has done a professional job using the bestinformationavailable;butthe accuracy of his projections will depend in large measure on factors beyond the control of those within this state and even this country. Economic growth, both in type and scope, willreflect decisions made in Washington and other capitals throughout the world. Defense industries which provide employment to Georgia's work force, either directly or indirectly, could. with the easing of world tensions. cause large numbers of skilled workers either to be released for other type jobs or to become ,'''employed. The program for the exploration of space provides oppor- critique: tunities for Georgia workcrs both within the state and at installations and in- Manpower dustrial plants throughout the country. Employment in this area will be directly and Employ- related to the national administration's ment in decision either to continue the space program on a semi-crash bask or to Georgia stretch out the goals for thc future. This state was relatively late in beginning the move from an agricultural to an industrial economy. It is still in transition and the eictent to whichit will move isnotreadilypredictable. There aresonicindications thatthc rush from the farm is slowing and that - agriculture,withfarm surplusesdis- appearing and agriculture diversifying. has declined about as much as it will. -s Currently, moves to locate more so- 11-. phisticatedmanufacturingplantsin rural areas and to think in terms of agri-business are gaining momentum. In addition.ithas been difficult to distinguish between cause and effect in the population shift from the farms to

182 the cities. Farms have been planted in The availability of workers for serv- trees or converted to pasture land be- ice-type jobs,particularly those con- cause workers were not available. At tributing to the comfort and happiness the same time, farm families were mov- of others,is suffering largely because ing to already depressed areas of the of unfortunate attitudes. There is wide- cities because of a lack of work on the spread feeling that working on a job farm. If this movement can be stabil- which contributes to the creature-com- ized. it will have considerable bearing fort of the u,rs of a service is degrad- on the future population mix. employing and should be avoided. These atti- mentpattern,and typeoftraining tudes not only are often held by workers needed. An indication that this situation and prospective workers intit'sjob is being recognized is the fact that. at category but are reflected too frequently both the federal and state levels, the in the actions of service consumers and Farm Manpower Program is being con- inthepayscaleforservice-type verted to what is kno,as a "Rural i;:orkers. Manpower Program." As we move to a shorter work week, more leisure time, more money to spend, It should be noted here that urban and more people on the move taking centers are not the only generators of mini-vacationsthroughouttheyear, economic growth. Any area, regardless there will be a challenge to education of size,that will provide educational as well as industry itself to make work- facilities, water, sanitation, health serving in the services more attractive and ices, fire and police protection can gen- more salsfying. Conventional education erate growth if the local citizens want programs and institutions are not reach- secondary it. Qualityprimaryand ing, in a relevant way, certain important schools throughout the stale, both in segments of the population of the state. urban and rural areas, are essential to The three-pronged paradox of our ap- attract industry to available manpower. pallingly high dropout rate, of our need Manpower and employment in Georgia for skilled and willing workers. and of now are reflecting external conditions our unacceptably hiei unemployment more than at dny time in the past. This rate among those who did not finish condition will increase as we enter the period 1970-1985. school attests to this. The unemployment rate of the future We are rapidly moving toward a na- can be positively influenced by making tional job market. Long before 1985 meaningful adult education available to we will he thinking in terms of an inter- unemployed and underemployed lathers national job market. The highly publi- and mothers and prison inmates as well cized brain drain refers to the flow of astoothers who areinadequately immigrants to the United States from equipped to compete in a complex job Europe and from the less developed market. We have made tentative starts countries.Ofthemorethanthree in this direction, but bold action is re- millionaliensadmii',zdfrom1956 quired in the 1970s and beyond if this through 1966, 8.5 percent were in the problem is to he solved. professional, technical, and managerial Dr. Fulmer correctly identified the categories. inability of transpotation systems to get Dr. Fulmer notes the importance of workers to distant points in order for education fortified by vocational train- them to find and effectively hold jobs in ing.not onlyto job placement urban areas. Through job development, process but also in terms of demands in the employment service can find em- the economy for an increasing number ployers willing to hire the inexre'nced of trained workers with proper attitudes. and the inadequately trained,at fre- This cannot be overemphasized. quently the potential employer :s 10 to 0

20 miles from where the unemployed both sexes. The labor supply and train- person lives. This leaves the problem as ing needs of the future will he directly far from a solution as ever. If our cities influenced by the extent to which em- continue to sprawl. if employers con- ployers hire qualified or trainable work- tinue to locate as far from the work ers irrespective of whether they are male force as possible, and if our transporta- or female. tion facilities remain inadequate, we will In conclusion, thereareforcesat continue to experience unemployment work which make it highly difficult to in the midst of a labor shortage. With forecast manpower developments for respect to the hard-core, the ultimate the next 15 years with any great degree answer isprevention. Education will of accuracy. These factors make it es- play the prime role in this. sentialthat education be flexiblean:-' Future development in the area of thatfuture plans provideforquic race relations will play an important shifts in emphasis. We must avoid the role in the development of our human natural tendency to continue to maintain resources.The degreeto which em- programs or systems which become out- ployers open their plants to all qualified moded or which turn out adults with ortrainableworkers,irrespectiveof skills no longer in demand. Constant race, will influence the labor supply and vigilance and reception to new ideas. the nature of the training required. This methods. and techniques will be needed factis true regarding employment of ifa competitive work forceisto be developed.

184 GENERALLY thestatisticsrefer- enced and used inth,: position paper on manpower are the best available and represent a broad spectrum of sow .:es and disciplines. A word of caution. however. must be inserted in that practitioners and administrators in the manpower field consistently descry the lack of adequate data On whichto base decisions.Furthermore. we must constantly remain aware that such data and statistics. aside from their incomplete- ness. represent historical situations and their use for making predictions isin- creasingly endangered by a multitude of social and cultural forccs exerting ever accelerating change on the economics of the nation as well as the state. The paper recognizes the existence and magnitude of what the author calls the"unidentifiedunemployed." This phenomenon has important implications for manpower yid education. It probably represents the single most urgent symptom of the deeper problems in the critique: educationalandmanpowersystems. This will be discusscd further inthe Manpower later parts of this critique. and Employ- Another important symptom men- rnen in tioned in Dr. Fulmer's paper is underemployment. Significantly, no complete Georgia statistics were given. Two major problems relative to underemployment prevent an adequate assessment. First, there is no consensus on what constitutes underemployment. The U. S. Depart- ment of Labor roughly defines underemployment as placement of a person in a job which requires less skill than the person possesses. However, most poor people and civilrights groups usually speak of underemployment as working in a job which pays less than is required to maintain a minimal standard of living. Lack of understanding and/oracceptanceofadefinition makesdatacollectionvirtuallyim- possible. This accounts for Dr. Fulmer's statement that "Obviously many workers, especially. . .females, failed to work full-time through choice...."

185 Among poor women. what may appear to asume that a public school system to be a failure to work by choice often which has beenfairlysuccessfulin represents overwhelming obstacles to educating the majority of the dominant employment created by less than sub- white middle class should succeed with sisienr,clevel wages coupled with a other groups as well. Thus itfollows multitude of social and personal prob- that anyone who fails in the system does lems. so because he is incapable or unwilling Second, no technique of data collec- to learn. The paper continues to the tion on underemployment has been next logical step of proposing additional proven adequate. The degree of con- education, training, and counseling for fusion on thisisdemonstrated by a the dropouts and failures. This is treat- question which a businessman asked ment for the symptom when the cause me: "How many able bodied black men is perhaps more related to lack of be- arc there in the ghetto that have not lievable opportunities even with educa- been counted?" Although much speculation. tion has been done, the only absolute The paper also cites transportation as response is that as soon as they are a job barrier. In reality this is often a counted, there will not be any. symptom of the real problem, which is the economic and social restrictions on Interpretation of Data housing patterns for the poor and the black which separate them from job You may have noted that several times opportunities. the word "symptom" has been used in Other examples could be cited, but this critique, whereas the same pheno- the point is that the explicit and im- menon in the position paper was usually stated in the implied context of a "prob- plicit interpretations in the paper must lem." Herein lies my criticism of the he questioned since they reflect the edu- paper. Much of the paper's interpreta- cational and economic value systems on which program goals and directions will tionof the data becomesthebest exaniple of its own lack of validity. be basedand which are. to various Before proceeding with examples which degrees. rejected by those to be benefitted. The purpose of this approach is demonstrate the above point,please note that there is absolutely no intent to suggest that writing educational pre- to question or impugn the integrity or seriptions for symptom.; will not likely character of the author of the paper. cure the causes of economic illness. A Rather, ease can be made for treating symptoms thereinliesthemaddening for short range relief, but the major frustration of our times. The interpre- danger comes only if we believe that tationsarequitevalidfora white, middle class oriented society, but we we arc treating the causes. are faced with the growing self aware- Conclusions and Implications ness of subculture groups comprised of If the approaches to the interpretation both black and poor white citizens. of data :;uggested in this critique are Without arguing the relative merits of valid. the conclusions and implications thevaluesystemsofthesevarious foreducationareratherextensive. groups.thefactremainsthatcon- Although any of the following paints clusions and interpretations based on deserve more space and attention than majorityculturaloutlookarenot is available here, the purpose of this necssarily valid for the subgroups, and critiqueisto suggest some new ap- plans and programs based on such cri- proaches to viewing the problem based teria are in large measure failing and on experiences of one involved in ad- will-likely continue to fail. ministering programs designed to edu- It is quite natural for anyone imbued cate and train the hard core unemployed with the dominant cultural viewpoint and underemployed. Also, since this dis-

186 cussion ce7iters around the educational recently made hv an Atlanta educator. system. we must recognize that educa- If this happens. it will again reinforce tion does not exist Lin a vacuum. but is the attitude that these students are in- a part of the total social and economic capable of academic work. This 'ap- valuesystems.Therefore,education proach would insure failure and an alone cannot solve all the problems or eventualconfrontationalongracial symptoms visible in its structure. but lines. A quality academic program as must, ifitis to ,urvive, assume more well as vocational education is needed positive leadership hoth inside its struc- in all public schools. ture as well as in the total community. As Dr. Fulmer points out. the area The education establishment must re- vocational-technical schools have done examine itsattitudes. both conscious an excellent job in training people for and unconscious. toward the dropout. It successfuljob placementfor those is easy and calming to one's ego to who can and will attend. Last year one assume that a student who fails or drops suchvocationalschoolinthestate out is incapable or unwilling to learn. published statistics which revealed that Itis somewhat disquieting to say that over 95 percent of its enrollees were the school system does not know how to high school graduates. Obviously this teach the student.Itis easy to offer school was not serving the hard core un- i.if,mpensatory education becausethat employed. This fact can probably be implies that the system is valid and the attributed to at least two major fac- studentis just slow. To suggest that tors-----thehigh entrance requirements the system may not be relevant to the for many of the courses and hostility student is often vi wed as un-American. toward the educational establishment on To expel a poor p rformer and trouble- the part of the dropout. Skills centers maker is to reinforce and maintain the are being proposed to meet the needs system's selfimage. To explore the of the hard core unemployed. Such possibility that the student fails to per- centers have had some success else- form and misbehaves because he be- where, but only where there has been lieves the school is hostile toward him a considerable departure from tradi- is painful. Although the student from tional vocational education. a disadvantaged background admittedly In summary. Dr. Fulmer did an brings many problems, the challenge to excellent job of revealing many per- educationis to learn how to succeed tinent factors relative to the future of with him. manpower in Georgia. -The main thrust Dr. Fulmer suggests that more em- of this critique is to provide the reader phasis he pla ,;(1 on vocational educa- with another interpretation of the data tion both in the existing public schools based on experience with those whom as well as through the area vocational the educational system failed. The time technical schools. In the public schr-,lc and space restrictions in this critique such a program is needed; however, a make impossible the full development real danger exists that this will be insti- of the ideas and concepts outlined, but tuted primarily in schools with high my hope is that stimulation for further dropout rates. This very suggestion was thought has been given.

187 O(iIITTHORIT and eoloni,ts settled in the Georgia colony in 1733. Between that date and 1746. the trustees of the color paid the transportation expenses of ,,675 people to the colony. In addition. 1.304 settlers had come attheir own expense prior to 1742. The Georgia colony grew rapidly between 1752 and 179C. going from an estimated 5.000 population in 1752 Iv 342.548personsin1790(TableI). he 1790 censt.s shows that 83.1per- cent ofhe foreign -hornwhite were English. 11.2 percent were Scotch and 2.3 percent were Irish. The growth of thepopulation of Georgiauntil1790 was causedpri- marily by immigration from the British By James D. Tarver, Ph.D. Isles. After this date, the major pop- ulationgrowth of the itateineaiiy statehoodwas causedbymigration Demography of Georgia from other colonies as frontier settle- ments moved westward. Thepopulationof Georgia has grown from 82,548 at the date of the first decennial census to over 4,600.000 inhabitantsin1969 (Table 2). The population increases have been rather substantial each decade, withthe- ex- ception of the 1920-30 period. By 1850 Georgia's population had risento more than 906,000 people. Large numbers of nativeborn persons Director, had moved south and southwest into Derriogr phjc Georgia. In 1850 over 52,000 of Geor- Research 'cod gia's white residents had been born in South Carolina, 37,522 in North Caro- Training Center, lina, 8,211 in Tennessee and 7331 it Universi'ty of Virginia. In addition there were over Georgia 5,900 foreign-born whites residing in Georgiain1850.Approximately 72 percent of the foreign-born whites were from the British Isles (3,302 from Ire- land. 679 from England, 367 from

189 Scotland, 13 from Wales). and 16 per- ceeded thatfor nonwhites. However. cent from Germany (a total of beginning with the 1910-1920 decade 972 persons).No authentic records, and continuing through the 1950-60 exist on the origins of the Negro pop- decade. the net number of nonwhite ulation of kieorgia. migrants from the state surpassed the ThepopulationofGeorgiain- net number of white migrants (Table creased steadily after 1850, except for -41. For example. nonwhites comprised the 1920-30 decade (Tables 2 and 3). riore than 95 percent of the net rniera- The very, small population growth in tion loss from Geo.--gia during 1950 to the twenties islargely attributable to 1960. the great reduction in cotton produc- The 1985 population projections for tion caused by the boll weevil. This Georgia resulted in the net migration loss of indicatethattherewillhe nearly half a mullion people who had between 5.400.000 and 6,202.000 in- depended on cotton for a living. habitants. This will mean a population increase of 1,457,000 to 2.259.000.or The severity of the boll weevil al. 37.0 to X7.3 percent, between 1960 and tack came in1921-23, when cotton 1985..1 he number ofresidents65 productiondropped from 2.122.000 years of age and over will increase pro- hales in 1918 to 588,000 bales in 1923. portionately more rapidlythanwill Cotton yields, which had been stead- any of the younger age groups. The ily increasing. dropped to all-time lows, projected relative increase in the col- debts mounted. farms became heavily lege-agepopulationto1985isthe mortgaged and farmers found them- highest of all three school-age popula- selves in a depression. A mass exodus tions. The projected increase for the to cities and to other sections of the high-school-age groupissecond and country followed. the elementay- school -age group isthe Between 1870 and 1960 the growth lowest. of the population of Georgia cannot The projectedsex compositionin be attributed to migration into the state, 1985issomewhat problematical for but rather to the natural increase (ex- thetotalpopulation. The most sig- cess of births over deaths) in the popu nificant change in the sex ratiowill lation. During this 90-year period, the occur inthe older population, since state suffered a net migration loss of females will increase much more rap- nearly one and a half million persons. idly than mates in the middle and ad- Had no migration taken place, Geor- vanced ages. gia's population would have increased from1,184,109in1873tonearly The proportionate number of non- 5,410,000 in 1960 (Table 2). whites islikely to change very little between 1960 and 1985, with the 1985 Since April1, 1960, the net migra- projectedpercentagesrangingfrom tion losses have been reversed, and for 27.3 to 29.0 as compared to 28.6 per. the first time since 1870, Georgia ex- cent in 1960. periencedanetrntgrationincrease (Table2).Moreover,since1960, The 1975 projectionsindicate that the population of Georgia has been in- 89 counties will probably experience creasing more rapidly than the nation population gains and 70 will experience as a whole. The rates are 17.7 percent losses between 1960 and 1975. Four for Georgia and 12.6 percent for the counties (DeKalb, Rockdale, Douglas United States between April1,1960, and Dougherty) are likely to gain over and July 1, 1969. 100percent.Fivecounties(Baker, Taliaferro, Wilcox, Randolph and Ber- Prior to1910, the volume of net rien) are likely to decline by as much migration of whiles from Georgia ex- as 30 percent.

190 Historical Trends Georgia's population has been the rising average age ofitsresidents. The Trends in Racial Composition median age of Georgia's inhabitants rose from 17.7 years in 1880 to 26.2 When thefirstcensus was takenin years in 1950 and dropped slightly to 1790.fewerthan30.000 nonwhites were enumerated in the State of Geor- 25.9in 1960 due to the large baby gia (Table 5). The number of non- boom in the 1950's (Table 8), None- whites grew steadily until 1920. when theless. the median age of the white oser1.200.000 were' enumerated or females continued to increase between 1950 and 1960. that date (Tables 5 and 6). For the The rapidly aging population is due next three decades, the nonwhite pop- mainly to declining death rates. espe- ulationactually declined due tothe heavy movement out of the state. For cially among females. The continued example. had there been no net migra- increase in average life expectancy mill tion between 1940 and 1960, the num- further rake the median age of the ber of nonwhites inGeorgia would state's population if the drastic drop in haveincreasedby 262.297persons the birth rate is not reversed. The majorreasonthatnonwhites rather than the enumerated growth of have lower average ages than whites only 40.448. is that Negroes have higher death rates. One oftheimportanttrendsin Georgia's population has been the de- Moreover. females have lower death clining relative numbers of nonwhite rates than males. which accounts for inhabitants in the state. In 1790, non- the higher median ages of females. whites comprised less than 36 percent One of the most significant trends in Georgia'spopulationhasbeenthe of the total Georgia population. The growing proportionate numbers in the proportionatenumber--;increasedir- 1880 when the per- productive ages, with the relative num- regularlyuntil ber of persons 20-64 years of age in- centage reached its peak at 47 percent. creasing from 42.7 percent in 1880 to Since that time the percentage has been 50.1percent 19641 The relative decliningrapidly.In1965theesti- mated percentage of nonwhites had number of persons in the older work- dropped to slightly over 27. ing ages of 45 to 64 years of age has The number of inhabitants classified increased from 9.7 percent in 1880 to constituteda 17.6 percent in1960. However, the as "otherraces"has proportionate number of young work- very small segment of the total non- ers 20 to 44 years of age has de- white populationin Georgia(Tables slightly from 33.0 percentin 5 and 6). Even in 1960 they numbered clined 1880 to 32.5 percent in 1960. less than 3.300. of Georgia Between 1880 and 1960. the propor- The white population tionate number of persors in the state has been increasing rapidly, both nu- 65 years of age and over increased mericallyandproportionally, since from 2.9 percent to 6.3 percent 1880. Practically afi of the whites are (Table 9). Nevertheless, Georgia had native horn. Although the foreign-born white population more than doubled asmaller proportionate number of thanthenationasa itstill com- aged persons between 1940 and 1960, whole, which had 9.2 percent 65 years priseslessthan one percentof the total population of Georgia each cen- of age and older. Iowa, with 11.9 per- sus year since 1880 (Table 7). cent of its population in this age category, was highest of all states in 1960. There are two basic explanations for Trends in Age Composition the rapid increase inthe number of One of the most notable changes that elderly persons in Georgia. First, de- has occurredinthecompositionof clining death rates and an extension of

l91 life expectancy hate contributed to the drier m greater proportioaate numbers rising numbers lis ine beyond the age than do males. of(O.. Second, the great exodus of The decline in the sex ratios for all soune persons fromthestate,par- color groups may persist in the Ni.ible ticularly- Negroes. has resulted in a pro- future. for the decreases in death rates portionate increase of old people lining amonfi women. particularly at the ad- in Georgia. vanced aces.willsurpass thosefor Trends in Sex Composition males. These probable sex differentials inlife expectancy will not only aug- Durine the time 18g0 to 1960. only nvent the disproportionate number of in the years 1890 and 1910 did the females at older ages and further de- miiinher of Georgia males outnumber press the sex ratios in these age groups. the females (Table 10). Since 1910. the butwillalso increase the probability sex ratio (the number of males per 100 that wives will outline their husbands. ,ernales)has diminishedconsistently further enlarging the number of wid- as the excess of males over females owed females. The problems associated has disappeared. with widowhood will, therefore. mul- Even though there are approximately tiply. in the forthcoming years. 106 males horn for every 100 females. death rates are higher at all ages for The Dynamics of Population Change mates than females, and in the elderly The size of the population is determined ?ges there are substantially more wo- byfertility. mortality, and migration. men than men. For example. in 1960 In the following section. each of the thesexratioofthepopulation of three components of change will he Georgia under five years of age was treated separately. 102.8. but for those 75 years of age FERTILITY. Apparently the birth rate and over it was only 67.4. in Ceorgia started to decline sometime The sex ratio for Negroes is con- during the nineteenth century and consistently lower than for whites. Table tinued to decline slowly until the late 8 show; that only in 1880 and 1890 1920's and 1930's.In 1941 the crude did Negroes in Georgia have higher birth rate began a gradual increase un- sex ratios than whites. til1949. and thenit began to drop One of the most rapid changes in again:.. particularly. after 1954 (Table sex composition that has occurred in ). By 1967 it had fallen to its lowest the state has been the rapid decline in point since 1927, and the prospects are the excess of foreign -horn males. The that the rate will drop even further. early foreign-born settlers in Georgia Georgia was one of the last states to containedadisproportionatelylarge be included in the birth and death reg- umber' ofmales.Highermortality istration areas in 1928. It should be among males and the immigration of borneinmind thatthefiguresfor "war brides" account for the rapid de- deaths and births are low for the earl- crease in the sex ratio among the for- iest years shown in Table 11 becruse eign-born. of underregistration. There arc some rather marked dif- Nonwhites in Georgia have rather ferences in the sex ratios of the three consistentlyhadhigher crudebirth major residential groupsin Georgia. rates than whites, with exceptions in In 1960, the sex ratio of the ruralnon- only a relatively few years (Table 11). farm population was 102.3, but only Table 12, which shows the number of 90.4 for the urban areas. The rural children ever born per 1,000 women farm areas were intermediate with a ever married, indicates the white-non- sex ratio of 102,0. These differentials whitefertility differentials more pre- are largely attributable to the fact that cisely than do the crude birth rates. In females move from the rural areas to allthree residence groups, nonwhite

192 won-ien have had larger numbers of An examination of the data which children than have all mothers. How- shows state of origin reseals that the intr.in theirban areas. the ferzeity earls mosentent into Georgia was pri- of nonwhites more ceoseel eppneei manlsof oftistanct. insolsing mates that of whites than in either the movementpredominantlysouthw est- rural nonfarm or rural farm areas of wardly from contiguous slates. At pres- Georgia_ ent. the largest number of native-born Althoughthemarriageratehas whites and nonwhites living in Georgia dropped somewhat since 1954 and the was born in one of the five contigu- divorce rate has risen. these two trends ous states. do not completely account for the fall- In addition to the observation that ing number of births and the declin- people move short distances. a second ing birth rate in Georgia (Table 13). migrationeatternisthat each main Family planning and the changing at- stream of migration is accompanied by titudestowardsmallfamilieshave a significant counter-movement in the largely beenresponsible forthere- opposite direction. duced birth rates. A century ago residents of Georgia MORTALITY. Although the number moved westwardtothefrontierof of deaths inGeorgiahasincreased Alabama. Mississippi.Louisiana, Ar- somewhat since 1927. the crude death kansas andTexas.This movement ratehas declined,especially among continuedthrough1930 withmost nonwhites(Table11).Nonwhites, Georgians moving to eon iguous states. however, continue have substantially Although the 1930 census data show higher mortality rates than whites. thatmigrants move shortdistances, As Table 3 shows, the population they also show thatthe native-horn growth of Georgia between 1870 and Negroes moved farther than did the 1960 was due entirely to natural in- whites And they moved in a different crease(theexcessofbirthsover direction. deaths). During the 1954-1957 period, Beginningaround1920,Negroes the state's population increased almost from Georgia began movingnorth- 70.000 per year as a result of natural ward in much larger numbers than did increase. However. in1967 the nat- thewhites.Forinstance. the1930 ural increase in the state's population censusindicatesthatlargenumbers fell to less than 50.000 (Table 1 I ). of GeorgianativeNegroes livedin MIGRATION. Utt01statehood,the Ohio. Pennsylvania. Michigan. Illinois. increase in the population of Georgia New York and New Jersey. The ex- was due principally from the settlement odus and long-distance movement of of immigrants. Later, native born mi- Negroes from the South to the northern grantsfromSouthCarolina, North industrialstateshas continued.Ap- Caro/ina,Tennessee and Virginia parently.the long-distancemigration moved into the state in relatively large reflects limiied opportunities for Ne- numbers. However, between 1870 and groes in the South. 1960, there was a net migration loss Interstate migration data for 1935- of approximately one and a half mil- 40. 1949-50 and 1955-60 reveal sim- lion persons from Georgia (Table 3). ilar pasterns of movements for whites The net migration losses have been re- and nonwhites into and out of Geor- versed during the present decade. with gia. However, some leapfroging from Georgia experiencing a nct migration one area to another has occurred which gain of 141.000 persons between April involves ieng-distance movement. This 1.1960. and July 1, 1969. Thus, 20 isespecially the case for servicemen percentof thestate'spopulation who ere traesferred long distances. growth during 1960 to 1969 was due Cele ma or economic concern to the to migration and 80 percent to natural stale is the relatively heavy out-migra- increase. tion al: the productive workers under

193 30 years of age.Table 14 shows that Itis impossible to examine the pop- there was a net out-migration of be- ulation trends of Georgia counties over tween 25 and 35 percent of the non- long periods due to the changing num- whites from Georgia between 1950 and ber and geographic boundaries of coun- 1960.Practicallyallofthenearly ties. Table17 shows the population 214,000 net migration loss from the changes of counties with comparable statebetween1950 and1960 was boundaries between 1930 and 1960.1 among the nonwhite population. Three of the five counties in the At- lantaStandardMetropolitanArea Trends in the Geographic (Clayton, De Kalb and Cobb)expe- Distribution of the Population riencedpopulation increasesof220 The population of Georgia was con- to352percent(Table Also, centrated along the Atlantic Seaboard DoughertyCounty in southwestern and the Savannah River when the first Georgia increased nearly 240 percent, census was taken in 1790. At that time and Houston County in central Geor- there were nocitiesenumerated in giaincreased newly 250 percentin Georgia, and the sites of the present population during that time. Five other cities of Atlanta, Columbus and Macon counties (Muscogee, Catoosa, Glynn, were inrelatively uninhabited Indian Dade and Whitfield)had population country. By 1800 there was only one increases of 100 to 199 percent. urban center, Savannah,inGeorgia. In contrast, fifteen counties in cen- It had a population of 5,146. tral and southwestern Georgia suffered After 1790 the population of Geor- populationlossesof 35percentor gia grew rapidly with settlement mov- more between 1930 and 1960. Of these' ing westward. The Negro population Taliaferro, Baker, Wheeler, Heard and settledmostlyinthe plantationsec- Wilcox registered population losses of tions of the Piedmont. In some coun- . 40 to 45 percent. ties as much as 75 percent of the population was Negro. The Future Population of Georgia Population centers such as Colum- Georgia'sprospectsforpopulation bus and Macon began to develop along growth to 1985 are portrayed in Table the fresh water streams that could be 18. The1970projectionsindicate navigated. Later in the nineteenth cen- that there will between 4,678,000 and tury, transportation spurred the growth 4,741,000 inhabitants, reflecting a gain of such cities as Atlanta, Athens and of 724,000 to 798,000 people between Waycross.Commerceandindustry April1, 1960, and April1, 1970. brought larger and larger numbers of By 1975 Georgia's prospective pop- people to the urban areas of the state. ulation should range from 4,928,000 Concomitantly, there was a substantial to 5,158,000 persons, and by 1980 the movement from the farm and small projected population is between 5,172,- agricultural towns to the cities in the 000 and 5,659,000. The 1985 projec- state. tions indicate that there will be between Table 15 shows that there has been 5,400,000and6,202,000residents, a rapid growth in the number of in- giving a projected population increase habitants residing inthe urban areas of1,457,000to2,259,000 between of Georgia since1790 and a small 1960 and 1985. The highest of the six decline in the rural areas since 1920. Since 1810, the population growth in 'In 1930 Campbell and Milton Counties urban areas each decade has exceeded were separately enumerated in the census. that for the rural areas. By 1960, a Between 1930 and 1940 they were annexed larger proportionate number of non- to Fulton County. The 1930 population for Fulton County in Table 17 includes whites than of whites resided inthe the 1930 population of both Campbell and urban areas of Georgia. Milton Counties.

194 1985 projections (Series B fertility with 415,000. This signifies gains of 61,000 no net migration) provides a projected to 137,000 or from 22 to 49 percent populationincreaseof57.3 percent between 1960 and 1985 as the large since 1960, whereas the loWest projec- projected number of children reaches tion(Series ID) provides a projected high school age. population increase of 37.0 percent. POPULATION OF COLLEGE AGE. The number of Georgians of college Age Composition age (18-21) is likely to increase con- Some major changes will occur in the sistently from 233,000 in 1960 and an age distribution of Georgia's popula- estimated 316,000 in 1965, to 418,000 tion between 1960 and 1985 (Tables in1980 (Table20). However, the 19 and 20). While the total population projected number is likely to dwindle of Georgia will probably grow by 37 between 1980 and 1985 as a result of to 53 percent during this 25 year per- falling birth rates during the1960's. iod, the projected increases for the dif- However,bothprojections suggest ferent age groups are not uniform. marked gains in the prospective num- POPULATION OF PRESCHOOL ber of college age youth between 1960 AGE. There was an estimated 503,000 and 1985. By the latter date, the size children in the preschool ages (under ofthisgroup should stand between 5 years) in 1965, or about 31,000 more 382,000 and 391,000, evidencing gains than in 1960 (Table 20). The size of from 64 to 68 percent since 1960. this group until 1985 hinges, of course, The projectedrelativeincreasein upon the trend in the future birth rates. Georgia's college age population be- By1970,the projections show that tween 1960 and 1985 is the highest of Georgia can anticipate a half million allthree school age populations; the children of preschool age. By 1985 this projected relative increase for the high groupwillrangefromaprojected school age population is second high- 533,000 to 712,000, which implies in- est; the projected relative increase for creases of 13 to 51percent between the elementary school ages is the low- 1960 and 1985. est of the three. POPULATION OF ELEMENTARY POPULATION OF WORKING AGE. SCHOOL AGE. The number of chil- The number of persons in the young dren of elementary school age (5-13 productive ages (18-44)will' increase years) grew by 60,000 between 1960 substantially between 1960 and 1985 and 1965, gaining ,nearly eight percent (Table 19). In fact, the projected in- (Table 20). Between 1965 and 1970, creases amount to gains of 885,000 to Georgia can expect a further increase 934.000, or 63 to 66 percent. of 52,000 in the number of youngsters The number of Georgiansinthe of elementary school age, raising the older working ages of 45-65 years will totalto 895,000 in1970. The 1985 also increase consistently to 1985 but projections show between 840,000 and at a much lo'-,:rrate than that for 1.138,000 children in this age group, younger workers. By that date, there denoting probable increases of 57,000 will be between 911,000 and 919,000 to 355,000 or of 7 to 45 percent be- persons between 45 and 64 years of tween 1960 and 1985. age,indicating gains of198,000 to POPULATION OF HIGH SCHOOL 206,000 persons, or increases of 28 and AGE. The number of Georgia youths 29 percent. of high school age (14-17) increased THE AGED POPULATION. The from 278,000 in 1960 to an estimated most pronounced trend in the age struc- 346,000in1965.Thisgroupwill ture of Georgia's population has been steadilyincreaseinsizeuntil1975 the increaseinthe aged population. when the projected number is"o':o.1,000. In fact the relative number of Geor- By 1985itwill number 33,J00 to gians 65 years of age and over has

195 risen from 2.9 percent in 1880 to 6.3 erably. By 1985. there will be only 84 percent in 1960. By 1985, the propor- men per 100 women 45-64 years of tionate number of persons 65 years age and fewer than 67 men per 100 of age and overisprojectedto be women 65 years of age and over. from 8.1 to 9.0 percent (Table 19). The most noteworthy change in the All four projection series indicate a sex ratio will occur in the older pop- steadily mounting number of aged resi- ulation.sincefemaleswillincrease dents after 1960, with the proportion- much more rapidly than males of mid- atesize of this group increasing 67 dle and advanced ages. This projected percent between 1960 and 1985. Thus, trend is ascribable to the lower mor- the population 65 years of age and tality of females than of males. over will increase proportionately more RACIAL COMPOSITION.Between than will any of the three broad groups 1880 and 1960 the proportionate num- under 65 years of age. ber of nonwhites declined from 47 to The continued extensior of average 28.6 percent (Table 5). The projected life expectancy will not only bolster the percentages in 1985 range from 27.3 number of persons 65 years of age and to 29 (Table 27). over, but will also lengthen the period Nonwhites 18 years of age in 1985 of old-age dependency. The increased may be relatively more or less numer- chances of survival will prolong lives, ous than in1960. However, the pro- enablinglargernumbers toliveto portionate numbers of nonwhites 18-44 retirement. In addition, the pronounced years of age will increase between 1960 pattern of an exit of older male work- and 1985 whereas their proportionate ers from the labor force will also ex- number will decline among those 45-64 tend the average length of the period and 65 years of age and over. of old-age dependency, and thus will The four bureau of the census pop. greatly intensify work inthe field of ulation projections for Georgia in 1985 geriatrics. The perplexing problems as- show that both the white and nonwhite sociated with rising numbers of aged populationswill grow between 1960 persons. prolonged retirement on lim- and 1985. The 1985 white -population ited incomes, infirmity and illhealth, will range from 3.926,000 to 4,295,000, socialisolationand dependency will an increase of 39 to 52 percent. The become, therefore,increasingly oner- 1985 nonwhite population willrange ous between now and 1985. from1.474,000 to1,753,000, anin. SIX COMPOSITION. Although the crease of 31to 56 percent. Thus, the sex ratio(the number of males per relative population gains are approxi- 100 females) has declined since 1910, mately the same for whites and non- the future trends to 1985 are indefinite whites during the 25-year period. forthetotalpopulation of Georgia (Tables 10 and 21). In1960, there Probable Geographic Distribution of were only 95.5 males per 100 females. Georgia's Future Population The projected number in1985 may Although the foregoing projections in- range from 94.9 toas high as 96.1 dicateaconsistentenlargementin (Table 21). Georgia's total population from 1960 There willbe anincreasein the to1985,notall159countieswill masculinity of those under 18 years share equally in these gains. A wide- of age between 1960 and 1985. While spread population reshuffle within the women outnumbered men in the 18.44 state islikely, due to a marked dis- year-old age group in 1960, men will persion from certain areas and a pil- outnumber women in 1985. However, ing-up in others. Thus, the state's pop- among those 45-64 and 65 yearof ulationwillbe more unevenlydis- age and over the proportionate num- tributed in 1985 than in 1960. ber of women willincreaseconsid- Clayton, Columbia, Cobb, and Hous-

196 ton Counties will experience very rapid Table 1.Estimated Population population growth between 1960 and 1975 with the number of inhabitants of Georgia, 1752 to 1790 increasing by over 100 percent (Table Total 23).Four othercounties(De Kalb, Year Population Whites Nonwhites Rockdale,Douglas, and Dougherty) 1752 5,000 -- will have population increases of more 1760 9,000 6,000 3,000 than 75 percent. Moreover, nine coun- 1766 18,000 10.000 8,000 ties (Liberty, Henry, Glynn, Effingham, 1773 33,000 18,000 15,000 Catoosa, Clarke, Gwinnett, 1776 50,000 -- and Forsyth) are likely to have pop- 1790 82,548 52,886 29,662 ulation gains of 50 to 75 percent. Source: Bureau of the Census, A Century Seventy of the 159 Georgia coun- of. Population Growth,U. S. Govern- tieswill probably experience de-pop- mentPrintingOffice,Washington, ulation between 1960 and 1975 (Table D. C., 1909, p. 7. 23). Baker County's projected decline Table 2. Population of Georgia amounts to more than 40 percent. The population of Taliaferro, Wilcox, Ran- 1790 to 1969 dolph and Berrien Counties islikely Increase over to decline by more than 30 percent. Preceding Census Furthermore, Webster, Echols, Wheel- Census Date Population Number Percent Worth,Dooly, er,Miller. Stewart, 969 4,641,000 698,000 17.7 Early and Irwin Counties will probably 960 3,943,116 498,538 14.5 have population losses in excess of 25 950 3,444,578 320,855 10.3 percent. 940 3,123.723 215,217 7.4 930 2,908,506 12,674 0.4 920 2,895,832 286,711 11.0 910 2,609,121 392,790 17.7 900 2,216,333 378.978 20.6 Dr. James D. Tarveris professor of so- 890 1,837,353 295,173 19.1 ciology and director of the Demographic 880 1.542,180 358.071 30.2 ResearchandTrainingCenter,Social 870 1,184,109 I 26,823 12.0 Science Research Institute, University of 860 1,057,286 151,101 16.7 Georgia. He received his Ph.D. from the 850 906,185 214,793 31.1 University of Wisconsin. In 1965 he was 840 691.392 174,569 33.8 an American Medical Association Research 830 516,823 175,834 51.6 Fellow for the summer. Prior to coming to 820 340,989 88,556 35.1 the University of Georgia, Dr. Tarver was 810 252.433 89,747 55.2 executive advisor to the North American 800 162,686a 80,138 97.1 Aviation. Inc., Los Angeles D;vision. His 790 82,548b professional memberships include the Am- erican and the Southern Sociological So- aIncludes population of 'areas now in cieties, the Population Association of Am- Alabama and Mississippi. erica. the Editorial Review Board ofRural bNo population returned for that part Sociology,and an editorial consultant po- of Georgia now in Alabama and Missis- sition forDemography.Dr. Tarver isa sippi. member of the advisory committee of the National Research Council, National Acad- emy of Sciences, and a member of the Bu- reau of the Census Unit, Department of Commerce, NationalDefense Executive Reserve. Currently he is working on an Analysis- and Projections of Internal Mi- grationprojectincooperation with the Economic Research Service, U.S.D.A.. and a project on theIdentification and Meas- urement of the Determinants of Georgia Population Trends,University of Georgia Agricultural Experiment Station.

197 Table 3. Estimates of the Components of Change in the Total Population of Georgia, 1870-1969

Net Change Components of Change Duringthe During the Previous Decoct.? Year Population Previous Decadeor Natural Total Period Births Deaths Increase Net Number Rate Migration 1969 (July 1)1 4,641,000698,000 17.7 907,000350,000557,000 +141.000 19602 3.943,116498.538 14.5 1,031.491 319,384712,107 -213,569 19503 3,444,578320.855 10.3 910,000300,000610.000 -290,000 1940 3,123,723215,217 7.4 367,517 -152,3004 .1930 2,908,506 12.674 0.4 492.674 -480,0004 1920 2.895,832286,711 11.0 405.411 -118,7004 1910 2.609,121392,790 7.7 447,890 -55,1004 1900 2.216,331 378.97821.6 452.378 -73,4004 1890 1.837,353295,173 19.1 326,573 -31,4004 1880 1,542,180358.07130.2 410,571 -52,5004 1870 1.184,109 1 Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Population Estimates, "Estimates of the Population of States: July 1. 1968 and July 1969," unpublished. 2 Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports. Components of PopulationChange. 1950 to 1960. For Counties, Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas, State EconomicAreas, and Economic Subregions, Series P-23, No. 7, November 1962.p. 20. 3Bureau of the Census. Current Population Reports, PopulationEstimates, "Estimates of the Population of States, July I. 1940, to 1949," Series P-25.No. 72. May 1953. 4 Everett S. Lee. et. al.. Population Redistribution andEconomic Growth, United States. 1870-1950. Volume 1. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society, 1967.pp. 74-77, 87-90. and 130-131. The net migration estimates are for nativewhites, Negroes and foreign- born whites. For the last group only. the net migration estimatesare for foreign born 'whites 10 years of age and over at the end of the decade.

Table 4.Estimates of Net Migra- tion, by Color, for Georgia, 1870 to 1969

Decade White Nonwhite Total 1960-1969 --2 -2 141,000 1950-1960 -9,000 -204,000 -213,000 Source: Everett S. Lee, et. al., Population 1940-1950 -49,000 -240,000 -289,000 Redistribution and Economic Growth, 1930-1940 -49,3001 -103,000 -152,300 United States, 1870-1950, Volume L 1920-1930-184,2001 -295,800 -480,000 Philadelphia: The AmericanPhilo- 1910-1920 -32.3001-86,400 -118,700 sophical Society, 1957, pp. 74-77, 87- 1900-1910 -34,8001-20,300-55,100 90, and 130-131: Bureau of the Cen- 1890-1900 -42,3001-31,100-73,400 sus,CurrentPopulationReports, 1880-1890 -45,9001 14,500-31,400 Population Estimates, "Estimates of 1870-1880 -27,1001-25,400-52,500 the Components of Population Change by Color For States: 1950 to 1 White net migration estimates for 1870 1960," Series P-5, No. 247, April 2, to1940 includethenet migration of 1962; and Bureau of the Census, Cur- foreign-born whites 10 years of age and rent Population Reports, Population over at the end of the decade. Estimates, "Estimates of the Popula- 2 Net migration estimates by color are tion of States: July 1, 1968, and July unavailable. 1969," unpublished.

198 Table 5 Population Growth in Georgia, 1790-1965, by Race Other Races Yeor Total White Nonwhite Negro Population Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number 965 4391.004 3.201,034 72.9 .189.970 27.1 -- 960 3.943.116 2.817,223 71.4 ,125.893 28.6 .122.596 28.5 3,297 950 3,444.578 2.380,577 69.1 .064.001 30.9 .062.762 30.9 1.239 940 3.123.723 2.038,278 65.3 .085.445 34.7 .084.927 34.7 518 930 2,908.506 1.837,021 63.2 .071,485 36.8 .071.125 36.8 360 920 2.895.832 1.689,114 58.3 .206.718 41.7 .206.365 41.7 353 910 2.609.121 1.431,802 54.9 .177.319 45.1 .176.987 45.1 332 900 2,216.331 1.181,294 53.3 .035.037 46.7 .034,813 46.7 224 890 1.837.353 978,357 53.2 858.996 46.8 858.815 46.7 181 880 1.542.180 816,906 53.0 725.274 47.0 725.133 47.0 141 870 1.184.109 638.926 54.0 545.183 46.0 545.142 46.0 41 860 L057.248 591350 56.0 465.736 44.0 465.698 44.0 38 850 906.185 521,572 57.6 384.613 42.4 384.613 42.4 840 691.392 407,695 59.0 283.697 41.0 283,697 41.0 830 516.823 296,806 57 4 220.017 42.6 220.017 42.6 820 340.985 189,566 54.3 151.419 453 151.419 45.7 810 252,433 145,414 -57.6 107,019 42.4 107.019 42.4 800 162.686 102,261 62.9 60.425 37.1 60.425 37.1 790 82,548 52,886 64.1 29,662 35.9 29,662 35.9 Source: United States Census of Population. 1960 PC(1). 12B-Georgia, U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census, p. 36 and other selected Bureau of Census documents.

Table 6 Racial Composition of Georgia's Population, 1880-1960

Other Races Year White Negro All Number Percent Number Percent IndianJapanese Chinese Other 960 2,817,223 71.4 1,122,596 28.5 749 885 686 977 950 2,380.577 69.1 1,062,762 30.9 333 128 511 267 940 2,038.278 65.3 1,084,927 34.7 106 31 326 55 930 1,837,021 63.2 1,071,125 36.8 43 32 253 32 920 1,689,114 58.4 1,206,365 41.7 125 9 211 8 910 1,431,802 54.9 1,176,987 45.1 95 4 233 900 1,181,294 53.3 1,034,813 46.7 19 1 204 890 978,357 53.3 858,815 46.7 68 5 108 880 816,906 53.0 725,133 47.0 124 17

Table 7 The Foreign Born White Population of Georgia by Sex, 1880-1960

Percent Total Population Year Total of State Moles Females 1960 23,888 0.6 9,782 14.106 1950 6,730 0.5 8,208 8,522 1940 1,916 0.4 6,845 5,071 1930 3,943 0.5 8,196 5,747 1920 6,186 0.6 10,004 6,182 1910 5,072 0.6 9,r,18 5,554 1900 2,021 0.5 7,283 4,738 1890 1,892 0.6 7,422 4,470 1880 0,333 0.7 6,292 4,041

199 Table 8 Median Age of the Population of Georgia by Sex and Race, 1880-1960

Whites Nonwhites Year Total Population Male Female Male Female 1960 25.9 26.6 28.8 19.3 22.8 1950 26.2 26.8 28.0 22.0 24.1 1940 24.5 25.3 25.8 22.3 23.3 1930 21.9 12.4 22.7 20.3 21.3 1920 20.5 21.0 21.0 19.8 20.0 1910 19.7 20.3 20.3 19.0 19.1 1900 18.9 19.4 19.7 18.0 18.2 1890 18.0 18.3 19.1 17.1 17.5 1880 17.7 18.0 19.6 16.1 17.1

Table 9 Age Composition of the Population of Georgia, 1880-1960

Percent Distribution Age 1960 1950 1940 1930 1920 1910 1900 1890 1880 Total All Ages 100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0 100.0100.0 Under 5 years 12.4 12.3 10.0 10.9 12.5 14.4 14.7 14.5 17.0 5-9 years 11.6 10.3 10.2 12.2 13.2 13.3 14.1 14.6 15.4 10-14 years 10.8 9.0 10.4 11.7 12.6 12.1 12.5 13.9 12.4 15-19 years 8.8 8.5 10.5 11.5 10.6 10.7 10.9 11.4 9.7 20-24 years 7.1 8.0 9.8 9.9 9.4 10.0 10.3 9.4 10.2 25-29 years 6.3 8.0 8.9 7.7 8.0 8.2 7.8 7.1 7.8 30-34 years 6.4 7.4 7.6 6.3 6.2 6.5 5.8 6.1 6.0 35-39 years 6.5 7.4 6.7 6.4 6.4 5.8 5.0 5.6 5.0 40-44 years 6.2 6.4 5.6 5.2 4.9 4.2 4.4 4.3 4.0 45-49 years 5.8 5.3 5.0 4.6 4.3 3.3 3.5 3.3 3.1 50-54 years 4.9 4.4 4.3 4.5 3.7 3.7 3.5 3.1 3.0 55-59 years 4.0 3.7 3.3 2.9 2.3 2.4 2.1 1.8 1.7 60-64 years 2.9 2.9 2.7 2.3 2.2 2.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 65r69 years 2.5 2.8 24 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.2 70-74 years 1.8 1.8 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8 75 years and over 2.0 1.8 1.3 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 Not Reported 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.2

Table 10Number of Males Per 100 Females by Race, Georgia, 1880.1960 Year Total White Population Total Native Foreign Born Negro 1960 95.5 97.6 97.9 69.3 90.4 1950 96.2 98.7 98.8 96.3 90.6 1940 96.6 99.5 99.3 135.0 91.3 1930 97.3 100.5 100.2 142.6 92.1 1920 99.6 102.3 101.8 161.8 95.9 1910 100.1 102.4 101.9 171.4 97.2 1900 99.1 100.8 100.4 153.7 97.1 1890 100.3 100.2 99.6 166.0 100.3 1880 97.9 97.7 97.1 155.7 98.1

200 Yeas Total Table 11 Number White Nonwhite rwebirthsSummary of Selected Vital Statistics, Georgia, 1927-1967 Total Rate White Nonwhite Total Number White Nonwhite Deaths Total White Nol-white Rate 19311930191919281927 61,77460,31858,52160.25962,246 37,06435,75139,28137,53138.135 24,24323,25422,77022.12422,965 20.121.020.721.4 20.119.621.021.919.9 21.122.521.720.220.7 32,98935,18835,34036,08531,869 18,03618,24518,64217,01216,230 15.97717,15217,09517,44315,639 11.212.112.212.411.0 10.010.3 9.29.89.0 --- -- 16.;14.114.8;5.815,9 19361935193419331932 63,29061,61764,61560,74463,690 36,32037,34538,33338,20935,692 25,29725,94526,28225,05225,481 20.221.520.921.520.4 20.418.720.119.418.8 23.522.923.624.023.0 37,29334,31335,59031,18432,122 20,15619,15716.84716,81318,677 17.13715.63616,43314.33715,309 12.210.41(1.811.311.8 10.410.0 9.09.78.9 4.15.54.25.03.2 0t,..) 11940 9411939(9381937 67,78564,91064,30764.01264,695 41,27738,91138,92738,61338,181 25,78426,50825,98725,69425.831 21.620,720.820.7 20.119.119.519.4 24.423.823.123.023.2 31,57931,85632,29633.61734,411 17,32417,48616,717(8,10918,493 14,86214,97214,37015,50815,918 10.010.310.2(0.810.8 8.13,58.79.19.4 3.73.82.83.94.3 19451944194619431942 74,99477,01878.32785,69972,189 56,35449,46450,14945,19247,422 27,55428.17829,34527,57226,997 27.424.024.725.123.1 27.623.324.324.622.2 27.025.426.024.9 29,48827,40528,45628,80328,807 16,16016,31016,11816,414(5,82(1 13.07411,24512,14612,68512,987 9.49.28.89.19.2 7.98.07,97.8 0.42.02.01.21,7 19511949194719501948 95,16193,55794,31192,09991,604 59,28557.00358,65958,60162,394 35,87635,09634.89833,00331,917 26.729.028.629.2 24.124.327.427.729.2 32.631.632.230.529.2 30.80230.41629,53729,30928,780 18,16118,00517,35117,08317,022 12.64112.41112.18612,22611,758 8.68.89.28.9 7.47.78.18.0 1.51.20.81.3 19561955195419531952 102,643100.295100,191 97,42197,130 65.64264.23864.39261.67161,439 37,00136.05735.79935.75035.69) 27.126.827.327.0 24.625.024.524.9 33.032.232.732.933.0 30,83831,58230,55530,75430,622 19,83019,13618,86318,31018,521 11.70211.75211.69212,23312,312 8.38.38.58.6 7.37.47.37.4 0.50.40.71.31.4 Year Number tivebirths Table 11 (Continued)Rate Number Deaths Rate ot.)IV 195919581957 101,88299,45899,780Total 64,04064,09765,412White 35,418Nonwhite35,68336,470 25.025.426.4Total 22.623.023.9White Nonwhite30.731.232.2 33,37633,24933,421 Total 21,04721,04420,929 White Nonwhite12,32912,20514,492 Total8.48.58.6 White Nonwhite 7.47.57.7 10.7(0.7(1.0 1963196219611960 100,44499,36099,04799,707 64,57563,77864,31664,419 34,78535,26935,28836,128 23.824.225.125.2 21.8222.422.8 ( .7 29.030.631.731.3 37,69636,0534,36735,324 ( 24,59423,50422,32022,526 13,10212,54712,798(2,047 9.08.88.98.6 8.38.07.8 10.9(0.910.611.4 1967196619651964 100,581 86,46989,37694,336 57,03157,85560,22665,093 29,43831,52134,35,488 110 20.021.623.819.2 21.517.718.1(9.3 23.024.927.529.6 38,44838,46538,10437,512 26,12525,74525,14124,607 12,32312,720(2,96312.905 8.68.98.58.7 8.16.1 10.010.510.8 9.6 Table 12Children Ever Born Per 100 Women Ever Married by Age, Color and Residence, Georgia, 1960

Iota! Nonwhites Age Rural Rural Rural Rural Urban Nonfazm Form Urban Nonfarm Farm Total, 15 years and over 2.484 3,256 3,921 2.932 4.223 4,978 15-19 years 756 816 889 1,212 1.162 1,214 20-24 years 1.408 1.634 1,863 2.164 2.326 2,427 25-29 years 2.200 2,526 2,860 2.781 3.613 3,885 30-34 years 2.588 3048, 3.568 3.211. 4.347 5.295 35-39 years 2.609 3,343 3.857 3.133 4.968 5,708 40-44 years 2.522 3,460 4,079 2.999 1,885 6,080 45-49 years 2,352 3.388 4,100 2,668 4,444 5.772 50-54 years 2.339 3.420 3,995 2.582 4.155 5,089 55-59 years 2.596 3,754 4,115 2.808 4.247 4,845 60-64 years 2,868 4.116 4,432 3.110 4.384 4.892 65 years and over 3.616 4.751 5,148 3.908 5,105 5.577

Source:United States Census of Population. 1960, PC(1). 12D-Georgia, U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. p. 468-469.

Table 13Trends in Marriages and Divorces, Georgia, 1953-1967

Marriages* Year Number Rate Divorcesand Annulments Total White Nonwhite Total White Nonwhite Number Rate 1953 52,092 40,894 11,144 14.5 16.2 10.3 6,809 1.9 1954 51,698 41,149 10,495 14.1 16.0 9.6 7,041 1,9 1955 54,780 43,062 11,653 14.7 16.5 10.4 7,547 2.0 1956 52,221 41,398 10,769 13.8 15.5 9.6 7,751 2.0 1957 51.235 41,090 10.080 13.3 15.0 8.9 8,798 2.3 1958 47,219 37,863 9,304 12.0 13.6 8.1 7,975 2.0 1959 48,928 38,913 9,970 12.3 13.7 8,7 8,609 2.2 1960 49,448 39,400 9.983 12.5 13.9 8.9 8,930 2.3 1961 52.062 42,335 9,655 13.0 14.8 8.5 9,521 2.4 1962 53,553 43,334 10,162 13.1 14.7 8.8 9,841 2.4 1963 56,803 46.684 10,112 13.6 15.7 8.,4 10.569 2.5 1964 60.228 49.691 10.535 '14.3 16.4 8.8 11,312 2.7 1965 55.537 44.755 10,781 12.7 14.3 8.7 12,043 2.8 1966 54,502 43.678 10.823 12.2 13.7 8.5 12,921 2.9 1967 57,218 45.725 11,493 12.7 14.2 9.0 14,347 3.2 * Race breakdown does not add to total due to marriages of unknown race.

203 Table 14Net Migration by Age and Race, Georgia, 1950-1960

Age in Number of Rate of 1960 Net Migrants Net Migration Total White Nonwhite Totol White Nonwhite All Ages -213,570 -9,273 -.204,297 -5.0 -0.2 -15.3 0-4 -15.212 -5.867 -9,345 -3.0 -1.8 -5.3 5-9 -29,036 -6,823 -22,213 -6.1 -2.2 -12.7 10-14 -21.900 -1.605 -20,295 -5.0 -0.5 -13.2 15-19 -18,334 -365 -17,969 -5.1 -0.1 -14.8 20-24 -23,479 4.762 -28,241 -7.9 2.5 -27.8 25-29 -35.236 -3.717 -31.519 -12.2 -1.8 -33.1 30-34 -20.220 1.201 -21,421 -7.2 0.6 -25.6 35-39 -14,800 -87 -14,713 -5.3 - -19.3 40-44 -7,684 683 -8,367 -2.9 0.4 -12.1 45-49 -9.631 -764 -8,867 -3.9 -0.3 -12.8 50-54 -6,134 -192 -5,942 -2.9 - -10.7 55-59 -5.573 365 -5,938 -3.2 0.3 -12.5 60-64 -4.244 3 -4,247 -3.2 - -12.0 65-69 2,505 1.149 1,356 2.3 1.4 4.6 70-74 2,761 1,570 1,191 3.5 2.7 6.1 75 & over -7.317 426 -7,743 -7.0 0.6 -24.6

204 Table 15 Population of Georgia, Urban and Rural, 1790 to 1960 Census Date of UrbanNumber Population Urban Territory Over Preceding Increase Population Rural Territory Over Preceding IncreaseCensus Urban of TotalPercent Rural Current Urban Definition 19501960 Places106124 1,559,4472,180.236 620,789Number Census Percent 39.8 1,762,8801,885.131 122,251 Number - 6.5 Percent 45.355.3 44.754.7 Previous Urban Definition 194019501960 103120 78 1.426,2061,963,0121,073,808 352,398536,806178.316 - 32.837.619.9 - 2,049,9152.018.3721,980,104 -38,268-31,543 36.901 - -1.9--1.5 1.8 34.441.449.8311.8 69.265.658.650.2 19201930 5964 895,492727,859 189,209167,633 35.123.0 2,013,0142.167.973 -154,959 97.502 -7.110.7 4.7 25.1 74.9 18901900;9101880 - 223145 14 257,472346,382538,650145,090 192,268 45,03712,38288,910 45.077.534.555.5 1.869.9492,070,4711,397,0901.579.881 313,034290.068200,522182.791 28.910.418.413.1 15.620.614.1) 9.4 90.686.084.479.4 1840186018701850 10 594 100.053 38,99475,466 36,47224,58710,64514,336 76.058.193.532.6 1.084,056 666,734981.820867,191 2011,457114.6291(12.2351 6 /.`.424 32.630.t13.2 3.64.37.18.4 92.991.696.495.7 18201830 2 1 24,65814.0)3 7,523 6,4902,308 44.386.3 1.3 333,466502.810 16,9.344 86,248 34.950.8 2.22.12.7 97.897.3 179018001810 - 1 5,1465.215- 5,146 - 69 - 247.218157.540 82.548 74.99289,678 - 90,856.9 - --3.2 1(10.0 96.897.9 Table 16Population Growth in Georgia 1890-1960 by Race and Residence

Urban Percent of Percent of Rural State's State's Year Total Percent Total . Percent Nonwhite Nonwhites in Whites in Nonwhite Urban AreasUrban Areas

1960 2,180,056 29.6 57,5 54.4 1,762,880 27.2 1950 1,559,447 31.5 46.2 44.9 1,885,131 30.4 1940 1,073,808 35.4 35.0-- 34.0 2,049,915 34.4 1930 895,492 35.4 29.6 31.5 2,013,014 37.5 1920 727,859 37.5 22.6 26.9 2,167,973 43.1 1910 538,650 41.8 19.1 21.9 2,070,471 46.0 1900 346,382 46.6 15.6 15.7 1,869,949 46.7 1890 257,472 48.1 14.4 13.7 1,579,881 46.5 Source:United States Census of Population, 1960,PC(1), 12B-Georgia, U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, p. 35. Sixteenth Census of the United States,Volume H, Part 2, U.S. Department of Com- merce, Bureau of the Census, 1940, p. 187. Thirteenth Census of the United States,Volume I. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, 1910, p. 193.

206 Table 17 Changes in the Total Population of Each County During Each Decade, 1930-1940 1940-1950 Population Change 1930-19601950-1960 1930-1960 ApplingAtkinson Counts, 13,314 6,8941930 14,497 8,0967,093 1940 Population 14,003 7.3621950 13,246 8,3596,188 1960 Numerical %1,0411,183 199 14.8 2.98.9 Numerical -494 844269 -3.410.4% 3.8 -1,174Numerical -581-757 -15.9 -6.5-5.4 % Numerical 1,304-706% -68 -10.2 -0.518.5 BartowBarrowBanksBaconBaldwinBaker 25,36422,8712,4019,7037,0557,818 25,28324,19013,0648,7337,344 29,70627,37013,115 6,9355,9528,940 28,26734,06414,485 6,4974,543 -9701,312-474 -81663 -10.0 -6.1-0.3 5.75.3 -1,392-1,798 5,5162,087 51 -20.6-19.0 22.8 8.30.4 -1,409 4,3581,370-438 897 -23.7 -6.314.710.4 3.3 -3,206-3,27511,1862,9032,084 -33.0-41.9 48.911.416.8 BleckBerrienBenBibb Hill ley 77,04214,64613,0479,133 83,78315,37014,523 9,655 114,079 13,96614,879 9,218 141,249 12,03813,6339,642 6,7411,476 522724 11.3 5.78.74.9 -1,40430,296 -437 356 -4.5-9.136.2 2.5 -1,92827,170-1.246 424 -13.8 23.8-8.4 4.6 64,207-2,608 509586 -14.6-17.8 83.3 5.64.5 BurkeBulBrooksBrantleyPuttsBryan loch 29,22426,50921.330 5.9529.3456,895 26,52026,01020.497 6,2886,8719,182 23,45824,74018,169 9,0795.9656,387 20,59624,26315,292 6,2268,9765,891 -2.704 -499-163-833 336-24 -1.9-3.9-1.7-9.3-0.3 5.6 -3,062-1,270-2,328 -103-323-484 -I-11.4 1.5 -4.9-5.1-7.0-1.1 -2,862-2,877 -496-103-477 261 -12.2-15.8 -7.8-1.1-1.9 4.4 -8,618-6,038-1,004-2,246 -369 274 -29.5-28.3 -8.5-3.9 4.6 CarrollCandlerCamdenCalhoun 34.27210.5769.4218,9916.338 34,15612,11910.438 9,1035.910 34,11215,146 8,0637,3228,578 21,10136,451 6,6729,9757,341 2,698-116-428-138 112 28.6-0.3-6.8-1.3 1.2 -1,040-1,860 3.0271,412 -44 -11.4-17.8 -0.125.023.9 -1.391-1,237 2,3392,6535,955 -17.3-14.4 36.239.3 6.9 -2,319-3,23511,680 2,1793,637 -25.8-30.6124.0 57.4' 6.4 ChattoogaChattahoocheeChathamCharltonCatoosa , 105.431 15.4078.8944,381 117.970 18,53215,138 5.256 151,48121,19712,149 4,821 188.299 19,95413,011 5,313 12.5393,1256,244 875 20.370.211.920.0 -2,98933,511 2,665-435 -19.7 -8.328.414.4 3.1 -1,24336,818 862492 -5.910.824.310.2 7.1 82.8684,5474.117 932 46.321.315.029.578.6 ClayClarkeCherokeeClinchClayton 25.61310.26020.0037.0156.943 28.39820,12611,6556.4377.064 36,55022,87220,750 6,0075,844 46,36545,36323,001 6,5454,551 2,7851.395-578 121123 -8.210.913.6 1.70.6 -1,22011,2178,152-430 624 -17.3 -6.796.228.7 -1,29323,493 8,8132.251 538 -22.1 102.7 24.1 9.0 -2,39236.10519.7502.998-470 -34.5351.9-6.777.1 County Population Table 17 (Continued) 1930-1940 1940-1950 Population Change 1950-1960 1930-1960 ColumbiaCoiquittCoffeeCobb 30,62235.40819,7398.7931930 33,01238,27221,541 9,433 1940 33,99923,96161,830 19509;525 114,174 34,04821,95313,423 1960 Numerical 2,3901,8022,864 640 7.39.1%7.88.1 Numerical23,558 2,420 987 92 11.261.6 1.03.0 -2,008Numerical52,344 3,898 49 -8.440.984.7 0.1 78,766Numerical3,4264,6302,214 222.5 52.711.2 % DadeCrispCrawfordCookCoweta 17,34325,12711,3114.1467,020 26,97217,54011,9195,8947,128 27,78612,20117.6637,3646,080 17,76828,89311,8228,6665,816 1,7481,845 608197108 42.2 5.41.11.57.3 -1,048 1,470 123814282 -14.7 24.9 0.73.02.4 1,302-2641,107-379 105 -3.117.7 0.64.34.0 -1.204 4,5203,766 425511 -17.2109.0 15.0 2.54.5 DoolyDodgeDeDecaturDawson Kalb 21,59970.27823,62218,025 3,502 16,88621,02286.94222.234 4,479 136,395 14,15923,62017,8653,712 256,782 25,20311,47416,483 3,590 -1,38816,664 -577 977 -2.723.7-5.927.9 -3,15749,453 1,386-767 -16.1-15.0-17.1 56.9 6.2 120.387-1,382 1,583-122 -7.788.3-3.3 6.7 186,504-6.551-5,116 1,581 88 -36.3-23.7265.4 6.72.5 EcholsEarlyDouglasDougherty 18,27322,30610,1649.4612,744 78.56518.67910.053 2.964 43,61712.17317,413 2,494 75,68013,15116,741 1,876 -1,139 6,259 406220592 28.1-6.3 8.02.26.3 -1,266-2,72715.052 2.120-470 -15.9 -6.821.152.7 -4,26232,063-2,685 1.011-6184,568 -24.8-24.5-19.0 73.511.137.5 -5.12253.374 7.280-868 -31.6-28.0239.3 76.9 FanninEvansEmanuelElbertEffingham 24,10112,96918,4857.102 14,75223,51719,6187.4019.646 15.19219,78918,5856,6539,133 13,62017,81510.14417.8356,952 1,783-5841,133-518 299 -2.4-5.113.7 4.26.1 -3,728-1,033 -748-513 440 -10.1-15.9 -5.3 3.0 -1,974 -750 299 -10.3-10.0 -4.0 4.5 -6,286 -150-650 651-20 -26.1 -2.1-3.5 5.00.2 ForsythFultonFranklinFloydFayette 335.220 10.62448.66715,902 8,665 392.886 56.14115,61211.3228,170 473.572 62.89914,44611,0057,978 556.326 12,17069,13013.2748,199 57,666 7,474-290-495 698 -1.8-5.717.215.4 6.6 -1,16680,686 6,758-317-192 -7.5-2.420.5-2.812.0 -1,17282,754-1,572 1.1656.231 221 -8.117.510.6 9.92.8 221,106 -2,62820.463 1,546-466 -16.5 -5.466.042.014.6 GlascockGordonGlynnGilmer 16,84619.400 4,3887.344 21.92018,4454.5479.001 29.04618,9223,5799.963 41.95419,228 2.6728.922 1,5992.5201.657 159 13.022.6 9.53.6 7.126-968 477962 -21.3 32.510.7 2.6 -1,04112.908 -907 306 -25.3-10.4 44.4 1.6 22.554-1.716 2,3821.578 -39.11 16.3 21.514.1 Table 17 (Continued) County 1930 1940 Population 1950 1960 Numerical 1930-1940 Numerical 1940-1950 Population ChangeV. Numerical 1950-1960 V. Numerical 1930-1960 GwinnettGradyGreene 27,85312.74812.61619,200 29,08714.77113,70919,654 32.32016,55312,84318,928 43,54118,11618,01511,193 2,0231,2341,093 454 15.9 4.42.48.7 1.7823,233-866-726 -6.3-3.712.111.1 -1,65011,221 1,563-913 -12.8 -4.834.7 9.4 -1,423-1,18515,688 5,368 -11.3 -6.242.156.3 HallHabershamHarrisHaralsonHancock 30,31311.14013.26313,070 34,82214,37711,42812,764 40,11314,66311,05211.265 49,73911,16714,5439,979 4,5091,114-306 288 -2.314.9 2.68.4 -1,712 5,291-163 286 -13.4 -1.415.2 2,0 -1,073 9,626-120 -98 -0.8-9.724.0-0.9 5.1 -3,09119,426 1,280 5527 -23.6 64.1 0.40.29.7 IrwinHenryHoustonHeardHart 12.19911,28015,92415,174 9,102 12,93611,30315,11915,512 8,610 20,96415,85711,97314,4956,975 39,15417,61915,2299,2115,333 -805-492 737338 23 -5.1-5.4 6.00.22.2 -1,635-1,017 9,661-963 738 -19.0 85.5-6.6 4.9 -1,64218,1901,762 734 -23.1-23.5 86.8!1.1 -2,988-3,76927,874 1,695 -24.5247.1-41.4 10.6 JenkinsJeffersonJeffJasperJackson Davis 20,72712.90821,609 8,1188,594 20,04020.08911,843 8,8418.772 10,26418,99718,8559,2997,473 17,46818,4996,1359,1488,914 -1,520-1,065 -687 723178 -8.3-3.3-7.0 8.92.1 -1,579-1,185-1,299-1.092 458 -13.3-14.8 -5.4-7.4-5.9 5.2 -1.338-1,387-2,762-1.116 -385-498 -17.9-10.9 -7.4-4.1-2.6 -3,760-3,259-2.459 -3,110 796 -29.1-15.7-28.6-14.4 9.8 LaurensLanierLamarJonesJohnson 32,69312,681 5,1909,7458,992 33,60610,09112,9535,6328,331 33.12310,242 5,1517,5389.893 32.31310,2405,0978,4688,048 -661 913442346272 -7.4 2.88.53.62.1 -3,060 -481-483-793 151 -23.6 -8.5-9.5 1.5 -1,845 -54930 -18.6 -1.0-0.012.3 -4,633 -524 -93495 -36.5 -1.8-5.8 5.1 LowndesLongLincolnLibertyLee 29.994 7,8474,1808,1538,328 31,860 4,0867.0428,5957.837 35,211 3.5986,4628,4446.674 49.27014,487 3.8745,9066,204 1.866-805-491 -94442 -10.3 -2.2-5.9 6.25.4 -1,163 3.351-151-488-580 -11.9-14.8 -1.8-8.2-1.410.5 14.059 6.043-556-470-810 276 -8.6-7.0-2.439.971.6 7.7 -1,941-1.11419.2766,334-306-380 -24.7-25.5 64.3-7.377.7-1.2 MaconMcIntoshMcDuffieLumpkin 16,6434.9275,7639,014 1510,878 ,9476,2235.292 14,21311,4436,0086,574 13,17012,6276,3647,241 1,864-696-4711,296 -4.2-8.220.726.3 -1,734 716565351 -10.9 13.5 5.25.6 -1.043 1,184 356667 -7.310.110.3 5.9 -3.473 3,6132.314 601 -20.9 40.147.010.4 County Population Table 17 (Continued) 1930 -1940 1940-1950 Population Change 1950-1960 1930.1960 MillerMarionMeMadison riwethe r 22,43714,921 9,0766,9681930 22,05513,431 9,9986,954 1940 21,05512,2389,0236,5211950 19,75611,246 6,9085,477 1960 -1,490Numerical -382 -14922 -10.0 -1.7-0.210.2 Numerical-1,000-1,193 -975-433 -4.5-6.2-8.9 % -1,299-1,044Numerical -992 -16.0 -6.2-8.1 To -2,681-1,491-3,675Numerical -11.9-21.4-24.6 To MurrayMorganMontgomeryMonroeMitchell 23,62010,02012,48811,6069,215 23,26110,74911,13712,7139,668 22,52810,67611,89910,5237,901 10,44710,28010,49519,652 6,284 1,922-352-857-359 225 20.9-3.5-7.4-1.5 1.8 -1,767 -461-226-814-733 -18.3 -4.1-6.4-2.1-3.2-9.8 -1,619-1,617-2,876-2,115 -229 -28 -13.6-20.5-12.8-23.4-2.1-0.3 -1,111-2,208-3,736-3,968-2,168 1,232 -17.7-37.3-16.8-23.9 -9.613.4 01.) OglethorpeOconeeNewtonMuscogee 12,92717,29012.32757,558 8,082 12,43018,57675,4947,576 118,02820,185 9,9587,009 158,62313,10120,999 7,9266,304 17,936 -5061,286-497 505 -6.3-3.831.2 4.17.4 -2,47242,534 -5671,609 -19.9 -7.556.3 8.7 -2,03240,595 1,349-705 814 -20.4-10.1 34.411.5 4.0 101,065-5.001-1,778 3,709 774 -38.7-22.0175.6 21.5 6.3 PolkPikePiercePickensPeachPaulding 10,85312,52210,2689,687 10,37511,80010,37812,8329,136 11,75211,11211,7058,4598,855 13,8467,1389,6788,903 -478-722-551 110 -4.4-5.7-5.813.2 1.1 -1.916-1.080 -688-2811,327 -18.5 -5.8-3.1-8.412.8 -1,321-1,434 2,141 48 -15.6-12.9 18.3 0.5 -3,715-2,844 3,578-784 -34.2-22.7 -8.111.434.8 RabunQuitmanPutnamPulaski 25,141 6,3313.8208,3679,005 28,467 7,8213,4358,5149.829 30,976 3,0157,7318,808 28,015 2,4327,7988,204 1,4903,326-385 824147 -10.1 23.5 9.21.8 -1,021 -420-7832,509 -12.2-10.4 -9.2 8.8 -2,961 -583-604 3267 -19.3 -6.9-9.6 0.40.9 -1,388 2,874-801-569 -36.3 -6.8-8.917.8 ScrevenSchleyRockdaleRichmondRandolph 20.50372.99017,1745.3477,247 20.35381.86316,6095.0337.724 108,876 18,00013,8044,0368,4647,424 135,601 14.91910,57211.0783.2567,456 8,873-150-314-565 477 -0.7-5.9-3.312.2 6.6 -2,35327,013-2,805 -997-397 740 -11.6-19.8-16.9 33.0-5.1 9.6 -3,08126.725-2.726 2,108-780 -17.1-19.3-19.7 24.924.5 -5,584-2,0962.611-6,096 3,3251,125 -27.2-39.1-35.5 45.985.8 StewartStephensSpaldingSeminole 11.11411.74023.4957.389 12,97228,42710,603 8,492 16,64731,045 9,1947,904 18,39135,904 7,3716,802 1.2324.932-5111.103 -4.621.010.514.9 -1.409 3,6752,618-588 -13.3 28.3-6.9 9.2 -1,823-1,102 4,8591,744 -19.8-13.9 10.515.7 -3,74312,409 6.651-587 -33.7 -7.956.752.8 Table 17 (Continued) 1940.1950 Population Change Cowl)), 26,800 1930 24,502 1940 Population 24,208 1950 24,652 1960 Numerical 1930.1940 -8.6 % Numerical - 294 -1.2 % Numerical 1950.1960- 560 444 -7.3 %1.8 - 1,3312.148Numerical % 1930-1960 -8.0 TattnallTaliaferroTalbotSumter 15,411 6,1728,458 16,2436,2788,141 15,9394,5157,687 15,837 8,3113,3707,127 -2,298 -317 151832106 -3.7 1.45.41.7 -1,763 -304-454 -28.1 -5.6-1.9 -1,145- 1,506 - 802- 102 -11.4-25.4 -8.8-0.6 - 2,802 426 -45.4- 15.7-21.7 2.8 ThomasTerrellTelfairTaylorTi f t 32,61218,29014,99710,61716,068 18,59931,28916,67515,14510,768 22,64533,93214,31413,2219,113 23,48734,31912,74211,715 -1,615-1,323 2,531 148 -8.8-4.115.8 1.0 -2,361--1,655 1,924 4,0462,643 -14.2-12.7-15.4 21.8 8.4 - 1,572 -545 842387 -11.0 3.71.1 --3,282-2,306 5,548 7,4191,707 - 21.9- 30.3 46.2 5.2 TownsToombs 17,1657,4884,346 16,9527,6324,925 17,3826,5224,803 16,837 5,8744,538 -213 144579 -1.213.3 1.9 - 1,110 -122 430 -14.5 - 2.513.6 2.5 - 265648 -9.9-5.5-3.1. -1,614 -328 192 -21.6 -1.9 4.4 UnionTwiggsTurnerTroupTreutlen 11,19636,752 6,3408,372 43.87910,846 7,6809,117 49,84110,4798,3087,318 47,189 6,5107,9358,439 7,1271,340-350 745 -3.121.119.4 8.9 5,962-362--367 809 14 --8.9-3.4 4.7 0.1 --2,040 1,2782,652 - 373- 808 -19.5-11.0-4.5-5.3 -2.75710,4374.291- 437 170 -24.6 22.0-5.228.4 2.7 UpsonWareWaltonWalker 26,55826,20621,11819,509 25,06427,92920,77731,024 25,07830,28920,23038,198 34,21920,48145,26423,800 4.8185,5551,371-341 -1.628.518.4 5.2 2,3607,174-547 -2.623.1 8.4 7,0663,930 251 -5.118.513.0 1.2 - 3,82119,058 7.661- 637 72.728.8-3.0 WashingtonWarrenWebsterWayne 25.03012.64711,181 5,032 24,23013,12210,2364.726 21,01214,2484,0818,779 18,90317,9213,2477.360 -306-945-800 475 -6.1-3.2-8.5 3.8 -3,218- 1,457 1,126-645 --13.3 13.614.2 8.6 -2,109- 1,419 3,673- 834 -16.2-20.4-10.0 25.8 --1,785 6,1273,807 5,274 --24.5 41.635.534.2 41.7 WilcoxWhitfieldWhiteWheeler 20,80813,439 6,0569,149 26,10512,7556.4178,535 10,16734,432 5,9516,712 42,109 7,9056,9355,342 5,297-684-614 361 -5.125.5-6.7 6.0 - 1,8232,588 8,327- 466 - 20.321.4 -7.331.9 --1,370 2,262 7,677 984 -20.4-22.2 22.316.5 -4,983-5.53421.301 879 - 31.341.2102.4 14.5 STATEWorthWilkinsonWilkes 2,908,506 21,09410.84415,944 3,123,723 21,37411,02515,084 3,444,578 19,35712,3889,781 3,943,116 16,68210,9619,250 215,217 -860 280181 -5.4 7.41.31.7 320,855-2,017- 2.6961,244 --17.9 11.3 -9.410.3 498,538 --1,427 2,675 - 531 -13.8-11.5-5.414.5 1.034,610 --1,594 4,412 -20.9- 14.7 35.6 Table 18Population Estimates and Projections for Georgia, 1960-1985

Projection Year Series (Population in Thousands) 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 I B 3,943 4,391 4,741 5,142 5,563 5,961 I D 3,943 4,391 4,679 4,928 5,172 5,400 11 B 3,943 4,391 4,740 5,147 5,593 6,048 H D 3,943 4,391 4,678 4.933 5,200 5.477 B Fertility' 3,943 4,391 4,728 5,158 5,659 6,202 DFertility' 3,943 4,391 4,667 4,942 5,257 5.609

1 Each of these two projections assumes no net migration after 1965. Source: Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, Population Estimates, --Pro- jections of the Population of Metropolitan Areas: 1975," Series P-25, No. 415, January 31, 1969, and "Revised Projections of the Population of States 1970 to 1985," Series P-25, No. 375, October 3, 1967.

Table 19Population Estimates and Projections for Georgia, by Age, 1960 to 1985

Age and Year Change, 1960-1985 Projection Series 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 198.5 NumericalPercent (Population in Thousands) Under 18 I B 1,533 1,692 1,766 1,897 2,059 2,265 732 48 II B 1,533 1,692 1,766 1,900 2,073 2,302 769 50 I D 1,533 1,692 1,705 1,683 1,669 1,712 179 12 II D 1,533 1,692 1,704 1,685 1,679 1,739 206 13 18-44 I B 1,407 1,584 1,763 1,953 2,156 2,300 893 63 HB 1,407 1,584 1,762 1,955 2,170 2,341. 934 66 I D 1,407 1,584 1,763 1,953 2,157 2,292 885 63 II D 1,407 1,584 1,762 1,955 2,170 2,332 925 66 45-64 I B 713 795 859 896 904 911 198 28 II B 713 795 859 897 907 919 206 29 I D. 713 795 859 896 904 911 198 28 II D 713 795 859 897 907 919 206 29 65 and over I B 291 319 353 395 443 485 194 67 II B 291 319 353 396 444 487 196 67 I D 291 319 353 395 443 485 194 67 II D 291 319 353 396 444 487 196 67 Total . I B 3,943 4,390 4,741 5,142 5,563 5,961 2,018 51 II B 3,943 4,390 4,740 5,147 5,593 6,048 2,105 53 I D 3,943 4,390 4,679 4,928 5,172 5,400 1,457 37 II D 3,943 4,390 4,678 4,933 5,200 5,477 1,534 39

Source: Bureau of the Census,Current Population Reports, Population Estimates, Series P-25, No. 375, October 3, 1967, Table 5.

212 Table 20Population Estimates and Projections for Georgia, Selected Preschool and School Ages, 1960 to 11985

Age and Year Change, 1960.1M5 Projection Series 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Numerical Pecn/ (Population in Thousands) Under 5 I B 472 503 500 602 676 712 240 5- I D 472 503 500 449 496 533 6,1 IF 5-13 I B 783 843 895 897 996 1,138 355 Ilf I D 783 843 895 836 786 840 57 14-17 I 398 387 415 137 4= B 278 346 371 i- ID 278 346 371 398 387 339 61 18.21 1B 233 316 366 396 418 391 158 6t I D 233 316 366 396 418 382 149 64 Source: Bureau of the Census. Current Population Reports. Population Estimates, Series P-25, No. 375, October 3, 1967, Tables 5 and A-4.

213 ProjectionAge and Series 1960 1965 1970 Table 21Males 1975 1980 (Population in Thousands)Sex Ratios of Georgia's Population,1985 by Age, 1960 to 1985 1960 1965 1970 Females 1975 1980 1985 1960 1965 1970 Sex Ratio 1975 1980 1985 Under 18II B I I B D 776776 858858858 864895864 855965963856 1,0541,047 854848 1,1711,151 885870 757757 835835 840841871 830829935934 1,0191,012 820825 1,1311,113 855841 102.5102.5 102.8102.8 102.7102,9102.8 103.1103.2103.1 103.4103.5103.4 103.5103.4 18-44 IIII D I B B 688688 784784 S77877 974977 1,0781,0871,078 1,1491,1791,153 719719 80D800 885886 979978 1,0791,0821,079 1,1431,1621,147 95.795.7 98.0 99.099.1990 99.599.999.5 100.5 99.999.9 100.51013100.5 1=2 45-64II I D D 688339 378378784 404877 417977 1,087 41S416 1,175 419416 3747)9374719 417800 885455 480978 1,082 487 1,158 499495 90.695.7 90.698.0 99.188.888.S 86.999.9 100.5 85.585.4 101.5 84.0 65 and overII DII B I D 339123339 378131 404143404 417160 418416179 194419416 374168374 417.188417 45521D455 235480 489487 499495291 90.690.6 90.6 88.888,8 68.186.9 85.585.4 84.0 Total II B I BD D (23123 131 143143 160160 179 195194 168 188188188 210210 236235 265264 292291 73.2 69.769.7 68.1 67.868.1 67.567.8 66.866.766.7 Source: BureauII11 DB of Ithe DI B 1,9261,926 2,1512,15(2,151 2,2882,2882,319 Census, Current Population Reports, Population Estimates, Series2,4092,4052,5142,518 2,5382,5212,7382,720 2,6742,6302,9642,915 2,0172,017 2,2392.239 2,3902,3912,4212,422 '2,5242,5232,6282,629 2,6512,6612,8552,843 P-25, No. 375, October2,8032,7703,0843,046 3, 1967, Table 6. 95.595.5 96.196.1 95.795.795.8 95.495.395.895.7 95.495.195:995.7 95.494.996.195.7 PopulationAge, Color, Series and Table 22 1960 White1975 Projected Population Changes, by Color and Age, Georgia,1985 1960 to 1960 Nonwhite 1975 1985 Numerical Change, 1960-1985 Percentage 19601985 Percent Nonwhite 1975 1985 Under 18 I B 1,020 1,263 1,504 513 (Population in Thousands)634 761 White 484Nonwhite 248 White 47 Nonwhite 48 33.5 33.4 33.6 18-44 II BD I D 1,020 1,1281,1241,259 1,1591,1621,508 513357513 506561641555 623577553794 627488142139 266281 6440 60481414 751255 8 33.525.433.5 25.933.333.033.7 27.133.232.334.5 to12 II DII B I BD 1,0501,050 1,4421,447 1,6811,6721,6871,677 357357 513506 651620654 631622637 294263297 606159 827483 25.4 26.225.9 27.927.1 45-64 II B I B 532532 698699 714718 181 198 197201 182182186 2016 3435 11 99 25.425.4 22.122.( 21.921.621.6 . 65 and over11 D I DI B 216532 305699 718382 181 75 198 90 201103 166186 2820 3577 337 9 25.425.8 22.122.8 21.921.2 Total II BD I D 216216 305306 383382383 ' 75 90 104103 167166 282929 7777 77 39 25.8 22.722.8 21.421.2 Source: BureauIIH BD of theI Census,BD 2,8172,817 3,5793,5713,7043,714 Current Population Reports, Population Estimates, 3,9443,9264,2954,276 1,1261,126 1,3621,3491,4431,428 1,5331,4741,7531,685 Series P-25,1,1271,1091,4781,459 No. 375, October 3, 1967, Table 6. 407348627559 40395252 36315650 28.6 27.627.428.027.8 28.027.329.028.3 Table 23 Population Estimates and Projections, by County, 1960to 1975

County Year Change, 1960.1975 1960 1965 1970 1975 Numerical Percent Appling 13,246 13,749 13,796 13,586 340 2.6 Atkinson 6.188 6,302 6,119 5,724 -464 -7.5 Bacon 8,359 8,218 7,933 7,581 -778 -9.3 Baker 4,543 3,861 3,213 2,571 -1,972 -43.4 Baldwin 34,064 38,656 43,296 46,339 12,275 36.0 Banks 6,497 7,270 7,812 8,239 1,742 26.8 Barrow 14,485 15,572 16,393 17,393 2.908 20.1 Bartow 28,267 31,624 34,154 36,549 8,282 29.3 Ben Hill 13,633 13,575 13,177 12,606 -1,027 -7.5 Berrien 12,038 10,738 9.510 8.410 -3,628 -30.1 Bibb 141,249 153,181 163,582 176,888 35,639 25.2 Bleckley 9,642 10,182 10,535 10,961 1,319 13.7 Brantley 5,891 5,724 5,474 5,186 -705 -12.0 Brooks 15,292 14,311 13,040 11,629 -3,663 -24.0 Bryan 6,226 6,634 6,827 7,009 783 12.6 Bulloch 24,263 27,204 29,188 30,578 6,315 26.0 Burke 20,596 19,742 18,452 16,922 -3,674 -17.8 Butts 8,976 9,681 10.119 10,471 1,495 16.6 Calhoun 7.341 7,099 6,731 6,234 -1,107 -15.1 Camden 9,975 11,165 12,619 14,741 4,766 47.8 Candler 6,672 6,711 6,469 5,978 -694 -10.4 Carroll 36,451 40,239 43,162 46,319 9,868 27.1 Catossa 21,101 24,951 28.841 33,891 12,790 60.6 Charlton 5,313 5,570 5,797 6,112 799 15.0 Chatham 188,299 200,224 208.812 222,377 34,078 18.1 Chattahoochee* Chattooga 19,954 19,762 19,223 18,635 -1,319 -6.6 Cherokee 23,001 25,869 27,951 30,229 7,228 31.4 Clarke 45.363 52,904 60,987 70,687 25,324 55.8 Clay 4,551 4,339 4,039 3,600 -951 -20.9 Clayton 46,365 68,217 92,514 121,954 75,589 163.0 Clinch 6,545 7,316 7,856 8,382 1,837 28.1 Cobb 114,174 154.323 199,279 247,668 133,494 116.9 Coffee 21,953 21,470 20,485 19,293 -2,660 -12.1 Colquitt 34,048 33.277 32,139 31,148 -2.900 -8.5 Columbia 13,423 18,317 23,083 29,218 15,795 117.7 Cook 11,822 12,114 11,978 11,753 -69 -.6 Coweta 28.893 30.746 31,944 33,333 4,440 15.4 Crawford 5.816 5,837 5,753 5,619 -197 -3.4 Crisp 17,768 17,836 17,604 17,384 -384 -2.2 Dade 8,666 9,123 9,588 10,252 1,586 18.3 Dawson 3.590 3,630 3.590 3,545 -45 -1.3 Decatur 25,203 25,299 25,315 25,618 415 1.6 De Kalb 256,782 332,877 414.663 509,279 252,497 98.3 Dodge 16.483 16.265 15,830 15,268 -1,216 -7.4

216 Table 23(Continued)

County Year Change, 1960.1975 1960 1965 1470 1975 Numerical Percent Dooly 11,474 10,733 9,722 8,533 -2.941 -25.6 Dougherty 75.680 92,665 111,313 138.928 63,248 83.6 Douglas 16.741 21,485 26,281 32,094 15,353 91.7 Early 13,151 12,640 11,499 9,836 -3,315 -25.2 Echols 1,876 1,734 1,564 1,357 -519 -27.7 Effingham 10,144 12,181 14,140 16,381 6,237 61.5 Elbert 17,835 18,117 18,032 17.861 26 0.1 Emanuel 17.815 19,053 19,582 19,569 1.754 9.8 Evans 6,952 7,745 8,227 8,638 1,686 24.2 Fannin 13.620 13.368 12,588 11,720 -1,900 -14.0 Fayette 8.199 8,930 9,482 10,034 1.835 22.4 Floyd 69,130 72,673 75,296 78,939 9,809 14.2 Forsyth 12,170 14,408 16,305 18,382 6,212 51.6 Franklin 13,274 13,218 12,929 12,601 -673 -5.1 Fulton 556,326 622,018 652.888 683,178 126,852 22.8 Gilmer 8.922 9,320 9,411 9,314 392 4.4 Glascock 2,672 2,571 2,358 2,054 -618 -23.1 Glynn 41.954 50,657 58.568 69,060 27,106 64.6 Gordon 19.228 21,040 22,179 23,322 4.094 21.3 Grady 18.015 18.273 18,028 17,610 -405 -2.2 Greene 11,193 10,763 10,151 9,430 -1,763 15.8 Gwinnett 43.541 53.425 61,212 67,711 .24.170 55.5 Habersham 18,116 19,385 20,124 20,937 2,821 15.6 Hall 49,739 55.571 60,505 66,997 17,258 34.7 Hancock 9.979 9,706 9,254 8,712 -1.267 -12.7 Haralson 14.543 15.150 15,473 15,792 1.249 8.6 Harris 11.167 11.535 11,664 11,695 528 4.7 Hart 15,229 16.943 18,288 19,620 4,391 28.8 Heard 5.333 5,177 4,835 4,300 -1.033 -19.4 Henry 17,619 21.624 25.140 29,019 11,400 +64.7 Houston 39.154 53,963 65,484 78,628 39,474 100.8 Irwin 9,211 8.762 7,948 6,885 -2,326 -25.2 Jackson 18,499 19,423 19,763 19,973 1,474 8.0 Jasper 6,135 5.734 5,222 4,636 -1,499 -24.4 Jeff Davis 8,914 9.203 9,152 8,969 55 0.6 Jefferson 17,468 17.953 17,799 17.217 -251 -1.4 Jenkins 9,148 9.022 8.647 8,134 -1.014 -11.1 Johnson 8.048 8.097 7,788 7.204 -844 -10.5 Jones 8,468 9,982 11,276 12,629 4,161 49.1 Lamar 10,240 10.084 9.779 9,571 -669 -6.5 Lanier 5,097 5,013 4,813 4,614 -483 -9.5 Laurens P 32,313 33,981 34,577 34,799 2.486 7.7 Lee 6.204 6,313 6,276 6,109 -95 -1.5 Liberty 14.487 16,099 19,274 24,118 9,631 66.5 Lincoln 5.906 5.539 5,216 4,869 -1,037 -17.6

217 Table 23(Continued)

County Year Change, 1960.1975 1960 1965 1970 1975 Numerical Pt,cent Long 3,874 4,038 4.178 4,275 401 10.4 Lowndes 49,270 54,269 60,205 68,691 19,421 39.4 Lumpk in 7,241 7,749 8,214 8,730 1,489 20.6 McDuffie 12,627 13,755 14,614 15,613 2,986 23.6 McIntosh 6,364 6,850 7,122 7,429 1,065 16.7 Macon 13,170 12,845 12,550 12,012 -1,158 -8.8 Madison 11,246 12,315 12,823 13,117 1,871 16.6 Marion 5,477 5,280 4,928 4,464 -1,013 -18.5 Meriwether 19,756 19.490 18,917 18,237 -1,519 -7.7 Miller 6,908 6,576 5,933 5,062 -1,846 -26.7 Mitchell 19,652 19,562 18,816 17,610 -2,042 -10.4 Monroe 10,495 10,547 10,582 10,651 156 1.5 Montgomery 6,284 6,517 6,424 5,988 -296 -4.7 Morgan 10,280 10,769 10,774 10,457 177 1.7 Murray 10,447 12,497 13.979 15,257 4,810 46.0 Muscogee* 171,634 206,735 224,168 234,113 62.479 36.4 Newton 20.999 23.294 24,858 26,445 5,446 25.9 Oconee 6,304 6,729 6,906 6,926 622 9.9 Oglethorpe 7,926 7,600 7,102 6.437 -1,489 -18.8 Paulding 13.101 15.117 16,933 18,980 5,879 44.9 Peach 13,846 15,454 17,023 18.867 5,021 36.3 Pickens 8.903 9,386 9,620 9.789 886 10.0 Pierce 9.678 9,679 9,316 8,727 -951 -9.8 Pike 7.138 6.995 6,617 6,109 -1,029 -14.4 Polk 28,015 28.399 28,029 27,187 -828 -3.0 Pulaski 8.204 8.133 7,964 7.743 -461 -5.6 Putnam 7,798 8,164 8,312 8.424 626 8.0 Quitman 2,432 2,383 2,182 1,869 -563 -23.1 Rabun 7,456 7,673 7.717 7,779 323 4.3 Randolph 11,078 9.855 8,555 7,205 -3,873 -35.0 Richmond 135,601 154,830 172,027 179,241 43,640 32.2 Rockdale 10.572 13,708 16,758 20.280 9,708 91.8 Schley 3,256 3,154 2.968 2,699 -557 -17.1 Screven 14,919 13,869 12,680 11,276 -3,643 -24.4 Seminole 6.802 6,879 6,731 6,381 -421 -6.2 Spalding 35.404 39.532 42.909 46,891 11.487 32.4 Stephens 18,391 19,552 20.342 21.242 2,851 15.5 Stewart 7,371 6.885 6,280 5.511 -1.860 -25.2 Sumter 24.652 26,635 27.962 29.193 4,541 18.4 Talbot 7,127 7.525 7,788 7.913 786 11.0 Taliaferro 3.370 3.012 2.569 2,066 -1.304 -38.7 Tattnall 15.837 16.801 17.181 17,410 1.573 9.9 Taylor 8,311 8.087 7.767 7,329 -982 -11.8 Telfair 11.715 11,681 11.204 10,511 -1,204 -10.3 Terrell 12.742 12,178 11.315 10.399 -2,343 -18.4

218 Table 23(Continued)

County Year Change, 1960-1975 1960 1965 1970 1975 Numerical Percent Thomas 34,319 36.538 37.633 38.557 4.238 12.3 Tift 23.487 25.301 26.358 27.279 3,792 16.1 Toombs 16,837 18.265 19.026 19.426 2.589 15.4 Towns 4,538 4.741 4.730 4,641 103 2.3 Trcdtlen 5.874 6,162 6.188 6.052 178 3.0 Troup 47.189 46,293 44.861 43.279 -3.910 -8.3 Turner 8.439 8,438 8,050 7.354 -1,085 -12,8 Twiggs 7.935 8.127 8.121 8.030 95 1.2 Union 6.510 6,568 6.322 5.956 -554 -8.5 Upson 23.800 24.121 23.953 23.604 -196 -0.8 Walker 45.264 49.179 52.345 56,613 11.349 25,1 Walton 20,481 22.625 24.168 25.691 5,210 25.4 Ware 34.219 36.164 37.628 39.586 5.367 15.7 Warren 7.360 6.905 6.326 5.657 -1.703 -23.1 Washington 18.903 18.683 18.044 17.195 -1.708 -9.0 Wayne 17.921 1.8,972 19.940 21.508 3.587 20.0 Webster 3.247 2,966 2.642 2,281 -966 -29.8 Wheeler 5.342 5,037 4.545 3.906 -1.436 -26,9 White 6.935 7.464 7.902 8.485 1.550 22.4 Whitfield 42.109 5,018 56.979 64.534 22,425 53.2 Wilcox 7.905 6.931 5.946 4,941 -2.964 -37.5 Wilkes 10.961 10.338 9.635 8.939 -2.022 -18.4 Wilkinson 9.250 9.901 10.274 10.489 1.239 13.4 Worth 16.682 15.293 13.780 12.223 -4.459 -26.7 Georgia 3.943.116 4.321.993 4.746.162 5.127.899 1,184,783 30,0 The populations of Chattahoochee and Muscogee Counties are combined.

219 THIS positionpaper was written for theEducationGoals Commissionas background information for the establishment of educational goals for Geor- gia through 1985. The paper proposes to offer an analysis of certain significant conditions under which the individual in Georgia currently lives,to extrapolate trends for predicting conditions in 1985 andtosuggest understanding, knowledge andskills whichtheindividual should possess in order to successfully cope with his environment. The task was overwhelming in scopc. One could begin anywhere and end anywhere. What appears merely represents some conditions and trends which seem to merit the attention of the Commis- sion. The writer has taken prophetic license in an effort to envision future ed- By Kenneth B. Matheny, Ph.D. ucational needs. Many observations are perhaps true of life within most communities across the nation. However, an effort has been made to highlight those conditionsandtrendswhichappear The Individual in Georgia

uniquely true of life in Georgia. The focus of this paper is clearly upon change. Many factors combine to make rapid change the order of the day for the coming decades; cultural confrontation as a result of fantastic progress in communications and transportation, popula- tionandknowledgeexplosionsand technological advances of geometric proportions. Life is becoming inc) easingly complex and intellectually demanding. - The individual's capacity for adaptation will be sorely tested in the years ahead. He must be equipped to adequately cope - - with rapid changechange in the con- . ditions under which he lives, change in relationship patterns among people, and change in attitudes toward authority and limitationsofallkinds. The central theme of the paper is that Georgians in the future even more than in the present

orDID7221 must become adaptive learners with suf- tranquility of the countryside. Theyare ficient skills and adequate flexibilityto largely unprepared for the yeasty social cope with the demands and pressures of changes which are occurring within the a rapidly changing environment. cities. Many of these rural whitcsare The plan of the paperistotreat appalled at the prospect of having black change which is to occur in theyears neighbors, of hippiesflauntingsocial ahead under three major topics. These propriety, and of expressway driving. include change in the basic conditions The compositionof neighborhoods under which Georgians will live, change within the cities is rapidly changing. The in the patterns governing the relation- pattern is all too familiar. An all white ships among people and change in the community witnesses the advent of the attitudes of people toward authority and first black family. Rumors fly, fears ofa other limitations. After each topican black flood are fed by unscrupulous real attempt will be made to draw educational estate brokers, and the inevitable migra- implications and, where possible, to offer tion to the high ground of the suburbs recommendations for future educational begins. Frequently all white neighbor- practice. The writer does not feel the hoods become all black within fiveyears responsibility for indicating precisely how or less. Here and there this unceasing each recommendation should be imple- cycle is challenged by forward looking mented. It is enough to point up educa- community organizations, butfor the tional needs stemming from changes dis- most part the exodus is incessant. The cussed within the paper. 1968 federal housing law offersa ray of hopefor \tec,v thefuture.Progressive realtors may sell to blacks and still maintain white patronage by using the federal APEOPLE on the Move. Georgians government as a whipping boy. However, are literally on the move! The picture is any rapid retardation of thisflight of much the same throughout the nation fear is not in the offing. White Geor- where one family in fivemoves each gians,likewhitesintheother 49 year. Much of the movement within states, are likely to continue to react to Georgia is from the rural countryside blacks in their neighborhoods as though to the urban centers and from the urban they had the bubonic plague.If the centers to the suburbs. Rural whites and arrival of blacks in previously all white blacks are moving intothecitiesin neighborhoodsisa disappointment of large numbers, and urban whitesare catastrophic proportions to whites, the moving from the cities to the suburbs situation frequently becomes lessthan to escape blacks and rural immigrants. idyllic for blacks. As whites move out Both of th-se population movements they take their money with them and in create their own kind of stress. due time leave the central city withan Rural Georgians are presently being intolerable financial burden. Middle class forced off the farms and out of the small whites have an "out"they can always villages as opportunities for farmem- move to the suburbs. Middle class blacks, ployment decrease year by year. They however, are imprisoned. Sooner rather are forced tb give up the provincial, than later they will be -joined in their low-keyed, cool aspects of rural living move out of the ghetto by lower class . for the hustling, up-tight, hot aspects of blacks and whites. urban living. Lacking adequate coping Georgians pay a psychological price skills, their expectations are frequently for their mobility. Many experiencea shattered, and they experiencea form senseofrootlessnessandloneliness of cultural shock. The steamingpave- amidst ant hills of people. The needs for ment and beeping horns of the express- intimacyaridbelongingnessarefre- ways are poor substitutes for the green quently thwarted rather than satiated by

222 congestedliving.Familiarlandmarks very old. By 1980 the number of persons and familiar faces which offered psy- in the United States reaching age 65 chological security have been left behind is expected to be 50 percent greater than for strange and somewhat alien surround- in 1950, and well over 50 percent of the ings. A massive energy expenditure ac- population will be 25 or younger. Demo- companiestheconstantreadjustments graphic statistics in Georgia appear com- occasioned by this mobility. parable. The state currently has over Three's a Crowd. By 1985 thevast 100,000 five-year-olds alone (Nix, 1968). majority of Georgians will be living in Providing for the educational needs of cities.Approximately Jane-thirdofall this swelling tide of young people presents GeorgianspresentlyliveinAtlanta. a real challenge to a state which has been Within the foreseeable futue one may conservative in public spending. The pace expecttosee one super megalopolis of school building and the amount of covering an area roughly extending from financing required must be stepped up a point some six hundred miles north of markedly. Boston to Atlanta. To many of us now, On the positive side of the ledger one suchafatelooks worse than death. might speculate that younger Georgians Perhaps we can yet break out of our withless of an overlay of prejudice provincialism and begin regional plan- might earn a much better score in race ning to insure green belts around metro- relations and other social problems than politan areas limitedinsize and sur- has our generation. There is some evi- rounded by satellite cities of yet smaller dence that these young people are less sizes. Such human engineering is well enamoured witha consumer society along in England and the Scandinavian than we. They are quick to remind us countries but barely recognizable here. that we are hung up with materialism Along with Reston. Virginia, Colum- since we were products of thede- bia, Maryland. Lake Meadows in Chi- pression years. On the other hand. they cago. and Fresh Meadows in New York have been sated and are consequently City, Georgia has one of the nation's freedto pursue higher personal and few planned communities in Peachtree social needs.* City south of Atlanta in Fayette County. Highdensitypopulationtendsto Since our government has little provision create social pathology. Thomas Malthus for regional planning, the development felt that vice and misery would impose of planned communities will not likely the ultimate natural limit on growth of be on any significant scaleuntilthe populations. Most studies of the effects populace demands it. At the moment of population compression have focused the cities are becoming more and more upon the misery factor (predation, dis- crowded, the strain on public facilities ease, and failing food supplies)as a and services greater and greater, and the deterrentto increasingpopulations. populace remains apathetic. Calhoun (1962) offers an analysis of The entire nation is beginning to reel the ill effects of high density populations from the population explosion. The .an- among rats which comes closer to the nual rate of increase in the United States vice factor. In his simulated inner-city (a combination of birth rate, death rate, environment (rats forced to live in a life and immigration) is larger than the an- *Maslow (1962) has written about de- nual rate of increase in India, Japan, or ficit vs. growth needs and has suggested that Italy(Wrenn, 1962,17). The lower early deprivation creates deficit needs which death rate is contributing greatly to the tend to persist throughout a lifetime. A population increase, while the birth rate study (Hunt, 1941) with rats suggested that early food deprivation was followed in later is the lowest ever. The population inlife by a pronounced greed for food. The crease is primarily among the economi- implication is that needs early sated do not cally unproductivethe very young and tend to become as determinative later in life.

223 space one-half the normal size) misery activitieswere thus transformedinto elements were experimentally eliminated social activities in which the chief satis- by providing an abundance of food and faction was interaction with other rats. minimizingpredationanddisease.It This resulted in a further restriction of was social pathology which limited the their life space. They were literally piled reproduction of the colony and created one upon another with resultant unsani- abnormalities in the manner in which tary and unpleasant conditions prevail- they behaved toward one another. While ing. The term "behavioral sink" is pic- itis always dangerous to leap from rat turesque of the unwholesome conditions studies to an analysis of a human situa- obtaining in the experiment. One can tion, there appear to be clearly recog- conjecturethatthispathologicalto- nizablesimilarities between conditions getherness was a function of the anxiety within Calhoun's rat colony and those resulting from these deviant and harrow- within the crowded ghettos of the inner ing adjustments.* There are more simi- city. laritiesbetweenCalhoun's study and Stress from the unusually heaVy social ghetto life than we care to recognize. interaction necessitated by the doubled Social disorganization accompanied by population resulted in a number of social high mortality rates, lessening maternal pathologies. The mortality rate among concerns, sexual promiscuity, and other newly born rats went up as highas forms of deviancy, territorial rights of 80 to 90 percent. Contributing largely gangs, crime. and other social pathologies to this fantastic mortality rate was the are clearly in evidence. We already have inability of females to carry pregnancy to in our cities many "behavioral sinks," full term or to survive delivery of their and the increasingly crowded nature of litters if they did. The female's instinct our cities in the future will likely result for nest building and for protecting her in many more. youth faltered. Certain males became Living with the Machines. Man's tech- cannibals in spite of the plentiful supply nological accomplishments pose a po- of food. Evident, too, was the triumph tential threat to his personhood. Already of might. After a series of fights among man is selected, directed, and monitored males, a clearly established hierarchy was by the machines he has created. Self- recognized. The limited space of the col- correcting ony was inequitably distributed as domi- servo - mechanisms, informa- nant males established territorial rights ation retrieval systems, and cybernetic within which they ruled sizable harems. devices of all kinds have added greatly to technological efficiency and produc- Certain males deprived of sex privileges tion. However, these same automated among females consignedtoharems would relentlessly attack in packs un- devices have contributed on the part of chaperoned estrous females beyond the some to a sense of impersonalization, to satrapies of the dominant males. Other alossofself-importance.McLeish males became subservient, gave up at- (1968) has warned that man is fast be- tempts to engage in sexual activities with coming aslavetohistechnological females but made frequent and favorably efficiency, that man has come to believe received sexual advances toward domi- that whatever can be done must be done nant males. in spite of the exacting demands which Of special significance was what Cal- such feats require of him. houn termed the "behavioral sink." The Technological advances have had, and stress from the heavy demand of these will continue to have, their effects in the aberrantsocialinteractionsledtoa world of work. While itis debatable pathological togetherness. Individual rats *Experimental studies have demonstrated that stress increases affiliative needs. To- would rarely eat except in the company getherness thus becomes a means of assuag- of other rats. Eating and other biological ing anxiety.

224 whether or not automation willresult threatening social pathologies. thatlife in fewer jobs. it is certain that automation will he characterized by a dialogue with is having its effect upon existing jobs. cbernetic machines and that they will Thereisan unrelenting tendency for have considerably more leisure time as unskilled factory and farm jobs to be- a result of increasing longevity and a come less and less available and for the shorter work week.. This picture sug- educational requirements of all occupa- gests a number of guidelines for educations to rise. The trend is inexorable! tion in the future. Machines in the decades ahead will con- The one implication most evident from tinue to relieve man of the drudgery of the above picture is that Georgians must backbreaking tasks, to remove unskilled heequippedtocopewithconstant occupations from the job market, to raise changes in their environment. They must the educational requirements of all occu- he able to view change as a challenge pations, and to require continual job re- rather than a tragedy. This can best be training on the part of a large part of accomplished by emphasizing the pro- the labor force. The level of educational cesses of education rather than the con- attainment will clearly be the single most tent. The individual must have available important factor for labor force entrants to him a set of processes or procedures inthe coming decades. Georgia has for the orderly and satisfactory handling serious cause for worry sinceitleads of ncv adjustments. This means he must the nation in school dropouts (Miller, be taught how to learn, how to think 1963). A smaller proportion of Geor- and how to make decisions. This em- gia youth finishes high School than in phasis upon processes rather than upon any other state in the Union. This sug- content would tend to make the student geststhatlarge numbers of Georgia more responsible for his education.It youth will be poorly equipped to com- would be telling the student. "Change is pete for employment opportunities with occurring so rapidly that life in your dad the rest of the nation's youth. will be considerably different than life in our day; consequently. the best we Adding Life to One's Years. The awe- can do is to teach you how to make some accomplishments of modern med- intelligent decisions about those issues ical science have added years to car and dilemmas with which you will be lives. Population statistics continue to faced in the future." rise even though the U.S. birth rate is Unfortunately today's teachers have the lowest ever. This is a result of the been taught to respond to the correct- increasing longevity of life. If medicine is concerned with adding years to cur ness of ithe product rather than to the correctness of the process. Future teach- lives,education should be concerned with adding life to our years. If trends ers must be taught to .nourish the think- continue, an increasing number of re- ing process, to be more concerned with tirees will have an increasing number of the logic of the process employed than idle years to occupy. Furthermore, the the correctness of the conclusion reached. work week for those employed likely Students must be taught (1) how to iden- will continue to shrink. These factors tity alternatives and where to obtain in- will combine to produce a great deal of formation regarding them: (2) how to leisure time for Americans. predict the probability of one's success in each alternative: (3) how to estimate the Educationa IImplications degree to which each alternative will ac- Our analysis concludes that in the future cord with one's own values,interests, Georgians will continue to be a people and abilities: and (4) how to construct a on the move, that much of their move- plan of action. Specific answers to spe- ment will be toward increasingly com- cific problems are time-dated; the above pacted life spaces in spite of their processes, however, will serve the student

225 well throughout a lifetime. teach also learn from their teaching ef- In the future. computer-based infor- forts.* We have known for a long time mation retrieval systems will serve as a that the best way to learn is to teach. powerful ally to the student's storehouse If teachers were to monitor the instruc- of factual knowledge and as a prosthetic tion of student tutors with special atten- device greatly extending his capacity for tion given to the logic employed, this intelligent behavior. Already such sys- approach could prove especially reward- tems are operating as adjuncts to the inginteaching theprocesses of ed- student's career decision-making (Tied- ucation. man et al.. 1968; Cogswell & Estevan. The increasing use of machines for 1965: Inipelliteri. 1968: Minor. 1968). directing human life and the cultural The computer carries on a dialogue with premiumontechnologicalefficiency the student regarding important steps in suggests that schools will need to hu- the decision-making process; processes manize their work with children in order informationregardingthestudent's to combat the tendency toward imper- values, interests. and aptitudes: and offers sonalization stemming from these factors. pertinent data regarding job opportuni- Teachers must come to terms with the ties. satisfactions, and requirements. The essential humanity of students, with their ability of these systems to store, process, feelings, needs, and aspirations. The and retrieve thousands of bits of infor- training of teachers should attempt to mation and to make them immediately reawaken within teachers those aspects available to inquiring students promises of feeling life which have beencare- to significantlyrevise the relr of the fully conditioned into unawareness. This guidance worker in dispensing loi,.,*ana- training should prompt the teacher to be tion. Computer-assisted instruction will increasingly sensitive tothe emotional likely prove immensely helpful to teach- climate of the classroom and to emo- ers in selecting the appropriate instructional signals being emitted by individ- tional units and materials based upon ual students. Teachers should acknowl- input information regarding the academic edg.t these signals and deal with such readiness of a given student and to stu- psychological data in an effort to demon- dents both in communicating information strate respect for the personal dignity of and inteaching basic skills.Students each pupil. must be prepared for the individualized The school should humanize thecur- learning made possible through com- riculum by teaching for relevancy, i.e., puters and other carefully designed inteaching knowledge and skills which the structional devices. student will recognize as being relevant One promising way of teaching the to his interest and needs. The curriculum processesoflearning,thinking,and should speak to such culturally deter- decision-making to students is to utilize mined discontinuities as beginning school, them as tutors of younger students while separation from the family, beginning under the supervision of the teacher. work, marriage.retirement. and even There is ample evidence to suggest that death. It should also concern itself with students can be profitably utilizedas tutors to other students (Cutler, 1964; *While the research suggests that both Perkins, 1966; Cloward, 1967). Some tutored and tutors profit from this arrange- of the advantages of using students as ment. the tutors tend to profit more than the tutored. This is consistent with Ries- tutors are (1) students are able to estab- man's "helper therapy principle." by which lish a supportive relationship with other is meant the tendency for the dispensers of students more rapidly than with teach- services to benefit more than the receivers ers; (2) students feel no threat from an of services (1965): witness the growth of authority figure when learning from lay leaders in Alcoholics Anonymous; Re- a covery, Inc.; Synanon: and other lay therapy fellow student; and (3)students that groups.

226 sensitive topics such as sex. drugs. racial available to him for learning the subject. relations. violence. pollution. and war. should he diagnosed. Similarly the struc- These are the elements of life. and if the ture of the discipline (Bruner. 1960). schoolis to prepare youth for life,it the basic principles necessary to com- must examine such issues. prehendthediscipline. must he dis- Another way of making the curri- covered, and teaching-learning units culum relevant is to more fully utilize (Flanagan. 1967) useful in understand- communityresources. Secretaryof ingtheseprinciplesshould be con- Health. Education and Welfare Robert structed. The proper teaching-learning Finch has recently stressed the impor- units should be matched with the stu- tance of providing inner-city youth with dent's stage of readiness and preferred life-likeexperienceswithinthe com- learning mode to accomplish a good fit. munity.The"ParkwayProject"in As we hinted earlier. the teacher by Philadelphiaisa school without walls 1985 is likely to he greatly assisted by (Thombley, 1969).Itdepends exclu- the computer in diagnosing the stage of sively upon the offices, stores, labora- readiness and in prescribing the proper tories. museums, factories, and jetair- teaching-learning units. Such matching ports of the modern city to provide the should virtually assure the student of a nuts and bolts of its educational pro- series of successful school experiences. gram. While the wisdom of such exclu- Part of the student's instruction should sive utilization of community resources he in groups to insure social learning. may he questioned, itis clear that the Group learning should offer a laboratory community can serveas aneffective in which human relationship skills are means of rendering school experiences stressed and serveas a medium for more relevant to life. Business and in- further academic learning. dustry must join the school in its educa- As hasbeenpointedoutearlier, tionaleffortmorefullythanatthe Georgians as well as other Americans present. All youth couldprofit from are on the move. The likelihood of one exploratory work experience in various spending one's life in the community of occupational areas and fields. Some his birth is becoming increasingly remote. youthwillwishto work extensively For this reason the school's curriculum while finishingtheir education.If the must not be provincial in tone. Geor- wedding between the schools and busi- gians must be made aware of the broader ness and industry is complete, flexible world around them. Georgia as a part scheduling both within the schools and of the Southeast has tended to take a within the work stations will occur. It more ingrown, provincial outlookto- should be possible for high school youth ward life than many other quadrants of to attend school either in the morning thecountry.Increasingly, Americans or the afternoon in order to maximize will be moving in and out of states. the possibility of part-time employment. Georgians must be educatedforthe Furthermore, business and industry broader culture to prepare them to cope should allow two students tofillone with life in other parts of the country. full-time work station. This suggestionisespecially pertinent Humanizing instruction means individ- tothe education ofruralGeorgians. ualizing instruction. Teaching directed Large numbers of today's rural youth to the average student should give way will be faced tomorrow with finding em- to teaching directedtoeach student. ployment in the big cities. It is difficult Individualized teaching calls for a care- to believe that their education is pre- ful examination of both the student and paring them to cope with the demands the subject to be taught. The student's of the high density living of urban areas. stage of readiness, the building blocks The congested living patterns of the (intellectual operations) which he has future have many implications for ed-

227 ucation. The individual must develop a modern living such skills are as necessary clear sense of self-identity*to enable as job skills or study skills. him to resist mass pressures for unnecessary conformity. a set of social skills to Changing Relationships enable him to negotiate with others for Among People the satisfaction of personal needs anda Racial Confrontation.Already a sig- sense of social responsibility to prompt nificant factor on the American scene him to become a part of the solution for many years. racial confrontation will rather than the problem. Students must likely continue to dominate national at- be taught the advantages of participant tention for some time. Georgia has been democracyincombatingsocialdis- the stage for much of this drama. At- organization leading to the creation of lanta is the national headquarters of the "behavioral sinks." On the other hand, Ku Klux Klan and the headquarters of students should be taught to jealously the Southern Christian Leadership Con- guardtheirindividualrightsagainst ference and other civil rights organiza- mass pressure for conformity. Perhaps tions; it was the home base for Martin the concept of responsible independence Luther King, Jr., the site of many of is the goal for which education should the sit-ins and freedom rides and is well strive. known for its leadership efforts in racial The curriculum should help develop relationships. The contest continues with many self-fulfilling ways of using leisure blacksstrugglingtobuildespritde time. Recreation, avocations, andop- corps and a positiveself image and portunities for volunteer social service with whites, somewhat bewildered by it should be taught. One of the biggest all, moving over (or perhaps more ac- problems of retirees or other unemployed curately, moving out)to make room. persons is to find meaning in their exis- Well-meaning attempts by the races to tences. The increasing length of life will communicate emotionally are near swell the ranks of the retired, making misses like ships at sea passing in the this one of the most pervasive problems dark.Whitesfailtounderstand and for the future. The school should not indeed are threatened bythe blacks' shy away fromthislifeadjustment. attempts to build a positive self image Youth should be made aware of such by slogans such as "Black is beautiful," problems, and the unemployed andre- and blacks lose patience with whites who tired should be able to look to the experiencedifficultyin shaking loose school for assistance in discoveringmean- from emotional conditioning stemming ingful activities for their leisure time. from centuries of cultural training. And, finally, the future mobility of The confrontationislikelytobe the population and the crowded condi- stepped-up on the politicalfront. The tions within which Georgians will live movement of whites out of the urban may create special problems in meeting centers and into the suburbs will result personal needs for intimacy and belong- in political shifts. Black Georgians, coming. Consequently, schools must stress prising some 26 percent* of the state's communication and relationship skills to population, have enjoyed very little polit- enable Georgians to meet these psy- ical representation in the past. In the chological needs while in transit. For future, however, blacks will control the *Zig ler (1969) found that 20 percent of *This information is to be found in a four and five year old Negro children en- recent handout (April 25, 1969) from the rolled in Head Start programs did not know Biostatistics Service of the Georgia Depart- their own names, although they knew the ment of Public Health. However, such in- names of friends. This study suggests the formation is extremely difficult to calculate need for special assistance to be given to since federallaws have discouraged the such children in establishing self-identity. practice of asking for race on standard forms.

228 inner cities. and ''white power" will be The A'aleidos(opic Family Structure. limited to the surrounding satellite cities Significant changes within the family and suburbs. Blacks will inherit along structure are under way. Family size k with their newly won political power. shrinking.relationships between hus- faltering economies, and"behavioral bands and wives and parent; and chil- sink.- Whites have taken their wealth dren are changing. and marriage as a with them leaving the cities with an in- social institutionis being ree.aluated. tolerable financial burden. The cities The economically integrated self-suffi- could conceivably expand into the su- cient patriarchial home is on its way burban areas and thereby increase their out.Inits placeis emerging a new tax basis. However, suburban whites op- family structure characterized by its child- pose this move since it would remove centeredness, equality in husband-wife their tax dodge and the psychological relationships and non-authoritarianism. distance between themselves and blacks. In many ways the emerging structure Blacks oppose it since it would delay better reflects the aims of a democratic theirassumption of politicalpower. Hence, the trend will undoubtedly con- society than the more traditional struc- tinue, and politicians within the central ture. The sanctity of the traditional mar- cities will soon change from white to riage formulasexual continence before black. marriage. periods of engagement, and The Feminine Protest. Women have lastingmarriage unionsis beingre- joined minority groups in demanding evaluated. A sizable number of college civil rights. Women were specifically youth are openly experimenting with mentioned in the Equal Opportunity informal cohabitation, and anthropolog- Employment Act as legitimate plaintiffs ists such as Margaret Mead have sug- along with minority groups. The chief gested marriage by levels. source of discrimination against women Mothers are returning to the work in America isin employment. Women force in increasing numbers. The amount are very much in the world of work of parent-child contact is likely to de- today. They comprise over one-third of crease as the trend for mothers to return the work force, and their number is to work increases.Itisquite possible growing. However, there are certain oc- that the traditional role of the home in cupations which have been denied them furnishing psychological support will he on the basis of sex. In the United States met less well in the future. only one percent of working college graduate engineers and only 11 percent Educational Implications of the scientists are women. By contrast, The above mentioned revolutionsin 50 percent of the professionals and 20 the manner in which people relate to percent of engineers in the Soviet Union one another are clearly not happening are women (Wrenn, 1962, 25). The new in a corner, and the school must cease career pattern for women calls for them being timid in discussion of these topics. tofinishschool, begin work, become The rational setting provided by an insti- married, have children, leave the work tutiondedicatedtoscientificinquiry force, rear their families, return to work should prove ideal for investigating these after their last child is in school and re- topics. The casual and often,inaccurate main at their jobs until retirement. Wom- discussion of such topics in the streets is en are striking out against their pro- a poor substitute for the more deliberate, tected position within society and are de- objective study of the classroom. Stu- manding a more equalposition with dents who now find the school bland males. This conflict is destined to become and unpalatablewould soonfindit more lively in the future and the relation- stimulating and relevantiftheircur- ship between male and female somewhat riculumincludedrelationships among strained as a result. races, sexes, and family members as well

229 as values, economic systems. psychology, take girls more seriously. The school ._!tugs, and war' should inform them of the new career The powerful impact of the schools pattern of women and encourage them must be used to Ileip Georgians of all to prepare themselves accordingly. In races to better understand each other. the pastit was considered unnecessary One gets the impression that teachers for girls to devote a significant amount within the classroom are unduly timid of time to vocational preparation since about candid discussion of this problem. it was assumed that their work experi- The contest between the races continues. ence would he brief due to their role but Georgia schools for the most part within the family. Girls should be ad- seem to have &dared thisissueoff visedto consider career opportunities limits to direct frontal attack within the previously closed to them and to con- classroom. Students need to develop an sider the likelihood of their spending appreciation for individual andracial many years in employment even though differences within a pluralistic society. they may marry and rear families. The education of black students will Minority students as well as girls need special attention in the future. The should be encouraged to raise their ed- education of blacks has been inferior ucational-vocational aspiration levels. In to that given to whites: yet, in the years the past, blacks in Georgia and through- ahead,the most challengingpolitical out the United States have been limited responsibilities will rest with black poli- mostly tounskilled, semi-skilled, and ticians and community leaders within service occupations(Johnson,1967). Georgia's central cities. The greater prob- They have learned this fact all too well lems of these areas will require the most and their occupational aspirations reflect innovative and daring of political stra- these limitations.In many cases their tegies. The educational implications of aspirations lag seriously behind the thisfactare obvious. Black students growing occupational opportunities avail- especially need to he sensitized early to able to them. Schools must double their the problems of the inner-city.to be efforts to inform blacks of these open- motivated to contribute to the solutions ing doors and to encourage them to and to be superbly prepared fo:- leader- aspire, where appropriate, to occupa- shiproles. The shamefully low per- tions previously closed to them. Educa- centage of black Georgians obtaining a tional materials used mustreflectthat college education must be significantly improved occupational lot of the black raised. Every effort must be made to both in print and in picture. In every induce the very best teachers to fill class- possible way the black student should rooms in predominantly black schools he exposed to social models who demon- and in every reasonable manner black strate the new position of the black in and white students should be encouraged American society. to attend school together.* The changingpatternsthatgovern The emerging role of the woman in relationships among races,sexes, and the world of work demands that schools family memhers suggest the crucial importance of human relationship skills *The second largest social sciencere- search project in this country, the Coleman for the future. Since confrontationis Report (1967), concluded that the achieve- likely to characterize our existence for ment of minority students improves without years to come, the individual will need adversely affecting the achievement of ma- special skill in coping with conflict. jority students if schools are 50 percent white or more and 50 percent middle class or Furthermore, he will need to develop a more. However, both white and minority tolerance for ambiguity in order to help studentssufferin achievement when the him to survive the lack of crispness of percentage of whites falls below the 50 per- the many issues with which he must cent mark. contend. Destined to livein crowded,

230 regimente.d urban are...is. the individual's they said that they had seen the earth skillinestablishingsatisfine, human the size of a quarter and that it was truly relationshipswillperhaps, more than one world. We lament the fact that we any other single factor, determine the are rapidly becoming a neighborhood but degree of his self-fulfillment. not a brotherhood. We are beim: forced together but without the appreciations Changing Attitudes Toward and social skills to relate in a meaning- Authority and Other limitations ful and civilized manner. Moreover the Striking Out Against External Limitations. worlds shrinking has caused us to ques- Much of what is happening throughout tion the absolute nature of many of our Georgia and the nation is indicative of values since we have witnessed other cul- the new zeitgeist which openly chal- tures which appear to experience their lenges the old order. The youth of today own brand of success with ii.different is increasingly less willing to accept au- approach to moral and ethical problems. thority which rests entirely upon per As spin-off from this cultural con- quisites such as badges, degrees, titles. frontation, some youth experience a sense or skin color. Authority which does not of self-diffusion as a result of the lack reston dearly recognizable merit or of a value base. The visible competition expertise will he soundly questioned, It of differing value systems has forced is not enough to be white: to be the the individual to reexamine the basis of teacher. professor, or president: or to be hisvalues.andsuchquestioningis male. Youth is demanding that leader- fraught with anxiety. Youth are unself- ship he a function of excellence rather consciously experimenting with use of than privileged position. The conserva- hallueigenic, depressantand stimulant tive nature of Georgia political and drugs: with pre-marital sexual relation- family life has, perhaps, accounted for ships: and with communal living. Much the fact that this behavior isless pre- of this behavior appears to he a thrash- valent in our schools than in schools in ing about indicative of their dissatisfac- many parts of the country. However. tion with rationales given for the old we can expect to witness more of itin morality. While such behaviorisstill the future. avant-garde,andperhapslesswide- Such challenges are accompanied by spread in Georgia than in many parts of heated confrontation. The confrontation the country, it may be read as a symptom isnoisy, awkward, and at times ugly. of a generalizedreassessment of the Americans are learning the usefulness of rules which results quite naturally from applying pressure tactics to the System. extensive cultural confrontation.. They have been surprised to learn that Striking Out Against Internal Limitations. they can dent the System by their noise As afurtherreflection of thisegali- and have become drunken sometimes tarianzeitgeist.assumptions regarding upontheirnewlydiscoveredpower. hen:ditary limitations are being seriously While the various causes being cham- questioned. The concepts of fixed intel- pioned by such groups comprise some- ligence and predetermined development thing of a crazy quilt, the writer's anal- areparticularlyvulnerable(Frost & ysis suggests that the more reasonable Rowland.1969). Noone doubts that elements among them seem to bein differences in achievement exist. Eisen- quest of a fairer system characterized berg(1964)found a five-year difference by egalitarianism. between the reading levels of inner-city We are experiencing massive cultural and suburban youth. Coleman(1967) confrontation. Global transportation and found that minority group students enter communicationsystemshavegreatly schoolbehind,staybehind, andfall shrunken our planet. The Apollo astron- further behind before leaving school. auts clearly described the picture when What is being questioned, however, is

231 the assumption that such differences re- means of plannedinterventionthere flect genetically determined intellectual is a high probability of an increase in abilities. The IQ is in serious trouble in the cortical mass of rats. Such studies certain parts of the country. New York gave impetus to the development of Head City schools have banned the use of Start and other early childhood educa- g -up intelligence tests entirely, and the tion programs. FA aluation of such efforts Los Angeles schools have banned them has disclosed that their salutary effects in the primary grades. upon. the child's performance infirst Boyer and Walsh (1968) argue that gradeare ephemeral withoutfurther thereisno compelling evidence that reinforcement. Consequently. the Follow children are born intellectually unequal Through programs were inaugurated to and assume instead thatallchildren. supplement the efforts of Head Start. withthe exception of the exogenous While all the facts are not yet in. such varieties of the mentally retarded, are programs are highly promising and will horn with all the intellectual capacity likely persist in greater number. necessary to learn what is required of Along with the concept of fixed intelli- them. Bloom (1969) also challenges the gence. the concept of predetermined de- assumption that students fail for want velopment is being seriously questioned. of ability. He surmises that over 90 The concept of predetermined develop- percent of them can learn what we have m ent with its heavy emphasis upon to teach them. and that it is the respon- maturation suggested that the school sibility of the educational institution to was largely incapable of intervening in devise methods which will enable stu- the development of the child'sintelli- dents to master the subjects to be taught. gent behavior by instruction: the school John Carroll (1963) defines ability not must wait for the unfolding of the child's in terms of capacity but in terms of the abilities and interests. This view, which amount of time required to learn. There- emphasized the importance of time, is fore, if the student fails to learn it may currently giving way to a view which merely mean that the teacher didn't ex- holds that time is merely the backdrop tend sufficient time and patience to the against which development occurs. The student. Bruner (1960) blames curri- reallycrucialfactoristheinvariant culum construction for the difficulty of sequence of stages through which stu- many students to successfully master dents move as a result of necessary ex- subject matter rather than the student's periencing (Piaget, 1964). Consequently, inability to learn. He contends that any development of intelligent behavior can student can learn any subjectifthe be hastened by the intervention of the structure of the discipline undergirding school in providing properly sequenced the subject is discovered and educational experiences necessary for advancement experiences calculated to teach the disci- to the next stage of conceptual develop- pline are properly sequenced. By infer- ment (Ferguson, 1956; Hunt, 1965). ence one can conclude that the student's This recent thinking regarding the failure to learn is a consequence of the crucial role of experiencing in the de- teacher's failure to identify and sequen- velopment of intelligent behavior renders tially present the basic principles under- the school more responsible for the intel- lying a discipline. lectual development of students. While Many learning theorists believe that educators cling to assumptions regarding ability to learn in later life is powerfully fixed intelligence and predetermined de- affected by the presence or absence of velopment, they can be much more an early stimulating environment (Hunt, comfortable with their failures; they can 1961). Laboratory scientists like Krech always attribute the student's failure to and Rosenzweig (1966) have demon- learn to inadequate intellectual endow- strated that after enriched experience by ment. Many developmental psychologists

232 currently assume. however. that the stu- were reported to their teachers. At the dent's lack of readiness to profit from end of eight months both control and instruction is remedial. that he can be- experimental groups were retested. and come -ready- by a set of properly se- the results were astounding. In brief, quenced experiences. and that itis the the results suggested that:(1)while educators responsibility to identify and both groups showed mean gains over present those experiences necessary to pre-testing.the experimentals enjoyed prepare him adequately. gains significantly greater than those en- The discovery of the importance of joyed by the controls: (2) first and sec- self and teacher expectations upon stu- ondgradestudentsregisteredmuch dent performance hasledtofurther greater gains than' did students in the questioning of the heavy importance as- third through sixth grades: (3) students signed to genetic limitations to learning. in the medium track profited more from The Coleman Report (1967) pointed the heightened expectations of teachers up the strong relationship between the than did students in the slow or fast student's' low self expectations and in- tracks: and (4) the experimentals achi- adequate academic achievement. More eved significantly higher reading grades specifically, it is the student's feeling of and achievement test scores. While the inability to control his own destiny, to results and design for the experiment make a difference in his environment. are being qiestioned and replication stu- thatis so strongly related to academic dies are under way. this study has caused failure. The Report suggested that mi- us to seriously consider the effectsof nority students, except for Orientals, have teacher expectations upon student per- far less confidence than whites in their formance. ability to affect their environments The implications of such studies are and futures. Hendrick (1943). White staggering. If teacher expectations signifi- (1958). Hartman (1958), and Berlyne cantlyinfluencestudentachievement, (1965) have written of the importance then it is altogether possible ,hat a social of mastery over the environment as a bias regarding the inferiority of certain basic motivator of human beings. Walsh classes and races might. if widely held (1956)reported a coefficient of cor- byteachers,literallycondemnthese relation within the 30s between positive classes and races to a permanent posi- self concepts and school achievement. tionofacademicinferiority.Wilson The teacher's expectations forstu- (1963) presented compelling evidence dents have also been found to be posi- that teachers hold up lower standards tively related to academic achievement of achievement for students from de- among students. Inthe same manner prived homes. Clark (1963) and Ries- that the expectations of bank depositors stnan (1962) have suggested that homo- participated in the failure of scores of geneous ability groups have proven to banks in the early '30s, the expecta- be one of the most effective techniques tions which teachers have for their stu- for maintaining class differences. dents seem to help bring about the very A study of placement practices in one performances predicted. The study by midwesterncityindicatedthat where Rosenthal and Jacobson (1968) is espe- lower class children were misplaced ac- cially pertinent to this point. They led cording totheir aptitude scores, they certain teachers to expect greatly im- were placed in ability groups lower than proved performances on thepart of their aptitude scores would have sug- students speciously labeled "late bloom- gested, and where middle and upper ers" on the basis of contrived test scores. class children were misplaced, they were In actuality,thesechildren had been placed in ability groups higher than their selected randomly from the school popu- aptitude scores would have suggested lation, and fictitious test scores for them (Brookover, 1969). The effects of teach-

233 er expectations on the group placement in the equation for success in life.Its of lower class students seem especially relationshiptoacademic achievement pernicious if, as has been suggested. both has beenrepeatedlyindicatedinre- bright and slow students do better in search studies. Unfortunately the schools high ability classes. French (1959) con- have contributed to the poor self images cluded from his research that fast or of many students by subjecting them to slowstudentsplacedinhighability almost certain failure. This failure is a classes appeared in some subjects to function of (11 the extremely competi- have a definite advantage over students tive atmosphere of the classroom where in lower ability classes. This phenome- each student is constantly pitted against non might he explained on the basis of every other student and(2)of the the higher expectations which teachers school's persistence in teaching to the of high ability classes have fortheir "average"student.Glasser(1969) ntudents. On the other hand, one could recognizedtheschool's complicity in surmise that children teach each other, contributing to the poor self images of and that students placed with high ability students and recommended basic changes students have better peer teachers than it his book.Schools Without Failure. students placed with lower ability stu- The school must abandon normative dents. In any event, lower class children teaching, teaching to the average student. are placed inappropriately in lower abili- Grades and grade levels must be re- ty groups more often than middle and placed ultimately with a program of upper class children, and such place- continuous evaluation of the intellectual ment appears to have a less desirable development of each student. Individ- influence upon their academic achieve- uallyprescribedinstruction(Glaser. ment than does placement in high ability 1966) based upon this continuous eva- groups. Such reasoning led Judge Wright luationcould virtuallyinsure success of the Fifth District Court in Washing- forallstudents. As mentioned earlier ton, D.C.. to declare tracking in the the school's efforts to individualize in- schools to he unconstitutional (Research struction will he greatly assisted by com- Notes, 1969). puters programmed to store complete In order to combat the negative effects lists of instructional materials in the form of self-fulfilling prophecies on minority of modules which may be called group students, Clark (1963) has recom- "teaching-learning units" (Flanagan. mended thatthefirsteight years of 1967). Such units will be systematically schoolingforallAmericanchildren indexed in terms of what is expected to should be the same. that teachers "get he learned from them, what the pre- rid of ... guilt-determined sentimental- requisites are, and for what type of stu- ism and solicitousness" regarding mi- dent and situation this unit is most ap- nority and lower-class children and ex- propriate. The computer willassistin pect all children to perform acceptably. the selection of "teaching- learning units" Boyer and Walsh (1968) urge us,in based upon input data regarding the the absence of definitive scientific evi- teacher's diagnosis of the pupil's current dence about human potentialities, to base stage of academic readiness in any given our expectations of student achievement suhject. In this manner the student upon the most generous and promising providedwithaseriesof academic assumptions about human potential. real- successes for the development of a posi- izing that such assumptions tend to be tive self image. self-fulfilling. The student must come to feel that he is capable of impacting his environment, Educational Implications of making a difference. There is nothing There can be little doubt that a positive that breeds this kind of confidence like self image is a most significant factor success. In this sense all students are

234 entitledtocontinuous successexperi- future in order to gain perspective for ences within the schools. the designing of education in Georgia. Schools of thefuture must involve One phenomenon stands out most clearly students more in decisions which affect Georgians will be faced with signifi- them. The student should he offered cantchangesintheyearstocome; greater freedom and responsibility for changes in the conditions under which making decisions about his education. in they live, changes in the patterns gov- each subject area. if indeed such divi- erning relationships among them, and sions continue to exist in the future, the changesinattitudestoward authority student and the teacher together should and other limitations.Itisabsolutely establish certain long-range goals for the clear that we cannot appropriately design studcnt along with mention of sub-goals specific curricular content for the years necessary for the accomplishment of the ahead, but we can concentrate on pre- brmder ones. Such practice should re- paring Georgians to be experts at adjust- sult in a deeper commitment on the part ing to change. We can teach them how of the student to his own education and to learn, how to think, and how to make inastronger sense of self direction. decisions. We can teach them to appre- While the schools cannot controlthe ciate individual differences and to pos- student's home life,they can control sess the ability to relate successfully to behavioral contingencies within the class- one another. And perhaps most im- room and at the very least encourage portant of all, we can equip them to be situation specific behaviors and attitudes self-governing, responsibly independent contributing to the student's sense of human beings who can live at peace with well-being. Since the school is in some themselves. With such equipment Geor- ways more representative of society at gians can face the future unblinkingly. large than is the family, one might rea- Dr. Kenneth B. Matheny received his sonably assume that such attitudes and Ph.D. from Michigan State University in behaviors learned in the classroom would Counseling and Guidance in 1963. Since spread to situations outside the school. that time he has served as chairman, arts and sciences and instructor of psychology, Teachers must become aware of the Lansing Community College, Michigan; significant impact which their expecta- director of Special Services for Exceptional tions have upon the academic achieve- Children, Ingham County Schools, Michi- ment of students. They would do well gan;assistant professor, Michigan State to heed the admonition of Johann von University; other psychological and consultant positions; and is currently profes- Goethe when he said, "If you treat an sor of counseling and educational psy- individual as he is, he will stay as he is, chology, Georgia State University. He is a but if you treat him as if he were what member of a number of professional or- he ought to be and could be, he will be- ganizations including the American Edu- cational Research Association, the Ameri- come what he ought to be and could be." can Psychological Association, the National Perhaps more than anything else we and the Georgia Rehabilitation Associa- need teachers who believe strongly in tions,andthe American Rehabilitation the possibilities of their students, who Counselors Association. Dr. Matheny has lies hidden receivedseveralresearch grants includ- can seethetalent which ing a Vocational Rehabilitation Adminis- beneath an overlay of cultural expres- tration grant to support a conference to sions different than those of the teacher promote dialogue and contractual agree- and who can relateto students ina ments between the Division of Vocational Rehabilitation and Special Educators with manner which respectstheiressential Michigan for cooperating in the vocational humanity. placement of educable mentally retarded senior high students, and an Educational Professions Development Act planning and Concluding Remarks research grant entitled Model People for An attempt has been made to don the Model Cities: Ithprovement of Ghetto Edu- mantle of a seer and tolook into the cation in Three Urban Centers.

235 References Bcrlyne, D. E, Structure and Direction in Thinking. (New York: Bloom, Benjamin S., ''Learning for Mastery," (U.C,L.A. EvaluationWiley & Sons, 1965). Evaluation and Instructional Programs, 1968). Comntent, Center for the Study of Boyer, Wm. H. and Walsh. Paul, "Are Children BornUnequal?" (Saturday Review, Oct. 19, 1968). Brookovcr, Wilbur, et al. Research Notes, (Phi Delta Kappan, Feb.1969), P. 358. Bruner, Jerome S., The Process of Education, (Cambridge:Harvard Press, 1960). Calhoun, John B., "Population Density and Social Pathology," 139-148. (Scientific American, 1962, No. 206), pp. Carroll, John, "A Model of School Learning," (Teachers CollegeRecord, 1963), No. 64, pp. 723-733. Clark, Kenneth B.. Prejudice and Your Child, (Boston: BeaconPress, 1963). Cloward, Robert D., "Studies in Tutoring," (Journal of ExperimentalEducation, 1967), No. 36, pp. 14-25. Cogswell, John F. and Estcvan. D. P., ExplorationinComputer-Assisted Counseling, Document TM- 2582/000/11, (Santa Monica: System Development Corporation,1965). Coleman, James C., Equality of Educational Opportunity, (Washington:Government Printing Office, 1967). Cutler, Marilyn H., "Teacher Aides Are Worth the Effort," (The Nation'sSchools, 1964), No. 73, pp. 67-69. Eisenberg. L., "The Epidemiology of Reading Retardation anda Program for the Preventive Intervention," (The Disabled Reader, Baltimore: John Hopkins Press, 1964). Ferguson, G. A., "On Transfer and the Abilities of Man," (Canadian Journal p. 2. of Psychology, 1954), No. 8, Flanagan, John C., "Functional Education for the Seventies," (Phi French, John W., Evidence from School Records on the EffectivenessDetain Kappan, 1967), No. 49, pp. 27-31. Educational Testing Service, 1959). of Ability Grouping, (Princeton: Frost, Joe L. and Rowland, G. Thomas, Curricula for the Seventies,(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.. 1969). Glaser, R., "Variables in Discovery Learning," (Learning by Discovery: Rand Mc Nancy, 1966), pp. 13-26. A Critical Approach, Chicago: Glasser, William, Schools Without Failure, (New York: Harperand Row, 1969), Hartman, H., Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adoption, (New Yolk: 1958), International University Press, Hendrick, I., "The Discussion of the Instinct to Master," (Psychological 565. Quarterly, 1943), No. 12, pp. 561- Hunt, S. McV., Intelligence and Expetience, (New York: RonaldPress. 1961). Hunt, J. McV,, "The Effects of Infant Feeding Frustration UponAdult Hoarding in the Albino Rat," (Journal of 'Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1941), No. 36,pp. 338-360. Hunt, J. McV., "Traditional Personality Theory inthe Light of Recent Evidence," (American Scientist, 1965), No. 53, pp. 80-96. Impelliteri, Joseph T., The Development and Evaluation ofa Pilot Computer-Assisted Occupational Guid- ance Program. (Penn. Department of Public Instruction, Final Report, ProjectNo. 18033, University Park: Vocational Education Department, Penn. State Univ., July, 1968), Johnson, Lyndon B., Manpower Report of the President. (Washington:Government Printing Office, 1967). Maslow. Abraham H., Toward a Psychology of Being, (Princeton:Van Norstrand, 1962). Miller, Leonard M., "The Dropout: Schools Search for Clues to His Problems,"(School Life, May, 1963). Minor, Frank J., "An Experimental Computer-Based Educationaland Occupational Orientation System for Counseling." '(Paper presented to XVI International Congress of InternationalAssociations. Amsterdam, The Netherland.;, Aug. 1968. Yorktown Heights, New York: IBM sion. Xerox). Advanced Systems Development Divi- McLeish, Archibald, "The Great American Frustration," (Faturday Review,June 13, 1968). Nix, Jack P., Georgia Needs Kindergartens, (Atlanta: Georgia Departmentof Education, 1968). Perkins, Charles, "Leadership Techniques Course," (J. HealthPhys. Ed. Rec., 1966), No. 37, pp. 33-35. Piaget, J., The Origins of Intelligence in Children, (New York: InternationalUniversity Press, 1952). Research Notes, Phi Delta Kappan, (Feb. 1969). p. 358. Ricssman, Frank, "The 'Helper' Therapy Principle, (Social Work, 1965),No. 10, pp. 27-32. Rosenthal, Robert and Jacobson, Leonore, Pygmalion in the Classroom, (New York: Winston, Inc., 1968), Holt, Rinehart and Rosenzweig, M. R., "Environmental Complexity, Cerebral Change and Behavior," (American 1966). No. 21, pp. 321-332. Psychologist, Thombley, William, "No Classrooms or Teachers in High School Experiment," (TheAtlanta Journal, Wednesday, Feb. 19, 1969), p. 3-C. Tiedeman. David, et. al., "Information System for Vocational Decisions: Annual Report1966-67," (Cam- bridge, Mass.: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1968). Walsh, A., Self-concepts of Bright Boys with Learning Difficulty, (NewYork: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. 1956). White, R.W., "Motivation Revisited," (Psychological Monography, 1958), No. 72. Wrenn, C. Gilbert, The Counselor in the Changing World, (Washington, 'D. C.: American Guidance Association, 1962). Personnel and Zig ler, Edward, Ilead Start Revelations. (Paper delivered to Psychology Symposiumat Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, April, 1969).

236 PROFESSORMatheny provides only fascinating glimpses of his concept of the individual in Georgia today and in 1985. Too much time is spent presenting in abstracted form some of the generally accepted conclusions and projections of the demographer, the family expert, and even the comparative (rat) psychologist. Too little information is offered which defines the "individual" and too little evidence is presented in support of the glimpses which he makes available. His orientation to his task is only in part objective. He completely ignores many of the potential intrusive forces currently being tested which will undoubtedly change our society by 1985, if adopted, such as the guaranteed income, the twelve-months school, the extension of free medical care to all, the elimination of hunger, the direct election of the President, etc. What are the characteristics of the individual in Georgia today as inferred by Professor Matheny? One type of individual emerges, through the process critique: of piecing together the glimpses appearing on many pages, rather clearlythe The white male.Professor Matheny's view of this type of individual stresses these Individual characteristics: in Georgia I the white male is a racist; 2 he has less than adequate education: 3 he is patriarchial in family orientation, which is imputed to mean "not democratic," placing females in a subservient role, and not even taking the female seriously; 4 he exercises leadership primarily on the basis of "privileged position": 5 he is conservative: 6 he is too provincial in his outlook; 7 he is enamoured with a consumers' society and "hung up" on materialism; 8 he is too mobile and experiences "a sense of rootlessness and loneliness" as the price for mobility:

237 9 he develops "social pathologies" be- traditional authority of the family will cause he lives in areas of high pop- he shifted to school authority. ulation density; What about the individual in Georgia 10 he is now questioning the "absolute in 1985? Obviously, there will be more nature" of his values including his of them, the proportion of Negroes will helicf that intellectual abilities are he greater, women will compose a larger hereditary: proportion of the work force, schools will have the fundamental responsibility 11 he is "selected, directed, and monitored by the machines he has cre- for inculcating values in children, and ated": "life will be better." There is an axiom in sociology which 12 he is "apathetic." states By inference using ProfessorMatheny's All individuals are like all other in- logic, in 1985, the while male in Geor- dividuals in some ways; gia would have the opposite of these Some individuals are like some other characteristics. But that is not all that individuals in some ways; Professor Matheny sees as the charac- Each individualisunique in some teristics of the Individual in Georgia in ways. 1985.By changingoureducational In projecting the conditions and char- philosophy, methods, and content, (in- acteristics of the individual in Georgia cluding abandoning "normative teach- now and in the future, one approach ing," the individual of the future would might have been oriented around this

1 tolerate ambiguity; axiom. All individuals need to eat, to have a place in which to live, to have 2 perform"situationspecificbe- medical care when ill, to have sanitation haviors" (following situational eth- needs provided for, to have access to ics?); adequate transportation services in mov- 3 make an impact on his environment ing from place to place, etc. Today, the through the device of confronta- distribution of the available resources tion not just on racial matters; among Georgia's people leaves many without these fundamental need satis- 4 have"success"(whateverthat factions. Major differences and major means) as his ultimate goal: problemsexist today among various 5 cast out traditional leaders. types of individualswhites and Ne- groes: rural and urban dwellers; the Professor Matheny offers less descrip- young and the aged; the workers and tive patterns of the white female, who the non-workers; the religious and the will be employed, and male and female non-religious; the educated and the non- Negroes in Georgia. Employment ap- educated; etc.Certain needs are more parently is the key value around which closely associated with certain types of the future Georgiaisto be oriented. individuals than with others.There is Under the Matheny philosophy, work discrimination against Negroes in Geor- is necessary and public schools, would gia, with perhaps a growing amount of he "wedded" toindustry sothata discrimination byNegroesagainst constant supply of workersisavail- whites. The health needs of older per- able and trained to perform economic sonsare considerablydifferent from tasks. He uses such terms as "partici- those of the young and so forth. Finally, pantdemocracy,""responsibleinde- the unique pattern for each individual is pendence," etc.. but does not clarify perhaps the key to his satisfaction with these.In the transition of Georgia's his life style and situation. Somehow, individuals, as Professor Matheny sees within the conditions which will exist this, the cities will become inhabited by in Georgia at a temporal point in 1985. majorities of Negro citizens, and the each individual will respond on the basis

238 of his own satisfaction levels. How such inextremely dense spatialareas and determinations will he made is not di. - stillreproduce healthy children who cussed in the position paper. follow the values of their group while Professor Matheny does mention the some adults create works of art, per- inequalities which exist among Geor- form the necessary work, etc. gians: he does stress the increasing rate Current evidence strongly points to of change we will continue to expe- the slow-down of rural to urban migra- rience: he does emphasize the impor- tioninGeorgia.The movementis tance ofrelationships among people among urbanized peoples who usually which he believes will require changes relocateinorder to receive job and in attitudes toward authority andits economic advantages. Thus the living limitations: but he seems to deny the situation of such mobile people is us- existence of any central value system ually enhanced, permitting them more which will continue to bind our people of the society's material goods and op- together, and more importantly, to ig- portunities.Consequently. such aflat nore the fundamental characteristics of statement as "High density population race. sex, and age which determine most tends to create social pathology" can social roles.Perhaps w4.:are to have a be contested, and irrefutable evidence society within which race, sex, and age should be offered before this becomes are no longer conditioning facts, but the a statement of fact. world has never seen such a social or- There certainlyis4 large number der in its history. among the currentyabuthpopulation There are a number of specific points who reject through actionthe "pres- which evidence developed through var- sures"ProfessorMathcnyidentifies. ious research efforts does not support. These youth reject work as the ultimate For example, he statesthat "Middle goal. reject responsibility to the nation classblacks . . . areimprisoned." through military service, reject material More sensitive interpreters now speak possessions as the source of satisfaction, of "the affluent black America" and and stress exactly what he indicates may the "other black America," strongly de- be bad for ratstogetherness, intense lineating the freedom of the first type interaction, constant involvement. These in today's world. He stresses that mobil- youth may well be in leadership roles by ity(and here he evidently refers to 1985, and perhaps their values will then spatial mobility), produces a sense of dominate. Certainly, if our current edu- "rootlessness andloneliness."Ifthe cational efforts are considered as sources rateofspatialmobilityisashigh for producing some other pattern, such now as he indicates, then the manifesta- efforts have failed in part. tions of "rootlessness and loneliness" On the other side of the picture, there should be much more visible in meas- is an increasing number and proportion ured rates of mental illnesses, suicides, of Georgians who seek material success, divorces, etc.,than they arc.In his including holding down two jobs in- examples of rats, he points out that the stead of the traditional one. They have greater the density the greater the "path- found enough satisfaction in their way ological togetherness." If satisfaction is of life to marry, have families, partici- tobe derived through"interaction," pate in church activities and civic clubs. then "togetherness" would certainly per- pay their taxes, and remain convinced mit maximum interaction. But he calls that the United States and Georgia are the resultant congested conditions "un- good places in which to live. sanitary and unpleasant," and one can only ask "To whom?" The rats? Con- Professor Matheny concludes with the gestion, as the-"cause" of a "behavioral statement of fact that changes will oc- sink" is not adequate. Many peoples cur in the years to come.This is a in the world's history have and do live truism, meaningless unless the nature

239 of such changes is identified. He places self-governing, responsibly independent his salvation for the individual of the human beings who can liveat peace future upon public school education. withthemselves."Unfortunately,he What is the future role of the family, does not tell us how this can be ac- the church, civic organizations such as complished or who has the skills and Boy Scouts, the FFA, YMCA, etc? To- knowledge to accomplish it. Many Geor- day we know through empirical studies giansbelievethesegoalsarebeing that the average young person has spent achieved currently by the more effective more hours, by the time high school is school systems in the state.There is completed, in watching television than also recognition of differences in Geor- in receiving classroom instruction. We gia's school systems some are effec- also know that racial prejudiceisdi- tive, some ineffective. Some principals rectly associated with ageas the age are efficient, some not. Some teachers categories move upward, the propor- are adequate, some inadequate. But if tion of white individuals expressing race the family is to be pushed aside from its prejudice increases.Those Georgians traditional responsibilities so that public now 60 years of age and over will prob- schools can accomplish these educa- ably be dead by 1985, and the new tional goals through the twelve-months generations replacing them will be less school year,the introduction of sex prejudiced. National television presents education,etc., then the fundamental a form of national values which may moral and legal unit upon which this influence the child much more than his nation was founded will rapidly be de- classroom routine. stroyedthe family. No school expe- More specifically, Professor Matheny rience can equal the impact of the ideal suggests that Georgia's public schools family relationship on thechild; no will teach future generations "how to school experience can compensate for learn, how to think, and how to make the lack of an adequate family expe- decisions," as well as teach them to rience. Human individuality is created "appreciate individual differences and at inception, nurtured through primary to possess the ability to relate success- family relationships, and supported pri- fully to one another." Finally, his school marily through bonds of actionnot solution would also "equip them to be the process of formal education.

240 DR. MATHENY's paper, "The lndi. vidual in Georgia 1969-1985"isex- cellent! 1 can only underscore certain points which he made, discuss some means of implementation, and offer some ad. ditional thoughts which I believe are consonant with those of Dr. Matheny. My only negative criticism concerns the organizationalsubhea:/ngswhich do not adequately encompass the range of points made under them. Dr.N4atheny'sfocusonchange deals with the crucial element of our time, anditis certain that the tempo will continue to accelerate. The question is whether Georgians will be spear- heading constructive change or grasp- ingatapast which neverexisted. Many, butstilltoofew,Georgians have been at the cutting edge of progress. The majority can forge ahead in the next 15 years if we make the educational' changes outlined. Dr. Matheny accurately described the migration to thecities from the critique: ruralareas and thefright-flight syn- drome affecting the racial composition The of urban neighborhoods. Inspite of research which showsthatproperty Individual values do not decreaseinintegrated in Georgia neighborhoods, too many whites will continue to stampede at great cost and inconvenience to themselves until there is constructive planning which will insure genuine residential freedom. Part of this needed change which will occur. before 1985 isthe incorporation By of metropolitan areas under one governmental organization. This is a neces- f-(c,1 sity for the efficiency of the operation Dift.:I, t 1,, it, of the police force, water and sewage, community services, education and the maintenance of the economic vitality Reykniol of the entire area. The existing unholy alliance between white segregationists Mental who abandon the inner cities and the uiij Hack politicalaspirants who want a black political base will have tofall by 1985 to the economic, if not the Centel U moral, logic of a biracial society. Missistoppl By carefulmetropolitanplanning, the urban poor can be dispersed into

241 decent housing in every area so they responses to experience. The greatest can gain maximum educational benefit need, therefore, between now and 19S5 fromassociationwithmiddleclass is a carefully planned human relations academic standardsand resources training program at all academic levels. while giving the middle class children This program should have a primary a neededrealisticculturalexposure. goal the enhancement of self and en- This can be done as soonas there are vironmental awareness so that intellce. enough Georgians dedicated to making tual studies will be enriched by involve. the American dream a reality.It does ment of the students' total personality. not even have to wait until 1975- The This is not a specialized. "tacked on" research has been done, themeans are arca, but an absolute necessity ifstu- available. only the will is lacking. The dents are to he prepared to cope with wisdom of this action will be apparent and adapt to the rapid changes occur- to the majority of Georgians as the en- ring by1985. Several specific things crusted,enshrinedmythsareswept can he stressed in this aspect of teacher away. through education in the coming training. Principles of motivation, per- decade. suasion, mental health, and the recog- Dr. Mathcny isquiterealisticin nition and encouragement of creativity putting the emphasison process rather should be studied. Teachers also need than content ineducation.Unfortun- to learn techniques for stimulating in- ately, he is also realistic in statingthat terest and enthusiasm. thisisnotthe emphasis oftoday's Teacher preparationmustinclude teachers. The scientific method ofin- skill in eliciting response from the hesi- vestigating is a key to futureproblem tant,channelingtheover-responsive, solving rather than thememorization and guiding the inappropriate respon- of the facts of themoment. The ac- dent. Very sensitive application of be- ceptance of thetransitory aspect of havior modification techniques is nec- truth is part of Dr. Matheny'sadvocacy essarytoaccomplishthis.Teachers of the concept of change. Alllearning must be sure that they themselves show processes. however, are not bymeans appropriateresponses through inflec- of scientific methodor deductive or tion. manner, facial expression as well inductive logic. The reality ofpersonal as verbal content. The non-verbal cues emotional experience mustnot be de- ofteninfluencestudents a greatdeal nied in the clasroom. Few,if any, hu- more than what issaid.The most manactivitiesarepurelyrational. important thing a teacher can do Rather than regarding emotionsas im- especiallyinthe age of mechanical pedimentstoacadamic achievement, teaching toolsis to care if the child the motions must be recognized,stud- learns and communicate that caring to iedand experienced openlyasvalid the child in every way. curriculum content.Recognizingthis Dr. Mathcny referred to the "school is as important as the philsophicaland without walls" approach. One method scientific view that mind and bodycan- ofachievingincreasedawarenessis not he separated. Intellectual andemo- preparationin the classroom for an tional development cannotbe divided experienceinthe after either, if a balanced mature community adulthood whichthereisa follow-up analysis isto be achieved. The education of utilizing originalideas from the stu- the emotional life of the studenthas dents. Thus a departure from the teach- been almost totally ignored withthe er's view and the textbook is encour- resultthat students are not prepared aged. For example, instead of merely forpersonalrelationships,handling reading a civics book on how justice trauma or richly enjoying the fullness is supposed to be administered, classes of life through awareness of thesenses could be enlightened regarding the dif- and emotional as well as intellectual ferential administrationof justice by

242 spending timeina courtroom,bail deficits which cripple children for life. office, and police station. Dr. Matheny underscores hisstate- In the last 15 years it has been found ment that the school's curriculum must thatphysics,chemistry, andbiology not he provincial in tone. In order to could he learned by elementary school prepare Georgians for lifeand com- children.In the next 15 years itwill merce in the jet age,itis imperative he found that human relations,psy- thatelementaryschoolchildren he chology, sociology, and economics can given a chance to learn non-European be learned by elementary school chil- as well as European languages and cul- dren. The latter subjects, in the opin- tures.Humanized geography canhe ionofthisreviewer,willbe much best taught by school systems employ- more relevant to the success andhap- ing citizensor formercitizens of a piness of the individuals and the so- wide variety of established and develop- ciety. Even in crass terms of vocational ing nations to conduct this phase of success, research has shown that poor education. A college degree should not interpersonal relations cause far more berequiredforthisposition.Ob- job losses than lack of technicalskill. viously a single school system could yet schools ignorethis aspect of life not teach every language or employ a almost completely and leave thiskind person from every major culture, but of learning to chance. even small school systems could easily Interpersonal learning willcallfor employ one European, one South some new approachesand even some American, one Asian, and one African. new personnelcategoriesinschools. By chance,differentschoolswould For example. dramatics. roleplaying, have different nationalities represented and non-threatening psychodrama can and the net result statewide would he become standard classroomprocedure. that some Georgians would be able to Until teachers are trained in these ap- relate to people of almost every court. proaches. each school might employ a try. Pupils do not learn that real people specialist in dramatics and human re- liveinvarious other countries from lations to assist teachers in thesemeth- sterile geography books which may de- ods. This approach can be thestimu- scriberivers, mountains, exports, and lus for classroom discussionof inter- imports. Thisnon-humanizationof personallearning problems andwill other countries makes wars thinkable. have thefringebenefit of involving What,I am suggesting is like a Peace children more creativelyinclassac- Corps in reverse because we have much tivity. Much psychologicalandsoc- to learn that is worthwhile from even iological research and principles which the poorest of the developing nations. are currently taughtin college can be This educationfor world living is adaptedtothe elementarylevel.In not only appropriate for the promotion fact,to wait until college ageisto of peace and opportunities for the en- wait far beyond the optimal agefor treprenuer of tomorrow buttopre- personally employing the principlesof ventuntoward effectsof automation life adjustment, in the U. S. People should be emo- Another new career category which tionally and educationally prepared to is needed is the teacher's assistant who movetodevelopingnationswhere would serve as an adult whom students skills, which are made obsolete in the could depend on for emotional sup- U. S., arc needed. For example, fewer port.Academic preparationis irrele- farmers will be needed in Georgia in vant tothisrole.This person must 1985, and yet the world will still have be one who radiates love and caring afood shortage.People who know and can genuinely express these traits farming and who are prepared to live to children physically and otherwise. harmoniously in another culture, could This person can help counter emotional move to another country temporarily

243 or permanently and continue to prac- coupled with emotional support. These ticetheirchosencareer.The same very simple and direct methods of bc- would be true of industrial skills. havior modification can be taught to For those people who do not elect parents of infants as is now being done to move to another country to work, in the Edgewood Parent-Child Center additionaleducationfor new careers in Atlanta. will he nee'ied periodically. This edu- If these educational procedures are cation should be paid for by industry employed on a mass scale and if the and government so that individual in- ohvious cripplingeffects of malnutri, come does not diminish during those lion are eliminated. the lowlevelof periods. This will be an effective way academic attainment which now exists to prevent unemployment as a result in Georgia can he markedly improved of automation.Infact,the payment by 1985. There is no excuse for our of students of all ages for educatitAal society failing to insure adequate food achievement should he initiated.Itis to all children. poor economy for anyone to stop short Dr. Matheny's paper and my com- of maximum educational development ments to this point make one assump- hecauseof economicreasons.Level tionthat there will be human life ih and quality of educational work should Georgia in1985. Dr. Kenneth Bould- he paid for just as regular employment. ingisquotedasfollows "For the Education must be regardedasa human race to survive, it will have to life-long process with the built-in exchange its ways of thinking more in pectation that it will occur not only be- the next twenty-five years than it has fore but during one's working life and in the last 25.000." that it may he necessary to stop regular Tofacilitatethischange,schools productive employment severaltimes must place more emphasis on human inordertoconcentrate on the up- understanding than on the understand- grading of skills or the learning of ening of the physical sciences which are tirelynewones.Formaleducation being perverted to military use with must begin by age three while delib- resulting loss of security. In fact, twen- erate informal education must be taught tieth century physical science sophisti- by parents priorto age three. The cation has so far outstripped our primi- early startis indicated by research on tivehumanrelationsprinciplesof early childhood education which is the force, defense and retaliation that for most encouraging discovery in recent survival it might be necessary to make years. The findings show that a great the kind of investment in the science deal of intellectual development is de- and philosophy of human relations that pendent on the verbal stimulation the is now being spent on brute military brainreceives duringthefirstfour force. Through this means we may give years of life. Dramatic improvement in properconcentrationto gainingthe IQ scores has been achieved among wisdom and maturity to constructively impoverished childrenas a result of utilizethe power that has been un- planned, sustainedverbalstimulation leashed.

244 THERE area number offactors whichindicateanincreaseinthe amount ofsocialdisorganizationin Georgiain theimmediatefuture. Whether these factors can be counterbalanced will depend in part on the understanding and education of the public and on the willingness of business and political leaders and educators to work toward broader and more distant goals. If we look at a social structure as a type of container for people, and at deviant behavior of all kinds as a type of spillage, we can ask ourselves a number of questions. Growing Pains: A Look at Social By Alpha M. Bond, Jr., Ph.D. Disorganization in and Adrienne M. Bond, M.A. Georgia's Future Where are the weak spots inthe structure? What sources of pressure are making these spots give? Is the container still appropriate for its contents? Have the contents changed in nature or quantity? Is the leakage a loss or a necessary safety valve? And since we are dealing with people herehow do those outside the structure differ from those within and why? In Georgia we have weak spots and more on the way; we have pressures : and new ones building up; we have social structures no longer appropriate to many citizens; we have a changing population in both kind and number; and we lack consensus about which de- viations are social problems and which are merely signs of change. Our first source of disorganization lies in the breakup of the traditional agrarian racial caste system, with the consequent loss of roles for many who either find it difficult to learn a new one or find no new role available. If we define role

/45 as a set of behavior patterns which guide will cause the population to become a person in his work and social relation- morematerialistic,morehedonistic, ships, we find that the unskilled Negro more personally isolated. less sensitive whose forebears worked in the fields to the needs of others, less governed by no longer has that role available. The internalized norms and moral standards. young of both races whose forebears and lessableto form stable family engaged in small family farming have groups. In reaction to this trend on the no work role and have not learned (as part of the majority we will see an in- the middle class child often does) to crease in the development of extremist view school inthislight. The aged, subgroups(religious,social,political. whose experiences apply to a different and racial), a movement some are now life style, can no longer fill the role of calling retribalization. We must also say advisor and have a diminished role in that working people will be better edu- the family and the community. cated, fed, clothed. and housed and will All of these persons who find that have access to better medical. dental, their outlooks, skills, and habits have and mental health facilities because of little value arc to one extent or another their higher income. This will cause an spilling out of the work and family even wider gap between the life styles structures into welfare programs, nurs- of those who have marketable skills and ing homes, sub-cultures, poverty pro- those who do not. This may mean more grams, mental institutions, crime, or into tension and possibly riots which will, in "lives of quiet desperation" marked by Georgia, have strong racial implications. chronicunemploymentandfamily Because manual labor and many sim- crises. Some of the ways of dropping out ple types of work are being usurped by of the social structures are considered to machines, workers of this type must he be "social problems" and some are not. upgraded to be employed. Those people Some find social approl -I and others. who have remained near the bottom are punished. vocationally to avoid the strain of com- The inevitable dissolution of the old petition and responsibility may react to order has its advantages. One of these is this increase in tension by deviant be- the opportunity for creative reorganiza- havior. Other ill effects of upward motion to fit current conditions. There are bility are loss of family solidarity, loss large barriers to reorganization, how- of tradition, and emotional impoverish- ever, caused by lack of understanding, ment. These, in turn, tend to cause some reluctance to learn new behavior, lack degree of deviance, directly or indi- of social responsibility, lack of political rectly. awareness and skill, and self-seeking on the part of economic and political vested The keys to many of these problems interests. New social organization may may lie in earlier education; more rele- therefore be the result of chance, ex- vant education, more democratic educa- pedience, drift or reaction in some areas tion, and a strong adult education pro- rather than careful planning. gram. Added to the special problems of The manner of instruction needed is Georgia's social changes are the prob- also indicated. To prepare students to lems growing out of industrialization work and live in the type of society we and the concentration and growth of will become, education must become population. These are the problems of more participatory with emphasis on alienation from work, alienation from individual and small group problem community, alienation between the gen- solving and democratic decision mak- erations,alienatidn from norms and ing. This will require intelligent, flexible values, and behavioral sink. teachers and administrators and reor- Unless vital new forces are generated, ganization of many traditional struc- the further industrialization of Georgia tures.

246 money, but in terms of the mental and physical health of our citizens and the quality of life they will live. And if we find that the most efficient solution to one problem will create or intensify an- There arc a number of factors which other, we must he prepared to deal with indicate an increase in the amount of the situation creatively and to take an social disorganization in Georgia in the honest lookatour assumptions and immediate future. Whether these factors priorities. can be counterbalanced will depend in It is a finding of psychologists. as well part on the understanding and education as an observation of common sense, that of the public and on the willingness of in order to he healthy and happy a per- business and political leaders and educa- son needs something worthwhile to work tors to work toward broader and more at and people to love and live with. A distant goals. social system to be successful must make If we look at a social structure as a provision for filling these two needs. type of container for people, and at de- The firstcriteria mentioned above. viant behavior of all kinds as a type of that of providing a work role for every spillage, we can ask ourselves a num- individual in society, is of special inter- ber of questions. est to us in Georgia because the change- Where are the weak spotsin the over from rural/mechanical to urban/ structure? technical is leaving a significant number What sources of pressure are making of our people without appropriate roles these spots give? and will possibly displace more in the Is the container still appropriate for future. It is oversimplification to discuss its contents? poverty as simply a financial state or Have the contents change in nature even as primarily a financial one. We or quantity? have virtually no people who live at the Is the leakage a loss or a necessary level where a roasted lizard is consid- safety valve? ered a meal or a grass but a home. What And since we are dealing with people we do have, however, and increasing herehow do those outside the struc- numbers, are many people who, by rea- ture differ from those within and why? son of lack of needed skills and habits, In Georgia we have weak spots and have no productive role in our society. more on the way; we have pressures and In a simpler society where people live new ones building up; we have social close to the physical world, each person structuresno longerappropriateto has a role suitable to his age, strength, many citizens; we haveachanging and skill. In our society an increasing population in both kind and number; number of people have roles only as and we lack consensus about which de- consumers. viations are social problems and which If we define role as a set of behavior are merely signs of change. patterns which guide a person in his lust as every medicine has its side- work and social relationships, we find effects, every system of regulating social that some people are still acting out ob- behavior has its handicaps. A society solete roles and that some new jobs and which promotes competition has losers: situations lack traditional behavior pat- a society which works hard to prolong terns. life must support an increasing number Children, who once had simple tasks of elderly citizens, and so on and on. As in the home, have been replaced in this we look to the future to determine what role by appliances. With no chickens to action we must take to get what we de- feed, no wood box to fill, no water to termine we want, we must be cognizant carry, their only role is as consumers of of the cost, not merely in terms of educational services and receivers of

247 care. The elderly, who once served to strain and that a deviation can become maintain traditions and give advice, find a respected alternative to the general that their knowledge and experience are pattern. History shows us that today's out of date and unwanted, and they also norm was yesterdays persecuted deviant must he content to he consumers only. group. The children and the aged of course exist on every sociallevel; however, The Unskilled Negro there are classes of people of all ages Our first mentioned source lf social dis- who also find themselves without a pro- organization lies in the breakup of the ductive role. For this reason we wish to traditional agragian racial caste system, discuss poverty as it occurs in Georgia with the consequent loss of roles for at the present time in terms of lack of a many who either find it difficult to learn productive rolein our society. Who a new one or find no new role available. lacks a role in our work life? Why? Can We find that the unskilled Negro whose he be trained to assume one? How can forebears worked in the fields no longer roles be found for him to fill? Will he has that role available. The white person adjust to the change? These are some of who has been trained to see part of his the questions we need to answer as we duty as supervision and control of the look at social deviance in Georgia. For Negro population finds this role super- by and largesocialdeviance occurs fluous and contested. The young of both when people become alienated from the races whose forebears engaged in small activities, goals, and values of their so- family farming have no work role and ciety, when they do not or cannot play have not learned (as does the middle a vital role within the structure of so- class child) to view school in this light. ciety. The young person who has no The aged, whose experiences apply to a constructive role in his family may be- different life style, can no longer fill the come a runaway or hippie; if he has no role of advisors and have a diminished contructive role in the classroom he may role in the family and the community. tune out or drop out; if he has no con- The old agrarian racial caste system structive role in the community he may had set, well-defined roles for everyone, withdraw from it into a subculture. and even if one's place in the system A person who identifies with an in- was a bad one he knew what it was and stitution, who feels in touch with its everyone else knew what it was, and if sources of goods and power and its pro- it wasn't equitable, it was stable. The cesses of decision making, will work Negro, the middle class white person within it easily and will work for its and the poor white all are having to benefit. The child who has a positive change roles somewhat. role in his family does not run away; Now that the machine has become the man who has a positive role in his the "slave" in our rural economy the community does not riot in its streets; Negro is pushed out of his traditional the student who' eels that he has a posi- place, and there are only two places for tive role in his school does not drop out him to go: out of the economic system or storm the administration building. entirely, as criminal, idler, or welfare In dealing with socialdeviants we recipient, or up into the white man's should find out where the weak places territory. The Negro is in the trying in society's fabric are located and what situation, whether he or the white man pressures push these people out. We understands it or not, of having no so- may find that some adjustment in socially acceptable means of entering into ciety or in circumstances will allow the a new role. If he makes a living illegally, re-entrance of these individuals. On the he is punished at the white man's ex- other hand, we may find that some de- pense; if he collects welfare or lives off viation constitutes a needed release from someone who does, he is looked down

248 upon and harassed; if he moves, up into Because of disenfranchisement and into roles traditionally filled by whites, lack of skills, the role of the Negro in he meets resentments and resistance and the community and on the job was a his unfamiliarity with these new roles passive one neither requiring nor allow- makes him vulnerable. He also tends to ing much initiative. There are two prin- retain old role behavior which is inap- cipal reasons for this. Little if any dif- propriatetohis new role,andthis ference in wages could be realized as a causes anxiety. direct result of initiative or industry. Members of any society, because of Manual labor has a narrow range of the special ways which they have devel- achievement. Second, hiring and firing oped to cope with their environmental was based only partially on productivity problems and becauseofthechild- and dependability. A southern land- rearing methods they have used to pro- owner who would retain a tenant year duce the type of person who can use after year despite incompetence, steal- these ways of coping, have a large num- ing, absenteeism, or even periodic ar- ber of personality traits which consist- rests for fighting or making whiskey, ently appear in members of the group. would on the other hand dismiss him Ralph Linton has termed this commonly on the spot for refusing to say "sir." appearing combination of personality Consequently, because barriers to ad- elements the Basic Personality Type for vancement seemed so great, and because the society) Linton calls the additional the routes out of such a life were diffi- patterns of response which are peculiar cult and hard to find, the Negro tended tospecial groups withinthesociety to be fatalistic, hedonistic, and to look Status Personalities. These status per- toward rewards in heaven rather than in sonalities, whether ascribed to age, sex, a temporal future. Since proper status race or occupation responses rather than industry and am- Make it possible for its members to in- bitiondeterminedhisabilitytoget teract successfully on the basis of status work, and since even the Negro teach- cues alone.... Itis the specific overt ers, the most respected representatives responses which give status personali- of achieved status, were hired by an all ties most of their social significance. As long as the individual develops these re- white school board, it was far more sponses, he can function successfully in basic to survival to "stay in one's place" the status whether he shares the asso- than to be ambitious. ciated value-attitude systems or not ...2 Because the southern Negro was sub- The status personality of the southern, ject to the law but rarely protected by it rural Negro was developed under the (or from it), and because, especially in system of slavery and under the system rural areas, he was often at the Mercy of peonage which succeededit. The of his employer for subsistence, he was, overt responses which characterized this in his relations to authority and to the status personality and the attitude to- community as a whole, secretive rather ward community and authority which it than open. Sidney M. Jourard found, in fostered will be discussed first in terms giving self-disciplinetests inFlorida, of the segregated hand labor system for that Negroes were lower disclosers than which these characteristics were suited whites, even when tested by a Negro and then in relation to the integrated, examiner. He also found that lower automated community of the futun.; in class people, regardless of race, were which these same characteristics will lower disclosers than middle class peo- prove a hindrance. ple; however, tests with Negro college The Negro in the rural South was students showed that, except to their conditioned to a negative, nonparticipat- mothers, they disclosed relatively little ing role in the larger community. His information to anyone.3 role was characterized by passivity, fa- The rigidity of the system of segrega- talism,secretiveness, and conformity. tion in the deep South precluded social

249 experimentation. The interactions were sistentlyinJot rard's data correlated rigidly defined. with positive adjustment- "5 The emo- The specific response patterns of a status tionally "closed- personality shuts off personality are presented to the indi- communication and, in keeping infor- vidual in simple concrete terms which makes it easy to learn them. Social pres- mation in, also walls it out. One of the sure toward their assumption is con- most1;9nportantareasinwhicha stant, and adherence to them is socially "closed" personality retards the devel- rewarded and deviation punished. Even opment of the individualisin educa- the internal conflicts which may arise during the assumption of a specific re- tion. The student who will not ask or sponse pattern which is at variance with answer questions in class, who will not one of the individual's value-attitude attempt serious communication in writ- systems are not too disturbing. Although ing, and who is inhibited in testing situ- they may be vigorous at first, they tend to diminish and finally disappear as the ations, does not learn much and cannot response becomes automatized and un- let anyone measure what he does know. conscious.4 An authoritarian teacher or system can Consequently the southern, rural Negro intensifythis problem without being was conditioned to conform. aware of it, and our schools, especially At the present time the direction of our Negro schools, are authoritarian. our social development is from rural Up to this point we have dealt with a toward industrial and from segregated broad picture of the status personality toward integrated. The status personali- traits of the American Negro in the ties formed under the old system are rural South, Can we say that these are becoming le'ss and less functional. In a the dominant personal traits of the typi- situation where the Negro must func- cal individual? Since the Negro's status- tion as a member of the total commu- linked responses are evidenced toward nity,his success can no longer depend the white community and toward those merely on his willingnesstointeract in authority in general, they determine passively within a framework, but must behavior only up the chain of status. be based on the ability to compete and For example, a Negro' woman who is cooperate in a positive way. He will passive and subservient in her work en- need to be acitve, ambitious, open, and vironment may be quite autocratic to- inventive. ward her own children, who may be As the road is made more and more passive and subservient to her. Accord- clear for the Negro to participate in ing to Erik Erikson, "Each system, in its politics and as equal opportunity on the way, tends to make similar people out job becomes a reality, the role of the of all its members, but each in a specific passive non-participant must give way way also permits exemptions and deduc- to initiative and responsibility. Accep- tions from the demands with which it tance and fatalism are severe handicaps taxes the individuality of the individual in a social order where industry and am- egO."6 All this is to affirm the fact that bition are rewarded. Conformity must although the status personality of the give way to invention and experimenta- rural Negro may be in evidence in the tion. When an old role dies, one must classroom and on the job this does not be developed to take its place, and a representhisentire complex of re- swing from submission to hostile ag- sponses or his potential, but merely his gression is often an emotional reaction response to any person in authority. to the anxiety and insecurity caused by As any extreme breeds extremes, this the absence of a stable role. passivesubordinatebehavior,when One key to initiative, ambition, and abandoned, gives way, especially among inventionis the development of self- the young, to aggressive and defiant be- disclosure. "The willingness to be open, havior.AstheNegroofnecessity to reveal or disclose self .has con- changes his behavior, we can expect

250 some of the change to be extreme dur- types of behavior that will enable them ing a transitional period. This is an area to do meaningful work in that society. where emphasis on democratic partici- Our technology is reaching the state of pation in our schoolsisvitalto the development which will allow a few preparation of good citizens. creative and productive members to pro- The social phenomenon of domi- vide the necessities of life for a large nance/subordinance, whichexistsin number. At present those persons in the every society and indeed throughout the productive work force, adults from age animal kingdom, is expressed more di- 20 to age 64, are supporting in the U.S. rectly and is less sublimated into sym- close to an equal number of persons be- bols such as money and education in low 19 and over 65.7 Add to this figure the South. The Negro must give up his non-working wives, persons in institu- submissive role to survive in a society tions and hospitals. on welfare, or oth- where the machine is the laborer, and erwise dependent on others although the southern white must channel his they are of working age, and we find learned need for dominance over the that the machine has allowed a small Negro into dominance over things and group to produce much. Add one more symbols rather than 'people. With the group to the picture, the unskilled and area's already high rate of violence, the so-called untrainable poverty-level popu- added strain of underplanned industrial lation who have been dislocated by and urban growth could produce an in- farm machinery, and we see that we do tolerable situation if these habits cannot not need a large number of educated he modified. As thereistensionin- people in order to produce a quantity volved when obsolete behavior isre- of material items. Consequently, front tained, there is also anxiety involved in the point of view of prim/m.60/y, it may changing habits. Transitions are emo- he quite acceptable to employ only the tionally difficult for all who are involved qualified and support the old, the young, in them. the black, the sick, etc., through pen- The old agrarian caste system is al- sions, welfare, guaranteed incomes, and most gone. Reorganization along lines other arrangements. which fit our new realities is a must. However, from the point of view of Either we guide it into the best possible the mental healtr, of the individual and shape or it will shape itself. A good case consequently the stability anquality of in point is school desegregation. In the society, every one needs work to do, 14 years in which we have known de- and this need is not merely a financial segregation was coming, positive plan- one. Sigmund Freud says that to he ning on the part of educators and com- healthy a man has to be able to work munity leaders could have shaped the and to love. Abraham Maslow labels as change. The attitude taken was "you "instinctoid" certain psychological needs have to force it on us. and you will see which, he says, are basic to the health thatitwon't work." Evenyetthe of the organism. The two human needs schools of education tend to ignore the which he finds to he instinctoid are problems raised. Courses in education curiosity-satisfaction and love. To state for"the disadvantaged" andrelated this a third way we might say that a problems could have been useful and person needs interesting problems to are still needed. solve: he needs to feel that what he is doing has value; and he needs to main- The Young tain affectionate relationships with oth- One concern of educators should be in ersa family, a community, a school, a planning a curriculum which will help country, etc. A person who is not em- young people understand the nature of ployed or otherwise constructively oc- their society and see themselves as part cupied is rarely a contented person and of it and which will help them learn the finds it difficult to maintain good rela-

251 tionships with others who are working. to his youth: by the time he realizes his The housewife whose children have error he is trapped in the status of an grown up, the man who has reached the adult "boy,- untrained and threatened age of compulsory retirement, and the by every year's crop of teenagers look- unemployed dropout all share a feeling ing for work. of uselessness although they may show Let us look at the alienated teenager it in different ways. nowthe lower class dropout, the mid- As automation continues to replace dle class underachiever, the young agi- men with machines, the problem of un- tator, and the hippie. What do these needed manpower will grow. And as young people have in common? those being replaced will continue to be Social scientists agree that alienation at the bottom in education and status, from institutions or from self on all lev- the segments of the population least able els of society has resulted from the de- to adjust will be idle. The implications velopment of an industrial society. This are explosive. Whether these men are we will look at more closely later. But idle with empty pockets or idle with a adolescents have a special problem in welfare check is of less importance than our society and their alienation from the question of their reaction to being our institutionsisbeginning to have idle. repercussions that we cannot ignore. How can we prepare meaningful work Childhood as a status came into being for the next generation, and how can we along with the idea of educating com- help prepare them for a role in our mon people. Prior to that, infancy was busy society? Let us look at those who followed by a share in the family work are already on the path to a life of under- load or a position in another family employmentGeorgia's publicschool where a specific skill could be learned. dropouts. The 20,000 teenagers who Children were part of the working world dropped out of Georgia's high schools and were not merely consumers. The in 1968 will be in their middle twenties passage of child labor laws and the ex- in 1980. They will be married and will tension of education created another have children. What will they be doing? status, adolescence. Now the child had The manual labor they once would have another waiting period before joining done will he done by machines. The the working world. An indication of this many new jobs in education, recreation, shift would be the fact that in obtaining and technical areas will be beyond their information on occupations, the 1910 abilities. These dropouts are and will census referred to all those10 years remain obsolete unless some program is and above who reported employment, devised to reclaim them and prevent whereas the 1960 census referred to others from following their path. only those14 and older.With the addi- At present it is possible, especially in tion of military service and graduate rural areas, to feel alienated from school school itis possible for a man to be as an institution and still feel involved nearly thirty years old without ever feel- and self-directed in the working world, ing that he has a functional role or any but this is changing. Whereas once high power or responsibilityinthe main- school and college were analternativeto stream of society. Alienation, as we will admission to the working world, they use it, refers to emotional reactions to are now, especially high school,prepara- nonparticipation or powerlessness in any toryto admission. A person who enters institution, whether due to age, youth, the working world from the eighth or lack of skills, ostracism, isolation, or ninth grade is a powerless person in the any other cause. sense that channels of promotion and If we look at young people as a group job security are not available to him. He we find that a large number of them are may make the error of attributing the alienated from one or another of our temporary and trivial naturs of his jobs institutions and some are alienated from

252 all. We will look at this alienation in schools could do this by being a train- terms of those causes which are likely to ing ground for true democratic living. continue and in terms of the social dis- If the curriculum were relevant and if organization we can expect from it. the students were allowed real partici- The five areas in which we will look pation in setting goals. planning pro- a. alienation among young people are cedures. and in solving problems. the the family, religion. education, the eco- habit of involvement and the skills of nomic system, and the political system. participationwouldcarryoverinto Traditionally the primary institutions, other areas. Such students would neither family andreligion,werenotonly feel nor he powerless in modern society. closest to the child and most influential Whether this will occur is hard to de- in his habit formation. but were most in- termine. There is a strong movement to- fluential on the school and were the ward more democratic education cen- source of most societal change. Now the teredaround achievementandself- economic and politicalspheres wield developmentrather than competition heavy influence on the child's habit and andconformity. At the same time value formation, are probably the most larger, more impersonal education fac- influential on the school, and are the tories are the fact in urban areas. And source of most societal change. In other the type of person who can do a creative words, much of the child's life is now job of school administration canstill controlled by those institutions which earn much more elsewhere. Probably are the least understood by him and the the conflict will continue to exist, ironi- most distant from him. The implications cally. through the conservative nature for resistance to authority and lack of of local power which continues to think identification with the sources of power ofeducationina narrow,subject- arc clear. orientedway. Consequently. children During this process (which is still go- are as likely to be alienated from edura- ing on and will continue in the foresee- turn as from any other institution. able future) of a swing in power and influence from the emotionally close in- Adolescence and the Family stitutions,family and church, to the The first institution in which we will ex- emotionally distant economic and politi- amine the alienation of the young is the cal systems, the school has remained family. The family as a group where pivotal. An essentially conservative inwork was performed and skills learned stitution, education has resisted many has been changed since the industrial manifestations of this change but often revolution to a center from which each the wrong ones and often for the wrong member goes his own way. There is little reasons. The resistance to integration, work for children to perform in the consolidation, sex education, and re- modern household. The simple tasks are moval of prayers, for example, is large- done by the food processors (shelling ly an emotional reaction to the influ- beans, for example) or by machines ences of the large and impersonal insti- and appliances. The power mower is tutions which determine more and more too dangerous for children to operate of the child's habits and values. and a dishwasher is easily broken. The schools, however, if they could The middle class child becomes the function as an independent institution, ultra consumer whose only contribution as free from pressure from all four of tothe familyisasort ofglorified the others as possible, could produce grooming; that is, a continual receiving children who would be able to live cre- of entertainment, lessoAs, lye.4-vices, and atively in the family, the church, the the latest in toys 'The only cconomic system. and the government way he can do s,9methissi for ffi withoutbeing turnedintorobots or is through self enhancement; that is, to dropping outfromfearofit.The be a credit to them by learning skills,

253 dressing appropriately. having straight them from quarreling. teeth. etc.. just as a poodle does credit to As Georgia becomes mote ib.klut,tTitil the family by being properly clipped and more urban. the probleis 144,1: and eating the right dog food. Being of family solidarity will continue w in- good generally consists of playing a crease. Here again most of Vie solution% negative role: don't make noise, don't lie in the individual's undev.tantlint disturb the decor. don't play in the the situation and learning wa: s to veal street. and of course later. don't drive withit.Efforts by schools;aild too fast. don't smoke marijuana. don't nesses to acqu2int children. especially get pregnant. don't grow a heard. etc. boys. with the things that people do for Even the lower class child. whose a living and their importance become parents are less likely to have appli- more essential. This problem of lack of ances. is more likely than previously to identificationwithparentsunderlies live in small, city quarters and have no niuch adolescent alienation. Tradition- gardening nor animal care chores. His ally, for example. a boy worked with his sole contribution to the family usually father in the field or workshop, forest or consists of going outside to play so he barn. and as he learned his father's vo- won't he underfoot. cational skills and became more like To see this rolelessness clearly let us him in competence. he internalized his look at a contrasting situation. Many values and copied his social behavior. families arc finding camping to be relax- Identity-formationorrole-formation ine and good for family communica- was a positive process and a boy's mas- tion. On a camping trip the whole family culine identity was learned in connec- isinvolvedinthe simple,necessary. tion with his work role. physical activity involved in eating and In a changing society the young can- sleeping. Children help gather wood, not identify with the occupations of carry water, shoo insects. and perform their parents as they could in earlier other tasks: the father is involved in set- times. If the parent is rural his occupa- ting up a shelter and other facilities: the tion may he phasing out, or the combi- mother in cooking. All work closely to- nation of mechanization and compul- gether, and even the smallest child is in- sory schooling may rule out help from volved, understands what he is doing, his children. Much new machinery is andsees others benefitfrom his activi- too complicated and expensive to enties. It is easy to see that, although life trust to a child who could have safely was hard in many ways for pre-indus- worked with a mule and plow. If the trial children, they learned more from parent is urban, the child often has no their families in the way of skills and chance to see his father at work and attitudes and could identify with their may notreally understand what his parents more easily. father does. A boy who encounters his This use of family camping (or of the father only at the dinner table, which is growing interest in horses or boating) obviously his mother's area of decision- can, however, conflict with the father's making and work, sees his father only need to display consumer goods on the as a consumer of services in the home weekend as a symbol of work status and has no work role to imitate. A boy which is not otherwise discernible out- who seesplanning,decision-making, side of his organization. Any of these and work in the family only in terms of family activities can be ruined by an as- the mother has trouble forming his mas- sortment of expensive gadgets which the culine identity in terms of work role. He children are forbidden to operate. In an may see masculinity as simply being air-conditioned camper with running non-feminine and may act this out by water and television, the children are rebelling against his mother rather than again reducedtouseless guests who by imitating his father who, regardless must be continually entertained to keep of his dynamic behavior at work, may

254 appear to his children as a person who identification with theirfathers may only eats and watches television. have trouble finding congenial work or If. as may he the case. thc father has performing it adequately. A sentiment no specialized occupation or is unem- found often among middle and upper ployed, the problem is intensified. The middle class boys is a feeling that their boy who sees his father as a person who fathers work was so unstimulating and cannot act within the economic system without aesthetic value that they wanted must see himself in the same way or re- no part of the business world. These ject his father as a model for imitation. young people, who have reacted by en- The former choice prevents formation tering the arts or the academic world or of a work role as part of the masculine who .)ive a hippie-type life. blame the identity: the latter is destructive tothe constricted,nervous, materialisticlife family as an institution and may affect their parents live on the work they do. the child's masculine self-image. This which is not necessarily the whole story. fact may indicate, for one thing, the Boys who lack a sex-role identifica- vital importance of dynamic male teach- tion with their fathers may have identity ers in the schools, especially in areas pro.51ems of a sexual nature. As we said where unemployment is common. earlier, a person needs to be able to So far we have assumed that the work and to love. The lack of a father father is present in the home. This prob- with whom a boy can identify can pre- lem of a masculine work role identity is vent the boy from filling either of these certainly more severe in the fatherless "instinctoid needs and may result in household. his causing trouble to others. A number of recentstudieshave found that boys from fatherless homes, Here we see how alienation from the although they may adopt masculine ap- work world and the economic system pearance and attitudes, are decidedly may be the result of fragmentation of more passive than boys with fathers. the family. Yet the industrialization of A father-absent boy might be less likely Georgia, by increasing the number of to dream of making a million dollars people who work in plants and factories than of having the money simply fall rather than on family farms or small into his lap. He would dream not of be- owner-operated businesses, will tend to coming a great industrial tycoon. but of childrenfromtheir holding a winning lottery ticket ... separatemore In sum, boys from fatherless homes ... father's work life. This fragmentation may make a football jersey or a motor- of the family will therefore increase. cycling jacket into a cloak of mascu- with an accompanying increase in the linity. But (research) points firmly to one conclusionthat these boys do tend communication and credibility gap in to relate to their surroundings in the many families. This, in turn, will prob- passive way that otir society has, at least ably result in further rebellion on the until now, considered typicallyfemi- part of the young in terms of rejection nine.8 of conventional values and habits, re- If, as seems the ease, the family struc- jection of traditional careers, rejection ture continues to become more frag- of the family as an institution, and in- mented, we niay expectpassivityin creased homosexual behavior, The use school and on the job to increase. The of drugs, especially marijuana, seems to recent move to prevent welfare regula- be a symbol rather than a cause of this. tionsfromforcingthcunemployed Young people do not use marijuana in father out of the home is a very sound spite of its illegality, but because of its one from this point of view. illegal nature. It constitutes for many a Problems growing out of the family, mystique symbolizing rejection of an whetheritfalls apart or remains to- identityless, functionless role in much gether but without communication, are the same way that beards and long grave ones. Boys who rack work role hair do.

255 Adolescence and Religion ESP, and psychic phenomena groups is The alienation of the young from re- quite large. Other occult interests are ligious institutions seems to be aliena- meditation and yoga, and there is strong tion from the church and from moral interestin Buddhism and Indianre- concepts rather than a lack of religious ligions. feeling. The complaint of young people The third need of the young which seems to revolve again around the lack they once sati led in the church is the of provision for their direct involvement need for emol mal catharsis. The idea in the policy making processes and for that emotional religion is in bad taste is theiremotionalinvolvement.Conse- prevalent in established churches. The quently, many young people are looking feelings that once were expressed in re- elsewhere to satisfy these needs. vival meetings are now channeled into Kenneth Cober discusses the problem group therapy, group dynamics, sensi- of the bureaucratization of churches, tivity encounters, and other phenomena especially large ones. of this type which are becoming quite In the early days of our country, Bap- popular. A variant of this behavior is tist churches took democracy seriously. the marijuana group turn-on, in which It was common practice to hold weekly or at most monthly meetings in which a group of young people sit in a circle, church affairs were ordered and expe- pass a marijuana cigarette around, and dited ... attempt to communicate their feelings In those days associations of churches to one another. Although most drug offered an opportunity for free discussion and involvement ... misuse among young people is strictly Since churches have grown in size and hedonistic, much of it seems to involve complexity. it has been.difficult to con- a feeling of deprivation of religious feel- tinue democratic procedures with wide ing, especially among the college stu- personal involvement, either at the local or denominational level ... dents. The Baptist democracy of a century As we continue to become more ur- ago is in contrast to the formal well- lubricated, mimeograph-reported annual. ban and industrial, people will continue business meetings in which anyone rais- to feel more isolated from one another, ing a question is almost considered out and attempts to reestablish genuine feel- of order.9 ings and communication will probably Young people who are concerned increase in number and variety. A phe- about civil rights and poverty often find nomenon of this type which is taking that the older men who direct the poli- place within the church is the prayer cies and operations of the church are group; however, this generally does not annoyed by these ideas and block their involve the young people. attempts to work through the church on Indications are that the established these matters. The Peace Corps, Vista, churches will continue to lose influence and a variety of tutoring groups for cul- on the public at large and on the be- turally deprived are using feelings and havior of their members. The above energies which once might have been mentioned alternatives show every indi- channeled through churches.Allof cation of continuing to grow. Group these facts are quite well known to re- therapy for potential dropouts is already ligious leaders and attempts are being being used to good effect in local schools made to involve the young. to reinvolve students who are severely The other area of complaint is the un- alienated. religiousnature of the middleclass Many young people tend to become church. As the church has become more reinvolved in the church once they es- intellectual and demythologized a cor- tablish homes and come to think of responding hunger for mystery has built themselves as adults. In this sense this up outside the church. The number of type of alienation has more to do with young peopleinvolvedinastrology, self- concept than with the religion itself.

256 Adolescence and the School Geor:ia has come a long way.. Of the croup who began first grade in 1944 Education in our culture is the first in- only 19 percent graduated from high stitution beyond the primary institutions school. Of those entering first grade in with which a child has experience, and 1954,46percentgraduated.11This for those without religious affiliation it seems to be quite an accomplishment is the first institution beyond the family. until we look at the national average For many children alienation begins at forstudentsgraduatingfromhigh this point and, since education increas- school. which is 77.8 percent of those ingly is the means toward employment who begin it. or at a state like Minne- and citizenship,thechild who feels sota. which graduates 92 percent.12 powerless and without identity at school What are these young people like? A carries this attitude into his adult life. survey by Pupil Personnel Services of Alienation from the school can take the Georgia Department of Education a variety of forms. Some that might bear in 1966 described a typical Georgia examination are the dropout, the under- dropout as follows. achiever, the highly creative or intelli- The 1966 dropout (was) male. Cau- gent rebel, and the black student in the casian. ninth grader. 16 years of age. white school. Another type of aliena- He has been retained twice and most tion, which isn't apparent untilafter likelyrepeated the ninth grade.His father received 6.7 years of education. graduation. NCUTS when a student over- and his mother went to school 7.4 years. conforms to the school and achieves The parents are living together with the high grades but does so at the cost of head of the household being employed becoming alienated from his own ideas, as a skilled worker. The average income of the family is $3909 with 43 percent feelings, opinions, and creativity. This earning less than $3000... his parents kind of student often comes to grief at have never visited the school. a good college or in a responsible job He said he dropped out because he dis- where these qualities are called for. liked school, because he was failing most of his courses. because of eco- In our society the normal progression nomic difficulties. and because school includes completion of high school as subjectsdid notrelateto what he preparation for entering higher' educa- planned to do or was interested in.13 tion or obtaining a job. A dropout de- This description was based on a typi- parts from this progression for some cal selection made by high school coun- reason and may never reenter the main- selors from those students who dropped stream. out after entering high schools; how- The current official definition of a ever, indications are that the reasons dropout which is used in gathering in- given for dropping out would be the formation is "A dropout is any pupil same for students who never entered who discontinues school attendance, for high school. any reason except death, before gradua- A look at a specific system, Bibb tion or completion of a program of County, shows a similar picture. last studies and without transferring to an- year Bibb County lost 6,777 out of other school." This definitionis now 12,416 students. This amounts to five used by all school agencies by common percent who dropped out before gradu- agreement. Let us look at some figures ation in one year. Here again the prin- on our dropout rate. cipal reason given for dropping out is Accordingtofiguresfor1966-67 lack of identification and involvement. compiled by the Office of Health, Edu- Lackofinterest,indifference,non- cation and Welfare,Georgia had the attendance, and poor work account for highest dropoutrateintheUnited 63 percent of reasons given on dropout States.We were 50th.1° On the positive cards. Eleven percent give employment side let us look at a comparison of the as a reason, but a check of those who situation 10 years ago with the present. dropped out to work shows that most

257 of these actually do not find employ- skills as machines usurp old ones. He ment.14 must also somehow come to see himself An examination of these facts would as a person who is able to do this. indicate two conditions which encour- Just as dropping out of school is a age dropping out of schoola student form of social deviancy which damages who is alienated from the school and the individual in later life, it also dam- parents who are similarly alienated from ages society.Nationally thereisI() education and/or who lack control over times as much delinquency among drop- the child's behavior. As the family as an outs as among those who remained in institution is losing its influence over the schoo1.15 Not only is the dropout more child and is outside of the school's direct likely to break the law, but the non- sphere ofinfluence,the adjustments achieving student is more likely to be- which will keep more children in school come delinquent than the student who longer will have to be made in the school performs adequately. In a review of and in the child himself. Some changes 1,007 juveniles on probation in Geor- in the school might well include earlier gia, 305 were dropouts. Of the 702 who education, including kindergarten, and were still in school only 90 were in the in deprived areas nurseries at well. A grade suitable for their age. One hun- child whose early experiences include dred and fifty-seven were five years or planned sensory and verbal education more behind.16 and small group activities will not find Dropping out can precede delinquent the school room such a foreign and im- behavior; however, delinquent behavior possibly demanding place_ can also end a child's education. Educa- Another consideration for the older tional facilities at detention centers are non-achiever would be the alternate minimal, and a stay of several months in of an adult education program. Many one of these for a high school student students drop out of school after hav- can cause him to lose a year's school ing been excluded by their peers. Stu- credit. At Alto juveniles are placed in dents reach the legal age to quit at the an educational program only if they in- stage of development where social dis- dicate that they want to be. What the tinctions begin to be made in earnest others do with their time is hard to im- and often quite cruelly. Dropouts rarely aene. The Governor's Commission on belong to clubs, teams, or other groups. Crime and Justice has recommended An alternative educational system, not that juveniles under 17 at this facility limited to teenagers, which combines be transferred to the Youth Division basic education with work 'experiences, and that "programs at Youth Develop- minimizes the pain of social ostracism ment Centers should he expanded to which many lower class students feel at includemoreparticipationinlocal high schools with a middle class orien- church, school, recreation and work tation. pfagams." 17 Also to be considered is the impor- The number of young people who fail tance of teaching the student to see the to re4mter school after return from an necessity of his course work. Before we institutionisdiscouraging. Often the can communicatetraditionalsubject stud,..nt has fallen farther behind his matter to the potential dropout we must peers and the local school may not en- communicate the nature of our society courage his return. Bad habits learned in and the relevance of education. In the an institution and difficulty in finding electronic era we are entering he must work may then serve to push the young understand that in order to be employed person out of the social system alto- he must be able to do something a ma- gether. chine cannot do yet, and to stay em- A second groupofeduc?tiont!:y ployed he must be able to learn new alienated students might be described as

258 underachievers. These students. with our countryarelearningthis now varying degrees of grace. plod through through an epidemic of student up- the years and courses doing _only what risings. is required of them without much un- A problem which will be increasingly derstanding. awareness, or enthusiasm. evident is the student with a minority They regard most of their subject mat- group culture in a school dominated by ter as dull and irrelevant, and their in- white teachers and students. Until re- volvement is principally social. They cently Negro students in formerly white continue to attend school because their high schools were volunteers who were parentstellthemto,because their upward mobile and relatively. self-confi- friends are there. or because they enjoy dent. With increased integration many participating in sports. Students of this less confident Negro students will find type can sometimes be 'turned on" by themselves faced with social, academic. dynamicteachers,motivationalpro- and behavioral demands which may grams, or highly practical courses which cause nervous reactims or even encour- relate to their current interests such as age them to drop out. The relatively re- beauty culture or automobile tue.chainics. baked. slower paced atmosphere of the A third group of students who are Negro school will he sorely missed by often alienated from the system are the those who have been used to it when very creative or innovative, highly intel- they are faced with the more competi- ligent or intellectually active students tive, noisier, white-oriented classroom who find the classroom to be too regi- with its increased emphasis on attention mented, too slow paced, or too authori- and punctuality. Negro students have tarian. These students. Who may or may complained of tension caused, among not be essentially undisciplined. need a other things, by smaller groups in the democratic,participatoryatmosphere classroom and by necessity of spending antiteachers with sound preparation the entire period focusing on the lesson. and broad interests. Students of this type An Upward Bound student from Macon have to act, and if their creativity is not who transferred from a Negro to a for- given a channel, it will become destruc- merly white high school complained tive. They will often work very hard if that "at Ballard-Hudson the ones who given direction and freedom by an in- didn't want to learn would go to sleep terested teacher while behaving abomi- and you could get something done. At nably for another. Some large systems Lanier the students who aren't interested have experimented with special small keep up such a racket that nobody learns schools centered around independent anything." Such a change in atmosphere study and small group work for students and in rewarded or punished behavior of this type. Students inthis group causes strain, especially with such im- rarely drop out of high school; however, pediments to learning as a very real attitudes and habits of resistance and re- languagebarrieranddeficienciesin bellion learned in high school carry over preparation. The probably completed into college where the students suddenly integrated school system of the next have freedom and no experiencein decade will have great need of school using it. A great deal of intelligence and psychologists,counselors, and under- talent is lost when these creative stu- standing teachers. dents fail or drop out of college or dis- Itis discouraging to note how little sipate their energies on trivia. the schools of education in Georgia's Large, impersonal, urban high schools colleges are doing even to call this fu- and colleges are a torment to the active ture problem to the attention of student student who desires both self-determi- teachers, let alone help them prepare to nation and involvement. Many of the solve it. Not only will the Negro chil- more urban and industrialized areas of dren be under a great strain, but white

259 children who have been taught to hate business community as future employees or fear Negroes will need help with and consumers. rather than as active emotionally -based learning problems. and creative agents. Adolescence and Business The image most children have of in- We have looked at how industrialization dustry is even bleaker. consisting mainly has ended the traditional role of the of time clocks and air pollution. Com- father as a teacher of work skills and at panies who will arrange tours for school the ignorance that many children have children still do so in terms of showing of the male work role. To a child a job the industrial process rather thanin is represented by someone he knows terms of what the men do who work who performs it and has little reality there. This is an area in which the other than through concrete examples. child's teacher is also likely to be igno- Mercer's Upward Bound program for rant and the child who returns to the poverty -level high school students found classroom fascinated with a process still that these students when asked their doesn't know what he has to learn or career goals mentioned only thte who he has to be to do this work. As teaching. social work and the armed Georgia becomes more industrialized forces. The very few who indicated sec- some effort should be made to see that retarial work were found to use this the industries, and the skills and materials they utilize, are understood by the term for any office work.Inother words, childrenstilltend to choose young people. careers in terms of familiarity rather At the same time that business and than in terms of a realistic appraisal of industry are receding from the average their abilities and aptitudes. person in terms of his closeness to its Children moving up from poverty power and decision makers, this same level families no longer see business as institution affects more of his values and the medium formobility. They can desires through advertising and need- identify with members of their educa- creating. Since more people are now em- tional and social agencies but not' with ployees rather than self-employed, the the business community. An extreme average person is more likely to he de- form of this alienation is demonstrated pendent upon big business an.., industry by the fact that the prime targets for for income. The combination of de- looting and burning in urban riots are crease in power and increase in depen- the large food, furniture, and depart- dence causes resentments which range ment stores. These represent, for lower from an increase in vandalism, shop- class youth, the high pressure sales, the lifting, and employee stealing to looting coupon book, the bewildering contracts, and burning. Although crimes of vio- the layaway plans, the power and the lence are about 20 percent higher than unattainable glory. before World War II, property crime Even for the middle class youth, busi- rates are up much more sharply for the nessis no longer daddy's hardware country. The rate for larceny of $50 and store, Uncle George's corner drug store, over is more than 550 percent higher or Mr. Smith's bakery. Itis the chain than in 1933, when it may be noted the store and the credit card and the office motivation to steal was higher in terms building where dad does something or of need.19 As Georgia is undergoing the other. A look at a trend from 1909 to process of industrialization and urbani- the present shows that whereas shortly zation which took place earlier in other after the turn of the century one man areas of the country, we may see their out of four was self-employed, today experiences as a forecast of the changes only14 percent are entreprenuers." in attitudes which may occur here. Consequently, most children tend to One profound attitude change is that think of themselves in relation to the of the middle class student who fears his

260 identity and his ideals will suffer from cynicism is further holstered by the fact joining a large. impersonal concern. that our voting age is 18 in :Georgia and This feeling varies in intensity from a our young service men and married vague misgiving to a paranoid view of couples do not feel disenfranchised as the business world as a vast evil con- they do elsewhere. Factors which have spiracy at war with America's youth. eroded this feeling are resentment in the This latter view is prevalent. for exam- area of school integration (although this ple. among young hippies who seek to is greater among adults) and resent- avoid contact with it either as a worker ment towards the draft. or as a consumer and who are constant- The Negro has historically been ali- ly at odds with realistic interests. Hip- enated from government both inatti- pies. along with young Negroes. for ex- tude and in fact. This is gradually giving ample. have come to view urban re- way to some interest and involvement. newal as a tool by the business commu- but feelings toward government among nity to remove them altogether from Negro young people are still highly am- certain areas. and they view the police bivalent. Although many of them have as more interested in defending prop- strong positive feelings toward the poverty than individual rights. The fact that erty program agencies and the Supreme most hippies are from middle and upper Court. their feelings toward the armed middle class families and have rejected services are varied and range from very those values makes them and their attire positive to very negative. Surprisingly especially maddening to the working negative feelings about theF.B.I.are poor who are still struggling for those expressed. goals the hippies have discarded. This The preponderance of native -horn polarization in life styles between the population. the traditional respect for upward mobile lower middle class youth the military. and the conservatism of and the student-hippie group is one phe- the South all tend to retard the develop- nomenon which cuts across racial lines ment of alienation from the institutions and is best noted in terms of length of of government in the South: however, hair. What this portends for the future the general trend in this country is away is difficult to predict, but the conflict from nationalism and strong identifica- will take place in the schools in terms tion with the government. Further in- of the basic goals of education, that is, dustrializationand urbanization may career preparation vs. self-actualization. weaken this traditional tie also. Efforts This view of business/ industry as an at increased local control of politics, outside force can also be seen in the which should increase involvement, are thinking of young people about laws. viewed as reactionary by liberals and The idea that marijuana is harmless and Negroesand,unlesstheyarevery is illegal because of the power of the broad-based and democratically con- liquor and cigarette industries is wide- ceived,will not serve to reverse the spread among teenagers, as is the idea trend toward more alienation. that the munitions industries dictate our The combination of continued infla- foreignpolicy, once a quiteradical tion and high taxesisdisillusioning concept. quite another group, and a feeling of powerlessness in the face of big govern- Adolescence and Government ment is on the increase among the mid- The last area in which many young peo-dle class. One further complaint which ple feel alienated is in terms of the gov- cuts across class, color, and age lines is ernment, both on the local and the na- thematterofprivacy.Resentment tionallevel. We have lessalienation against the upcoming census seems to among young white people generally be building up among people who never than other areas of the country. In terms got excited over wiretapping. The re- of the government this residual lack of fusals to sign loyalty oaths, give up

261 school prayers, register for the draft class. from rural to urban. from unem- fill in information about race and reli- ployment to employment, from segre- gion. and cooperate with census takers gation to integration, are especially cru- are varying forms of resistance to the zial in that they require new ways of idea that "Big Brother is watching us.- seeing both society and self and new A recent episode in which Atlanta law- was of behaving. men photographed movie patrons drew It is a rule of thumb that the later more criticism than the pornographic industry comes to a region the more nature of the movie. We may expect advanced it is at its inception. Therefore more resistance in the future to invasion it is safe to assume that regardless of the of privacy by all government agencies. degree to which new jobs are created. it especially from young people, who have will be the skilled and educated people lessto lose by doing so than their who will benefit The world in which parents. one could avoid anxiety by accepting one's lot as a manual laborer is gone. The Costs of Mobility and with all good intentions we are go- "I know how to live here, I know ing to try to force everyone into the rat how everything sme:ls, and tastes, race. The amount of emotional trauma and is What could I ever search this will cause both in individuals and forintheworld,exceptthis in society is hard to estimate, but it is again." 2° already in evidence. Before we describe One of the greatest criticisms of the some examples of reaction to upward industrial system is the unbalanced na- mobility it may be in order to state that tre of its blessings. It creates a wealth our aim is not to resist the entrance of of material goods but does nothing to Georgia into the modern world but to help us know bow to value them. It pinpoint the growing pain it will incur gives us a maximum of leisure time and and suggest some remedies. no guide as to how to use it. It extends A good evample of upward mobility our lives and leaves many of us with 20 and its emotional cost might he the empty years at the end of our work. Negro adolescent. Let us look at the One of the things that our growing Negro boy who decides that he wants to industrial economy does is to keep us succeed as society defines success: that on the move both geographically and is, to have a white collar job and earn a up the "ladder of success," Our collec- salary which will permit him to own his tions of old things, from furniture to own home and a late model car and bottles. to old cars, show our nostalgia which will allow him and his family to for the thing we have had to leave to dress well, travel, and obtain medical succeed. And these things symbolize the and dental care under pleasant and re- values and habits that were lost along spectful conditions. the way. The first emotional cost he incurs is One characteristic of American so- for his education. His family and asso- ciety which is becoming more and more ciates are poorly educated. When he true of Georgia is mobility. In the in- chooses to go to high school or college dustrial, integrated Georgia of the fu- or bothhe gives up the male members ture many people will have moved into of his family as modelsfor his own be- new fields of work, into higher posi- havior. This is always a necessary state tions, into higher income brackets, into for upward mobility but is also a step more difficult schools or more urban toward emotional impoverishment for settings. Any or all of these can be re- many. Let us suppose now that this boy garded as advantageous: however, any is very ambitious and wants a sound of these changes involves effort, stress, education and is advised to enter a for- uncertainty, and often a crisis in iden- merly white school. When he makes this tity. The moves from lower to middle choice he makes a further payment

262 he gives up the male members of his such can undermine older institutional race as modelsfor his behavior. Once valueswithoutreplacingthemwith he is enrolled in college he meets the something as complete. As education additional hurdle (which is common to destroysafundarnentalisticreligious most freshmen) of being required to belief it does not necessarily supply an- look at many formerly subjective mat- other belief to take its place: as a child ters, such as religious and social cus- grows past his father in understanding toms, from an objective point of view, and loses him as a hero, he may never at which point he may fear that he is really find another. The current interest alsobeing required to give up his own of black students in creating a black his- beliefs, ideas, and valuesin order to tory and a black culture is an attempt succeed academically. to obtain the white man's instrumental These losses of models, reinforcers, meanseducationwithout having to and beliefs may leave the young person make the institutional sacrifice. It will with only the peer group to guide his probably not be successful, but it may behavior, and the peer group maintains be emotionally useful to students whose many types of values and behavior. The only channel of mobility is education student may begin to have considerable and whose only choice of directionis trouble deciding who he is in what he up. Like any regressive measure it will wants from life. Making decisions and be abandoned when the pressures that planning for thefuture may present occasion it lessen. Those pressures are problems. A simplistic and emotional the gap between the Negro and white student movement, whether black pow- schools and the gap between Negro and er, anti-war or others yet to come, has white income and values. real appeal for the student who is hav- Geographicalmobilityalsocauses ing problems of identity because it fur- some tensions and identity crises. As nishes opinions, goals, and courses of highly trained technicians and manage- action and allows him to act out his ment from other parts of the country anxiety. Movements of this type will come into the South there is a clash of probably increase; however, they may values. Differences inthe importance become institutionalized and more mod giventosuch mattersas education, crate as well, as most movements do as democraticideals,conspicuouscon- they age and grow. sumption, and social responsibility can The black student isalso presented be constructive and educational for peo- with external pressure from a variety of ple who have ceased to think about sourcesthe solemn liberals who wish them much but, like any expansion, can him to integrate; those blacks who have cause strain. Many people find it pain- attempted to resolve their identify crises ful to adjust their values to those of a by re-adopting lower class Negro be- new community and frustrating to try havior and wish him to do the same; to maintain them. A common reaction the hippies who want him at their par- to pain is withdrawal, and consequently ties to irritate the local "establishment'; many'people who move often tend to and the upward mobile WASPs (white avoid serious involvement in commu- Anglo-Saxon Protestants) who do not nity affairs. This causes impoverishment like him no matter what choice he both in the person who withdraws and makes. in the community which has inactive The urgent recent request of local members. black college students for a black psy- A "way of life" is the product of cen- chiatrist on campus was their expression turies of experiment, practice, and ad- of very real emotional problems. justment and is always a far richer, far Integration and upward mobility are more complete structure than appears instrumental values,thatisthey are on the- surface. Take a rural commu- demonstrable` and pragmatic, andas nity, for example, and the child-rearing

263 practices of a hypothetical family. The classes, youth groups, and cooperatives children perform farm chores for ar0 are possibilities. An experience with one with their parents; the boys lean to op- Manpower Development Training Class erate the tractor; they go to the farmer's which received secretarial training sev- market with their father and help him. eral years ago may illustrate this emo- They may go hunting with an uncle and tional support. Those who graduated fishing with their grandfather. They at- together not only stillkeep intouch tend an exciting and inclusive service with their teachers and each other but in their country church and help with help each other find jobs and advise oth- itsmaintenance. They attend a rural ers on such matters as civil service tests school and have a good chance to be on and training programs. its athletic teams. All of these are ways Dr. Fred R. Crawford. who directs in which the child becomes part of his Eniory's Center for Research in f,Jcial community. Change, which has just completed a Now suppose one of these boys moves three-year study of the War on Poverty, up to a higher income, say as an indus- secs cooperatives as one feature of the trial chemist, and lives in a city suburb. War on Poverty which should he ex- All of the ways in which the male meth- pandcd.21 A look at a number of coop- bers of his family interacted with him eratives around the South shows bobli are unavailable, and the urban substi- the strengths of the concept and some tutes are unknown or unattractive to of the weaknesses of implementation. him. Consequently, he may leave all the Lack of involvement of the young is entertaining and training of the children probably the most serious problem in to his wife. At the same time he is likely this area. to be disappointed in his boys if they There are now approximately 40 coop- turn out to have different values and eratives owned by poor people in the South.... Between 10.000 and 15.000 interests from his. This loss between people are being affected by cooper- generations of skills, values, and com- atives, Almost all are black people over municationis impoverishingand a 45 years of age.22 source of tension within a family. Judging from the experiences of these Another consequence of upward mo- efforts, only a massive and heavily sup- bility is the loss of friends. Anyone who ported governmental program inthis has taughtina low-income areais area could make this a viable form for aware of the group pressure against the future, regardless of the soundness highachievement,especiallyamong of the concept. A group of people with boys. The factor is also in operation in no experience in business will not mate plants, where the group may put pres- sounder decisions than its members are sure on an especially efficient worker to capable of singly. The lack of involve- slow down. Upward Bound students, ment of young people, the lack of abil- for example, seem to progress at a bet- ity of the old, and community hostility ter rate with less emotional difficulty if are more than sufficient to destroy most several of their close friends are also in of these attempts. the program. Having two members of A basic problem in many of the the same family, siblings or cousins, in- group action programs set up to aid creases the family cooperation and de- those outside the mainstreani was in creases envy and resentment. terms of role and power. In many of the These facts indicate that, where up- cooperatives where real power was in ward mobility is essential, as in poverty thehandsofthepoor,difficulties areas, it can be done with the least emo- ranged from getting the participants to tional damage or impoverishmentif understand thatthe cooperatives be- groups of interrelated people are helped longed to them (that they had both to move upward together. Communities, power and responsibility) to the fact families, churches, homemakers' clubs, that the boai.ds were too snake

264 proper business decisions, were too in- set up with ample funding to begin with experienced to keep good records, and a competent staff, part of whose respon- refused to accept community responsi- sibility would he to train young adults bility. to take over the decision-making functions, would appear to be most prac- On the other hand, programs which nomi- tical. were managed for the poor with A 'ron-farm youth prograo which nal advisory boards who had no real wou1,3 do for today's low income child forthis,and power were criticized what FFA. FHA and 4-H did for young much was made of large administrative farm children of our generation would salaries in anti-poverty projects. fill a real need if creative planning and In programs where the poor have adequate support were to he found. been organized as in Community Action Inshort,individual mobility often Programs or block clubs, two goals of- causes alienation in the upward mobile ten conflict. If the organization is to get person by separating him from the tra- political action or other specific results, ditions of his family, the acceptance of participation and leadership from the his friends, and, through requiring him poor themselves must be of a ritualistic to adopt the customs of another class. nature, while the actual planning and from his own feelings and ideas. The directing remains in trained hands. On person who must struggle up alone has the other hand, if the chief goal is real to learn to postpone present pleasure for participation and planning experience future benefits, to .settle on few and nar- for the poor, other goals may have to row goals, and to change his behavior besacrificedand postponed. People to accommodate theexpectationsof whose lack of insight and skills have others. All of these things can cause ten- kept them from succeeding individually sion andemotionalimpoverishment. will not develop these spontaneously as The common mobility of a close group a result of being organized. Learning can be achieved at less cost- to the indi- new ways of defining problems and be- vidual. The welfare of the children of comingfamiliarwiththechannels the upward mobileisalsoatstake. which exist for their alleviation may re- Studies in California have indicated that duce alienation and foster leadership, most hippies are the children of people but this takes time. If a knowledgable who have achieved financial success at person can guide the participants first the cost of spiritual and emotional im- toward fairly simple goals which can poverishment. be reached in a short amount of time, One final consideration in our look at and then toward more complex and upward mobilityisthe psychological lengthy goals, each victory will be a need of some of our poverty level popu- learning process for the participants lationto stay at the bottom. This is rather than more "luck- from a mean- surely not to say that anyone needs to ingless system. be cold or hungry. However, some peo- Impatient activists tend to scoff at "a ple simply have not the stability to work mystique of participation that invoked with others or maintain a schedule. such venerated symbols of community Many precariously balanced people, if development as 'grassroots', `self-,..eter- pressured into assuming responsibility, ruination,' and `self-help'...encouraged would experience great anxiety and the by a neo-Populist ideology promoted result could he an increase in deviant by 0E0";23 but if alienation from the behavior such as mentalillness.alco- mainstream perpetuates poverty, and if holism, or drug addiction. Thew are we wish to eliminatepoverty,we cannot also people who find manual labor or justify sacrificing participation to short- hand work therapeutic, who would be- term efficiency. come nervous or unhappy if given work In the long run a program which is which entailed responsibility or deci-

265 sions. As the nature of work changes andaffectivedistanceofthesocial and we make a greater attempt to up- structure and the density of population. grade workers, we need to remember Alienation, asitoccurs in a large. that remedial adult education must deal complex, bureaucratic society, can be with attitudes and emotions as well as in the form of alienation from the struc- skills. Those of us who have worked tures of society as a defense against loss with the women in Manpower Develop- of self-awareness. asit occurs among ment Training Programs have found many intellectuals, hippies, revolution- that the greatest harrier to finding em- aries. etc.;it can consist of alienation ployment for them is not their lack of from some structures and not others, as skills but their absolute avoidance of in the worker who finds his job dull but self-determination. They seek escape in is positively involved in styles and is an television, daydreaming, and gossip and, aggressive consumer; or it can take the if denied these,will have headaches, form of accommodation and conformity crying spells, or indigestion. Many peo- to all the social structures but loss of ple of this passive, fearful type, if forced self-awareness: that is, alienation from to assume a responsible role, will be- one's own feelings and creativity. Ur- come mentally or physically ill. We do ban, industrial society appears to pro- not want to be in the position of telling duce all of these. them in effect, "work or be institutional- Another way ofcategorizingthis ized." As simple mechanical work is form of dehumanization is that which phased out of industry, we may find that MelvinSeeman Usespowerlessness, the social loss offsets the material gain. meaninglessness, normlessness, isolation, This is something to plan toward both and self-estrangement.25 Let us look at from an educational and a mental health local examples of each and local reac- point of view. tions to them. The Crowd Powerlessness involvesthelossof control over important aspects of our "Time was, and it was all time up lives. A partial list could include such to 200 years ago, when the whole things as compulsory school attendance, of life went forward in the family, the draft, compulsory vaccination, taxes, in a circle of loved, familiar faces, census questionnaires, school integra- known and fondled objects, all to tion guidelines, traffic regulations, loy- human size. That time has gone alty oaths, time clocks, zoning regula- forever. It makes us very different tions, acreage allotments, from our ancestors."24 minimum wage laws,curriculum requirements, We have looked at social disorganiza- urban renewal, teacher certification, dri- tion and deviance as a result of change ver's license requirements, pure food and loss. We have found that instrumen- and drug laws, equal employment rul- tal forces can undermine institutional ings, gun registration, business licenses, structures without furnishing anything school board rulings on hair styles and to fill the gap, leaving people without so on and on. Daniel Boone or Davy guides to behavior, without moral and Crockett would regard today's citizen ethical guidelines to fit the new situa- as enslaved. And indeed we do feel that tions they confront. We have also found way to a certain extent. A sense of being that when a person moves up from one powerless in the web of society is per- lifestyleto another he may sustain vasive, and extreme reactions to this are losses in terms of complexity and depth in evidence both from the left in the of emotional behavior. form of hippie-type dropouts and from Two other important influences are the right in the form of motorcycle-type alienation, which we have discussed dropouts. More conventional resistance somewhat, and behavioral sink. Both of groups could be represented by the these are more directly based on the size ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union)

266 and the American Rifle Association. As to feelings of personal alienation from society becomes more complex and re- dominant values. Inadequate self-image strictive we should see more pressure and insufficient self-esteem can result groups forming to protect individual in- when we are exposed constantly to sets terests. Rent strikes, underground pa- of values contrary to our own. Our self- pers, and protests of various sortswill image is to a large part governed by the probably increase. So will citizen apathy way others value us and treat us. In a towards persons in emergencies and va- highlymobile,heterogenous,rapidly riouR forms of anarchy increase as the developing society one is continually be- individual comes to see himself as in- ing judged by alien standards, often creasingly without power or free will. without ever k'nowing quite what they Meaninglessness we have discussed in are. part as the loss of class or regional in- This inadequacy and anxiety in terms stitutional values and goals through mo- of identity alsoaffects inter-personal bility. Here events lose their significance relationships. Since the stranger's values and predictability and one merely acts may he different, we avoid friction by within a framework without attempting maintaining shallow relationships which to interpret or understand. remain one-dimensional. This lack of Normlessness involves the loss of ac- depth may be brought into relationships customed ways to see or do things. New which need to be close, like the family. situations arise to which old guides do If marriage partners are merely playing not apply; problems occurfor which the husband role and the wife role the there is. no established channel for so- relationshipisimpoverished,andif lution or for which the established chan- their values concerning these roles are nels are no longer viable. Persons resist- at variance, the result is disastrous. ing fare increases in the Atlanta Transit One movement of our time which System, for example, complained that shows a rebellion against the shallow there was no acceptable and effective relationship is the development of new meansfordoingthis. When large in-groups whose members build each groups come to assume that theirgoals other up by sharing values. The hippie can he accomplished onlyoutside of es- group, the drug group, the teen music tablished structures, then riots, revolu- group, the motorcycle gang, the black tions, etc., are in the making. The sit-in, culture groups, etc.,allrepresent at- for example, has come to he accepted tempts to build more secure relation- as a form of communicationbecause the ships on a foundation of shared values. public has come to see-that no alterna- This is a way to identify and this phe- tive had been provided. This supplied a nomenon is growing in the U.S. and in useful form of behavior which is no other industrial countries. longer regarded as deviant. This identity factor helps explain why Normlessness or anomie has been the heavy drinker of alcohol is easier to shown to have a positive correlation cure than the user of drugs. Since alco- with juvenile delinquency. Areas of a hol is accepted in society, the drinker city which are transitional in space-use is deviant by degree rather than by kind, or racial and class composition orwhich The drug user, however, is likely to behave a high turnover in population are long to a drug subculture whose mem- considered normless in contrast to stable bers share his values and support them. neighborhoods..And people who cannot Only by exposing himself to the "alien" conform for some reason tend to settle values of the majority and losing the in these unsettled areas. Young people subgroup identity can he cure himself. growing up in a normless environment There is always the question in mind, tend to reflect this in their behavior. "Did he join the subculture to obtain Isolation can be traditional, as in a narcotics, or did he turn to narcotics to minority group, or it can be a reaction become part of a subculture?"

267 Seeman's last category, self-estrange- infant mortality rate as to stabilize the ment. is a form of alienation which ap- population.26 pearstohe mostprevalentinthe A study of various human cultures middle-class. It involves conformity to shows us that populations whichcan en- theprevailing norms.fads,fashions. dure crowding usually do so through and goals at the expense of personal de- rigid, formai, and universally accepted velopment, self-awareness and creativi- rules governing behavior and interac- ty. The public schools in many cases tion. A heterogeneous. industrial society tend to reward this behavior both in with a history of admiring individual- teachers and students. This type of ism finds close living unpleasant and alienation is not considered deviant be- reacts by an increase in every type of havior, nor does itgenerally lead to deviant behavior. includingan increase deviant behavior of other kinds, in physical illness. The last phenomenon of increased population density which we will ex- Education .for Involvement amine is behavioral sink. In a stable, The schoolsareasocializingagent non-urban area a person meets people and as such can help children of all in the course of the day and interacts kindsfinda satisfying placeinthe with them directly or indirectly accord- world. This does not mean that the ing to previously established status cues. schools should try to impose identical Each interaction is fairly predetermined values on all children or Play God. It according to relationships and customs does mean that children's learning needs and causes little friction. In a crowded can be identified and met without caus- situation where differencesinvalues ing alienation from society, school, or and habits occur, many more interac- self. These nceds.vary according to the tions occur, and with more possibility individual and according to his back- formisunderstanding.Thetensions ground. which result from being around large The lowerclasschildshouldbe numbers of people, many or most of helped to develop skills which will make whom are unknown quantities, have an him useful to society and give him some effect on the emotions, behavior, health, buying power. He also needs to identify and reproductive capacities of those in- with something larger thanhimself, volved. That this is not merely a politi- whether it be a work group or an ide- cal or cultural matter is shown by the ology. He needs to develop relaxing and fact that animals show the same ten- satisfying ways of using his leisure time dency. and the know-how to operate in this John B. Calhoun's celebrated experi- complicated society. The schools can ments with Norway rats showed two- help him do these things. fold effects of crowdinga severe pa- The middle class child's family will thology, especially in terms of repro- meet many of the above needs for hitn. ductive functions and infant mortality; He has, however, a special need for and a behavioral sink involving poor aesthetic training and education in thy maternal behavior, passive non-involve- natural sciences which will help him see ment. homosexuality, hyperactivity, ex- himself as part of nature rather thanan cessive fighting, and cannibalism. These irresponsible exploiter of it. The quality results occurred despite adequate food, of life in the future will depend in large water, and protection from predators. part upon the values of the middle class The normal grouping ofrats broke citizen. down, in terms of group size and sexual . The school has a special responsibility composition, and the decrease in nest to see that the unusually talented or in- building and in adequate maternal care telligent child feels that his ideas arere- and protection of young so raised the spected and his questions welcomed.

268 This is a group that we can ill afford to The schools can be a vital bridge be- alienate, yet most often do. tween the child and society, the family The skills of participation and the and the government, the present and the habit of involvement can be taught. All future and between the generations. children need daily experience in participatory problem-solving and decision- making in groups of difficult sizes and with different kinds of people. Much Or. Alpha M. Bond, Jr.received his withdrawal from these activities on the Ph.D. in Sociology from Emory University part of adults is due simply to lack of in 1963. Since 1961 he has been a profes- skill ar d not to lack of concern. This sor of sociology at Mercer University teach- may require some retraining of teaching sociological theory, social research, social interaction. anthropology, and intro- ers; however, this could serve a dual ductory sociology. Dr. Bond is a member purposebyreinvolvingteachersin of the American and the Southern Socio- problem-solvinganddecision-making logical Societies, the American Association inthe school. Many teachers whose ofUniversityProfessors.the American Association for Lab Animal Science, the morale has suffered in autocratic school American Association for Advancement of systems would berejuvenated by a Science, and the New York Academy of structure which treated them as profes- Sciences. He isalso a member of the sionals. Teachers can become alienated, National Sociology Honor Society. Alpha Kappa Delta. During the summer of 1947, too. Dr. Bond was an exchange studentto Although an increase in social disor- Colombia and Ecuador; he was on an hon- ganizationis indicated for the future, ors fellowship to Emory in 1959-60 and a much of it will he side effects of great University Fellowship to Emory in 1960-61. strides forward in many, many areas. As we have more deviant behavior we Adrienne Moore Bond,wife of Dr. Alpha will also have improved ways to meas- M. Bond, Jr.. has taught pan time at Mer- cer University. including three summers on ure, understand and deal with it. A the faculty of Mercer's Upward Bound more educatedpopulace andbetter Program. She received the A.B. degree schools can rise to the challenge of un- from Mercer and is working on the -MEd. derstanding social disorganization and there. Mother of three sons. she taught in Augusta public schools and at Thetford finding ways to ease the pressure which Academy in Thetford, Vt. She was asso- causes deviation or to see and incorpo- ciate editor ofThe Southern Bankermaga- rate the good aspects of deviation into zine in Atlanta and isa member of the society. League of- Women Voters of Macon.

Footnotes

I.Linton, Ralph, The Cultural Background of Personality. (New York: Appleton Century Crofts, Inc.. 1945). p. 129. 2./bid.. pp. 130-131. 3.Jourard, Sidney M., "Some Implications of Self-Disclosure Research for Counseling and Psychotherapy," (Personality Theory and Counseling Practice, Papers presented at the first annual Conference on Personality Theory and Counseling Practice. UniversitY of Florida. Jan. 5, o, 7. 1961), pp. 31-34. 4.Linton. op. cit.. p. 131. 5. Landsman. Ted, "Human Experiences and Human Relationships..' (Personality Theory and Counseling Practice), p. 49. 6.Erikson, Erik H.. Childhood and Society, (New York: W. W. Norton and Company. Inc.. 1963). 2nd ed., p. 185. 7. U. S. Bureau of the Census. Pocket Data Book, (USA 1967). p. 45. 8.Barclay. Allen G. and Cusumano, D. R., "Testing Masculinity in Boys Without Fathers," (Tram-Action. Dec. 1967), p. 35. 9.Cober. Kenneth L."Involvement in Decision-Making." Report from the Capital. The Baptist Joint Committee on Public Affairs. (Dec. 1967), p. 7, W. Pupil Personnel Services Demonstration Center. The School Diopout in Georgia. (Conyers, Ga: Rock- dale County Public Schools. 1968). P. 15. 11.Georgia Educational Improvement Council. Highlights of Georgia's 1966 High School Graduate Study. (Atlanta: Georgia Educational Improvement Council. 1967). 12. The School Dropout in Georgia, p. I. 13. Georgia Pupil Personnel Services. Georgia's Drop.Out: A Profile, (Atlanta: Georgia State Department of Education, 1966), p. 4.

269 14. Bibb County Board of Education. Mimeographed fact sheet. 15. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime. (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1967),p. 148. 16. Governor's Commission on Crime and Justice, A Report of the Governor's Commission on Crime and Justice, 1968, (Atlanta: State Planning Bureau, 1968), p. 79. 17.Ibid., pp. 92 and 68. 15. Kuinets. Simon, "Income Distribution and Changes in Consumption," (The Changing American Popu- lation, Hoke S. Simoson. ed.. New Yrk: Insiiinte of Life incarance. 1962), Table 2. p 24. 19. The President's. Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, (Washington: U. S. Government Printing Office. 1967), p. 24. 20.Beagle, Peter S. The Last Unicorn, (Ballentine: N. Y.. 1968), p. 5, 21. Coulborn, Keith, "The Losing Battle on Poverty," (The Atlanta Journal and Constitution Magazine, Aug. 24, 1969), p. 37. 22.Ulmer. A., Cooperatives and Poor People in the South, (Atlanta: Southern Regional Council, 1969), p. 30. 23.Kramer, Ralph M., Participation of the Poor, (Englewood Cliffs, N. 3.:Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 218. 24.Laalett, Peter, "The World We Have Lost," (Man Alone, New York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc., 1962), p. 93. 25. Seeman, Melvin, "On the Meaning of Alienation," (American Sociological Review, Vol. 24, Dec. 1959), pp. 783-791. 26. Calhoun, John B., "Population Density and Social Pathology," (The Urban Condition, New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963), p. 33.

270. THEWRITERS ofthisposition paper have appropriately identified, as the major social problems in the United States and Georgia, social disorganization,alienation, and continued dehumanization of given segments of the population,i.e.,blacks,lowerclass schooldropouts,middle-class underachievers, young agitators, and hippiec. My acceptance of theirlistsuggests similarities in our value systems. They attribute this increasing loss in human resources to the social systems of the family, religion, the economic system, the political system, and the educational system.Eachofthesefactionsof society do influencethe behavior of people, do ascriberoles which they must perform and do mete out rewards and punishment. Such is the manner in which a society survives.Forgroupsurvival,there must be clearly delineated expectations critique: of people. But not sufficiently emphasized in the paper is the fact that un- Growing less society provides the resources and Pains: opportunitiesforitsmembers ofall ages, classes, creeds, and ethnic origins A Look at to learn to meet its expectations, it will Social not be a self-correcting and self- evalu- ative society; it will not be a democra- Disorganiza- tic society; it will not survive! tion in Allsocietieshaveinstitutionalized processes for maintaining order in their Georgia's evolution. All societies have processes Future for contributing to the growth and de- velopmentoftheirmembers.The American processes are being jolted by the demand for change; changes initiated within the system (i.e., industrialization,mechanization)andchanges initiated outside the system (i.e., school

- a desegregation). The source of pressure or change does influence the readiness .. it,/ for and the acceptance of change but does not alter the fact that all change disturbsthe equilibriumand makes new demands upon the constituents. The writers did acknowledge that all the earlier referred to systems are cru- cially involved in the social future of Georgia. I would emphasize that Geor-

271 gia'sfuturesocial(dis)organization problem-solving, decision-making. and pictureis dependent upon the extent contributing constructive social roles to to which all systems assisttheir con- Georgia's future instead of the produc- stitutentswith adaptationtochange. tionoftechnicaland administrative Moreover, I view the educational sys- elites. Such an educational philosophy tem, the major socialization agent of would move us away from a track sys- today, as having primary responsibility teminwhich each ethnicgrouping for this task. Our educational institu- successively triesto climb the social. tions have the responsibility for contri- economic, and political ladder on the buting to "a more educated populace backs of the groups below itas did which can rise to the challenge of un- Yertle the Turtle, of Dr. Seuss fame. derstanding social disorganization," A new education system for Georgia suppressing the forces which causeit requires a reorganization inmethods, andfindingwaystoassimilatethe based upon thedevelopmentstaking alienated back into the vital stream of place outside the classroom and im- society. To educate the populace to pressedupon young people by the humanize society, a school system must mass media. As Margaret Mead has examine its system of production,its putit, children today are understand- production of education. ing things out of their continuous ex- The educational system in the periences that adults have to learn. Or. United States today isapart of the as many children (in ghetto commun- major system, American society. It has ity)) and young adults (of affluence) always existedtoservetheover-all think, "Why should we go to school to American system. In the pre-Civil War interrupt our education?' days, the main purpose of education A changed system would havea wastoproduce apoliticaleliteto change in teacher-student relationship, govern the country. With the industrial from an authority-submission axis to a revolution after the Civil War, educa- transactionalrelationshipbuiltupon tion was reorganized to give children dialogue and exchange. Objectives and of immigrant industrial workers min- learning plans would be related to the imum literacy needed to man the ma- interests which the children bring from chines in mines and factories. outsidetheclassroom. The teachers Today, competition from the Soviet would be the guides, the facilitators of Union influences the purpose of U. S. the students' mastery of existing skills education, namely, the production of and possible development of new ones. scientists and technicians to further our Such a reorganization with a spectac- economic development, particularly in ular increase in the use of educational inner space and outer space. This pur- technology would relieve theteacher poseexcludesconsiderationofthe for individualized instruction. Georgia masses, both white and black, To fulfillits charge to educate for whose unskilledlabor becomes more social organization, the Georgia schools obsolete as automation and cyberna- of 1985 must become a place where tion advance. parents and all adults, including teach- Thispositionpaperdoesgive a ers, can develop resources to solve the charge to Georgia to develop a new questions that concern them and where educational system to meet the indi- there is continuous interaction between vidualized needs of the alienated seg- different age groups, all learning from ments of its population. Although not one another. The public school would spelled out in detail, the writers imply then truly be a center for continuing that this requires a new philosophy of education. education, i.e. a definition of the goa's The position paper, "Growing Pains: ofeducation astheproductionof A Look at Social Disorganization in masses of people who are capable of Georgia's Future," carefully delineates

272 the institutional forces which influence Hon and Ecstasy, by George Leonard, one's preparation for involvement or Look Senior Editor. isolation in society. To the educational I do believe that such changes will system,the major socializationforce equip the educational system in Geor- today. it presents the challenge to build gia to create people to function more a new system of education. Assuming adequately, to cope with change and a critiquer's license, I have shared some to make socially responsible decisions ideas toward this change whichare that will benefit all. described most dynamically in Educa-

273 MAN, as we know him, cannot live successfully apart from other people. We observe him in every time and place working,playing,worshipping,and living out his life within the framework- ingoforganizedrelationshipswith others. Thus, the family groups can be seen as a set of established, repetitive relationships of people, performing such basic functions as reproduction, care and nurture of the young, and preparation of individuals for specific roles in society. Other organized sets of human relationships are especially concerned with governmental matters, anditis these groups which help regulate and controlman'sactionstowardother people.Numerous groupshavede- velopedwithinsocietytoeducate people, to provide religious expression, to furnish recreation and relaxation, and so on. The network of these human relationships and groups and the man- critique: ner in which they function together to support social existence we may call Growing social organization. Pains: In an "ideal" society (i.e., one which would allow man to meet allof his A Look at needs satisfactorily) all human relation- Social ships, interactions, and groupings would be organized so that they supplemented Disorganiza- each other, with a minimum of con- tion in tradiction or conflict, allowing a person to move into and fill appropriate sets Georgia's of social roles. Future Of course, no such "ideal" society ever existed. Each society has to some extent fallen short inits organization (that is,is somewhat disorganized) so that its institutions and groups are to some extent ineffective or insufficient. In any particular aspect of society, disorganization may exist because of inappropriate social mechanismsor dis- organizationmay havefolloweda relativelyorganized statebecause of some breakdown of relationshipsor failure of functions due to crises within the society or pressure from without. It is assumed that observed social disorganization in Georgia may be the result of either of these, not just one or

274 the other. Also, observed social disor- sirable side effectsnot all medicines ganization which has indeed resulted have undesirable side effects. from the breakup of formerly organized conditions may be the prelude to either Some Assumptions further disorganization or reorganiza- Before beginning to discuss the future tion into more widely approved forms. of disorganizationinGeorgia.it is necessary tostate some assumptions. About Social Change and Letit he understood that hereinitis Social Disorganization assumed that no major war will have The relationship between change and occurred by 1985 and thatinternal disorganization is particularly significant revolution will have bees avoided. Our in Georgia at this time. The very rapid, government will not have changed form but uneven, trends toward urbanization materially, nor will we have abandoned and industrialization, together with in- or basicallyalteredour politico-eco- creasing communication and education, nomic system. We will still be operating arc bringing about extensive changes in as a mixed economy with a modified, almost all aspects of the older systems. regulatory democracy withastrong Most of thechanges,together with welfare emphasis, and ours will still be forces which arc bringing them about, a commercial-industrial-service society are approved and sponsored by those with private property and unrestricted who see that the old must give way if horizontal mobility. We will have no more satisfactory organization is to be genuine depression, nor will we have achieved;however,thechangesare experienced runaway inflation. Further, disapproved by some with vested inter- it is assumed that the rate of change will est in the status quo, or who for other generally approximate thatprevailing reasons have not seen the need for during the past 15-20 years. changes. Still others may not be aware Itisfurtherassumed thatitis of the forces and trends, but are none- actually possible to establish objective theless caught up in the confusion and criteria for the satisfactory functioning frustration of the times, of society and thereby "judge" whether However, it would be a serious error a society is performing well or poorly. to consider the whole question of social For example, Ralph Linton said, ".. . a and personal disorganization to be ac- society can neither endure through time counted for by social change. Other nor function succesfully at any point causal factors are usually present along in time unless the aspiciated culture with the bare fact of change itself, and fulfills certain conditions. It must in- change may sometimes occur with little clude techniques for indoctrinating new accompanying social disorganization. It individuals in the society's system of must be remembered thatextensive values and for training them to occupy change, while generally favorableto particular places in its structure. It must behavioral breakdown, may in some also include techniques for rewarding instances be extremely indirect inits socially desirable behavior and discour- influence. Further, change is the normal aging that which is socially undesirable. conditionof man andisto be ex- Lastly,thebehavior patterns which pectedno society has ever remained compose the culture must be adjusted absolutely unchanged for very long. It to one another in such a way as to is only when change comes too rapidly, avoid conflict and prevent the results of unevenly, unexpectedly, or as the un- one pattern of behavior from negating foreseen consequence of other actions thoseof another(pattern)."(Ralph thatitwill cause disorganization. Nor Linton, Cultural Background of Person- can itbe said that every attempt to ality, New York:Appleton-Ceritury- remedy disorganization will have unde- Crofts, Inc., 1945, pp. 24). Using this

275 broad standard, one can actually s.r.arch needs of Negroes. Also, Negroes are out ways in which a society is falling increasinglyputtingforthcandidates short. and electing (with considerablewhite Inlike manner one can judge the assistance!) them to important public adequacy of individuals' response pat- positions. Most white children are now terns or the adequacy of a single be- interacting at some levels with Negro havioral response of one person. Heyns children. and both seem to he taking it said, "A response or a pattern of re- as nothing more or less than normal. sponse is adequate or 'good' ifit(1) Given16 more years of changesin reducestension,(2)without unduly these directions (and there is absolutely interfering with the satisfaction of other no evidence upon which to posit re- motives of the individual. and (3) with- versal or significant deflections of these outinterferingmateriallywith the trends). one could find the race problem adjustment of other people." (Roger W. all but solved in Georgia. Further, given Heyns, The Psychology of Personal the vigor with which Negroes are at- Adjustment. New York: The Dryden tacking their own and general social Press,Inc.. 1958. p. 15). problems, Georgia is likely by that time to have produced a significant number Some Specific Aspects of of individuals who will have contributed Disorganization in materially tothestate'sgeneralde- Georgia's Future velopment and of whichnearlyall Let us examine some types or examples Georgians will be duly proud. of disorganization as they are likely to Crime he manifested in our state in the mid- The nature ofcrime will have eighties. changedgradually moved toward em- Race Relations phasisuponorganizedbigbusiness The big breaks have already occurred. crime, white collar crime, and political Old,fairlystablesuperordinate/sub- machination.Ordinary crimeofthe ordinate systems of white-Negro ac- sorts predominantly acted upon now comodation were slowly, but extensively will have been reduced by the effects eroded in the inte -war period by educa- elf increasing and improved education. tion. inter- and intra-regional migration. reduction of poverty and ignorance by industrialization and urbanization, and rational programs of intervention and by the growing recognition of the un- alleviation. and as the result of the ap- bearable economic and spiritual costs of plication ofmodern, improved know- segregation. World War II accelerated ledge of human and behavioral sciences. the pace, and the series of court actions Reform and rehabilitation of violators climaxed by the 1953-54 period at long will have improved. mainly because the last broke the back of legal segregation. processwillhave been of necessity The 15 years since have been character- removedfrompoliticalhandsand ized by foot-dragging, legal maneuver- placed in professional,specialized ing and delay, but also by fairly steady hands. By 1985, the work now beginning movement toward integration in most wish urban problems will have removed parts of the system and, more im- most of the necessity and opportunity portantly, by a general decline in overt for much of the crime now plagueing bigotry. Actually, itis now generally us. recognized in the state that segregation Police work and law enforcement is 'a lost cause and that it is no longer will have been improved by the clarifi- politically expedient to preach race hate. cation,specification,anddefinition With increased voterregistrationof finally emerging from modern Supreme Negroes, it is, in fact, becoming politi- Court decisions on the matter, In fact, cally necessary to look to the wants and now isthefirsttimeinour coun-

276 try'shistorythatpoliceactivityhas public care and handling. The cumula- been formally and officially integrated tive effect could he quite significant. philosophicallyintothetotalsocial Gambling system. Organized. illegal gambling seems to he Despite complaints from many police increasinginGeorgia.and Georgia and others. these decisions have defi- seems unable and/or unwilling to cope nitely established police work as a tool with it. Thus, large amounts of money of the community, not its tyrant, thus aredrainedfromthepocketsof paving the way for professionalization Georgians, typically those least able to and improvement while protecting the pay the cost. Other forms of gambling civil rights of all Americans. Arbitrary, prey upon transients and visitors, thus discriminatory law enforcement is now losingforthestatetherespectand affection of those so fleeced..Politics spotlightedagainstthebackdropof seems to prevent the elimination of these larger American valuesand can be latter ills.Even if some gambling were brought to task much more easily than to he legalizedas seems probable in the past. This looks like re-organiza- inthisstate,experienceselsewhere tion, not disorganization. would indicate that certain illegal forms Poverty would persist and, in addition, certain This subject was mentioned just above. undesirableside-effectsoflegalized However, it can be '.stated that poverty gambling would develop.In summary. will he eliminated in our society, and itappearsthatgamblingwillbea quickly, not because it must be if we are problem in Georgia for a long timeor toavoid revolution,but becauseso until sonic new solutions arc developed/ many among us have glimpsed, at long accepted. last, that eliminating poverty is a possi- Prostitution bility. What a people such as we are Many -Georgiansatalllevelsstill consider both expedient and possible we believe that prostitutionisinevitable.. willaccomplish, given theresources hence they do not fight it. Many others now available for such endeavors. profitdirectlyorindirectly fromit, Alcoholism hencewantittocontinue.Police Alcoholism promises to increase rapidly officials frequently profit, either in pay- in the state. More and more people are off or in easy, useful information, and drinking and drinking more heavily thereforedonotseektoeradicate than in the past, and with mental sets prostitution.Familycounselingcon- which seem conducive to the develop- tinues to lag, sex education in school is mentof addictionconfusion,fears, resisted by the state's officials, marriage frustration,etc.Cures are not being millsflourish,sothatchancesfor developed rapidly enough to conteract maritalhappinessarereduced,thus the trend. Treatment and handling of creating a greater demand for prosti- alcholies could easily emerge as one tutes. However, our expanding econ- major drain upon the state's resources omy, improved employment opportun- by the mid-eighties. ities, improved understanding of sex and Drug Addiction its role in life, together with the continu- At the moment drug use is a growing ing liberation of the female should con- fad among young people. Even if the tribute greatly to making prostitution fad declines and new people cease to be irrelevant in the seventies and eighties. recruited to druguse,those already Suicide adversely affected will still be with us Suicide rates promise to remain high for decades. Their social effectiveness and willactually increase for several is drastically reduced, and there' is the segmentsof'Georgia'spopulation, strong possibility that they will require especially Negroes, ruralpeople,the

277 young, andtheveryold.However, middle class prototype. certainly, but attitudes towardsuicide',centtobe organized nonetheless. changingsome oftheshameand Society as a whole may be disorgan- stigma seem to be decreasing and in a izedtemporarily(family-wise)asit few decades suicide may become more moves away from thehorizontal-ex- orlessacceptedorevenlegalized, tendedpatte. However,thereis especially in the aged, the chronically rapidly emerging a new organization of ill. and the like. a vertical natureseveral generations Mental Illness closely relatedsocially(physicaldis- There is no reason to believe that the tance notwithstanding), mutually con- incidence of mental illness will increase. cerned and interdependent, but within On thc other hand, it appears that the a narrow range of lateral rt.slztionships. carc and treatment of mental illness in A formof"urbanfamilism"is Georgia will be greatly and rapidly im- emerging in our time, with any one proved, thus reducing disorganization urban family likely to be existing in a due to individual breakdown. network of supportive relationships with three,four.six,or even eight other Family Disorganisation families (several of which may be kin PracticallyeveryGeorgianmarries, families)and having extensive inter- even though marriage is not necessary. relationships and interaction, again per- It is not necessary to have a wife-help- haps in the absence of physical prox- mate. since the nature of work has imity. moved almost entirely away from the These and otherbitsof evidence family-farm pattern; not necessary to point to thc definite possibility of re- have a mother for children who would duced, not increased, family disorgani- contribute economically to the family zation in thc next decade or so. enterprise; and not necessary to obtain a scx partner since emerging standards Religious Disorganization would permit considerable sexual free- The church is in a period of rapid and dom to a mature single male. Women extensive change atthistimc. Sound marry, even though the modern com- predictions of its future organization or munity would freely permit a single ofitsroleinsociety arepractically woman to support herself well, meet impossible at this time and on existing reasonable sex needs outside marriage, evidence. even bear or adopt children. It would Political Disorganization appear that marriage is not going out Georgia has finally eliminated the in- of style. famous county unit system and Divorce rates have declined for al- achieved a reasonably equitable reap- most a quarter of a century and have portionment of itsstate legislature.It been fairly stable for several years; also, has had two, perhaps three, administra- most divorced persons remarry. Fur- tions reasonably free of blatant corrup- ther, most divorces solve more prob- tion. Most county functionaries are now lems than they create. off the fee system and on stated salaries. Marriage, as contrasted to more in- A new constitution is in prospeLt, as formalandtemporaryalliances, is iselectionreform. A viablesecond increasing among poverty and minority politicalpartyhasemerged,voter groups. Marriage and remarriage among registration has increased, particularly oldsters is increasing and meeting with among the poor and the state's Negroes, lessoppositionthanformerlyfrom and voting rights are increasingly being other age groups. protectedatthepolls.Negroesare Recent studies show more family being elected and appointed to govern- organization in poverty groups than had mental positions atcity, county, and beensuspecteddifferentfromthe state levels in increasing numbers. Most

278 people of the state currently recognize predominatelybroughtuslingering the cost being paid for an irresponsible deaths.butthesearedeaths which election of governor and are dedicated follow long illnesses rather than deaths to avoiding such error in the future. whichprematurelyterminateactive. County consolidation and city-county productive lives. Delaying deaths pre- consolidationseemverymuch in vents disorganization of families.ca- prospect. reers. business, and the like. In balance. These and similar steps have moved there is a net gain on the organization Georgiatoward,notawayfrom, side. sounder political organization. Although Disease and Disability there is still a long way to go, there is Contagious and communicable diseases nothing whatsoever inthe pictureto promise to decrease materially as prob- indicate that the direction of change lems for our state, with most effort will he reversed or even materially de- having to go into disease prevention flected. and education. The lingering death of Hippie Type Movements the aged willincreasein proportion. Itis impossible to appraise the effects although not in the relative length of of these movements on Georgia's future each, and there promises to be increase or to predict what will succeed these in (1) self-contributory illnesses (lung movement,: ,r how the larger society cancer,heart ailments,circulatory willreacttotheir excesses. No dis- troubles,emphysema.cirrhosis,etc.) cussion is included here of the avowed either brought on or complicated by revolutionary groups in America, since actionsofthepersonsthemselves a basic assumption made herein held (drinking, impropereating. smoking, thatnorevolutionwould occurin etc.).(2)those illnesses inducedor America before 1985. complicated by environmental factors Unemployment (poverty, air or water pollution, etc.). Georgia standstosuffer more from and (3) accidents. Thus, medical em- unemploymentthando someother phasis must change to meet changing states because of its lag in education needs. and new programs must be de- and its failure to prepare all its young- veloped to meet the costs. sters to compete in occupational rc,ims. Environmental Pollution because of its displaced farm pei,s4e, First attempts are afoot to define and the uneducated and those caughtin delimit pollution problems and to de- Georgia's rapidly changing occupation velop solutions. The degree of success configuration.Georgiawillprobably is unpredictable. continue for some time as an area of Housing labor shortage. The demand willbe Housing may w.;11 become in a decade limitedfor lowskill,undereducated and a half one of Georgia's greatest persons. This fact will call for a more problems. Housing is so poor and short than ordinary effort to train or retrain now that we have further to go than workers andtorecruit and develop most states. Costs are nearly prohibitive. industries and serviceindustries and As a result, federal aid will be involved. service agencies which willefficiently New technology must be developed and utilize the sorts of people we haves labor union patterns must yield. The Aging Traffic and Transportation Increasing numbers of aged persons will Solutions to these problems are not in notnecessarilyrepresentdisorganiza- sight, even with extensive federal aid. tion. Longer life has always been a goal of man, andits achievementin our Population time should be considered as a goal not Consideration of any future condition as a curse. True, the development has must include population control (birth

279 control, family planning). Too rapid work) is a sine qua non for happiness, population increase would jeopardize all so long as society 'values the person for other organizational efforts. Education whatever he is, and the person knows is the means, and reasons for limiting this, and concurs. The new society" we family size must become a part of the are building may have many roles which programs ofallsocialagencies and are not work roles but which arc valued organizations in the state. It may even andwhichwill,therefore,provide he necessary in the eighties to require happiness, Freud and the Bonds non- a license to produce a child: the matter withstanding, is that serious. In another sense the termination of Conclusion certainworkrolesneednotcause Man is a problem-solvinganimal. permanent or extreme damage to either Georgians are now coming to define the person or society. An expanding certain existing and emerging conditions society-economy such as Georgia'sis as problems, and it can be expected that characterized by the creation of new ihev will solve most of them. roles and positionsinto which indi- Georgians are now receiving many viduals can move or he moved to the dire predictionsprophecies that they advantageofboththepersonand and their institutions are rapidly headed society. This is happening in Georgia for disorganization and decline. How- and will continue to happen at least ever, we would point to the self-defeat- into the eighties. ing puphecy principlein which the Our recent changes have been typi- very formulation of a dire prophecy cally from the rural-mechanical-produc- causes man tomarshalhisrational tive to the urban-technical-service capacities to bear upon the problem (production - consumption - serving). and to cLi.:atit.This, we hold, will There is no theoreticbasis for pre- happen with most of the problems dis- dicting that the latterwill prove less cussed heron or in the Bond paper. satisfying to the individual, once the Certain drastic changes are taking necessary attitudinal shifts have taken place and one ;efinite consequence is place. than either of theother two the displacentem of work rules. How- patterns. In fact, it promises to be more ever, there is no validity in the assump- satisfying. tion that work (particularly productive

References Freeman. 'Howard E. and Kurtz. Norman R., America's Troubles: A Casebook in Social Conflict. (Engle- wood Cliffs. N. J.: Prentice-I-hill, Inc., 1969). Paperback, 455 pp. Belcher. John C. and Dean. K. Imogene. Georgia Today: Facts and Trends. especially Chapter XI. "Social Disorganization in Georgia." by F:aymond Payne, pp. 236-263, (Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1960). Paperback, 345 pp.

280 WHYSHOULD the Commission on Educational Goals of the State Board of Education request a position paper on "Religion in Georgia'? This quesiion may occur to many persons reviewing these documents. Among the reasons for its inclusion. the following might he mentioned: (1) organized religion constitutes a major social institution in our society: (2) there are many church- sponsored schools. colleges, and other such organizations in the state: (3) religion is i!..;:eply involved in moral and ethical vaiocv and issues: and (4)itis related to the process of socialization and the Utwelopment of life styles and purposesforbothindividualsand groups. 11 would, for example, he difficult to understand Georgia'shistory without knowingitsreligiousback- By Earl D. C. Brewer, Ph.D. ground. The same would apply to efforts to assess the current situation and the probabilities for the future.

Religion in Georgia One of the difficulties in treating this topic is the limitation of available data about religion in the United States and, especially, on the state level. There is probably less known about organized religion and organized crime than about any other major system in our society. The Bureau of the Census asks questions about neither, but with law enforcement agencies looking into organized crime, itis not unlikely that more is known about it than about religion. Organized religion is considered a private rather than a public institution, with each denomination keeping its own records for its own purposes. Relatively few comparable statistics about the most elementary characteristics of religious bodies -A are available on a national level. The situation is even worse for states, since the subdivisions of most denominations do not follow state lilies. Also there is no central depository or clearinghouse for such information.

281 What follows. then. isa review of so inits religious history. Indeed, the such information about thereligious controversy over slavery split the major situation in the United States and in the Protestant bodies (Baptist, Methodist. state as could be collected within the and Presbyterian) a decade or so prior time limitations of this project, together to the political rupture of the nation. In with some speculation about the place the late 1700's and early 1800-s. there of religion in Georgia's future. was general condemnation of slavery by Historical Background Methodists. Baptists and other church groups. However, with the increase in Within the past two decades, the Uni- the economic value of slavery in the versity of Georgia Press has issued two South. southern church leaders came to publications dealingwith religion, support it with Biblical oratory as a di- among other topics, inthe State of vine institution. The North-South de- Georgia." John C. Meadows treated hate over slavery largely replaced the religion as a part of the culture of the doctrinal and evangelistic debates of state in the first, and Robert H. Ayres the camp-meeting days. By the time of provided a chapter on "The Role of Or- the Civil War, the break was complete, ganized Religion" in the second publi- with southern churches sanctioning and cation. Each author summarized the his- blessing the southern cause as fully as torical background of the development didnorthernchurchesthenorthern of religion in the state. Although the cause. focus of this paper is upon the present Inthepostwarperiod,northern and future, a brief historical statement church leaders rode with the occupying may he helpful. forcesinthe South, while souther* The Roman Catholic Church first en- church leaders supported variousre- tered the area of the present State of sistance movements, including legalized Georgia in the sixteenth century, but it segregation and vigilante organizations disappeared along with the Spanish oc- such as the Klu Klux Klan. The evan- cupation inthe seventeenth century. gelisticchurches ernerging from the The English settlement of Georgia in camp-meeting era(especiallyBaptist the eighteenth century included mem- and Methodist) were indeed "peoples' bers of the Church of England as well churches" and l'eflected the attitudes, as Scotch Presbyterians, French Hugue- passions, and concerns of southern peo- nots, Swiss Calvinists, Lutherans, Mora- ple. In the pre-Civil War period efforts vians, Jews, and others. A considerable at missionary work among slaves were measure of religious freedom prevailed, sponsored. The slave converts were ad- and distinctions between church and mitted to the galleries of churches for state were not sharp. The Baptists and worship. They were attached to the de- Methodists arrived later, but through nomination of their owners. Following the camp-meeting period of the early the war, however, segregationsetin nineteenth century these groups, along withinthe denominations as wellas with the Presbyterians, became the "Big within the society. Thus, the indepen- Three" in th:. state. dent and segregated Baptist, Methodist, The early Protestant settlers shared and other Negro denominational groups the anti-Catholic sentiment current in came into existence and continue today. the England of that day, and therewas Two otherhistoricaldevelopments little settlement by Catholics in Georgia should be mentioned. Near the end of until the nineteenth century. Following the 1800's and the beginning of the the Revolutionary War, the Church of 1900's there was a pentecostal and holi- England was organized as the Protestant ness revolt against the established "Big Episcopal Church. Three." This gave rise to such groups The Civil War was a great watershed as the Nazarenes, Churches and Assem- in the history of the nation and no less blies of God, Pentecostal groups, and so

282 on. These continue as importantforces. values and norms through which an in- especiallyamong disadvantagedand dividual can develop a meaningful sense lower-class whites in the South. The sec- of direction and destiny and groups can ond development has been largely the rationalize their existence and motivate result of the increased industrialization their members. The realistic grounding of the South, including Georgia. This of religion would appear to be in the has brought an immigration of skilled universal capacity and necessity of an labor, businessmen and others from the individual to transcend himself in the North and Midwest. Many of these have process of socialization (to take the role been Roman Catholics, Lutheran, Jews, of the other). Religion functions to ulti- and members of other religious groups mw_ize this empirical necessity. not "native" to the recent history ofthe Education isthemajorprocess state.This immigration h.provided through which socialization and inter- much greater pluralism in inC religious nalization of culture, including values. composition of the population of Geor- take place. As such, itis the principal gia, especially in the cities. mechanism through which individuals and groups gain access to established Nature of Religion opportunity systems in our society. Yet In this brief historical review, religion serious questions are being raised about has been treated largely as organized educational institutions and their ability movements, bodies, or denominations. to perform this basic educational task in Yet, religion, like education, is a com- the modern world. In like manner, re- plicated phenomenon and can be exam- ligion as the quest for meaning and des- ined from many viewpoints. Any par- tiny is a major concern of contempo- ticular approach, description, or defi- rary man. Yet, organized religion seems nition of religion is likely to he counted marginal and unable to perfoirn the inadequate or untrue by persons taking basic religious function amid the plural- other stances. Generally. the social scien- isticperplexities and confusing com- tific approach is Used here, including all plexities of modern man. In this sense, the biases and prejudices pertaining to it. religion and education as social institu- Religion may he thought of as that tions, along with other major establish- aspect of human behavior which relates ment systems, need to re-examine their to transcendental sources of positive or goals and strategies for the decades negative sanctions. Thus, a central func- ahead. tionofreligioninindividualsand groups is the creation, maintenance,and Religion as a Social System modification of a sacred realm (how- As with education, the major function ever defined) and the provisionof ongo- of religion cannot be carried on effec- ing relationships between it and the ev- tively by isolated individuals or small eryday, ordinary, profane or secular groups with limited resources. Both de- (again, however defined) areas of belief velop into major social systems. It may and behavior. Tile religious dimension be helpful. then, to outline a few of the of behavior concerns the "sacred cos- simple elements in a social system ap- mos"(2) and the access to it of individu- proach to the analysis of religion, or any als in the course of socialization and of other institution, such as educational or groups in the process of validationand economic systems. Such elements, while pursuit of goals. Through religion man not intended to be a statement of social works in the vague and often illusive system theory, may serve as convenient area of values and traditionswhich be- pegs on which to hang some of the de- come ultimate sources ofvalidating, scriptive material of this paper. challenging, or judging contemporary One of these elements may be termed personal and social conditions. At its values, beliefs, doctrines, attitudes, etc. best, religion provides a sacred set of This would include ways in which a par-

283 ticular religious system rationalizes its would be the pattern of services of pub- existence.formsitsself-imageand lic worship: in industry, the routines of cr.ients itself to the world around it. assembly-line production: and in educa- 14.'matively speaking. this would he in tion. the daily rounds of class actiities. the held of theolopl.. and philosophy of An important function in arty system is religion.Inpolitical.educational, or the review :tad evaluation of such per- economic systems. this element would furir tices themselves. he referred to as theory. ideology. be- All social systems occupy space and liefs. etc. Practically speaking, thisis the area of goal setting and validating utilize a variety of material. Religious strazegies. systems need houses of worship. budgets, furnishings. etc. The material as- Religion as a social system is com- pect of economic institutions may he posed of a wide variety of groups and much more central since major eco- organizations. These may range from nomic groups are devoted tc, the pre- local congregations, themselves subdi- duction, distribution, and service of ma- vidable into many groups, to conven- terialgoods. In one sense. both the tions, conferences, and councilsrepre- means and the ends of economic organi- senting the denomination or religious zations would revolve around materials. body as a whole. Religious behavior is While theoretically not occupying this carried on within such groups, and they central place in religious systems. nore- may become reference groups for be- ligious organization could long survive. havior in other social systems, including much less perform itsessential func- educational groups. Comparable groups tions, without access to reasonablere- ineducationarewell known. Such sources. Likewise, there must he ade- groups provide the structure of human quate school buildings, teachers' salaries, interactions(goals,strategies,activi- and various types and quantities of sup- ties I, and most other elements of social porting equipment for the successful systems can he isolated and analyzed achievement of educational goals. There within this group context. is a tendency in our society to measure Another element of social systems. the relative level of a social system by really a structural unit of groups. is the the quantity of resources, mainly in the status-role position. This is a way of form of money, mite available to l:. sorting out the personnel, assigning du- Obviously, a religious system, or an ties. furnishing rewards, and creating educational system, does not exist ina ranges of expectancy for distinctive be- social vacuum. Itis intimately inter- havior or action. In the religious system woven inthe warp and woof of the the distinction between clergy and laity fabric of society, both influencing and would he as important as that between being influenced by all other major in- management and labor in industry or stitutions. With no attempt to elaborate amongteachers,administrators,stu- in detail the internal interrelationships dents, and parents in education. between the elements of religious sys- A social system is a system of social tems, the dynamic factors of socializa- action or human behavior. One of the tion within the life histories of religious distinctive elemer',. of such a system is participants and the institutional changes the patterning and organization of nor- over longer periods of time, or the ex- mative or ritualisticactionsorbe- ternalintcrsystemicrelationshipsbe- haviors. In a sense, this component part tween the major social institutions, this of the system refers to the enmeshment general approach will be used in de- of role performances and may be said scribing some aspects of the situation of to be to the groups what the role is to religion in the United States and especi- the individual participants in the system. ally in Georgia, including its possible Examples of such norms inreligion relationship to the future of the state.

284 Financial and Material Aspects professional people had median salaries Although reliable statistics ar,2 unavail- substantially abose those of Clergymen. able, the material and economic hold- Indeed, all male workers in the cis ilian ings of religious bodies in this country labor force had a median salary in 1959 make it a multibillion dollar business. In of $4.621, which was above that of a June 1. 1 (i4)S. CBS broidcast on "The clergymen. The median salary of craftsmen was S5.240, of operatives. S4.299. Business of Relieion.- it-.4 estimated that the gross revenues of lb,: churches again tuore than that of clergymen. It is of the nation exceed the combined after- generally the case that income figures tax income of sucheconomic giantsas for workers in the South are lower than General Motors, American Telephone those for the nation. The clergyman is and Telegraph, StandardOil.Ford. no exception. In Georgia, the median 'Texaco, and Sears. Roebuck. The value salary in 1959 was $3.832, compared to of taxable (hut. untaxed) church property $4,020 for the United States. As em- was estimated at $79.5 billion. around a ployers, then, the churches tend to pay I.enthofalltaxable propertyinthe below standardsalaries,especially to country. nonclerical employees. and to follow Relativelyspeaking,thesituation conservative economic practices.(4) The would be same in Georgia as in the annual value of new construction of re- nation.For example,thevalueof ligious buildings has been around one churchpropertyinthetwolargest billion dollars for the past several years. Protestantdenominations( Methodist Sixty-tworeligiousbodiesreporting and Baptist) was placed at8.4 billion throughthe NationalCouncilof in 1968. This does not inch. ;e church- Churches had atotal expenditure of related institutions, such as orphanages, 53,612.6671,698in1968.'5) Although colleges. homes for the aged, hospitals. these economic holdings and annual ex- and other relatively high property value penditures, taken together, run to sub- holdings. In Georgia these two denomi- stantial amounts, and many of these re- nations had church property valued at ligious bodies engage in income-produc- nearly one half billion dollars. Although ing activities in such fields as publish- inflation and reappraisal must he taken ing, real estate, and investments,(6) or- into account, the gross increase in as- ganized religion could not he said to sessedvaluations between1955 and have a decisive, direct involvement in 1968was 200.0 percent inGeorgia con- the economic policies of the country. trasted to139.3 percent in the United Religious groups tend to follow rather States. These two deno,,iinations were than fashion such policies, to reflect eco- grow:.ng much more rapidly in the value nomic conditions rather than improve of their church property than in the them. For example. the pastors' training number of ministers, salary of ministers, ,alary epitomize the poverty of the c- number of church members. Appar- peopie, especially in the lower classes. ently the churches arc doing better in both economically and religiously. the property field than in the prayer Churches, Members and Clergy field! In terms of salary, ministers are at In terms of groups and organizations, the bottom of the list among the profes- there is probably no greater prolifera- sions. According to recent census data,(3) tion of different religious bodies in any The median salary of all experienced society than in the United States. The male professional, technical, and kin- Department of Research of the National dred workers was $6,619. For ministers Council of Churches currently reports it was $4,020. Social workers, public 238 bodies with i 26.445,110 total mem- school teachers, dental technicians, mu- bers in 321,079 churches (see Table I ). sicians, music teachers, and all other There are probably betwe;it 100 and

285 200 additional sects and cults not in- The Southern Baptists in included in this census. Howevcr. the bulk creased 2.3 percent per year compared of the religious membership of the na- to 1.0 percent per year from 1965 to tion is reported here. Indeed. 21reli- 1%8. The drop was ever, more marked gious bodies with 1,000.000 or more in the nation 12.7 to 1.1 percent 1. The members eachclaimed114.088.501 Methodists in the state grew 0_8 percent members or 90.2 percent of the total per year during the earlier and 0.4 dur- religious membership in 1968. The pro- ing the later period. Again the national portion of the population claimed in re- contrast was greater (1.1 to 0.3 per- ligious membership has moved from cent). The Roman Catholic--; r.trew 10.5 around 3 out of 10 at the turn of the percent per year from 195!; to 1965 but century to about 6 out of 10 today. In only 2.7 percent per year from 1965 to the 1926 Census of Religious Bodies. 11968. groups shown on Table Iex- thelastreasonablyadequatecount perienced simile declines at the end of made by the U. S. Bureau of Census. the sixties compared to the earlier dec- about the same proportion of the popu- ade in both the state and nation. If these lation of the United States and of Geor- declines continue. the proportion of the gia was claimed in the total religious population claimed in religious member- membership. ship will fall, and the actual member- In Table 1. the membership and num- ship by 1985. given the population as ber of churches may be seen for a few projected. will not reach the levels men- religious ''dies for which data were tioned in Table 1. available Georgia as well as the na- Eight of the religious bodies listed in

;ion in 1968. The Roman Catholics are Table 1 reported 5.410 churchesin I.irst in membership in the United States Georgia and 127.810 in the nation. The and third in Georgia. having overtaken total churches reported in the United the Southern Presbyterians during the States for 1968 was 321.079, with an sixties. The Southern Baptists were sec- average of 394 members per church. hi ond in the nation and first in Georgia. Georgia the number of churches was The United Methodist' were third in the estimated at 9.700, with 299 members nation and second in Georgia. The ten per church on the average. Since some bodies ,:cntained 69.1 percent of the re- churches have substantial membership, ligious membership in the United States more than half the churches in Georgia and 59,6 percent in Georgia. Assuming would have fewer than 300 mernhers. the same proportion of the population with probably more than 3 out of 10 in religious membership in Georgia as having fewer than IOU members. In- in the nation, there were 2.9 million deed, any observer traveling over the members, roughly athirdof them rural areas of the state will note many Southern Baptists. Excepting Progres- small, one-room churches. Consolida- sive Baptists, data were not available tion has not affected religion as it has for Negro denominations in the state. schools, farms, and stores. Indeed. it is On the basis of a fairly liberal pro- not unusual to find 10 to 15 struggling jection of population increases in the churches of various denominations in state and nation by 1985 and assuming and around small towns of a thousand the same proportion in religious mem- population. Such fragmentation results beship as now, Georgia would have 5.9 from excessive localism, denominational million population and 3.7 million mem- rivalry,and the lack of ecumenical bers. This projection may be somewhat cooperation. optimistic for both population and mem- The major distinction in roles and bership, especially the latter. From 1955 statuseswithinthechurchrevolves to 1965, church membership grew much around the clergy and the laity, In 1968, more rapidly than from 1965 to 1968. 360,092 clergymen were reported in the

286 nation,with ant. Umated 7;000in ofChristconstitutingtheseveral Georgia. Each denomination has its own Communion., criteria by which it qualifies and ordains To serve as a medium of interchurch ministers_ The larger denominations re- advice and counsel on matters affect- quire college graduation and many of ing the prowess of Christianity in the them, three years of training in a school state of theology. However, there are thou- To ask,:,te the Communions in such sands of ministers with less than college jointctivities as may achicve more graduation_ many with less than high effectively the objectives of the Chrl- school graduation. The folk preacher. tian religion untrained. part time. and poorly paid. To seek and to express through fel- remains a familiar part of the Georgia lowship and activities the unity of the religious landscape. especiallyinthe Church in Georgia Appalachian Mountains. declining rural The Council functions through three territory. and the lower class inner-city diviiir.;of workthe Divisionof areas. ChristianFdticati, :).the Division of Life and Mission. and the Division of Religious Organizations Ecumenical Relations. The Church Wo- and Movements men United of Georgia is a General Department of the Council. The purpose here s to describe a few Recent major projects and activities religious organizations or movements includethefollowing:Audio-Visual other than denominations which operate Evaluation Panel (monthly), Georgia in the state. While the list is far from UnitedChristianYouthMovement. complete due to lack of information. Ecumenical Encounters (youth), Geor- some of the important ones are included. gia Committee on Children and Youth. The Georgia Council of Churches Church World Service (overseas relief). The Georgia Council cif Churches has Action Sharing Seminar for New Teach- been in existence since November 1952. ers of Weekday Church Kindergartens It is composed of eleven state commu- (monthly). Weekday Church Kinder- nions compiising over 3.000 churches. garten Leadership School. Ecumenical These are the African Methodist Epis- Relations,UnifiedProgramofthe copal Church, African Methodist Epis- Churches Against Poverty, Radio and copal Zion Church, Christian Methodist Television,Church's Ministrywith Episcopal Church, Christian Churches Children, DayCamping Seminar, (Disciples), Lutheran Church in Am- Camps and Conferences Consultation, erica, Presbyterian Church, U.S., Prot- and a Church and State Seminar. estant Episcopal Church, Roman Catho- lic:Archdiocese of Atlanta,United The Christian Council of Church of Christ,United Methodist Metropolitan Atlanta Church, and United Presbyterian While there are many interdenomina- Chu, U.S.A. tionalminis,terial associations in cities The Council is incorporated under a and countie.; in Georgia, only one local state charter as an official agency cre- council of churches exists. The Chris- ated by the participating communions tian Council of Metropolitan Atlanta is for doing together those tasks which composed of 7,15 churches and religious they and they alone choose to do co- organizations. In addition to three inter- operatively. denominational and interfaith groups, The Council's constitution describes the membership includes churches and its objectives as follows. agencies from thefollowing groups: To promote fellowship avi mutual Methodist-70, Baptist-50, Presbyte understanding among the followers rian-41, Lutheran-15, Episcopal

287 12. Christian-9. Church of Goal programs: works with youth and spon- RomanCatholic S. Assembliesof sors Teen Broadcasting Association of- God -2. Nazarene-2. Pentecostal 2. fering training in radio TV work as well as Christian association with otherout}, and one each from United Church of of all races: undertakes such projects as Christ. Friends. anti Salvation Army. distributing one million copies of scrip- TheChristian Council has a long his- turesGood Se's % for Modern Mao: toryof coeNrative Christianity.in participates in production of the pag- eant. "Behold the Man." a drama of the 1912 pastors and laymen from various Living Word involving the mar com- denominations meat. with a former Geor- munity: speaks out on ;,.sues involving gia governor presiding. to form a local the community. encou aging Christian chapter of the Man mad Religion For- support of such issues: promotes peaceful integration of schools: works with ward Movement In 1919 the Execu- other agencies to bring about equal op- tive Board of this organization recom- portunity in housing. employment, and mended the formation of the Christian education(7) Council of Atlanta. Over these years. some of its accomplishments have been Jewish Welfare Federation as follows. In addition to Hebrew congregations rep- Cleaned up vice district of city and fol- resenting the Orthodox. Conservative, lowed through with rehabilitation of and Reformed Jews. the Atlanta Jewish victims Welfare Federation provides Atlanta's Held ecumenicalservices on special Jewry with a "central address- to deal days and occasions Sponsored city-wide evangelical cam- with those problems which require total paigns including Chapman Alexander, community action. whether in the area BillySunday.GypsySmith, Billy of fund raisins. community relations. Graham social services. or planning to provide Stood against commercialization of Sab- bath, legalized gambling. and dog rac- such services when the needs arise. ing and suported five-day marriage law Since its origin more than 100 years Holds monthly meetings aiding Chris- ago. the Jewish community oftlanta tianfellowship as wellas Christian aalivity has had a strong cohesive base ret'aa aed Alone with the Catholic and Jewish in a deep and abiding concern for the community. built and maintains the All- needs of its people. As these nom:de- Faith Chapel atthe Atlanta Interna- veloped, whether in Atlanta, nationally. tional Airport for use of travelers EstabliSheo following divisions within or in other parts of the world. various structure: Protestant Welfare and Social institutionswereestablishedwhich Services, maw known as the Welfare and servedtheir purposes and eventually Social Services Division: Grady Chap- required changes themselves. laincy Program. now Georgia Associa- tion for Pastoral Care; Radio /TV: Chris- The structure and functions of the At- tian Mission and Evangelism: Christian lanta Jewish Welfare Federation include Life and Work; Research and Planning; the following. Budget and Finance; Christian Educa- Membershipthere are three kinds of tion; Inner City membership with different roles in rela- Through these divisions holds prison tion to Federation. Individual members services each Sunday, devotionals in lo- composed of contributors to annual cam- cal' ho ,pitals, services for travelers in paign who elect the Delegates-at-Large. motels, gives emergency aid and coun- Organizational members consisting of seling to those in need; gives training affiliated Jewish organizations with a and counseling through chaplaincy pro- minimum of 50 members who are rep- grams; coordinates radio and TV pro- resentedintheDelegate Assembly. grams: gives theology courses to laymen Constituent members composed of local through Lay School of Theology; works beneficiary agencies. with Church World Service in clothing Delegate Assemblycomposed of dele- drives; cooperates with other commu- gates ofaffiliatedorganizations and nity agencies in coordinating commu- delegates -at- large; serves largelyas a nity work; coordinates work of churches forum body. in inner city; works with senior citizens Board of Directorscomposed of 48

288 members elected the Delegate As. acuon. By promoting the fundamental and 6 appointed h} the Presi- religious and democratic traditions of dent: elects the officers and administrators and manages the affairs of Federa- cisility. it is helping citizens in a plural tion. society to arrive at consensus through The Federatio -..functions through the which they can act humanely and wisely following fourDepartments. witha in dealing with the complex problems vice-president assigned to each as well as an appointed vice-chairman: Cam- of human relations. paigningandBudgeting. Communr*. Program activities include the spon- Relations and Internal Jewish Affairs. sorship of Brotherhood Week. (rood Social Services. Planning and C:oordina- Neighbor of the Year. Annual Brother- tiun.(1') hood Dinner. Speaker's Bureau. Police- The Notional Conference of Community Relations Workshops. Re- Christians and Jews ligious News Service. Religious News Reports for Radios, the Atlanta Brother- This is a civic and educational; organiza- hood Player, Community Human Rela- tion. It seeks the support of all religious- tions Workshops. Teachers in Training ly motivated people to help promote jus- and Inter-Group Education. Operation tice, amity, mutual understanding. and Understanding. and the Swinging Bridge civic cooperation among all men. NCCJ was founded by a group of eminent Coffee House: contacts with high school newspaper editors and panel programs Americans.includingCharlesEvan Hughes. Newton D. Baker, 5. Parkes in churches and PTA groups on ''Rear- ing Children of Goodwill."19) Cadman, Roger W. Straus, and Carlton J. H. Hayes. following the vicious anti- Catholic presidential campaign against Southern Christian Leadership Al Smith, They recognized an urgent Conference need for an organization tok combat all This organization was founded in 1957 forms of bigotry and ignorance which in Atlanta.. Black clergymen. including would turn one group of Americans the late Dr. Martin Luther King. Jr.. its against another, thereby undermining founder, and Dr. Ralph D. Abernathy. ist the great promise. of democracy. present head, have been prominent in its NCCJ's purpose is positiveto ap- leadership. in a real sense, SCLC has proach more closely the national ideal been the response of sensitive black of "one nation. under God, indivisible. churchmen and others to the discrimi- with liberty and justice for all."Itis nations and injustices in the South and concerned withallareas of conflict throughout the land. In the spring of based on race, socioeconomic interests, 1968 the organization reprinted from and political belief, as well as those of Soul Forcethe following summar: of religious differences. It does not serve its activities. any area of v:-..,:ttd interest, but rather SCLC is known for aggressive nonvio- the interests of all Americans of every lentaction, such as the Birmingham race, creed, and national background. Movement of 1963. the Selma March of 1965. and thisyear's Poor People's The NCCJ program is educational. Campaign in Washington. Solutions to difficult inter-group prob- SCLC ha's worked closely with other lems require continuing conference and human rights organizations. For exam- confrontation,opportunitiesforex- ple. SCLC's leaders helped organize and support the studentsit-ins,and change of ideas and feelings. The pro- SCLC provides help to many civil rights gram method of the Conference is to causes. stimulate and contribute to this much- SCLC carries out quiet programs of needed communicationacross group communityleadershiptraining,economic development, and voter registra- lines. tion and political education. The NCCJ program is, however, a SCLC staff organizers have worked in profoundly important and basic form of every southern state and in numerous

289 northern cities. For the Poor People\ !44..crcheritage. Sinceitbecamean Campairl. staff inerrabers arc assignel C programin1962. CEP has in 10 big cities and five rural real. tea .e-ed more than 2.700 southern adults SCLC has about 270 localAffiliate rho went on to reach 25.0N1 others in chapters a. rocs the nation. These Affili- local citizeriship schools. ate chapters share SCLC's bask beliefs URBAN LEADERSHIP TRAINING. in human rights and nonviolent action. This year SCI has a new program for and many of them have their own active developing community leadership in the community programs. ghettos of 15 of II= largest cities. Ten SCLC is a non -proms organization sup- ministers from each of the cities have ported by thousands of people from all been recruited for development of their walks of life. by churches and other leadership qualities and preparing active local groups. by foundations. by artists programs to better the lives and condi- and public figures who believe in our tions of the poor peoVle in their neigh- work. SCLC has always welcomed the borhoods. active participation and financial aid of AFFILIATE ACTIVITIES. The 270 people from all faiths, colors and na- local Affiliates of SCLC not only sup- tionalities. port this organization but also work on The Southern Christian Leadership Con- their own community projects, such as ference. basedinAtlanta. Ga.. has citizenship schools. voter registration, grown in11 years int-) a national or- improvement of education. Operation ganization. At present SCLC has about Breadbasket, and direct action against 100 staff members. racial injustice. SCLC policy is determined by an Ex- NONVIOLENT EDUCATION AND ecutive Board of Directors, experienced ACTION. SCLC staff and Affiliate men acid women seolw., follow the phi- continue to teach both the philosophy losmhy and practice of direct actiim for of nonviolence and 'he power of direct peaceful social change. Dr. King. Dr. nonviolent action for human rights. Abernathy, and the Rev. Andrew Young. Executive Vice-President, carry out the board policy in SCLC programs. Young Men s Christian Association The main activities of SCLC now in- The following statement of its history clude the following. and current program emphases was sup- THE POOR PEOPLE'S CAMPAIGN FOR /OBS OR INCOME. which will plied by the statewide YMCA of Geor- begin in Washington. D.C., in April. gia. This campaign will invobie thousands The first YMCA work was started in of poor people in massive protests, ex- Savannah in January 1855. followed in panding in numbers and militance if Macon i March of the same year necessary to make the nation respond Work began in Columbus in November to the evils of poverty and racism in of 1856. followed by Athens in March America. of 1857. Augusta in January of 1858, VOTER REGISTRATION AND PO. t. td Atlanta Centralin May of that LITICAL EDUCATION, to develop yeal. The state association began in political power so that poor people, in- 1888. Moultrie was the last to organize cluding the oppressed black people, will an association, in March 1916. be represented by their own leaders and YMCAs in Georgia began working with will reform the systems that expli high school boys intl'early 1900s them. through the character-building program OPERATION BREADBASKET. of Hi-Y (an abbreviation ior "High SCLC's economic development program School YMCA"). Similar work for girls which began in the Soot five years ago was pioneered in the United States in and is now organized in a number of Douglas. Ga.ir,1930 by Mr. J.L. big cities. Breadbasket not only pro- Fonney, then superintendent of schools. duced new and better jobs for Negroes YMCA work with \iniversity students is but also works for total economic concurrently being cavied on at Georgia trol and development within the black Institute of Techociogy and was pro- ccmmunity. SCLC Breadbasket is now vided for the student t at the University growing into a nationwide network of of Georgia for a nit tstier of years. economic power. Because local YMCAs are autonomous THE CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION associations, the nature of their work PROGRAM, which trains local adults has varied from city to city. Associa- incommunity leadership,education, tions in the larger population centers human rights and citizenship responsi- have provided dormitory service to their bilities,economicdevelopment, and constituents, although the trend is mov-

290 Of . ing away from this to community-type The high school "Y" clubs (Hi-Y for buildings stressing activities for the en- boys and Tri-Hi-Y for girls and a Co-ed tirefamily.Mostnewlyorganized forbet,h) remain the largest area of ef- YMCAs call themselves "family-type" fort for the "Christian Emphasis" pro- associations. To show thediversifica- gra-m of the YMCAs. The -Y" club pur- tion,Waycross has for many years pose is -Clean Speech, Clean Scholar- maintained a special operation exclu- ship and Clean Living. sively for railroad men. having only re- Really an examination of the meaning cently added a new building and proof the purpose and platform of high gram to serve the entire community. school "Y" clubs reveals that their aim YMCAs currently in operation are in is the "practical application" in the ev- Albany, Athens. Atlanta, Augusta, Co- eryday school life of the high school lumbus, Marietta. Moultrie, Rome, Sa- student the "working principles" of the vannah, Thomasville, and Waycross, and Christian E,hic. State and district con- the State YMCA of Georgia. These lo- ferences for this age group stress the cal associations serve people in four- importance ci Christian giiilines in teen counties. YMCA work in the other judging behavior and in choosing values. 145 counties is the responsibility of the A youth and government prclgram deal- State Association. Because of the large ing with good citizenship is conducted territory to be served by the State Asso- annually at the state capitol for this age ciation it has specialized since its reor- group and a Good Sportsmanship Clinic ganization from the State Court:il of is held annually for high school cheer- YMCAs in 1946 in working with high leaders. Local clubs are built around the school students (Hi-Y clubs for boys concept of Christian service to others. and Tri-Hi-Y clubs forgirls).This Young .Women's Christian character-buildingprogramforhigh school students in Georgia is the largest Association YMCA program of its kind in any state In Georgia the YWCA was organized in in the union. Atlanta in 1902, in Augusta in 1909, in In the case of local associations, many of the "Y" clubs meet in their buildings Cobb County and in Macon. in1918. while others meet directly in the schools and in Brunswick in 1919. The YWCA of which they are a part. In the case of is a Christian movement both by inheri- the state association, nearly all of the tance and present concern. It affiliates clubs meet in the public schoolssome meet during school time, others after with no particular religious group and school or in the evening. includes among its members those from Religious activities vary greatly among many Christian backgrounds, those of local YMCAs. Most do not conduct the other faiths, and some who profess no type of religious services which characterized their early beginnings. Much of religious faith. It has been enriched by their energy is consumed in providing diversity, making possible dialogue on special services of members in connec- the difficult questions of life's meaning tionwiththeirhealthclubs,family posed by the twentieth century. YWCA swims, jogging groups, suitable housing accommodations, etc. However, many leaders are in positions to be the creators have special emphasis programs dealing of a climate for ecumenical understand- withreligious events and some have ing and initiators for cooperation be- chapels built into their new buildings. tweenreligious bodies and organiza- Itisreasonably accurate to say that tions. with the exception of personal work done by individual YMCA staff mem- In 1967 the YWCA adopted a posi- bers and board and committeemen and tion statement nationally entitled "The the observance of special :`religious" ac- YWCAA' Christian Movement Open tivities, the majority of what. we would to the World." This involved "The open- call "religious work" is carried out by YMCAs through their character-build- ness to the resources of the Christian ing programs in their youth club groups. faith; new depth of relationships among Most local YMCAs have Gra-Y (boys) individuals; a supporting climatefor and Tri-Gra-Y (girls) clubs operating youth; concern for each person's chance for elementary school age groups. Many forfulfillment;involvementinother also have "Father.and-Son Indian Guide" groups to stress the basic need lives; and responsible action for human for a close working relationshipbe- dignity and freedom within the Associa- tween a father and his boy. tion and wherever life touches us."

291 Program priorities include new di- charter member ofthe Community mensions of the Christian movement, Chest. The same year, land was purchased and Camp Highland was made education, work and leisure, racial inte- available to school and working girls. gration,socialisolation,sexvalues, Also in1922the YW's employment health, world responsibility, and politi- program became a separateagency. cal responsibility. moving into the Chamber of Commerce Bureau. In thefieldof international peace With the depression years came a re- and goodwill there were program activi- orientation of services to meet the try- ties in the areas of supporting United ing period of unemployment and lack Nations effortsfor peace, improving of recreational resources. The YW organized groups to help keep the city's standards of living, human rights, free playgrounds open. Residence rates were flow of people and ideas, and protectine, reduced and programs took on new constitutional powers. In the area of characteristics. A Day School for unem- economic and social justice there were ployed was organized. The buildings began to show wear by emphases on optimum function of the the 1940s. The residence on Baker Street economy,socialsecurityandpublic was sold and a room registry service welfare, and other public benefits, such was started to take its place. Program as federal aid to public education, job was decentralized into Summer Hill, the. Northeast,andtheNorthwest. The training, liberalization of abortion laws, YWCA Charter was renewed for 35 and adequate child care services. In the years by the State of Georgia in 1945. area of a better environment there were The 50s brought new buildings with a program activities in community plan- central building at 72 Edgewood Ave- nue, N.E. and Phyllis Wheatley Branch ning, restoration and maintenance of at 599 Tatnall Street, S.W. Dormitories purity of air and water resources, de- were discontinued but the room registry velopment and conservation of man- service was continued. made and natural resources. In the field Work withunderprivilegedgirlswas turned over to the Girls' Club, then in of basic individual rights and liberties its beginning days. A new Mobile Serv- there were activities in the interest of iceprogramdevelopedthroughthe basic constitutional guarantees, the right guidance of the Atlabta Community to vote, equality of treatment and social Service Planning Board. Camp Ida Pra- justice. ther was purchased and developed for Negro girls. A brief statement of the development During the latter half of the 1950s and of the YWCA in Atlanta will indicate the first of the 1960s, the influx into some of the changing emphases inits Atlanta of many people from foreign work. lands caused the YW to organize an "International Club." Its growth and The Atlanta YWCA received its charter developmentinspiredthesubsequent from the State of Georgia on March 2, formation of the independent Interna- 1902. By 1905 Atlanta citizens had or- tional Student Bureau. ganized the YWCA to put their Chris- Inthe years following the1954 Su- tianfaithinto actioninmeeting the preme Court ruling, the YWCA con- pressing needs of the girls and women tinued to pioneer in interracial and inin this city. terculturalrelations.Itscafeteria was In its first years the Atlanta YW devel- the first food establishment in Atlanta oped services around the need for social to desegregate. life, skill classes, gospel meetings, a li- The YW opened its doors to meetings brary, a boarding home, and an employ- of the grass roots organization, "Help ment bureau. Then the program ex- Our Public Education," with whom it tended to work with industrial girls in cooperated in other ways in the struggle two mills. By 1915 the younger girls to keep the schools of Georgia open, were also included when the first High being a charter member of "Organiza- School Girls' Club was organized. tions Assisting Schools in September." In 1919 the Blue Triangle Branch at With the1960s many changes have 128 Piedmont Avenue, N.E. was formed come to Atlanta. After experimentation to minister to the needs of the Negro witha MobileUnitprogram,the youth, YWCA decided to concentrate in the May 1922 s!r.4' ,he YWCA become a DeKalb area .through a YWCA Center,

292 continuing a decentralized prOgram in golden-age groups, rehabilitation, and Capitol View, Carol Heights, Thomas- summer camps. ville, Kirkwood, and the heart of the city. In 1965 the YW began to work with the Church-Related Institutions new poverty program (EOA) through the Neighborhood Youth Corps. This The denominations in Georgia, as in the work expanded into job exploration and nation, support a variety of schools, col- training programs including work with leges, hospitals. orphanages, homes for the young women coming to Atlanta the aged, and so on. There is no central following their Job Training Corps. A about pilot project with the Labor Department clearinghouseforinformation reached over 50 girls and assisted half these church-related institutions. There- of these to qualify for jobs. fore, these data are incomplete and il- A grant from the Sears Foundation in lustrative only. December of 1967, helped the YW to There are 33 private colleges in Geor- develop a "Model. Homes" projectin 'he Capitol Homes area. This project gia andallexceptsixof them are has led to the extension of a similar pro- church-related. In addition, several de- gram for Model Cities. An orientation nominations support campus ministries program for young adults coming to on campuses of both church-related and Atlanta was initiated in 1968 with the distribution of a booklet, "Where It's state colleges and universities. Therc are At in Atlanta." The Atlanta Foundation 239 nursing and personal care homes made this first stage of the project pos- with only a small number of them re- sible. lated to churches. There are 210 hospi- During 1968 the YWCA program continued to expand into neighborhoods, tals and several can he identified as and the Tri-City program reached the church-related. Most of the 40 orphan- level of expansion to request a center ages and homes in the state are church- of operation. The Board of Directors related. recommended that a permanent site for the DeKalb Center be found, a new In 1968 t!:e institutions related to the campsite be developed and Camp High- Southern Baptists of the state included land be sold. The Board also requested the following: Georgia Baptist Hospital, a Capital Fund Drivefor January- Mercer University, Shorter College, Tift March of 1971 with greater emphasis away from the center of the city and College, Brewton-Parker College, Nor- into individual neighborhoods. man College, Truett-McConnell College, Peachtree on Peachtree Inn and Baptist The Salvation Army Village(homesfortheaged),and This organization operates in 35 towns Georgia Baptist Children's Homes. and cities of Georgia through 70 com- The Methodists are related to several missioned officers and 175 employees. institutions,includingthefollowing. The total membership of the state or- Wesley Woods (home for theaged), ganizationis2,632. The activities in- Wesley Woods Health Center, Magnolia clude work with transients (temporary Manor and Nursing Home, Emory Uni- room and board), emergency welfare versity Hospital, Candler General Hos- (rent,food,clothing,transportation, pital, two Methodist Children's Homes, etc.), Christmas programs (served over Southeastern Methodist Agency for the 70,000 people in 1968), missing per- Retarded, Andrew College, Oxford Col- sons, visits in jails and prisons, disaster lege, Emory University, Young Harris, services,activitiesforin.bcteesin Reinhardt,LaGrange andWesleyan Armed Services, employment services. colleges. and home and hospital services for ur- The Roman CatholicsinGeorgia married expectant mothers. One of four (third largest religious body) support trainingschoolsforofficersinthe 38 elementary schools, ten high schools, United States is located in Georgia. Spe- seven hospitals, three nursing schools., cialactivitiesfor men, women and one home for the aged, and two or- youth stress character building, music, phanages.

293 ThePresbyteriansarerelatedto Centrally, it was his thesis that the emer- Agnes Scott College. Columbia Semi- gence of Protestantism providedthe nary, Rabun Gap-Nacoochee School. ethos within which capitalism was en- Calvin Court and The Presbyterian dowed with divine suport as a way of Home, Incorporated(for the aged). life. This occurred. according to Weber, along with other institutions in Georgia with the throwing off of the traditional and nearby states. religious orientations of medieval Ca- Other denominations support similar tholicism through the radical Protestant institutions, including Canterbury Court, doctrines of predestination, salvation. Appleton Church Home for Girls, Jude and calling. This Puritan ethic was de- Half-Way }rouse, Julia Parkman Jones veloped with varying doctrinal empha- Benevolent Home(Episcopal),and ses by Calvin and the Presbyterians. the Southern Christian Home (Disciples). Baptists, and Wesley and his Methodists. As seen above, these have been the "Big Religion and Cultural Values Three" denominations in the history of Perhaps a major interest of the Com- Georgia. mission lies at the ideological and value It was not Weber's contention that orientation level of education, religion, any of these men or movPments set out and other institutions. Much of the with the manifest purpose to develop the spade work has been done on the gen- foundations for an economic system or eral theme of southern traditions and even a rationalizing principle undergird- their relation to economic growth by ing it. They were devoted to the refor- William H. Nicholls.('°) What will be mation of the central religious tasks: the attempted here is to set religion in the worship of God and the salvation of total complex of cultural values and tra- souls. Nevertheless, these protesting re- ditions known as "the southern way of ligious movements, along with associ- life," a task not undertaken by Profes- ated and, often. conflicting forces, did sor Nicholls. rob medieval man of his spiritual se- By way of background, it is a fairly curity within the Catholic Church and common historical generalization that of his traditional modes of economic the modern world. i.e., of the past three and political behavior. Early Protestants or four hundred years, resulted from had to work out the assurance of their the convergence of Protestantism as a salvation in the world around them. The religious system, democracy as a politi- discipline and rationalism of the monas- cal system, science and technology as a tery as a holy calling were, in effect, system of research and development, thrust into the open community and into public education as a means of sociali- the economic and political spheres. The zation, arid capitalism as a system of making of money, the expansion of capi- economics. These major value and or- talistic enterprises, and the eruption of ganizational themes emerged from the the Industrial Revolution, as well, paren- womb of medievalism unevenly and in thetically, as the expansion of knowl- somewhat different birth orders. Yet, edge and the spread of democracy, be- the kinship between them and the mu- came principalfieldsin which men tual reinforcement has provided much worked outtheirspiritualdestinies. of the dynamic and core value orienta- These constituted breaks, often radical tion of the modern western world. This and revolutionary, with medieval tradi- has become something of a modern tionalism. western world synthesis replacing the The United States has probably been medieval synthesis. the major critical testing ground of this A classic study of the relationship be- modern societal development. In the tween religionand economiclifein early days it was predominantly settled modern cilture is that of Max Weber.00 byProtestant colonizers. They came.

294 seeking religious freedom and economic democracy, education, and science were opportunity. Those who settled in the possible, so the dominance of tradition- northern part of the country seemed to alistic Protestantism must loosen its hold stress .religious freedom most and to de- on the mind of the South before the re- velop economically fastest. Those set- gion can enter fully into the mainstream tling in the South seemed primarily con- of American economic and political life. cerned with economic exploitation and The Civil War was perhaps more de- less with the Protestant ethic. With the cisive in splintcring the southern syn- rise of the industrial economy of the thesis than was the French Revolution North, the Puritans became captains of for the medieval synthesis. Doubtless, industry,andthecallforworkers sect -type, revivalistic, and individualistic broughtthousandsandmillionsof Protestantism has been the tough inner Catholics from agrarian Europe to in- core of the former as Catholicism was dustrial America. Thus, by the end of of the latter. Although breaking, the the First World War the Protestants, southernsynthesisisby no means whose ethic was historically associated broken. with the Industrial Revolution in Eu- The splinteringofthistraditional rope, found themselves dominant in the value synthesis has been aided by such agrarian traditionalism of the planta- forces as the out-migration of southern tion South; whereas the Catholics, asso- Protestants, both Negro and white, into ciated with peasant agriculture in Eu- the industrial urban centers of the North rope, pushed toward the top in the in- and West; the in-migration of manage- dustrial cities of the North. ment and industrial workers with Catho- Historically, the so-called "southern lic, Lutheran, and other religious back- way of life" roots its past in the phtnta- grounds; the leadership of the Negro tion system, in a segregated bi-racial pat- Protestant churches of the South in the tern, in states rights, and in fundamen- Civil Rights movement; the integration talistic Protestantism, with its focus on of Catholic parishes; the mergers of narrowpietism,personalisticethics, southern religious groups with national emotional revivalism, non-involvement bodies: the beginnings of ecumenical in social issues, and other-worldly salva- work: and the increase in the Jewish tion.021This culture-boundsouthern population of the urban South. These synthesi has been as much sanctioned processes, along with political and in- and endowed with divinity by Protes- dustrial forces, are breaking the hold of tantism as ever was the feudal medieval traditional Protestantism on the mind of synthesis by Catholicism. Today the the South. The South is becoming more movement of the sectional South, in- pluralistic in religion as well as moving cluding Georgia, into the mainstream of toward national cultural norms in other American life, ideologically, education- respects. ally, and economically, is hampered by Ina traditional society, the mutual the. inability of large segments of the support between religion and other es- southern brand of Protestantism to dis- tablished systems may be desirable and associate themselves from thistradi- rewarding. It may make for a unified, tional southern synthesis. Perhaps this consistent,and meaningful existence. struggle for the future will be nowhere However, inperiods of rapidsocial greater than in the rural parts of south- change withserious questions about ern states. older values and with considerable per- Just as the monolithic might of medi- sonal and social disorganization, church eval Catholicism over the values, moti- leaders can hardly afford to identify vations, and practices of men had to be their faith with the worse features of the broken before the developments of the traditional past and status quo. Yet this modern world complex of capitalism, tends to be the normative stance of the

295 majority of churches in the state today. Some of this may be the failure to pro- State and local leaders who appeal to the vide elementary needs (as in the chal- traditional "southern way of life" and lenge of the poor). identity needs (as in who want to keep things the way they the challenge of the blacks) or meaning are, or even worse than they were, can needs (as in the challenge of the young.). generally appeal to and secure the sup- In such a time, like the present. the very port of the dominant religious forces in formulations of the social order (and Georgia. This means, also, that those disorder) are undergoing critical and leaders who are making efforts to move judgmental review. The reciprocal im- the state socially, economically, and po- pactof some of theserapidsocial litically into the mainstream of national changes on religion and society in Geor- and world life are likely to be attacked gia may he mentioned. rather than supported by these same religious forces. Encased in such tradi- The increasing urbanization 01the tionalvalues.criticalandprophetic population of Georgia has had its im- voices are seldom heard in the state. or pact upon churches. In the early days of at least they are drowned out by the cen- its settlement. especially during the last tral clamor of culture-bound, backward- century, churches were organizedin looking, Bible-quoting oratory. many villages and crossroads communities. There were even more one-room Religion and Social churches than one-room schools. Due to changing agricultural patterns and the Changes and Conditions outward migration of the population, The major social systems (family. gov- many of these small rural churches have ernment, education, recreation, religion. been closed and others are weak and economics, etc.) seem designed to meet struggling. The basic rural mentality of basic human needs andaspirations. the denominations. however, has lin- These are establishment systems of nor- gered. The result has been that many mative, approved and sanctioned ways churches have found difficultyin ac- of dealing with human drives and de- commodating themselves to urban and sires. They express the conventional wis- metropolitan life. As a general proposi- dom and customary practices of a so- tion. the larger the city the smaller the ciety. They are the expected, orderly. proportion of its population in religious and moral ways of acting, thinking, and membership. Thus, the weaknesses of a feeling. Ideally, they are oportunity sys- surplus of small struggling churches in tems for the development of persons. declining rural areas is not compensated On the back side of such establishments for by comparable growths in the urban- arc patterns of deviation and disestab- izing sections of the state. In addition, lishment. the undertrained, underpaid, and part- In a traditional society the normative time clergy in rural churches fails to arc usually so much in the majority that provide the leadership badly needed in reasonable moral order in establishment adjustments required in declining and systems is maintained. But these moral depleted areas. In much the same way, and approved patterns may, in any the rural mentality of church leaders in given society at any given period of the cities makes it difficult for them to time, sanction to the point of endow- provide leadership in regard to the comment with divinity, enormous inequali- plicated issues of city life. Efforts at ties and injustices. inner-city or ghetto ministries in At- In periods of rapid and revolutionary lanta, Savannah, and other cities of the changes, the established structures them- state lag behind such activities in other selves are challenged. The challenge is large cities of the nation. Yet beginnings likely to come most sharply from those have been made by churches and whose needs are least met by them. schools.

296 Largely as a result of urbanization provide opportunities through which the andindustrialization,pluralismand young could he socialized in the ways of secularism have increased in the state. the old. Historically the major instru- The older rural culture. despite its re- mentalities')f such socialization have gional divisions, espoused a common been the home. the neighborhood. the value system which tied the state to- church, and preeminently the school. To gether. This has now been overlaid by these must be added radio. television. tourism. unionization, industrialization. and other technologized means of com- immigration from many sections of the municating the culture. In periods of nation, increasesin"non-native" de- rapid social change the differences be- nominations, and general secularization. tween the generations become greater. Atlanta, as the centerpiece of this new Today the communications gap between pluralism. is a cosmopolitan center open young people and their elders is very to the same influences as any great met- great indeed. This not only has implica- ropolitan area. tions for education but serious conse- A pluralistic society is characterized quences for churches as well. Churches by multiple values and structures. There are supposed to minister to persons of isalso the pluralism of gods. that is, all ages. and they could he instruments many sacredactivities or"ultimate" of healing and bridging the generation sources of judgment or evaluation, of gap. Because churches are essentially vol- vindication and of repudiation. Stir into untary organizations, however, young pluralism a mixture of rapidly changing people tend to become church dropouts beliefs and behaviors and the results earlierandinlarger numbers than are chaotic conditions and contradic- school dropouts. While features of the tions in the traffic between the sacred youth culture are quitepositive and and secular. This leads to maximum loss hopeful for the future. others are nega- of meaning. anomie, normlessness and tive and dismaying. Among the latter purposelessness for persons and struc- are the tendencies of young people to tures. Since man abhors vacuous mean- turn to petty crime, drugs. alcoholism. ings as much as nature abhors a vacuum, sexual promiscuity, and other deviant he must spin out some web or tangled patterns in their efforts to develop per- skein of plausible beliefs and behaviors, sonal and group identity. Yet this tele- however brazen or bizarre. Note the revision generation of youth, on the posi- vival of occult practices. like astrology, tive side, would seem to be developing especially among the young.03) sensitivitiestoculturalvalues which In any case, "diminished man {t4) (as may have been overlooked by older peo- persons and structures) seems to live ple. There is a ques!ing, an openness, an today in very small boxes, walled in by honesty which surprises and shocks the nowness and immediacy(withonly older generation. Indeed, the brightest stained and distorted windows, if any at of the young people are raising serious all, opening to past and future) and questions about the establishment sys- with limited space between floor and tems of our society and the cultural ceiling(little depth of meaning and values of their elders. Since churches in less openness to transcendental sacred their minds are identified with tradi- values). Because there seems to be "no tional establishment systems and with exit"fromtheseconfiningcultural older morality patterns, they too come boxes, persons turnto drugs, drink, under serious question, and young peo- riots, occultism, sex, and aberrations of ple in the high school age tend to write a thousand sorts. Various mental, emo- them off as not being really with it in the tional and other difficulties often result. youth culture. Thus the tradition of the It has traditionally been the central church and school working closely to- functionof educationalprocesses. to gether in the socialization of the young

297 is seriously challenged today in view of race. or for those who hold a position the pluralism of religions. the impact of different from our own. can noel, be the separation of church and state and justified. Communication bet.veen responsible perhaps most important of all, the ten- leaders of the races must be maintained. dency of young people to o.rop out of Our difficulties cannot be solved in our both church and school. The churches own strength or in human wisdom but seem to he more a part of the problem only through prayer and in obedience than of the solution here. In this case. to the will of Ciod.ii(o they leave a greater burden upon the Since the days of reconstruction. one schools to cope with youth culture in of the prominent economic characteris- the preparation of future citizens and. tics of the South in general has been hopefully, future church members. poverty.Inspite of considerable im- Churches and schools are being chal- provements. the greatest poverty areas lenged by rapid changes in racial rela- in the nation remain in the South. Rapid tionships in the state, nation, and world. improvements in the overall economic There are relatively few foreign-born picture and political promises to elimi- whites in Georgia, but around one-fifth nate the worst features of poverty make of the population is black, twice the na- the conditions of the poor even more tional average. In 1960, the proportion difficult. of the total population which was Negro ranged from less than one-tenth of one The standard brand Protestant de- percent in three north Georgia counties nominations in the nation and the South (Dawson. Forsyth. Towns) to over two- have tended to confine their ministry to thirds in three middle Georgia counties the middle class and to ignore the issues (Burke. Hancock. Talbot). The migra- of poverty. Indeed, the poverty population of Negroes has been excessive from tion is likely to belong to sect-type re- rural areas into the cities within and ligious organizations, if any at all. These groups tend to sanctify current poverty without the state. Thus, the issue ofrace is becoming nationwide. The major de- with hopes for "pic in the sky," not to nominations of the nation and in the be involvedin programs to provide South have been deeply involved. Gen- bread here on earth. Thus, the religious erally, in the South, they have sanc- forces of the state have been little in- tioned, by silence and speech, segrega- volved in efforts to redress the condition, racism, and discrimination because tions of poverty. There have been few of color. Sonic of the resistance groups demands for structural changes in food (Klu Klux Klan, White Citizens' Coun- stamp, surplus commodity, welfare or cil and others) have been led by persons other programs designed to make avail- with strong church connections, some able to the poor at least the basic neces- of them clergymen. Ministers, here and sities of life. The result has been con- there, have spoken out against racial tinues poverty and malnutritionfor discrimination and have lost their pul- thoust..ads of families, especially in the pits.(15) Actions of black clergymen in nximtain area, the Black Belt counties, Atlanta in desegregating buses and the and the ghettos of cities. These lower- manifesto by white clergymen in 195e poverty families tend to have larger were other exceptions. The manifesto that average numbers of children. They made the following points. have unequal access tofacilitiesfor education. Handicapped by limited fam- Freedom of speech must at all costs I ilysituations,theyfrequentlyattend preserved. schools which are ill- prepared to pro- As Americans and as religious leaders., we have an obligation to obey the law. vide an adequate education, much less The Public School System must riot be make up the disadvantage at the starting destroyed. line. Although the majority of poverty Hatred and scorn for those of another families in the state are white, the fact

298 that a much higher proportion of black Religion and the families is in poverty increases the educational deprivation. If religious leaders Future of Georgia of the state and counties were really During the next decade or so Georgia. concerned about the welfare of poverty along with several other southern states. families (white and black). pressures will continue the struggle between poinz- could he brought upon political, eco- ine with pride to its past and planning nomic. and educational forces to defor the potential and po: ;sihilities in its velop plans and programs to break, or future. Barring major setbacks, the state at least bend, the cycle of poverty with should continue movement toward the its enormous cost generation after gen- mainstream of American life in a full eration. Instead, .there tend to be pov- range of social and cultural develop- erty religious organizations ministering ments. To achieve this, it will have to to poverty people and making up an im- move faster than a rapidly moving na- portant part of the problem. tion in economic growth. educational achievements, democratic political pro- In a hook - length survey of southern cesses, urbanization, and the humaniza- rural poverty. Paul Good reviews many tion of major establishmentsystems. situations of poverty throughoutthe This will involve more secularization South, including Georgia. He raises un- and pluralism of values,abreaking answered but fundamental questions re- away from the worst features of the garding the national willingness to face "southern way of life" and, also. the the problem of poverty: "How to inspire "Amerman way of life" toward a more nationalandregionalmotivationto inclt.tsive world viewinour modern make resources available, how to deal "global village... The stresses and strains with the apparent fact that a majority emerging from rapid social changes are of Americans feel that a surfeit of mate- likely to increase rather than moderate rial things for most is compatible with or decrease. All establishment systems. deprivation for many. how to separate including religion and education, will myth about poverty from thetruth confront increasing challenges to modify about private and governmental forces their goals and strategies so as tb be- fostering it." 07) comeopportunitiesratherthanob- Church leaders, whose religious faith stacles to human development. is supposed to he good news to the poor, For religious bodies, current trends inboth the nation and the state of may be expected to continue during the Georgia, seem to accept little responsi- next 10 or 15 years. A few of these may bility for helping to mobilize the con- be mentioned. science of leaders to deal with these Liturgical churches (Catholics, Lu- problems of poverty. Instead they tend therans,Episcopalians),ontheone to sanction and support political and hand, and sect-type bodies (Assemblies economic structures which cause and and Churches of God, Pentecostal and allow to continue tragic conditions of Holiness groups), on the other, may be poverty. misery. and hunger. Perhaps as expected to continue somewhat more important as the economic aspect of rapid growth than the original"Big poverty are the personal and organiza- Three" (Baptists, Methodists, and Pres- tional underdevelopment, powerlessness, byterians). This would result in greater alienation,discrimination,nonidentity pluralism in religious beliefs and prac- and lack of imagination and effective tices. motivation. These are issues of human Most religious bodies will experience spirit as well as helping structures to cutbacks in membership growth, if not which both church and school should budgets, unless the declines for the sec- respond in the years ahead. ond half of the sixtiesare reversed.

299 Other national evidence would seem to and church cooperation are much loser support this trend. in Georgia and the South than in other From 1957 to 1969. this question has parts of the nation. Yet. these should been asked in Gallup Polls of a national experience some further development. sample of adult population of the na- especiallyinthe eines,inthe years tion: "At the present time. do you think religion as a whole is increasing its in- ahead. fluence on American life. or losing its Unfortunately, the worst features of influence?" the southern brand of Protestantism will The situation over this period has been continue to sanction the worst elements almost reversed. In 1957. 69% thought the influence was increasing with a dra- of the "southern way of life" for years matic drop to 14% in 1969. In 1957. to conic. Backward-looking politicians 14%felt religion was losing its influ- and other public leaders can continue to ence and this increased 10 70% by 1969. Afore younger people than older ones find Bible-quoting clergy and laity to and more Protestants than Catholics support their most reactionary and de- thought the church was losing influence. humanizing proposals. This will. how- Reasons given were: young people are ever. become lesstrueincities and losing interest InI formal religion: grow- among more spirituallysensitive and ing crime. immorality and violence: materialistic distractions: the church is not alertreligious leaders throughout the playingitsproperrole.Those who state. This will result largely from im- blamed the church for not playing its provementsineducation and move- proper role were about equally divided ments toward liberal, ecumenicalre- between those who thought the church was not keeping up with the times and ligion. those who thought it was too involved trends toward urbanization. inin social and political issues. dustrialization. secularization will con- If these .'rends were projected on a tinue to produce rapid social changes straight line basis no one would have a good word to say for the church by the and increased cultural meaninglessness. mid-seventies! While thisisunlikely. anomie and normlcssness. and loss of serious questions should be raised about identity. The crisis of values, meaning the implications of these data for the and personhood will cause increasingly decade ahead.It may be wondered whether these data constitute a "bad serious concern among leaders in re- cheek" which willhe cashedinthe ligion. education. economics, and gov- seventies.(18) ernment alike. The basic function .of Churches in the state will experience religion, apart from its organized forms. increasingdifficultiesinmaintaining will become more fully recognized in small churches in declining open coun- efforts to humanize establishment syS- try and village areas. Churches will he temS, including organized religion, and closed, consolidated or reduced in lead- to provide guiding sources of sanction ership and services. Yet many strug- and validation for emerging value orien- glirm subsistence and substandard units tations for the future. For this to he will survive, since there is nothing in achieved, or even worked at with any view for churches comparable to the sense of integrity, vast changes will he consolidation of the public schools. required in our views and understand- Segregation of the races will continue ings of traditional wisdom and custo- much longer in the churches than in mary practices in churches and schools. schools. However, during the coming as well as in other establishments. Also, decade there should be increasing,if it will call for radical revision of goals scattered, examples of churches with for the future and strategies (including inclusivemembershipsincitiesand use of resources and energies) to work counties. toward them. Denominational rivalry and separa- Such needs and concerns will cause tion will remain strong during the fore- forward-looking Georgia leaders in edu- seeable future. The ecumenical spirit cation and religion to plan and work to-

300 eel her more closely in the future than in current leadership in establishment sys- the past. The involvement of religion in tems (especially in religion, education. educational and relatedactivitieswill eovernment. and business) to meet with doubtlessincreaseinquality.ifnot imagination and integrity, with purpose- quantity. and will involve new patterns ful and practical plans. the options and of relationships, such as greater cooper- opportunities ahead would portend a ation in campus ministries, patterns of future fearful to envision. Itis in such released time or cooperative use of time. critical moments of crisis that religion and the growth of studies inreligion can deny its prophetic voice and hide its and in ethical and moral values. The head in the shifting sands of society, or nationwideincreaseinprogramsof it e:al challenge people with new vision study in religion in state universities is and hope. It is hoped that the latter op- an illustration of such developments. tion for Georgia's future is taken by its Unless more radicalchanges and leaders in religion. education. art.:! other breakthroughs than now contemplated policy and power making croups. occur, establishmentsystems are not Dr. Earl D.C. nrewer,is a professor of likely to free themselves from past and sociology in the Sociology and Anthro- present entanglements and inadequacies pology Department of Emory University. in order to alter their courses to meet He organized and served as director of the new and more complex and changing Religious Research Center from 1958 until 1969. Frort,1967 until 1969. Dr. Brewer needs and aspirations. Whether religion was on leave from Emory serving as direc- canbestiritselfto become such a tor of research for the National Council of change-agent, or whether this role can Churches in New York City. He was direc- he taken better by education. some other tor of research in religion of Southern Ap- palachian Studies during 1958. and 1959. system, or by several working together. The author of more than 50 research re- is unclear. Such hreakthroughs may, un- ports. Dr. Brewer has also written numerous fortunately. await the pressures. increas- reviews and articles for church and scien- ingly violent and revolutionary, of vari- tific publications along with several books includingProtestant Parishand 71:cfen.- ous disestablished and powerless groups ialHealth Counselor in the Community. of the state, nation, and world. If so, the He received his Ph.D. degree from the Uni- default through inaction or ineptitude of versity of North Carolina.

Footnotes I.Meadows. John C.,Modern Georgia,(Athens: University of Georgia Press. 1954). Belcher, John C. and Dean. K. Imogene.Georgia Today, Facts and Trends.(Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1960). Luckman, Thomas.The Religion, The Transformation of Symbols in Industrial Society,(New York: The McMillan Company, 1967). 3.United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census.United States Census of Population, Detailed Characteristics,(1960). 4.Johnson, F. Ernest and Ackerman, J. Emory,The Church as Employer, Money Raiser, and Investor, (New York: Harper & Brothers. 1959), pp. 23.24. 5.Jacquet, Constant 1-1.,Jr.,Yearbook of American Churches,(New York: National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., 196'7). 66, Johnson and Ackerman,op. cit..pp. 106-121. 7, The Christian Council of Metropolitan Atlanta. "The Churches' Search for Joint Mission in the Atlanta Region," R. The Southern Israelite,"History ..nd Background. Atlanta Jewish Welfare Federation," (Nov. 8, 1968). 9,This material was supplied by A. Wilson Cheek. Director, Georgia Region of the National Conference of Christians and Jews. 10,Nicholls, William H.Southern Tradition and Regional Progress,(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1960). U. Weber, Max,The P:-a,stant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism,(New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1958). 12,Weatherford, W. D. and Brewer, Earl aC., Life and Religion in Southern Appalachia,(New York: Friendship Press, 1962). Brewer, Earl D. C., etal. Protestant Parish, A CaSe Stud). of Rural and Urban Parish Patt'rns, (Atlanta: Communicative Arts Press, 1967). Hill, Samuel Jr.,Southern Chureltes in Crisis.(New York Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966). 13. Greely, Andrew M., "There's a Sew-Time Religion on Campus," (NewYork Times Magazine,June 1, 1969), p. 141. 14.MacLeish. Archibald, "The Revolt "f Diminished Man,"(SaturdayReview, June 7, 1969).

301 15. Holmes. Thomas J. and Bryan, Gainer E. Jr., Ashes for Breakfast, (Valley Forge: The Judson Press. 1969), 16. Belcher and Dean. op. cit.. p. 166. 17. Good. Pau:. "Poverty in the Rural South." (New South, Vol. 23. No. 1, Winter, 19681. p. 111. 18.Brewer. Earl D. C.. Mission in the Set enties. A Background Paper an Some Trends and 11314C3. (New York: National Council of Churches of Christ in the U.S.A., 1969). p. 23.

TABLE 1. MEMBERSHIP AND NUMBER OF CHURCHES OF SELECTED RELIGIOUS BODIES AND POPULATION, GEORGIA AND THE UNITED STATES, 1968, WITH PROJECTIONS FOR 1985

Religious Bodies, Membership Churches Population Georgia United States Georgia United States Projected total 1985(1) .3.767,000 166,610.000 12.600 423.000 Total 1968 2,900,000(2) 126,445.110 . 9.7700(2) 321.079 Southern Baptist 995,670 11,140.486 3:011 34.123 United Methodist 392.880 11.026,976(3) 1,735 41.993 Roman Catholic 84,932 47,468,333 71 23,814 Presbyterian. U.S 75,188 960,776 313 3,987 Progressive Baptist 60.000(4) 521.692 NA 655 Episcopal 53,128 3.420,297 139 7.180 Jewish 26,720 5,725,000 NA 4.700 Disciples of Christ 24,271 1,875,400 136 7.965 Lutheran Church in America. 11,587 3,157.543 45 5.868 United Church of Christ . . 3,867 2.052.857 31 6.908 Others(5) 1,172,657 39,095,750 4,219 183,886 Projected population 1985(6).5.961,000 263,624,000 Estimated population 1968. .4,588,000 199,861,000

(1) Projected on assumption of a continuation of the 1968 proportionof the population in religious membership. (2)Estimated on assumption of the same proportion of the population in religious membership in Georgia as in the United States. 0) Includes the Evangelical United Brethren. (4) Estimated by the president of'the Progressive Baptists in Georgia. (5)The totals for all other denominations than those mentioned above. (6) Using assumptions of Series IB of Current Population Reports. Sources: United States data from Yearbook of American Churches. 1969. Nation: otineil of Chun:hes; Georgia data from yearbooks of the various denominations; poptil,,tion from Current Popniation Reports, Series 25, Nos. 388 and 403.

302 A.LTHOUGH Professor Brewer has provided 'much interesting and informative material about the state of religion in Georgia, a paper prepared for the Commissionon EducationalGoals should perhaps have given more attention to the current and prospective place of religion in public education. He diets in his conclusion that religious involvement in educational activities will undoubtedly increase and will involve new patterns of relationships, but little is done to describe the present relationships or future possibilities. Professor Brewer isprimarily concerned with religion as one of several interacting social institutions, and within the limitations of his method he has done an admirable job of discussing many cul- turallyimportantaspectsofreligion. While not challenging his presentation as untrue, one could question, as he himself recognizes, whether religion can be adequately treated only in sociological terms. A case could be made that other aspects of religion reflected in its art, history, literature, music, psychology, philosophy, critique: and theology also need to be considered in any complete survey. A many-sided Religion in approach using insights of all these disciplines obviously cannot be attempted Georgia here. A study which tries to do justice to all the rich variety of religious phenomena could have far-reachingimpact on thestate'seducational system by showing how these aspects of religion are inescapably involved in education. The basic definition of the nature and function of religion given in Brewer's paper also can be questioned. Although he recognizes that many answers are possible, Professor Brewer contends that the basic function of religion is "to create, modify, and maintain a realm of the sacred," almost as if man himself were the originator and sustainer of the divine being and its ethical imperatives. Since other understandings of religion are admittedly possible,it would seem that these views and their implications for education should be given due consideration as well. For example, if religion is

303 understood primarily as man's response member of the General Assembly.' in faith to God's activity in the world, The present Constitution, as well as one would need to be concerned not only thenew documentproposedbythe withdescribingindividualand social House Judiciary Committee. similarly re- activities of men, but also with finding flects the tension. The preamble declares out what God is doing in the world. This that the people of Georgia rely upon "the latter concern with God's activity would protection and guidance of Almighty necessarily involve study of different cur- God," but the Constitution also specifi- renttheologicalinterpretations of the cally forbids direct or indirect aid to any relationship between man and God a church, sect, denomination, or religion veryfruitful,ifcontroversial, area of and affirms that "all men have the nat- religious education. ural and inalienablerightto worship Professor Brewer rightly observes that God, each according to the dictates of questions have been and will be raised his own conscience."3 about the ability of both education and Althoughreligiousmotivationwas religion to fulfilltheir tasks today, no partlyresponsibleforstartingpublic matter how these tasks are-defined. One schools, and some instruction in the Bible can sympathize with his desire to en- and non-denominational religious values courage leaders in religious and educa- was common in the public schools at tionalestablishmentstocooperatein first, much of the religious content had meeting more adequately the needs of been removed from the classroom by the state, but he does not give much 1900 under the pressures of competing specific insight into how this might be denominationsandthegovernment.' done. However, religious observances such as Perhaps the root of the problem lies baccalaureateservicesandChristmas in Professor Brewer's neglect of a ten- programs continued, and at the time of sion reflected in the educational system the Supreme Court ruling in 1963, Geor- of the state. On the one hand, there is gia was one of 13 states that not only the traditional sentiment in favor of rigid considered Bible-reading in public separation of church and state, and on schools legal but required it by statute.' the other hand, there is a general desire Concern that education might become in Georgia to educate students to be completely secular as a result of court religiously informed and sensitive. Inthis rulings and other developments undoubt- critique itis not possible to discuss the edly led to a desire to reaffirm the im- manifestations of this tension in detail, portance of religion in education. Thus but some reference to it is pertinent. thefollowingpolicyadopted by the Like other states, Georgia early in her Board of Regents of the University Sys- history experienced this tension which tem of Georgia clearly indicates an at- has persisted down to present-day con- tempt to deal with the situation. troversies over Supreme Court rulings The principle of religious freedomis outlawing prayer and Bible-reading in the fundamental to our American heritage schools. Even after the Declaration of and way of life. Our forefathers settled in America seeking religious freedom. Independence was adopted, Georgia in- The authors of the Bill of Rights of our sisted that citizens had to be Protestants Federal Constitution obviously intended and thus did not allow complete religious to preserve religious freedom. Through- freedom.' But the state Constitution of out the years the several states respec- 1789 declaredthat"allpersons tively have supported this basic principle shall in recognition of the fact that our coun- have free exercise of religion, without try was founded on the basis of freedom being obliged to contribute to the support of religion and not on the premise or of any religiousprofession buttheir precept of freedom from religion. The principle of religious freedom means own," and that document even went so that the individual is free to exercise his far as to forbid any clergyman to be a religious convictions. Moreover, it means

304 that church and state are separated, and eluded in the total educational programs as separate entities they are free of con- of each institution. The religious atmo- trol from each other. On the one hand, sphere of each college and the attitudes the church is free to grow without assis- of the administration and faculty should tance or hindrance from the state, and reveal an explicit belief in and depen- the various church denominations are dency on God!' free from state control. On the other No doubt this statement reflects the hand, separation does not mean that the atpresent, Of state is godless or that it considers itself generalpublic attitude exempt from spiritual values and moral course, some aspects of theRegents' law. policy such as the encouragement of The members of the Board of Regents prayer by the students may be legally of the University System of Georgia, as questionableinthelightof Supreme representatives of theState,are concerned with the growth and development Courtrulings.However, asProfessor of every phase of the being and per- Brewer noted briefly in his paper, thefe sonality of the individual student. A stu- has been a. widespread increase in pro- dent should be given every reasonable opportunity to grow and develop intel- grams of study of religion in state uni- lectually, physically, socially, and reli- versities. He neglected to explore the giously. To omit any one of these facets possibility of such study inthe other of growth would not be to the best in- public schools. Itis often overlooked in terest of the student or the State. Thus, the members of the Board of Regents the heat of emotional reaction that the wish to commend the administration and Supreme Court, inits controversial rul- faculty of those institutions in the Uni- ing, specifically encouraged the objective versity System which provided for the study of religiOn in the schools. but only voluntary participation in non-denomi- like neighboring Florida national prayers and which foster a non- a few states sectarian religious atmosphere in which have done much in this area. a student may grow spiritually. To do Itisalso interesting to observe that otherwise would serve only to render aid this year the Southern Sections of the to the disciples of atheism and give com- American Academy of Religion and the fortto the enemies of our American way of life. SocietyofBiblicalLiteraturejointly A non-sectarianreligiousatmosphere recommended the following. may be created by chapel services, Re- 1.Academic study of religionisap- ligious Emphasis Weeks, courses in re- propriate atalllevels of learning, in- ligion, student religious groups, but espe- cluding the public schools. cially in the attitudes and dedication to 2.Religion should be studiedinthe religious values of the administration and existing public school curriculum, such faculty of each institution. It is the feel- as social studies and English, wherever ing of the members of the Board of religion is a part of the subject matter. Regents that the omission of religious 3.Elective courses in religion, such as values from the various institutions in a Religions of the World and the Bible as day in which there has been a tremen- Literature, are to be encouraged. dous growth of knowledge in the basic 4. Such study should be in a form and sciences creates a condemnatory imbal- at a level commensurate with the pupil's ance of values. ability. The free and voluntary exercise of re- 5. Teaching about religion should be ligious freedom and the acknowledgment done by qualified, regular public school of our Creator as a Supreme Being, om- teachers rather than by teachers repre- nipotent and all wise, and upon whom senting religious institutions. our very existence, our liberty, and our 6.Teaching about religion in the pub- pursuit of happiness are entirely depen- lic schools is to be objective, non-sec- dent, should he prohibited by no one. tarian, and descriptive in nature. But on the contrary, the free and volun- 7.Curriculum development and teacher tary exercise of religious freedom should education inreligion should be carried be encouraged by all. out by competent scholars in religion and Therefore, the members of the Board by qualified public school educators in of Regents of the University System of consultation with major religious com- Georgia wishto express through the munities. Chancellor to the Presidents of all the 8. The public schools are part of the institutionsintheUniversity System community of learning, not the com- their desire to have religious values in- munity of faith. Consequently, the pub-

305 licschoolauthorities should be con- Perhaps one way the hold of provin- cerned with the study of religion, not the practice of religion? cialism could be broken while the valu- A number of other church and profes- able traditions of the Southern heritage sional groups have recently passed sim- are preserved at the same time would be ilar resolutions, and if support for sm..'" by contact with other religious viewpoints proposals continues to grow, especially in the classroom. The growth of pluralism on the local level, the educational system that Professor Brewer notes in Georgia in Georgia by 1985 might well include and the willingness of many religious many courses in religion. groups to cooperate with one another Some of the data given by Professor could well lead to increased interfaith Brewer are bound to give rise to ques- dialogue among students and a deeper tions in the future. For example, if the widespread recognition of the distinctive value of church property increases as contributions of each faith represented much as he suggests, will the state be in the state, nation, and world. Adults tempted to levy taxes, particularly on likewise couldprofit from coursesin holdingsnotdirectlyconnectedwith religion provided by the schools and thus worship?' Could this money be used in become informed about important issues. part to finance the educational program Professor Brewer shows that religion in general and religion courses in partici- has sometimes sanctionedinequalities ularwithoutviolatingseparationof and injustice and is now under attack church and state? from those whose needs have been overlooked. It is true, as he says, that many Organized religion at present does not young people are questioning the estab- have decisive, direct involvement in eco- lishedreligionanddroppingoutof nomic policies, Professor Brewer says. church and school, but it is also true that But if churches start using their econom- students are stillinterested in religious ic muscle, e.g., by investing funds in questions and are seeking a faith that black banks or businesses asmilitant deals honestly with life. It is difficult to groups are demanding, whatreaction deal with their questions in a one-hour-a- could be expected from society? As the week Sunday School with often inade- paper pointed out, many church mem- quately trained teachers, but perhaps reli- bers strongly oppose such involvement in gion courses in the school would help social issues, and even if they wanted to, students find new perspectives. It would it is doubtful that religious leaders in the be unfair, of course, for churches to state could at this time put much pres- throw the burden on the schools. And sure on political, economic, and educa- it would be unduly optimistic to expect tionalforces. However, as clergy and many miracles, but church and school laymen become more informed about may be able to work together along lines their potential power and more sophisti- suggested in the resolution quoted above. cated in using it, radical transformations Perhaps they will be able to produce of society may well be occurring by religiously-informed persons sensitive to 1985. problems like the race and poverty issues Professor Brewer showsaccurately that Professor Brewer mentions. how much of Southern religion has be- In his assessment of the future situa- come a "culture-bound" religion rather tion, Professor Brewer suggests that reli- than a "culture-challenging" religion. He gious influence may decrease in Georgia charges that this culture-religion has kept as the state moves into the American Georgia from entering the mainstream mainstream with more secularism and of American life, but again he gives lit- pluralism. Of course, this is a possibility, tle hint of what could be done about the and no one can predict the future with situation other than to mention the forces certainty. One can only share his hope of change already at work. that the leaders of the state's educational

306 system and churches will do all they can the worst aspects of the past will be elim- to improve the educational and religious inated and the best traditions of the heri- climate in Georgia so that in the future tage preserved.

Foctnotes

1.Blanshard, Paul, Religion and the Schools, (Boston: Beacon Press, 1963), p. 10. 2.Turnbull, Augustus B., 111, A New Georgia Constitution: Models and Proposals, (Athens: University of Georgia, 1969), pp. 128-130. 3.Ibid., pp. 7-8. 4.Dierentield, Richard F., Religion in American Public Schools, (Washington, D. C.:Public Affairs Press, 1962), pp. 102 ff. 5.Blanshard, op. cit., p. 97. 6.Board of Regents, University System of Georgia, Minutes, (1962-63), p. 30. 7.Southern Sections of the American Academy of Religion and the Society of Biblical Literature, Reso lution, (March 29, 1969: reprinted in Bulletin of the American Academy of Religion, Vol, VI, No. 2, Summer, 1969). pp. 37-38. 8.Robertson, D. B., Should Churches Be Taxed? (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1968), pp. 171 ff.

307 THE civil rights picture in Georgia is bleak, and the outlook for the future is thesame. Georgians could,ifthey would, completely alter this picture on their own resolve. Unfortunately. however. there is no reason to believe that white Georgians will do very much in the near future to change their basic posture of opposing civilrights progress to one of supporting civilrights progress. This being the case, black Georgians will have to relyas they always have in the pastupon support from the federal government in obtaining civil rights progress. At thislevel,too, thereis much to discourage black Georgians at this time: Contrary to the belief of most white Georgians, civil rights laws and court By Vernon Jordan, Jr., LL.B. decisions of recent years have not dra- matically changed the life of the average Georgia Negro. While there has Civil Rights in Georgia been considerable progress, many discriminatory practices inthe fieldsof education, employment, publicfacili- ties, justice, voting, and housing have not changed a great deal in the last two _._decades. This is especially true in rural Georgia. Even the slow pace of progress in recent years is apparently being decele- rated by the Nixon administration. As Negroes become increasingly frustrated and disillusioned over civil rights which exist on the pages of court decisions and law books but do not exist in fact,it would be reasonable to expect more direct action protest of the type that was widespreadinthe South during the early 1960s. Georgia blacks today continue to pay an enormous tollbecause of the discriminatory practices in education and other fields under which they have lived all of their lives. The condition of pov-

/309 erty in vhich they live is another source istrative pressure, and eventually legis- of frustration and bitterness for many lation and executive orders to help guar- Negroes. Because of this severe eco- antee the civil righAs of black people. nomic disadvantage, many Negroes are Georgia's response to the civil rights unable to participate even in the very push of black citizens is found in state- limited civil rights gains of recent years. ments by political leaders following the As one inventories the civil rights pic- Supreme Court decision of May 17, ture in Georgia in the year 1969, one is 1954. Senator Richard B. Russell called awed by how little progress actually has the decision "a flagrant abuse of ju- been made. One is amazed that so little dicial power." Governor Herman Tal- real progress could cause so much acri- madge quoted a remark attributed to monious controversy. The patience of President Jackson after a fiercely dis- many black Georgians is rapidly wear- puted Supreme Court decision of an ing thin. earlier day, "John Marshall made that decision. Now let him enforce it!" Lieu- tenant Governor Marvin Griffin smelled "meddlers,demagogues,race-baiters, andcommunists."'Mr.Griffinwas nominated to succeed Governor Tal- madge. on the pledge, "Come hell or THE state of civil rights in Georgia is, high water, races will not be mixed in to put it bluntly, bleak. The outloOk for Georgia schools." And Governor Grif- theimmediatefuture isthesame. fin's successor, S. Ernest Vandiver, cam- Whether or not the long-range picture paigned on the slogan, "No, not one," improves depends, to some extent, on referring to school desegregation. circumstances beyond the controlof This attitude of non-acceptance and Georgians, both black and white. On defiance has prevailedinGeorgia at theother hand,thereismuch that every turn. Every civilrights victory Georgia can do, if it will, to make equal achieved by black people in the state opportunity and justice a reality for all was met with resistance, whether at the Georgians. To date, Georgia has a poor state or local level. Black people were record in civil rights and there are few forced to file lawsuits, demonstrate, pro- signs that the record will improve. test, boycott, or to use their political To the extent that civil rights have power to effect change. This istrue progressed in Georgia, and there has whether the issue was schools, libraries, been noticeable progress, Georgia has publictransportation,golfcourses, not done so willingly, cheerfully, and lunchcounters, or whatever. without all manner of resistance. The The one sign of slight moderation main thrust for change in Georgia, and came during the administration of Gov- throughout the South, has come from ernor Vandiver after the state lost a black people with the help of a precious court fight over the desegregation of the few white people who dared participate University of Georgia. The Governor in in black efforts for change. Black peo- an address before a joint session of the ple have brought about what change we General Assembly in January of 1961 have through legal action, non-violent made a ringing declaration: directaction,selectivebuying cam- "We meet together to proclaim to all paigns, voter registration, and educa- the world that public education will be tion. In response to the black man's preserved! Our Georgia children will be dramatization of the injustices and in- protected! Local administration and au- equities confronting him,the federal tonomy will be maintained! Grants will government responded, though at times be authorized!" reluctantly, with court decisions, admin- He went on to say, indicating a move

310 toward moderation, "Every legal means restaurants. mornIs., public transporta- and resource to circumvent the effects tion. and some an OM schools, We have of the (Brown) decision, yes. Defiance, hired. a few in phains-- A, here only whites no.""2 worked at one Limn. and we now call them Mr. and Maisv Isitien they come in While state-widepolitical leaders our store. So whannsore do they want?" took positionsas. indicated,Atlanta's leadership was far more constructive. Clearly, that is The ,P.,:ue in civil rights But even Atlanta, a relative oasis in in Georgiablack. people see the prog- race relations in Georgia, did not meet ress made as only a beginning and whites see the prinerx-ss made as suf- itscivilrightsresponsibilities without lawsuits, demonstrations, and political ficient. Perhaps:thisimpasse can best he dealt with by aniiemajby-item discussion pressure. of the civil rightsrearture in Georgia. Itisclearthattherehavebeen changes and progress in Georgia's civil rights picture; yet they have been excru- Education ciatingly slow and are presently woe- At the time of thniiiiprerne Court's rul- fully inadequate. This is the view of ingagainst seated educationon black people in Georgia. Despite the May 17, 1954, Giecurgia was one of 17 school desegregation decisions and states which had; laws requiring sepa- guidelines, Georgia Negroes know that rate schools. Blank people inGeorgia the vast majority of black children still still suffer the:ma:sults of the so-called attend separate and unequal schools; "separate but .eoipal" system- Although despite the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the schools we quite separate, they Negroes are denied serviceinlocal were, in fact. naserequail. For example, roadside cafes; despite the laws and ex- a1945 study by an Atlanta Urban ecutive orders banning segregation in League .committe.founci that per pupil employment and housing, Negroes con- expenditures fornwhite pupils in Atlanta tinue in the "same old jobs" and live in was $108.70 compared with $37.80 for segregated ghettoes. Negro pupils. lannerms of investment in However, given the limited progress land and buildings, the Atlanta Board made, the policies of the Nixon admin- of Education was spending $6 per white istration signal a retreat. This retreat is child for every Si invested for a Negro reflectedina compromising, though child.; This typeoaf disparity was gener- ambiguous, school desegregation policy, ally true throunilitaut the state. For ex- an apparent unwillingrieSS to push for ample, in the I1!)5354 school year, at an extension of the Voting Rights Act the time of the..-Siiprenate Court decision, of 1965, and appointments to the ju- Georgia was wending $189.99per diciary and administrative posts. The whitepupil mil $132.09perblack crucial significance of these actions is pupil that continued progress in civil rights in Many Georgia Negroes recall the al- Georgia is tied, unfortunately, to a vig- most frantic craitt huiliding program of orous support of these rights by the na- schools for Negro moils just prior to tional adMinistration. the Supreme Comm nailing. From the White Georgians have registered their outside, these inspotesaive new buildings disapproval of civil rights progress at gave the surfacearance of a move the ballot box by voting for Senator toward equality. likin many black people Goldwater, Governor Lester Maddox. recall howpoorly equippedAnse and former Alabama GovernorGeorge. schools were on the inside_ Many recall Wallace,allsymbols of segregation. that their textbooks were used and bat- There appears to be an attitude among teredhand-me-dm/gins *at had been white Georgians of "What do the Ne- phased out by the Winn schools. Over- groes want now? We've integrated the crowdinganddonharsessionswere

311 common. In some areas schools were districts. HEW's efforts were boosted by on shortsessions when black hands court decisions that insisted upon af- were needed at cotton picking time. It firmative actions to end the dual school would be many generations before black system and that ruled so-called -free- people could recover from the heavy dom of choice- plans valid only if they toll taken by this discriminatory system, resulted in the abolition of segregated even ifit had ended in1954. But the schools. Eventually HEW issued dead- Brownvs.Topeka decisiondidnot lines by which all dual school systems bring an end to the separate and un- should be eliminated. equal school system in Georgia. Yet in the 1968-69 school year only White Georgia resolved in 1954 to 14.2 percent ofthe blackpupilsin resist fully the Supreme Court decision. Georgia were in desegregated schools. Defiant statements by Georgia's politi- This was considerably below the 20.3 cal leaders became the order of the day. percent figure for the 11-state Southern For over 10 years local school boards, region,' which indicates how poor the with the apparent sanction of the State performance had been in both state and Board of Education and top state of- region. Viewed in one way, this repre- ficials, achieved almost total success in sents a desegregation rate of less than their unlawful efforts to resist or delay . one percent per year for the 15 years desegregation, that have elapsed since the Supreme The inadequacy of court rulings alone Court'sinitialruling. At thisrateit in the face of defiant state and local of- would he the year 2054 before all the ficials is well illustrated by noting that black pupils in Georgia were attending in 1964 over 98 percent of Georgia's desegregated schools. Negro school children were still in seg- By the summer of 1969 fewer than regatedfacilities.5Eventhoughthe one-fifth of Georgia's school districts Brown decision had been a class action. had complied with the desegregation and thus supposedly applicable toall standards set by HEW. Some others had personssimilarlysituated,thebitter filedacceptableplansoftheir"in- truth was that the meager gains being tended" desegregation in the near fu- made required further actions in indi- ture. Over half of the districts had not vidual school districts. The burden of done even this much, and some had not theseexpensiveandtime-consuming even made token efforts inthis direc- battles fell on individual Negro families, tion.7 While HEW officials have pre- supported by priVate organizations such dicted that the rate of desegregation will as the NAACP. increase greatly in the next few years, After the passage of the 1964 Civil little in Georgia history would support Rights Act, some progressin school much confidence in this forecast. desegregationoccurred, althoughnot Georgia officials have demonstrated nearly as much as the shrill outcries of time and again their skill and determi- segregationists and demogogic leaders nation in defying the law in this matter. might lead one to believe. The 1964 The experience with federal enforce- legislation specified in Title VI that fed- ment has not been forthcoming from the eral funds should not be given to any federal government inthepast, and program which was discriminatory. Un- there are strong signs that much greater der the obligations of this act, the Office compromise with Southern segregation- of Education of the Department of ists may be the hallmark of the Nixon Health, Education, and Welfare became administration in Washington. involvedinthe efforts to desegregate To begin with, HEW officials seemed schools and subsequently issued a series to assume good faith on the part of of guidelines, each one increasing some- Southern officials despite years of evi- what the demands on recalcitrant school dence indicating the contrary. Further-

312 more, over a decade after the Supreme The effect of such actions, of course. Court had ordered desegregation with is to slow down compliance all across all deliberate speed. HEW first devel- the South. Why expect a Georgia dis- oped guidelines based on gradualism trict, reluctant from the start. to move and tokenism. The device of cutting off ahead toward full compliance when the federal funds from non-compliant dis- federal government itself is sponsoring tricts, which involved slow and cumber- delay in Mississippi? Also the adminis- some procedures, has heen used quite tration's action cuts the ground from sparingly. In .Georgia only 36 districts under those districts that have brought have had such funds terminated.8 More- themselvesintocompliance.Already over.localofficialshavefrequently nine districts in Georgia which had tiled found ways to shift the penalty of re- plans for eliminating dual systems in the duced funds onto programs primarily fallof1969 have reneged ontheir aiding Negro pupils. Strong backing has promised compliance." been given to the efforts of local officials The Nixon administration has moved to evade or gain delaying concessions to put all Georgia schools under court from HEW by the powerful Southern order to desegregate, but the effect of bloc in Congress. They not only con- this is not clear. In the past desegrega- stantly attacked HEW's legal authority tion in districts under court order has for the actions being taken, but also been less effective than in districts oper- more importantly, they successfully led ating under HEW "voluntary" plans. assaultson HEW's budgetrequests, with 7.9 percent of black pupils in de- leaving the department without suffici- segregated facilities in the former types ent appropriations and manpower for its of Georgia districts and 18.4 percent in compliance programs. the latter type)'- If a statewide court Although the approach of-HEW to-- order will lead to the cut-off of federal ward eliminating dual school systems funds to the entire state or the cut-off of has become somewhat more rigorous state funds to non-complying local dis- over a period of time, the successful im- tricts, thenit may be an effective de- plementation of the limited powers it vice. It may, however, serve only to add has in this field requires total commit- further delay. ment from a national administration In some of the districts where the which is willing to use its authority fully dual school system is being abolished, and provide sufficient manpower to en- tactics have been adopted which seem sure that this authority is obeyed. designedtocreateadditionalantago- Thus far, the Nixon administration nism among reluctant whites and to has presented a confusing array of posi- harm the educational opportunities of tions on school desegregation, but inall pupils. Claiming they were forced by creasingly it appears as if the federal HEW into such actions. these officials government will be even more timid and have closed formerly all black schools accommodating to white Southerners in and crowded allpupils into the for- the future. For instance, recently a fed- merly all white schools, thereby over- eral court was asked by the administra- loading facilities which frequently were tion to delay segregation of 33 Missis- inadequate to begin with. These officials sippi school districts.9 The outrage of refuse the obvious alternative of send- many lower echelon lawyers in the civil ing some white pupils into the former rights division of the Justice Depart- Negro schools. ment over the administration's action Another disturbingtrend,recently further substantiated the growing sus- cited by the.Georgia Teachers and Edu- picions about the new administration's cation Association, is the dismissal of commitment to a vigorous civil rights black teachers and principals when dual program.") school systems are abolished. In a June

313 1969 report, GTEA noted thatin 30 history of segregation and inferior op- such systems in North Georgia the total portunities for black children, these in- number of Negro teachers had dropped stitutions must develop active programs from 742 to 544, and the number Of Of recruitment and financial assistance Negro principals had declined from 54 for black students if they are to move to 24 between 1963 and 1969. At the beyond the hypocriticaltokenism of same time, the number of white princi- their present "integrated- status. pals had increased from 284 to 308 in Theproblemswitheducationin these s,,stems.13 Whatever might he said Georgia involve more than just the abo- about the comparative training of white lition of a dual and unewial school sys- andblack schooladministrators,the tem. There is a crying need for im- magnitude of these changes suggests proved education for all children. The something other than purely objective whole sad story of discriminationin considerations of needs and qualifica- Georgiaemphasizesthewastedre- tions. GTEA warns that this trendis sources, the inadequate support and the likely to continue at an accelerated pace resulting low levelof education that in middle and south Georgia. generally characterizes the state. Geor- gians rank well down the national lad- Higher Education der in practically every measure of edu- Lastfall's enrollment figures for the cational attainment. For example, the Georgia Institute of Technology showed number of Georgians 25 years old and 36 Negro undergraduates in a total en- over who have completed less than five rollment of 6,662. There were 72 Ne- years of school is more than double the gro undergraduates at the University of national percentage)The state ranks Georgia, where the total enrollment was 48thinthe Peleelage of Selective 14,360.14 In each case this is about one- Service draftees failing the mental tests. half of one percent. That is to say, only In per capita state and local expendi- one student out of every 200 at these tures for local schools, Georgia is 41st two major state institutions is black. At among the states, and it ranks 43rd in Georgia State University approximately the number of pupils per teacher.17 four percent of allstudents, full-time Without question, the first priority in and part-time, are black. There is a des- Georgia education must be the cessation perate need in Georgia and other South- of inferior treatment of Negro children, ernstatesfor Negro professionals but ranking close behind this necessary lawyers,doctors,engineers,pharma- goal is a general upgrading of facilities cists,veterinarians,etc.Despitethe and opportunities for everyone. valianteffortsofthepredominantly Because of the complexities of the is- black colleges in Georgia, it has been sues involvedin school desegregation demonstrated that they do not fillthe and because of the extreme importance need for well-trained Negro profession- of these issues, we recommend' that the als. It is evident that the major state in- Commission on Educational Goals au- stitutions, with their broader curricu- thorize the preparation of a special and lums at both the undergraduate and complete paper on this subject. graduate levels, should and must take in We have made no attempt to discuss more Negro students. so-called "freedom of choice" plans in Whether the simple elimination of ofthis section. Anyone familiar with the ficial barriers to the enrollment of Ne- extremely disadvantaged and vulnerable groes at these institutions issufficient position of blacks inthe rural South compliance with the spirit of the na- should know that the "freedom" is for tion's law against discriminatory institu- whites only. Negroes who take "free- tions must be questioned. Given the dom of choice' at face value and at- conditions created by Georgia's long tempt to enroll their children in pre-

314 viously white schools immediately sub- longer the case, job discrimination- - ject themselves to the fiercest sort of white- collar and blue-collar, public and social, economic, and physical intimida- privateis a major civil rights issue for tion. Indeed, most of the racially moti- black people in Georgia today. Despite vated violence now occurring inthe the fact that black people are conspicu- rural South centers around efforts of ous now especially in the metropolitan Negro parents to desegregate schools. areas, in jobs heretofore held exclusive- The evidence is heavy, and we will not ly by whites, figures collected in 1967 bother to cite it in detail here. The ap- by the Equal Employment Opportunity parent feeling among some white Geor- Commission showed that Negroes have gians that there can he such a thing as only 3.2 percent of the white-collar jobs genuine "freedom of choice" is but one in the state) This, of course, is well of many reasons why there should be a below the proportion of black popula- separate study by this Commission of tion in the state. It also is well below the entire issue of school desegregation. the number who could be expected to qualify on a non-discriminatory basis. Employment The category of "white-collar jobs" For generations very limited job oppor- asused above encompasses a broad tunities have been available to Negroes range of occupations, and the percentin Georgia. Traditionally, jobs for Ne- age of Negroes in this category is some- groes in Georgia have been limited to what misleading. Low as that figure is, unskilled and semi-skilled tasks. In rural it tends to overstate the progress Ne- areas opportunities for Negroes have groes have made in employment oppor- been confined to such things as farm tunities. Most of the Negroes inthis labor and lumbering. In urban areas categoryareinlow-levelpositions, Negroes commonly have been employed which usually do not carry the attractive as maintenance people, janitors, domes- salary and status generally associated tics, and the like. Only in recent years with white-collar classification. Negroes has a significant number of jobs become still are seldom able to break into the available in such categories as secre- managerial and professional positions. tarial work, clerks in stores and banks, A 1966 EEOC study in the Atlanta area and government service. showed that only 0.8 percent of "Of- Historically, teaching, as a direct re- ficials and Managers" and only one per- sult of segregation in both education cent of "Professionals" were Negroes.19 and preparation, has been the most ac- State and local governments in Geor- professionalopportunityfor cessible gia are a major source of employment. black people. Black people were denied They have not, however, opened their by law the opportunity to prepare in employment doors impartially to all the institutionsforsuch state-supported citizens whom they serve. State and professions as law, medicine, engineer- local governments in Georgia by their ing, architecture, and pharmacy. Other employment practices do not set a good black professionals such as social work- example for private enterprise. ers, college professors, and accountants have been educated, for the most part, A recent report on equal opportunity inpredominantly Negro privatecol- in state and local governMent employ- leges or in schools outside Georgia. ment published by the U. S. Commis- Well within the memory of many sion on Civil Rights found that Negroes black people is the time when such jobs have only 32.1 percent of the city jobs as railway mail clerk, pullman porter, inAtlanta, despite thefact that the dining car waiter, and postman pro- city's population is 47 percent black. vided the best paying employment in Only 5.6 percent of the state govern- the black community. While this is no ment jobs in Georgia are filled by Ne-

315 groes. This percentage does not include tution, which prohibits discrimination the Board of Corrections.with 772 by state and local authorities. state and white and two black employees, or the local governments are almost entirely I,aw Department with 50 white and two exempt from any federal non-discrimi- blackemployees. Blackpeoplehave nationrequirements.State andlocal only 16.6 percent of the jobs provided gove7nments are exempt from the pro- by Fulton County, although 34.7 per- visions of Title VII of the Civil Rights cent of the county's population is black. Act of 1964 which gives EEOC the lim- The Commission report finds further ited power and authority it has. I f equal that "of the 6,111. state jobs located in employment opportunity instate and the Atlanta area about 350 were filled local government is to he achieved, the by block workers, one-third of whom exemption from the coverage of Title work in the State Welfare Department. VII must he eliminated, Furthermore. Two-thirds of the Negro professionals if equal employment opportunity is to were employed in the State Welfare De- he a reality in Georgia, EEOC must be partment, as were 14 of the 18 Negroes granted the authority to issue cease-andin managerial capacities. They held less desistorders to correctviolationsin thanfivepercent of the white-collar both the public and private sectors of jobs.but 50 percent of theservice employment. Providing EEOC with this worker jobs. -° additional power would "enhanceits Whether the issue is job discrimina- conciliationrole by strengtheningits tion in the private sector or the public bargaining power and make ita far sector in Georgia, it is necessary to rely more effective agent in insuring equal on pressure from the ,federal govern- employment opportunity." 23 ment to begin to reduce employment Another method of eliminating job discrimination.Intheprivatesector, discriminationinpublicemployment however, federal pressure is weak and would be withholding federalfunds. timid. Between 1966 and 1969, the At- This would involve withholding funds lanta Regional Office of the Equal Em- from any state or local public agency ployment Opportunity Commission. a that discriminates against any employee federal commission created by Title VII or applicant for employment who is, or of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, received would he, involved in any state or local 1.673 complaints charging employment activity assisted by federal funds. Such discrimination based on race,21 Prob- a provision would be particularly effec- ably this is only the exposed edge of the tivein the state employment security iceberg. The office does not have suf- agencies and highway departments. ficient funds and staff with which to in- Assuming that the state and local vestigate complaints promptly. There is governments of Georgia have an inter- anI 8-month backlog of complaints.'.' est in the elimination of job discrimina- Consequently, there is a lack of confi- tion in the public and private sector, denceinthe EEOC process among there are two steps to be taken. A state those who might file complaints other- Commission on Human Relations simi- wise. lar to those existing in Tennessee, North Nor does EEOC have the authority Carolina,Arkansas, andKentucky to press very far. Persons who file com- should be established to investigate, ne- plaints are left without remedy, not only gotiate, and formulate public policy on because of the time it takes, but also, the issue. A state contract compliance because of the lack of statutory author- program, similar to thefederal pro- ity for the. EEOC to correct discrimina- gram, should require governmental con- tory practices. tractorstoinsure equal employment Except for the requirement of the opportunity. Fourteenth Amendment of the Consti- To date Georgia has indicated no in-

316 clination in this direction. Yet. for those saying that the manager of a local res- public servants in the state who advo- taurant refused them service and added. cate states rights and denounce control Scram. if von know what 1 nteanl- and direction from the federal govern- The isolation and frontier atmosphere ment, here are steps that can he initi- inrural counties breedsfear. 'There ated and implemented at the state and seems to be no one to whom Negroes local level. can turn. Local law officers can't be expected to help. It is they whom the res- taurant owner calls to enforce, not civil Public Facilities rights. I'm segregation. The U. S. Jus- In no other area of civil rights haswhite tice Department is hundreds of miles

Georgia so badly misgauged the extent away, and respresponds slowly.I I 1 of progressor. one should say, non- Negroes inrural areas who "act up- progressas in the area of public ac- know that they do so at the risk of their commodations. Prior to the 1964 Civil jobsor something worse. Rights Act. separate accommodations in As for whites in these rural areas, the most public facilities in Georgia were as isolationprovidessecurityashield much law and practice as were separate against "outside interference." The typi- schools. Passage ofthe 1964law cal white attitudeis, "We've got our brought some painfulchanges. sonic own lbw here." and "lt will take the violent changes( involving, in one in- Justice Department a hundred years to stance, the present governor) and some get down to a little county like this." peaceful change. Localized demonstrations are begin- But most of the changes occurred in ning to occur around such issues as urban areas.Itis now common to see swimming pools which were closed to Negroes in the better restaurants and avoiddesegregation.UnlessGeorgia hotels of Atlanta. White Georgians does more to carry out both the letter particularly those living in the city and spirit of the 1964 Civil Rights Law, observe this and, generalizing from what such demonstrations willverylikely they see, reach the conclusion that Ne- continue and become more numerous groes have nothing more tocomplain in the future. about in the field of public accommo- Education has a responsibility to set dations. an example and show the way in this In rural areas. however, the situation field.Segregatededucationthrough is markedly different. A representative phony "freedom of choice" plans or of the Voter Education Project of the whateversets an unhealthy example SouthernRegionalCouncilrecently for other public agencies and for private traveled inapproximately20rural business. By the same token, desegre- countiesinsouthwestGeorgia.He gated schools could set a healthy exam- found few restaurants that were deseg- ple for others in the community, in both regated. It seems that black people who public and private endeavors, if ours is are obviously travelers and who arc to be one society rather than two. simply passing through get service occasionally. But black people who live in Justice the area are just as quickly threatened and expelled as they were 20 years ago. The phrase "law and order" has an In one county, we were told, a black ironic and bitterly humorous ring for person from California who wasvisiting Georgia Negroes. The black Georgian relatives in the area was turned away might well ask, "What law? What or- from a roadside cafe with threats that der?" All of their lives Georgia Negroes the sheriff would he called. Our travel- have witnessed blatantly discriminatory ing representative obtained statements and, often,vicious administration of from four Negroes in another county justice, and the entire process has been

317 in the hands of whites. Negroes have mosphere still prevails. there is reason beenarrestedbywhitepolicemen. to believe that hectoring and harassing hooked by white clerks, carried before Negroes stillisa form of sport and white judges, listened to the verdict of amusement among some white law en- white jurors, gone into white-run pris- forcement officials. Many rural Negroes ons, labored under white prison guards, can relate stories to support this. and reported to white probation officers. Most Georgia Negroes also can relate For most Georgia Negroes, the face of stories of how they have seen the mal- the courthouseis white and hostile. administration of justice work in favor Small wonder that the courthouse is for of white people. Many Georgia Negroes man Georgia Negroes a place of op- have witnessed local law enforcement pression, aplace tobefearedand officers directly and openly abusing the avoided. rights of others. or standing by idly and The story can be told in cold statis- allowing others to do so. Civil rights tics. A 1969 study by the Southern workers long ago learned that racial dis- Regional Council24 found that sentences crimination is the unwritten, if not the for all crimes average 19.6 years for written, law in much of Georgia, and Negroes in Georgia, against 12.2 years that law enforcement officers consider it for whites. Hence the average sentence a part of their sworn duty to enforce for Negroes is approximately one-third this discrimination by legal means or il- longer than the average sentence for legal means. Whites who have attacked white defendants. In verdicts aftera and abused civil rights workers and Ne- plea of guilty, the average sentence for groes often have gone unpunished, even Negroes inGeorgia was 19.4 years, when the illegal acts were witnessed at against 13.7 years for whites. An analy- the scene by law enforcement officers. sis of verdicts after a plea of not-guilty Now let us look at the courts them- found the average sentence for Negroes selves. Virtually all the judges in Geor- to be 22.9 years and for whites 11.4 giafederal, state, and localare white. years. Likewise most of the subordinate court There is, of course, nothing new or officials are white. Until very recently, startling about these statistics.Itisa practically all law enforcement officers long established fact that there is a dou- were white, and practicallyalljuries ble standard of justice in the South, un- were allwhite. For good reason, Ne- der which black people are more often groes feel that their rights are less than arrested, more likely to be found guilty secure in such surroundings. Not a few and sentenced (even when there is,as Georgia Negroes have experienced the occurs notinfrequently. some doubt heavy hand of discriminationinthe about guilt), and most likely to serve courtroom, especially when the oppos- long terms. In the use of the death pen- ing parties were white. Few Georgia alty racism shows up in its most stark blacks feel secure, even today, about form. Eighty percent of those executed going to court to protect themselves in Georgia are black, and among them from the abuses of whites. They know have been 43 teen-agers.25 of enough instances where whites have But the story that lies behind these received unfair advantages over blacks statisticsis even more disturbing and in white-run courts. In a case pittinga disgraceful. Practically every Georgia white man against a black man, the Negro has witnessed arbitrary acts, of black man with good reason regards a one sort or another, on the part of white legal remedy as a hopeless cause and law enforcement officers. If he has not would be extremely reluctant to take the been a victim of such actions, he has a matter to most Georgia courts. relative or friend who has.Inrural For ample reason, then, blacks are counties in which a sort of frontier at- likely to feel more vulnerable when the

318 penchant for "law and order" brings on whiteregistrationinGeorgia 166.1 talk of watering down and rescinding percent registration of the black voting- protections recently established for de- age population against 84.7 percent of fendants by the U. S. Supreme Court. the white voting-age population )26 Ne- Itis also a well demonstrated fact groes are still at a disadvantage. More- that poor and unschooled peoplepeo- over allowing opposing attorneys a cer- ple unable to hire a first-rate lawyer and tain number of strikes can operate in unable to deal with the intricacies of the such a way that Negroes are completely laware at a disadvantage generally in eliminated from juries. To the extent American society. Since many blacks that white jurors reflect anti-black atti- have been economically and education- tudes of the society in which they live. ally deprived, through processes pre- Negroes are furtherdisadvantaged viously described, theyfallautomati- when their future is in the hands of a callyintothisdisadvantagedgroup. Georgia jury. Thits a wide range of protections avail- Black Georgians might feel more se- able to whitesusury, workman's com- cure in the courtroom if there were pensation, housing and zoning codes. more Negro lawyers and judges.In consumer advice, bankruptcy, the wage- 1968 there were only 34 Negro lawyers earner plan, etc.are not available to in Georgia, or .62 percent of the total most blacks. Thus legal assistance and number of lawyers in the state. For protection for blacksand all poor peo- every 34,029 Negroes in Georgia there pleis of highest importance. is one Negro lawyer. If, however, the state population and the Georgia bar There are many other areas in which the rights of black people, and poor are taken as a whole, there is one lawyer general, have been abused for each 734 Georgians.'? Since judicial people in positions are filled from the ranks of with little notice from the rest of so- the small number of Negro ciety. Only recently have such matters lawyers, lawyers necessarily limits the number of as due process in public housingevic- tions or protection of the privacy and Negroes who can serve as judges. Again we come back to education's human dignity of welfare recipients befor got) to arouse the concern of a few of responsibilityto provide training more Negro professionals in Georgia. the middle class. In the next few yew's Education has afurther responsibility the dark underside of American justice will very likely be exposed, revealing to see that Georgia youth, white and just how selective has been the enjoy- black, have a better understandihg of andprivileges, how the American system of justice mentofprotections functions and how it should function. which many whites have always considered part of their inalienable rights as American. citizens. Voting Ask the average Georgia Negro about As one of the II states of the Old Con- justice in the state and the typical re- federacy,Georgia was among those sponse is apt to be a single wordrot- states which moved deliberately and de- ten. The wonder is not that many Ne- cisively in the late19th Century and groes are cynical about justice, but that early 20th Century to disfranchise Ne- more are not. groes. Georgia did not move as fast and Juries have presented a major prob- as far in this direction as did some of lem in the administration of justice in her sister states. Nevertheless, until very Georgia. Selecting jurors from voter recent years, Negro voting strength in registrationlistsisanimprovement Georgia has been almost negligible. over the old method of taking names At the beginning of the present de- from the tax digest. But, since Negro cade only 180,000 Negroes were regis- registrationlagsconsiderably behind tered to vote in Georgia. By the summer

319 of 1968, however, the figure had risen of discourteous registrars. and officials to 344.000, or 18.4 percent of the total who refuse to allow registration Workers Georgia registration.28 to assist unregistered citizens with the Georgia is one of six states covered in registration process. And, of course,as full by the Voting Rights Act of 1965. in other Southern states. we get numer- In these states less than half of the ous reports, especially from rural areas. voting-age population votedin1964. about Negroes fearing the loss of their The act suspended literacy tests and au- ;ohs. loss of welfare benefits, or other thorized the U. S. attorney general to economic reprisalsif they register to designate counties within those states vote. As in the rest of the South. fear for federal examiners. Examiners list prevents many Georgia Negroes from (register)unregisteredandqualified making the dreaded trip to the forbid- citizens for voting. Only six Georgia ding and frightening courthouse in or- counties have been designated for ex- der to register or vote. aminers, the first hcing Hancock in No- Far too few Negroes are employed as vember of 1966. This was for the pur- clerks and managers at elections. Con- pose of assigning federal observers for sequently many blacks are suspicious an election in Hancock County. Rec- and distrustful of the election process. ords of the Voter Education Project of There is among many a feeling of fu- the Southern Regional Council show tility. "What difference willit make?" thatfederal examiners actually have and "The white man is going to run it listed( registered) voters in only three anyway.- arc common expressions of countiesLee.Screven,andTerrell. this futility. Discriminatory practices in The latest records show that federal ex- several Georgiacountiesincluding aminers have spent an average of just Taliaferro. Sumter, Baker, and Dough- over 100 days in each of these three ertywere discussed in the 1968 publi- counties. Since there are 159 counties in cation of the U. S. Commission on Civil Georgia. itis evident that the Voting Rights. Polifical Participation.29 Rights Act of 1965 has not been put to Voting is one more field extensive use in Georgia. in which whites apparently believe thatallthe Because there is an ever present pos- racial problems have been solved. Itis sibility that examiners may be sent into another fieldin which federal officials other counties, there has been a substf,n- in Washington have failed to grasp and tial increase in Negro registration since conic to grips with all the dimensions the Voting Rights Act went into effect of the problem,It'sanother fieldin in August of 1965. Prior to that date, which federal enforcement has fallen black registration in Georgia- stood at far short of the promise implied in con- 254,000. Today black registrationin gressional legislation. It is another field Georgia is approximately 350,000an in which blacks have made gains, but increase of nearly 100.000. Today there inadequate gains. Black registrationin are 34 black elected officials in Georgia. Georgia as of the summer of 1968 was including 14 legislators, nine city coun- only 56.1. percent of the black voting- cilmen, five county commissioners, five agepopulationas compared witha board members, and one county ordi- white registration of 84.7 percent of the nary. Only a handful of these held office white voting-age population. Thenum- prior to the Voting Rights Act of 1965. ber of black officialsis only a token None of this should he taken to mean number of those Georgia Negroes, who that the problems of registration and are qualified for and entitled to public voting for Negroes in Georgia have office. been removed; far from it. The Voter As Negro voting strength increases, Education Project still receives reports blatant racism in politics tends to de- of registration offices closing arbitrarily, cline. It can he said that this is thecase

320 in Georgia. despite thefactthat the the South had some of the most inte- present governor recently proclaimed arated housing patterns in the nation. himself to be a segregationist and proud Many years ago it was a common prac- of it. Racism in politics today tends to tice fbr Negroes who worked as domes- march under the colors of such code tics. janitors. yardmen. etc. in Southern words as "states rights." "local control." cities to live in what was known as and. of course. -law and order." In the -quarters." These Negroes' houses com- last two presidential elections. Georgia monly were located in the center of a has been among that handful of states block surrounded by the white houses casting their electoral votes for the can- in which they worked. didate taking the position most opposed Gradually these old blocks of hous- to civil rights progress in America. ing. located near what is now the cen- In his classic study, Southern Politics, tralcity,havedisappeared.Whites the late V. 0. Key, Jr. called politics moved out to the new and inviting sub- -the South's number one problem." A urbs. Gradually the old homes gave way few paragraphs further Dr. Key added to commercial growth. Negroes moved In its grand outlines the politics of to all-black housing, private and public. the South revolves around the position located near such essential services as of the Negro. Itis at times interpreted as a politics of cotton. as a politics of bus lines, Negro schools, eating places. free trade, as a politics of agrarian pov- healthcenters.andhospitals. These erty. or a politics of planter and pluto- were usually in or near the downtown crat. Although such interpretations have area. Housing patternsinthe South superficial validity, in the last analysis the major peculiarities of Southern poli- have become similar to those in the rest tics go hack to the Negro. Whatever of the nationsegregated along eco- phase of the Southern political process nomic and racial lines. one seeks to understand, sooner or later the trail of inquiry leads to the Negro.30 Housing is perhaps the most sensitive Dr. Key's book appeared 20 years and complex matter in the civil rights ago. but the facts remain substantially field. Negroes forced off the land by the same. Racially oriented politics in farm mechanization and other agricul- the South continues to be an anchor tural trends have been flocking to the slowing the region's process in all other cities. They come seeking jobs and a fields, including social, economic, and better quality of life, including among education fields. other things, housing better than the Although Southerners are naturally miserable shacks which line the roads of drawn to politics, there is a backward- the rural South. As Negroes move into ness in understanding the political pro- the city, the demand for urban housing becomes acute. As the pressure cess and the role of government. Educa- for housingincreases, tion has a definite responsibility in deal- neighborhoods ing with this deficiency. change. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 will The pattern is a familiar one. Block expire in August of 1970. If Congress by block and house by house, the Negro does not extend the Act (without water- neighborhood expands. As Negro neigh- ing it down), many Georgia blacks face bors move closer and closer, whites the prospect of losing their newly won flee. They flee first to outlying parts of right to cast a ballot. If Negroes are de- the city, then to the suburbs, and then prived of this right to seek remedies at to surrounding counties. The central the ballot box, it would be reasonable to city becomes increasingly black, and the expect more direct action protests of the suburbs become white reservations. An sort seen in the early 1960s. example of this trend can be seen vividly inAtlanta where 47 percent of the Housing population todayisblack, compared Ironically, in days gone by, Georgia and with 38 percent in 1960.31

321 .1 By many standards Atlantaisre- /oilers. and administrators. Several such garded as one of the most progressive devices have been described by Samuel cities in the South. This includes the L. Adams. former research director of field of race relations. Atlanta has one the Southern Regional Council.35 of the few mayors who testified in be- One device is closing streets in such half of legislation to desegregate public a way that white and Negro residential accommodations, Thanks in large part areas are not connected. Another is the to its Negro voters, Atlanta is generally placement of such things as public hous- in the forefront in the field of human ing projects. expressways. golf courses. relations. So it can be said in most fields. and cemeteries so that Negro and white if conditions are bad in Atlanta, they residential areas are kept apart. Still an- likely are worse in other parts of the other is the use of zoning regulations state. A discussion of Atlanta then offers and housing codes in such a manner a guide to conditions elsewhere in the that housing of white areas becomes state. more desirable and thus more expen- All evidenceindicates that segrega- sive, while housing in Negro or chang- tionin Atlanta housing is increasing. In ing areas becomes less desirable and 1940 the population was 75 percent or thus less expensive. more Negro in 22.7 percent of the city's Another pattern with which urban census tracts. By 1966 this 5:sure had Negroes arc familiar is the decline in risen to 34.9 percent. The population cityservicesinblack or transitional was 95 percent or more black in 21.7 areas. Streets previously cleaned regu- percent of the city's tracts.32 Applying larly are no longer cleaned. Garbage the Tacuber index to measure the de- pick-ups slow down and fallbehind. gree of residential segregation in At- Housing code and zoning enforcement lanta. the percentage of Negroes who becomelax.Schoolsbecomeover- would have to move in order to achieve crowded and run-down, and double ses- an evenly distribute.' non-segregated sionsareinstitutedinthese schools city was 87.4 in19,-. J. 91.5 in1950, while white-oriented school boards con- and 93.6 in 1960.13 centrateonimprovingthe "better" Leon Eplan, chairman of the Georgia schools in the suburbs. Chapter of the ilxnerican Institute of The real estate industry is an impor- Planners, has pointed out that nearly part of the pattern of segregation half of Atlanta's population is jammed in housing. "Panic selling"is encour- into one -third of the land. In 1960over- aged by well documented blockhusting crowding inAtlanta was four times tactics. A Georgia regulation, effective greater in non -white households than in last July, prohibits blockbusting. More- white. The I96G census classified only over, there arc indications that legal 52 percent of Negro rental housing as remedies will become increasingly avail- sound and containingalltheusual able to those who wish to protect them- plumbing facilities. Ironically, because selves against blockbusting and stabilize of the shortage of available housing in their neighborhoods. Negroneighborhoods,Negrorental One of the more encouraging an- housing usually costs more than similar nouncements to come from the Nixon housing available to whites.34 administration (amid many other less A number of devices, both crude and encouraging announcements) is the -in- subtle, are used to maintain and interest shown by Jerris Leonard, assist- crease housing segregation. These de- ant U. S. attorney general in charge of vices are well known and easily recog- thecivilrightsdivision,inmaking nized by many urban Negroes. Many blockbusting unprofitable. Mr. Leonard of these devices are carried out by local correctly says blockbusting imposes a governmentalagenciescityofficials, "race tax" and believes, "The way to

322 stop blockbusting is to take the profit Needed. too, are local or even state out ofit. "'' Accordingly, the Justice fair-housing laws to supplement the fed- Department has thrown its weight be- eral laws. There is no need to place re- hind a suit by Chicago Negroes to responsibility for this entire matter in the cover high profits obtained by specula- hand of the federal government when tors in the resale of housing to Negroes. both whites and blacks alike suffer from The principle. if established. might have blockbusting.panicselling,and out- applicationisotherfieldsinwhich landish profiteering. If Negroes could blacks pay more than whites. buy a home anywhere in the metropoli- It might he noted here that a stabi- tan area without difficulty. then there lized neighborhood is not a desired goal would he no place for whites to -run." of the real estate industry. The real es- Better distribution of public housing in tate industry makes money on the basis the various sections of the metropolitan of houses bought and sold, the more area would further case the ghettoizing houses that are sold and bought. the of certain areas of the cities. more money the realestate industry The words irony and ironically have makes. A rapid turnover of property in been used several times in this paper. a changing neighborhood means more The field of race relationsisfullof income for the real estate industry. Of irony. An irony that presents itself here course, personal prejudices work against is the role that government. including real estate brokers and homeowners sell- federal government, has played in segre- ing to a Negro in a white neighborhood gating housing in America. in which change is not imminent. Going further, there reluctance, as recent- FHA and other federal housing pro- ly established by the Georgia State Ad- grams have made possible much of the visory Committee to the U. S. Commis- white flight to the suburbs. FHA has in- sion on Civil Rights, on the part of sured over 10 million houses, mostly for bankers to finance loans for Negroes middle and upper class buyers. These wishing to buy housing in white. neigh- programs produced few houses which borhoods.37 the disadvantaged, many of whom are Stillanother means of maintaining black, could afford to buy. While FHA segregated housing is violence. Bomb- was insuring over 10 million houses, ings, cross burnings, telephone threats, other programs were producing some harassment, and vandalism frequently 800.000 low-income units over a31 are employed in efforts to slow down or year period. Hence the federal programs stop Negro "encroachment." must accept some of the blame for white out-migration, urban ghettos. and Here again the correcting strength of the federal hand is needed. The 1968 the related problems besetting the cities Civil Rights Act contains provisions de- today.39 signed to guarantee open housing by Furthermore, Eplan has pointed out prohibiting discrimination in the sale, that FHA and other housing agencies rental,financing,oradvertisingof have actually engaged in and encour- dwellingunits.Thisact, which was agedrestrictivecovenants and other passedafter the assassination of Dr. means of maintaining separate neigh- Martin Luther King, Jr. promises much. borhoods. Moreover, it has been pointed While it is too early to assess its conse- out that the welfare program is a major quences.manyobservers,including subsidizer of slum housing.Because some officialsinthe Department of welfare payments are too small to pay Housing and Urban Development,38 for decent housing, welfare recipients suggest that its effectiveness will be re- must use their meager funds to pay rent duced because adequate funds and staff which lines the pockets of slum land- for full enforcement are not provided. lords 40

323 Housing is another field, like public deremplovment.urbanrenewal,and accommodations,inwhich economic model cities. In other words. once the want renders new civil rights legislation right toat at the lunch counters of virtuallymeaninglessfor many Ne- Georgia was established, whether en- groes. A black family earning less than forced or not, the issue automatically $5.000 a year is hardly in a position to became whether or not the black man make use of his right to buy a home in had the kind of job that would pay hint the suburb, even if he were inclined to enough money to take advantage of the do so. Thus, money is another factor right to eat at the lunch counter. Once operatingtomaintainraciallysegre- the right of Negroes to register and vote gated housing. became law, then with their new politi- As the demand for low-cost housing cal power they addressed themselves to increases, the supply continues to fall issues of public policy. such as welfare behind. Governmental actions such as and poverty which relate to black needs urbanrenewal,expressway construc- and aspirations.It is no accident that tion, and code enforcement take low- the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 cost housing off the market and make followed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. the shortage even more acute. Ninety- Indeed the civil rights movement gave five percent of the families displaced by birth to the war on poverty in Arierica. urban renewal projects in Atlanta have Legal rights are an indispensable ele- been Negroes. ment in the achievement of the more The lack of decent housing, the short- important goal of full realization of hu- age of better housing, and the economic man rights. With the removal of legal limitations upon obtaining better hous- harriers, there comes the struggle for ingaremajor causesofdiscontent improving the quality of life generally. among Negroes. None of us would he The question of participation perme- willing to accept consignment to a slum ates all of the new issues in civil rights. ghetto cheerfully. Unless housing con- The concept of participatory democracy ditions for blacks, both rural and urban, has taken hold among citizens. black improve in the near future, this discon- and white, rich and poor, who histori- tent will grow rapidly. callyhave beenalienatedfromthe decision-making process in government The Future programs. It may well he that the great- In discussing the future of civil rights in est contribution of the war on poverty is its concept of "maximum feasible par- Georgia, one point must he made at the beginning. The issues in civil rights have ticipation." This concept allows citizens changed. The major issues are no longer at the local level to have a voice in the access to public accommodations and programs and policies that affect their facilities, the right to vote, and school lives. desegregation per se. The law is settled The organization in black communion these questions, although, as indi- ties of groups addressing themselves to cated, enforcement and implementation specificissues directlyaffecting them of the laws leave much to be desired in provides a preview of the civil rights Georgia. arena in years to come. There are wel- Progress incivilrights to date has fare rights groups, tenants' rights asso- brought into focus more fundamental ciations, cooperatives, domestic unions, issues which are in fact the logical ex- poor people's corporations, better-school tension of thecivilrightsfight. The groups, and health and nutrition organi- issues now are poverty, hunger, health, zations. All are developed to focus their sanitation, economic development, trans- energies on the new issues affecting the portation, merger and consolidation of rights of black people. city and county, unemployment and un- In this context of new issues, one can-

324 not overlook a major new civil rights (ieorgians ithout prolongtrd pressure thrust in the South. the **Union Power or the threat of such. Plus Soul Power Equal Victory move- Second. in most in state of- ment. This drama unfolded in the last ficials have either direc resisted ef- year and a half in Memphis. Atlanta. St. forts toward progress or have responded Petersburg,Macon.Charlotte,and to unavoidable pressures with such re- Charleston. The movement, despite its luctance.indifference. or that tragic consequences in Memphis, will they hindered the full accomplishment no doubtcontinueinGeorgia and of the measure in question. throughout the South. Therecentopenclashesbetween Third. pressure from Negro pro- blacks and whites in Pittsburgh and Chi- tests and the inaction or resistance of cago will probably become a civil rights state officials have necessitated the in- issue in Georgia. if the construction and tervention of the federal government to building unions. as well as others, con- help protect the constitutional and hu- tinue to exclude blacks. The decision in man rights of many citizens of this state. early September. 19(19, of the NAACP Fourth, this federal protection has o sue in the federal courts to halt all in every instance been insufficient, leav- government-financedbuildingunless ing many Negroes still lacking part of qualified Negroes were employed in the their citizenship. projects is an omen of things to come. Theresultof thesecircumstances As crises develop over these new civil is that one finds today in Georgia some rights issues in Georgia, the questions noticeable advances over a few years arc: What kind of leadership can we ex- ago. Many whites are impressed by the pectfrom ourpoliticalleaders and changes that have occurred in recent makers of public policy? What con- years. For most blacks, however, there structive and thoughtful plans and pro- is little to celebrate when they see less grams are on the planning hoards? Will than 15 percent of their children in de- Georgia's political leaders respond with segregated schools, white officials con- the same non-acceptance and defiance wing frantically to find ways to evade that followed the 1954 Supreme Court decision? Will they abdicate the nation's law: a minute proportion of as they Negroesobtainingwhite-collarjobs, have before the responsibility of posi- while most remain in low-paying positive, constructive leadership? tions and many are unemployed; plush How one projects events to 1985 nec- cityrestaurants and hotels accepting essarily depends in considerable part on Negroes when few blacks can afford how optimistically or how pessimisti- such adventures, and their brothers in cally one answers these questions. rural areas are still barred from the less fancy establishment in those locations; Summary and increasedvoterregistration,but few Recommendations meaningful choices on the ballot; an oc- In examining civilrightsin Georgia, casional black face in the jury box when oneisconfronted witha few basic they know that their people are sub- themes and numerous variations as one jected to a higher rate of conviction, moves from field to field. The major longer sentences and harsher treatment features to he found in almost every as- before and during arrest; proclamations pect of civil rights developments in this of open housing laws when the cost of state might he listed simply as follows. decenthousingconstitutesacruel First, Negroes have had to protest mockery of their income, and they .con- in one form or another for every im- tinueto experience exploitation, and provement that has come about. Noth- whites continue to flee at the very sight ing has been forthcoming from other of Negroes.

325 Finally. black people are finding lit- able. To emphasize the importance of tle appreciation and much bitterness in education in the improvement of other seeing again and again the national gov- problems leads inevitably to the neces- ernment extol the passage of civil rights sityof eradicatingthoseconditions and equal opportunity legislation. know- which hinder educational attainment. ing from the experience of previously Education and the future of civil shattered hopes that the implementation rights in Georgia are related in other of this legislation will be crippled by ways as well. A good education means a inadequate funding and administrative truthful tducation. A true understand- compromise. ing of the history of this country and Whatistherelationshipbetween the conditions which have produced its these conditions and the future of Geor- present predicament is an absolute ne- gia education? There are certain ob- cessity if civil rights are to cease being a viousrecommendationsthatemerge problem and if the state and nation are from this survey. to realize the dream which represents All segregation of facilities and their noblest potential. The schools can- discrimination in opportunities should not accomplish this alone, but they must be eliminated. rid themselves of the overt obstructions The quality of education for all they now embody and take every posi- students should be drastically upgraded. tive step possible. State institutions of higher educa- There is no need to spell out in this tion should initiate aggressive recruit- paper the measures which this demands. ment efforts and extensive programs of It is obvious that textbooks and teaching financial assistance in order to increase must no longer convey distortedac- the number of Hacks entering the vari- counts, whether by omissions or blatant ous fields of professional training. inaccuracies, of the history of the white, Conditions of poverty which crip- red. and black people of this country. ple a child's capacity for learning or Along with rightful praise for the ac- prevent him from fully participating in complishmentsofwhiteAmericans available education opportunities must must go an unblinking view of the hor- be eradicated. rible despoliation and exploitation pro- Itis too naive to state simply, as duced by racist attitudes and practices many do in an evasion of other respon- in white society. The contributions of sibilities, that education is the key to black men to the development of this improvement in all areas. Nevertheless, nation must be credited. An understand- a better education is undeniably an es- ing of the effects of centuries of dis- sential ingredient in the complex solu- crimination and a clear view of the con- tions that are demanded. Good housing ditions that still prevail in this affluent and legal protection are obtained today democracy are necessary. only with considerable money. Ade- Only with this knowledge can future quate income presupposes a good job. generations address themselves honestly Worthwhile employment requires edu- and meaningfully to the task of better- cation and training. ing this country. Perpetration of glo- In the past the cycle has moved in the rious myths about a "way of life" which opposite direction for many citizens. was in fact full of cruel and inhuman Being black meant poor employment practices must be replaced by courage- and poor living conditions which in turn ous efforts to build a perspective in made it more difficult for his children to which we can fillsee ourselves truth- take full advantage of even the poor fully. Only then is there hope that any educationalfacilitiesthat were avail- of us can be free.

326 Vernon E. Jordan, director of the Voter for inclusion in the 1967 edition of "Out- Education Project of the Southern Region- standing Young Men of America.- During al Council. Inc.. receivedhisLL.B. from the school year 1968-69 he was a Fellow Howard University School of Law in 1964). of the Institute of Politics. Harvard Univer- Since that time he has practiced general sity. and during the summer of 1968. was a law in both Atlanta and in Pine Bluff. Ark.. fellow.MetropolitanAppliedResearch served as attorney-consultant for the U.S. Center. New York. He is a member of the Office of Economic Opportunity. Atlanta Board of Directors of the Overseas De- Regional Office (19651, and Georgia field velopment Council, New World Founda- director. National Association for the Ad- tion, United Nations Association. National vancement of Colored People (1961-63). CommitteeAgainstDiscriminationin In1966. Mr. Jordan was appointed by Housing. American Civil Liberties Union President Johnson to the President's Coun- of Georgia, and the Center for Community cil to the White House Conference. "To Change. Washington. D.C. His legal affili- Fulfill These Rights": he was also ap- ations include the Georgia. American. U.S. pointed to the National Advisory Commis- Supreme Court. Arkansas. and the Gate .4.a on Selective Service in that year. Mr. City Bar Associations. Jordan was nominated in November 1966.

Footnotes 1. Muse, Benjamin, Ten Years of Prelude, (New York: The Viking Press, 1964).pp.20-21. 2.Ibid., p. 224. 3. Atlanta Urban League, "The Negro Child in Atlanta." (1945). 4. Southern Education Reporting Service. Southern Schools: Progress and Problems,(Nashville, 1959), p. 114. New Law, 5.Southern Regional Council, September 1965--School Desegregation: Old Problems Under a (Atlanta. 1965), p. S. Welfare, (Jan. 16, 6.Press Releasefromthe Secretary of the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and 1969). 7.Records of the U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. S.Ibid. 9. Atlanta Constitution, (Aug. 21. 1969). W. New York Times, (Aug. 27 and 28. 1969). 11. Atlanta Constitution, Editorial.(Sept.3. 1969). 12. Press Release from Secretary of the U. S. Department of Health. Education. andWelfare. (Jan. 16. 1969). 13. GeorgiaTeachersand Education Association,How the 'Elimination of the Dual School System' Is Educators 30 School Systems in North Georgia." (Atlanta. June 5. 1969). AffectingNegro Reporting Ser- 14.Egerton, John, State Universities and Black Americans, (Atlanta: Southern Education vice. 1969), p. 14. 15. Telephone communication with Registrar's Office, Georgia State University. 16. U.S.officeofEconomicOpportunity. Handbook of Demographic Information, (Washington, 1967), pp.1 and 19. 17. National Education Association, Ranking of the States, 1968 (Washington. 1968), pp.28, 54, and 20. 18. Records of the Atlanta Regional Office of the U. S. Equal EmploymentOpportunityCommission. 19.Ibid. 1969), 20. U.S. Commission on Civil Rights For ALL the People .., By ALL the hmple, (Washington. p.222 and 18. Officeof the U.S. 21.Interviewwith staffmemberof the Atlanta Regional Office of the U. S. Regional EqualEmploymentOpportunity Commission. 23. For ALL the People . By ALL the People, op.cit., p. 129, 24. Southern Regional Council, Race Makes the Difference; An Analysis ofSentence Disparity Among Black and White Offenders in Southern Prisons, (Atlanta, 1969). 25.American Civil LibertiesUnion ofGeorgia."Legislative Handbook," (1967), p. 20. 26. Records of theVoterEducation Project, Southern Regional Council, Atlanta. 27. Gelhom, Ernest. "The Law Schools and the Negro."(Duke Las'Journal, Vol. 1968, Appendix A).

327 2$. Records of the Voter Education Protect. All statistics in this section come from ihissource. U. S. Commission on Civil Rights. Pit/Meal Participation. (Washington. 1967(). paA(4m. 30. Key. V. O. Jr.. Southern Politics. (New York: Vintage Books. 19491,p. 5. 31. Atlanta Region Metropolitan Planning Commissum. Atlanta Standard Metropolitan Population -- Housing. (Atlanta. 1969)p. 5. Slatistu.al Aria: U. S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. General Population Characteristics: (Washington. 1961). p. 31. Georgia. 32. Georgia State Advisory Committee to the U. 5. Commission on Civil Rights. Toward tunity in Housing in Atlanta. Ga.. (May 1968). pp. 15-16. Equal Oppor- 33. Taeuber, Karl E. and Alma F., Negroes in Cities-Residential Segregation and Neighborhood Change. cited in Jhid., p. 16. 34. Eplan, Leon S.. ''Background Paper for Conference on Equal OrrortunitY in Housing."in Only a Beginning . But a l'ery Significant One. (Atlanta: Metropolitan Atlanta Committee on Equal Opportunity in Housing. May 29. 1968). page 21: and Toward Equal Opportunity in Housing in At- lanta. p. 3. 35. Adams, Samuel "Blueprint for Segregation: A Survey of Atlanta Housing.'' (New South, Vol. 22. Spring. 1967). pp. 73-84. 36. New York Times. (Marcia 29, 1969). 37, Toward Equal Opportunity in loosing in Atlanta. op. cit.. pp. 25-26. 38. Telephone interviews with staff members of Atlanta Regional Office of the U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, (Aug. 28. 1969). 39.Eplan, op. cit., pp. 10-I2. 40.Ibid.

328 THE instructionsforwriting critiques on position papers suggest that one might use not more than five to 10 pages. I assure you not nearly that many sheets will be required for this critique which willbeinnarrative form. Generally, the material used and the presentation by the writer of the paper were quite good. Indeed, everything that was said was. in my opinion, factual and needed to he said. At the same time.I am of the opinionthatthe general focus was a bit too narrow. Thatis to say,in virtually each of the topics, the writer focused almost exclusively on civil rights as they affect black people. And though thisis a necessary considerationone which is too oftenneglectedat points there mightwellhave been broader approaches to the problems, or. at least, a wider report on the dual effects. I gleaned from my reading of the whole paper that it was the intent of the writer to have it understood that generally the whiti. community does not find itself basically affected in a nega- critique: tive way by thoseaspectsof civil rights referred to in the paper. Thus, Civil Rights there was no great need to discuss this. in Georgia I am of the opinion that while there was a discussion of the effects of jus- ticeor the lack of itit might well have been important to make some reference to the prison system in its affects upon inmates and how inmates are denied their civil rights and liberties under the system. The matter of jail bonds becomes a very integral part of the detention sys- By Don-old tem. One can be denied rights; indeed, Hollowell, one can be punished by the untimely setting of bonds or the excessiveness of Regional bonds. Thus, some space might well Director, have been addressed to this matter. U. S. Equal Then, too, the length of time which often exists between the time of arrest, Opportunity arraignment, indictment, and trialis Commission one of the sorest of problems. Civil rights and civil liberties are frequently violatedthroughthe maladministra- tion of judicial and prison systems.

329 Contemporary issues relating to hair- school adrninistratots, other public of- cuts, clothing, campus demonstrations, ficials, parents and children to deal ob- and the like could have been discussed. jectively withthe problems inherent Also, in these days school officials and therein. could constitute volumes; thus students are very concerned about the these matters were not improperly ex- Tights of students and very concerned cluded. However, ashort paragraph about the rights of student and teachers pointing up some of the issues could to be represented at hearings before have been properly and possibly bene- educationaladministrativebodiesas ficially included. well as to what extent they are entitled Some of the above may well relate to due process. Then too the very more to civil liberties. Yet, because of questionoftherightsofso-called the tremendous interest which exists in "hippies" to enjoy the First Amend- these matters and. inasmuch as there is ment is not discussed. or, to put it in no section which deals directly with the negative.there could have been these issues separately,I am of the some discussion on the extent to which opinion that they might well have been thesepersonsareatleastallegedly dealt with in a paper on civil rights. being denied the First Amendment and This is especially true where the paper other rights. ;sbeingdoneforaneducational The frequency with which people are group which might not desire to make arrested without warrant; the effects of the nice distinctions between the two. the Escabedo and Miranda doctrines, In conclusion. I suggest that though not to mention the use of wiretapping inclusion of some aspects of the above in the obtaining of evidence illegally, isconsidered important for purposes might very appropriately have been of more balance, the critiqueisnot alluded to if not discussed. :ntendedto diminish the importance The matter of school desegregation, of the recommendations and the sec- the need to comply with the laws per- tion on future. taining thereto and the obligations of

330 NEVER before in the nation's history have the federal government and leaders in the nation's educational community expressed such concern for the future of public education. At the heart of this concern is a growing recognition that millions of minority group citizens "hare been cheated in access to education. jobs. housing. medical care. and other necessities of American life,"I and that"either public education most succeed in r,nraranteeing every citizen an equal chance at obtaining the rewards of an open society or the Ameri- can experiment in equality of opportun- ityfails."'Thisintensificationand spread of public concern in matters of equal rights and equal educational opportunity for black Americans and other minority groups has largely been at- By Wiley S. Bolden, Ed.D. tributed to the Civil Rights Revolution Equality of Educa- tional Opportunities for Black Children and Youth in Georgia of the 1950s and1960s. which has repeatedly pointed up the strategic importance of education for the ultimate realization of equal employment. fair housing. and political equality? .61.0111no, Concern over Georgia's "education crisis" has prompted special effort on the part of educational leaders to in- forin fellow citizens of the extent of the state's educational needs.In a paper prepared for the Governor's Confer- ence onEducationin October 1968, 111 these needs are described as follows. The economic future of Georgia is dependent on the level of education of the citizensof theState.For example, Georgia stands 42nd among the 50 states in the average years ofschooling completed (nine years) by citizens 25 years old or older. The State is 40th in per capita disposable income, 39th in per capita personal income, and 38thin per capita retail sales.

331 The close correlation between the aver- . age level of education of our citizens The Concept of Equality of and these economic factors is not acci- Educational Opportunity dental. By every economic index, the economic strength of the Stateis di- Although there is wide concern about rectly proportionate to the education of equalityofeducationalopportunity, its people. thereisalso wide lack of agreement Since this is true, even if one disregards about its meaning. There may be sev- humanitarian, cultural, political, or other considerations, the need for adequate eral reasons for this.For one thing, financing of public education is impera- the concept does not remain stable. New tive.4 meanings evolveaspubliceducation The crucial importance of race rela- shapes its policies and practices to meet tions as a factor in the education-eco- societal demands. Further, it is a vastly nomy relationship should not be over- difficultconcept,especiallywhenit looked: the economic future of Georgia comestoformulatingdefinition in is partly a function of the extent to terms of policies and practices; a com- which the black population of the state plex of philosophical, moral,ethical, has opportunities for education and in- pedagogical, political, and economic is- come equal to those of the white. The sues is involved. And as is the case with contention that traditional Southern race many concepts that are suffused with relationsimpede Southern economic feelings, thinking clearly about "equal- progress is long standing; itis strongly ity of educational opportunity" does not supported by evidence presented in a always come easily. recent study of the South by a team of experienced economists and educators.5 Equality in Terms of Racial Thus, the status of education in Geor- Composition of Schools gia may be viewed as follows. Georgia Long-standing interpretations of the faces a severe education crisis; the core concept of equality of educational op- of this crisis is the state's failure to in- portunity were modified in 1954 when sure equal educational opportunities for the United States Supreme Court ruled itsblack citizens;racially segregated in the case of Brown vs. Board of Edu- public education perpetuates unequal cation that "in the field of public edu- educational opportunities; traditional cation,the doctrine of 'separate but Southern race relations support racially equal' has no place.Separate educa- segregated public education; the educational facilities are inherently unequal." tioncrisis in Georgia isessentially a As a means of encouraging the im- "crisis in black and white." plementation of the 1954 ruling, the Enlightened efforts to improve public U. S. Supreme Court issued a mandate education in Georgia will give priority to the U. S. District Courts ordering to improving educational opportunities states to integrate schools with "all defor blacks. This paper purports to assist liberate speed." The Court said that it such efforts. Specifically, the paper con- would allow thestates a "reasonable siders the changing interpretations of time to integrate schools," but warned the concept of equality of educational them "not to drag theirfeet."The opportunity and suggests interpretations reluctance of many school systems to that would seem most relevant to edu- abide by the 1954 decision resulted in cation in the present and in the future. the passage of the Civil Rights Act of Further,itcalls attention to ways in 1964, which provided for cutting off which certain conditions affect educa- or denying federal funds to school sys- tional opportunities of black children tems that fail to comply. and youth in Georgia and suggests cer- Difficulties in Compliance led to fur- tain broad approaches to equalizing their ther Court decisions. opportunities in the state's educational In March 1967, the Fifth Circuit system. Court of Appeals directed each state

332 within the circuit to,take all necessary August 1, 1969. The United States Jus- affirmativeactiontobrine abouta tice Department in an unprecedented move filed suit against the Georgia State "unitary school system in which there Board of Education to disestablish the are no Negro schools and no white "dual system of schools based on race." schoolsjust schools." This ruling in- The suit charged that 159 of the state's troduced Southern whites to an entirely 192 schooldistricts operated as dual systems in the 1968-69 school year, and new meaning of the concept of equal 116 of these systems did not have a education: the idea that desegregation plan for desegregating the schools. meant not only Negro children attend- September 5, 1969. The State Attorney ing formerly all-white schools but also General. Arthur Bolton, filed motions in the United States District Court at white children attending formerly all- Atlanta asking that the federal com- Negro schools. Freedom-of-choice plans plaint be dismissed or that the state be were inaugurated in many school dis- dropped as a defendant in the suit, be- tricts, but for the most part these plans cause the slate lacked authority over integration in the state school system. had resulted in a few Negroes attending October 22. 1969. The Justice depart- formerlyall-whiteschools.In May ment countered by filing a motion in 1968, the United States Supreme Court federal court designed to force complete issued a ruling stating that a plan.utiliz- desegregation of Georgia's public school system by the beginning of the 1970- ing freedom-of-choice is acceptable 1971 school year. This motion would only ifit proves effective in abolishing affect the 83 school districts in the state the system of segregation and its effects. which have not desegregated or are not under Court order. In his account of the crusade for the October 29, 1969. The United States betterment of educational opportunity Supreme Court ruled unanimously that in the South, Clark, an eminent South- "every schooldistrictisto terminate ern historian, notes how Southernedu- dual school systems at once and to oper- cational statesmen interpreted the con- ate now and hereafter onlyunitary schools." cept of equality of educational oppor- November 3, 1969. The Legal Defense tunity before 1954. Fund attorney for the National Associa- tion for the Advancement of Colored When earlier educational statesmen People fileda motion in the United talked of inequalities in educational op- States District Court at Atlanta asking portunities. they referred to the rural for immediate pairing of schools in all versus the smaller urban centers and to Georgia school districts that have two the difference between states and sec- racially identificable schools. tions of the Union. They, of course, considered the plight of the Negro, but The State of Georgia faces mounting seldom if ever did leadership at the state difficulties in properly acting upon the level stop to consider the social, eco- concept of equality of educational op- nomic, and political ramifications of the struggle for equality.Too, the term portunity interpreted in terms of racial equality often was thought of in funda- composition of schools. mental meanings of the same terms in the modern twentieth century industrial Equality in Terms of society.6 Educational Results Among contemporary interpretations of Ostensibly, the pre-1954 interpreta- the concept. of equality in educational tion of the concept is implicit in cur- opportunity, those that seem to have rent official statements of educational greatest consequences for education in policies in Georgia. the future define equality of educational Today, 15 years after the 1954 United opportunity in terms of the effects or States Supreme Court decision, most outputs of schooling rather than inputs. Negro children in Georgia attend all- One such interpretation is that equality black schools, and most white children of educational opportunity is equality attend all-white schools. The crisis na- of results regardless of pupil differences ture of this situation is drarriatized by in ability and backgiound. This inter- the following sequence of recent events. pretation of the concept indicates a re-

333 versal of roles of the school and com- the school alone but will depend upon munity on one hand and the child and what we do elsewhere in the economy, hisfamily ontheother.Thatis, the political domain, and in the society responsibility for creating achievement as a whole. no longer lies with the child and his Generally, there is a close relation- family, but with the school. ship between occupation and level of Coleman illustrates this point when education and between education and he says that: income;nevertheless,theeffectsof The difference in achievement at grade education on income differ considerably 12 between the average Negro and the betweenracialgroups. For example, average white is, in effect, the degree of inequality of opportunity, and the re- with each additional year of education, duction of that inequality is the respon- shortofpost-graduatestudy,blacks sibility of the school.? benefitless,both absolutely andrel- According to this view, then, equality atively,than whitesin terms ofin- of educational opportunity is not auto- creased income. These differences are matically achieved by school desegrega- not eliminated when effortis made to tion; there is an additional requirement: account for differences in the quality Schools must produce equal results (in of education blacks and whites typically terms of achievement and other stated receive. According to one study, equat- goals of instruction)with black and ing for both quantity and quality of white pupils. The appropriate quantity schooling between races would reduce and quality of input resources such as the racial revenue disparity by less than faculty, curriculum, and teacher quality one half.9 are determined by the requirements of These differences in earnings between equality of output. Understandably, by blacks and whites are the result of dis- simply equalizing school input resources, crimination. Blacks receive lower wages the long standing inequities in achieve- than whites, even when they both do ment of black and white pupils cannot the same work; blacks are excluded he expected to vanish. The equal treat- from many higher paying jobs that ment of "unequals" will produce neither would fully utilize their talent and equity or justice. training; the potential productivity of blacks is lowered due to lower expend- Equality in Terms of Economic iture for black than for white public Results in Education schooling and health services.w A broader interpretation of equality of In the South, both the scope and in- educationalopportunity aseffects of tensity of employment discrimination schooling is the view that equality of againstblacks are more pronounced, educational opportunity means not only than in other regions of the United equality of educational results but also States. A dramatic case in point is the equality in jobs and income. According recent review board expose of "dis- to this view, the realization of equal crimination in its rankest form, in the educational opportunities, if measured regional United States Office of Eco- by achievement scores alone, cannot be nomic Opportunity at Atlanta."11 expectedtobring about equality of Thus equality of educational oppor- opportunity in society at large; direct tunity, when defined in terms of equal- efforts must be made to solve the prob- ity of income, implies that the school lem of racial discrimination in jobs.8 must discover ways in whichitcan While this interpretation of equality best utilize its resources to help elimi- of educational opportunity has special nate discrimination in employment and implications for school practice, it also other areas of American life. supports the widely held contention that the task of equalizing educational op- Some Adverse Conditions portunities cannot be accomplished by A necessary step in planning for the

334 bettermentofpubliceducationfor allegedly from conflict between a black black children and youth in Georgia is and a white student. In Hancock and the identification of conditions that re- Coffee counties schools were also closed duce the effectiveness of current edu- because of racial antipathy. cational efforts. In theirdesegregation programs school hoards and superintendents often A Climate of Non-Acceptance and have not provided means of mitigating Resistance to School Desegregation racialtensions.Schoolboardsarc In Georgia today many black children microcosms ofthecommunity,and attend school in an atmosphere inimical school superintendents arc servants of to educational progress and cloudedby the hoards and the community; thus, in community reaction to school desegre- the face of hostile community reaction gation. Walkouts, boycotts, picketing, schoolofficialsdolittleornothing and confrontation mirror the commun- initially to case the strain of transition ity resistance that is officially expressed to a desegregated system. in noncompliance or limited compliance The disruption of the Albany High with desegregation guidelines. Separa- School stimulated an investigation by a tism and alienation increase. committee of the schoolboard. The As of May 1969, 36 Georgia school committee, while leaving "Dixie" un- systems had lost federal funds for their scathed,avowedadeterminationto failureto comply with desegregation maintainanorderly environmentto guidelines,12Consequently,overthe insure the rights of students "to the best past three years 20 million dollars in possible education." federal funds have been lost to Georgia Requiring black children to play and schoolsystems. Thelossoffederal sing "Dixie" or expecting them to pay funds has caused the abandonment of respect to the Confederate battle flag or enrichment programs and the reduction to participate proudly in sports for a of the school lunch program for under- team bearing the name "Rebels" re- privileged children. The curtailment of flects the height of insensitivity to the these needed programs and services not feelings of black children and raises only causes physical and psychological serious question as to the professional damage to children but undermines the judgment of the school personnel in- future of the state's human resources. volved. As the late Ralph McGill noted, School districts in compliance with these symbols are "offensive to many the guidelines appear to have an over- persons because of what they indisput- riding concern with the desegregation ably represent and symbolizea time process to the neglect of substantive of slavery and a war fought to retain programs to make-desegregation work. Much of the furor attending school it."13 openings infall 1969 seems to have Racial tension has led to temporary stemmed from this neglect. In Valdosta, disruption of the educational process. schools were closed because of the dis- Moreover, separatist movements have satisfaction of black students with the developed that are likely to engender method of selecting the homecoming more damaging and enduring effects queen and the school band's playing uponpubliceducation.Inmany "Dixie." In Albany,, schools were closed Georgia communities, private schools because of white students' charges of have been established or are projected. harrassment by black students, the tense The avowed purpose of these schools is situationhavingbeengenerated by to provide "quality education," that is. black students' resentment to "Dixie." segregated education for white students. In Pike county, schools were closed While black children and parents con- after the walkout and subsequent sus- tinue to be in the vanguard and bear pensionofblackstudentsresulting the heavier burden of efforts to desegrc-

335 gate Georgia's schools, itis safe to say relationships within the black commu- that a few blacks in the state,as in nity. The other . . . is cultural in the sociological sense of the term and at- other parts of the country, are begin- tempts to encourage the growth of posi- ning to embrace the view that all-black tive black identity, a realization of the schools are better for their children. An significance of black achievement. both extension of this view is the feeling that in Africa and America. and a desire to contribute to the development of the black people should control their own black community.14 institutions. Althoughthe white private school Researchstudiescontinue to movement and the movement toward strengthen the generalization that black the all-black school and black control children suffer serious harm when their appear to be the same order, this is not education takes place in public schools the case. Indeed, both movements are which are racially segregated, whatever buttressed by the demand for "quality the source of such segregation may be. education" and arc typically classified Black children who attendpredomi- as separatist; they are, however, of a nately black schools do not achieve as different genus. Underlying the slogans well as other children. black or white. of white separatism is the implicit as- On the other hand, the white child in sumption that "quality education" can the desegregatedschool continuesto he achieved in the traditionally segre- achieve at his accustomed rate.15 gated context, thus white separatism is While achievement is an important a rejection of the principle of desegre- goal of instruction,itis not the only gation. one. Today preparation for life means Blacks, as virtually every minority preparation for living in a,multi-racial. ethnic group in America has, are be- multi-cultural world community of to- ginning to resist "one-way integration" morrow. Abundant evidence supports orassimilation. This resistanceisa the conclusion that integrated education turning back into one's self, into one's and interracial contacts can foster im- community. Itis simply a search for proved relations among black and white identity, a quest to uncover one's cul- people.16 Separate education does not. tural heritage. Itis not a rejection of Keepingblackchildreninall-black the principle of desegregation, but an schools and white children in all-white affirmation that desegregation proceed schools might well mean sowing seeds on a broader base.Itisinessence for disunity in their inescapable future alienation from a system which assigns encounters. inferiority to other cultural groups. RESEGREGATION. One manifes- The view that blacks should control tationof unwillingness of whitesto black institutions is more complex than accept desegregation is the orderly but the quest for black identity. One dimen- sometimes hasty withdrawal of white sion of this view is the feeling that pupils from their previously all-white blacksunderstandtheproblems of schools once the enrollment of black blacks and consequently would be more pupilsreachesasizableproportion. sympathetic to these problems. Another Severalstudieshave soughttode- dimension is that blacks should control velop criteria for predicting the critical black institutions. This latter dimension point or tipping point. These studies ischauvinistic andis consonant with suggest that the increase in enrollment the white separatist view. Campbell and of black pupils and the corresponding Schuman pointouttwoaspectsof decreaseinenrollmentof whitesis "black separatism." often correlated with a similar move- One is largely political and social, call- ment in the school's community and ing for black control of black institu- with the rate of increase in black en- tions that serve black population and rollment. Two outstanding examples of for concentration of all informal social cities where schools were desegregated

336 and then quickly resegregated as white million in annual purchasing power to families moved outof thecityare the black community.19 Both the NEA Washington, D.C., and Baltimore. and GTEA reports suggestthatthe Atlanta has been experiencing the same number of displacementsisprobably phenomenon:Since1960 26 ofits larger than the figures indicate because schools "have gone from white to black many of the displaced teachers fail to or virtually black."17 file complaintsorotherwisemake The continuous and sometimes rapid known their plight out of fear of being shift in the racial composition of the barred from getting a new job. The fact student body of a school heightens inter- thatblackteachers with tenure and grouptensions,underminesstudent good teaching records have been dis- body solidarity, disrupts normal prog- placed as school systems have moved ression of activities from one school toward desegregation poses a continu- year to the next: diminishes commun- ous threat to black educators in Georgia ity support, and often leaves a frustrated public schools. This anxiety-producing schoolstaff. many of whom are un- situation impairs teacher effectiveness. prepared for the change. Further, the manner in which the black teacher or principal responds to TEACHER DISPLACEMENT. Re- thissituationaffectshisrelationship cent school desegregation efforts in the with black youth. As he attempts to South have resulted in demotion, dis- move up inthe socialstructure, the placement, and dismissal of black teach- Negro in the education profession, as in ing personnel. Th.e National Education other areas of work, faces the dilemma Association's Report of Task Force Sur- of achieving a sense of self and an iden- veyof Teacher Displacement in17 tity without "selling his soul" to the states documents 668 displacements of white community. Black youth have experienced teachers between May and been heard to derogate and reject their September 1965. Of this group 23 are black teachers who out of fear of losing Georgia blackteachers displacedbe- their jobs "go along with the system." cause either of participationincivil Among these black youth are many who rights activities or of school desegrega- have come to reject teaching as a career tion.I8 choicebecausetheyperceivepublic According to the Georgia Teachers school teaching as involving undue re- and Education Association "Research strictions on self-expression and dignity. Report." the extent of teacher and prin- On the other hand black youth have cipal displacement in 30 Georgia coun- typically expressed prideinteachers ties over the six-year period, 1964-65 to (black and white as well) whom they 1968-69, is significant. The total num- respect for their integrity on racial mat- ber of black teachers decreased from ters and have vigorously defended these 742 to 544, a loss of 27 percent. The teachers in situations where their rights total number of black principals de- are perceived to be threatened. creased from 54 to 24, a loss of 56 percent, while the total number of white A School System Directed principals increased from 284 to 308, by the White Community an increase of eight percent. Twenty- Black children in Georgia, as in many four of the counties had fewer black parts of the nation, attend schools in a teachers, and 21counties had fewer system in which the major decision- black principals, yet the student enroll- making functions are controlled by the ment in the systems increased by 8,600. white majority. No black child has a The GETA report further indicates that parent or close relative who is a mem- the teachers and principals already lost ber of the State Board of Regents or to the profession in these 30 school sys- the State Board of Education or who tems represent a loss of nearly $1.75 holds the position ofstateor local

337 school superintendent. Almost all of the opportunities of blackpeopleinthe approximately1,132memberswho state. In general such restrictions arc comprisc thestate'slocalboards of unfortunate. Specific psychological education are white citizens. According effects of the large scale exclusion of to a recent count, among over 2,000 blacks from the state's educational hier- employees of the Georgia Department archy are no doubt many. Indeed. itis of Education only 16 are black profes- not surprising, in this kind of situation. sional workers none of whom is classi- that pupils and parents can come to fied above the level of Consultant or identify their white school officials with Itinerant Teacher Trainer. These blacks, other aspects of a society that in many however, have served in the Department waysisoppressive andracist.Their from fiveto 25 years, and compared "white only" rank and status sharply with their white colleagues in similar set them apart. Black pupils and parci:ts positions, are believed to be generally as perceive theseofficialsas subscribing well or better qualified. to a system that assigns blacks inferior Perhaps the most significant deviation status. from this pattern of segregation of edu- In the context of a society that places cational leadership is seen in the local such restrictions on the personal and board of education and superintendency professional development of its mem- inthe Atlanta public school system bers because of race,itisfutileto where the 1969 elected board includes launchspecialschoolprogramsde- three blacks. Over the previous four- signed to improve the self conccpt, raise year period, two of the school board aspiration levels, or stimulate achieve- positions were held by blacks. Currently ment of black pupils. Dodson hypo- in the office of the superintendent there thesizes that "it would be impossible for are three blacks including an assistant a youth who is a member 6Fa group superintendent and two area superin- w.55-"Ts powerless in the community to tendents. The assistant superintendent, grow and mature without trauma to his formerly an area superintendent, was perception of himself because of the appointed after local parents and com- compromised position of his group in munity leaders demanded that blacks communal life."20 share the top administrative positions. Itis common knowledge that many However, with black pupils comprising well prepared, ambitious blacks leave 65 percent of the pupils enrolled in the the South in search of broader oppor- Atlanta system and with blacks having tunities. A listdescribing the current approximately 40 percent of the voting professional standing of those who for strength in the city, these developments this reason, have left Atlanta within the in power-sharing seem modest. past10years would beimpressive. That this outmigration of talent prom- The argumentthatblackprofes- ises to continue is suggested by a recent sionals do not qualify for top admin- survey of family background character- istrativeand supervisory positionsis istics and future plans of black students unconvincing. Similarly, the argument entering 83 Negro colleges in the South. thatthereareno blackcitizensof This study reveals that "over two-thirds sufficient stature in the state to merit of (them) hope to leave the South appointment to either of the two state followinggraduation.Inanoverall hoards is equally unconvincing. Negro sense, these students view their colleges professionals who qualify and Negro as avenues of upward mobility. " -1 citizens of stature do live in Georgia. Writing on the importance of increas- The conspicuous absence of blacks ing the degree of participation in edu- inthe policy-making echelons of the cational decision-making by the involve- educational system is only one example ment of groupspreviouslyexcluded of the ceilings, barriers, and limits to from influence, Samuel Bowles states:

338 Let us continue to ask what school poli- Comparativedataontheschool cies should be adopted. But let us also achievement of Negro and white pupils askwhoshould decide, andhow.We in the Atlanta public school offer sonic must, of course, attempt to right the particular wrongs which we observe to- perspective on the extent of inequities day; but we must attempt as well to in public school education in the state. understand why our system of decision With a heterogeneous pupil enrollment making in education has worked so con- of approximately one-tenththetotal sistently to the disadvantage of Negroes and the poor. Let us first understand it, enrollment of the state's public schools, and then let us change it.12 the Atlanta system is Georgia's largest The impression should not be left and one of its highest in total cost per that Georgia's educational establishment child, based on average daily attend- is the only area in which blacks are not ance. fully included or that their exclusion In a study conducted by the Educa- from other areas of the society is any tion Testing Service forthe Atlanta less damaging to Georgia's future. Public School System in1955-56,all pupils in the system in grades 4, 6, 8, A System That Undereducates and 12 were administered standardized Georgia's system of education fosters achievement tests. A summary of the relative underdevelopment of its black findings indicates that pupils, both in terms of numbers of Median and average scores for white years they complete in school and the pupils are above. at. or within striking level of achievement attained as a re- distance ofnationalaveragesatall grade levels ... sult of instruction. Some specificfea- The average scores of Negro pupils fall tures of the system that have an especi- progressivelyfarther behindnational ally deterrent influence on the develop- averages and averages for Atlanta white mentofblackchildrenandyouth pupils as they advance from primary grades through high school. In reading, pertain to guidance services, vocational the difference between average scores is education, and preschool education. about one grade at grade 3, nearly two FEWER YEARS OF SCHOOLING. grades at grades 4 and 5, and nearly three grades at grades 6 and 8, and over Wide discrepancies exist between white four grades (in English) at grade 12.25 and nonwhite citizens in terms of numbers of years completed in school. In Better Schools Atlanta, a committee 1960 the median years completed in of Atlantacitizens,analyzedofficial records ofresults from standardized school by whites was 10.3, by non- reading tests administered to all pupils whites, 6.1. Comparcd with the average nonwhite in other states, the average in grades four and eight in 1966-67 and nom, bite in Georgia has completed the grade four and seven in 1967-68. This committee reported that: fewest years of schoo1.23 Fourth grade pupils in black schools are In 1960 among persons in Georgia more than one year behind white 25 years and older with less than five schools based on median reading scores. years school completed,10.3 percent By eighth grade', pupils in black schools were white and 39.7 percent were non- are four years behind.26 white. In only two states, Louisiana and Despite the lack of equivalency of the South Carolina. did the percentage of reading tests administered in the 1955- Negroes who had completed less than 56 study (The Stanford Achievement five years of school exceed Georgia's.24 Test) and 1966-68 study (The Metro- LOWER LEVELS OF ACHIEVE- politan Achievement Test), the similar- MENT. Comparative statewide data on ityofresults from the two studies academic achievement of Negro and suggeststhatinequalities whichpre- white pupils have not been available. vailed in the Atlanta Public Schools 12 However, data fromseveralsources years ago exist today. Further, if it is maythrowlighton comparative correct to assume that the Atlanta sys- achievement levels of the two groups. temisoneofthemore advanced

339 systems in the state, then it can be hypo- which they need help at school. Further, thesized that the inequalities in achieve- the developmental problems of many ment of black and white pupils in many black youth are compounded by their of the less advanced systems are at least recognition of thevastdiscrepancies as great as those of Atlanta, The per- that exist between precept and practices sistenceof the achievement gap bein American society and by theirin- tween black and white pupils in Atlanta volvement in a whole new set of per- does not mean that the schools have sonal-social concerns related to new and neglectedthis problem; some special sometimes conflicting concepts of efforts have been directed toward re- blackness. Some estimates indicate that ducing the gap. The facts simply sug- the percentage of children needing help gest that these efforts have not been in deprived areas may be five times as adequate. great as in affluent areas, where rate of dropouts. academic difficulties,absen- INADEQUATE GUIDANCE teeism, discipline problems. health SERVICES.Therearenotenough problems, etc., are much lower. Thus a guidance workersintheelementary smaller number of students per guid- and secondary schools of Georgia to ance worker may be required to effec- meet the standards described by the tively assist black children and ;youth state. withtheir problems and needs. The Some 270 high school counselors are application ofstandardsin depressed needed to reduce the current ratio from areas may,rather,than equalize oppor- one counselor to every 700 students to tunity,actually deny opportunityto one counselor to every 500 students. many children. Some 10,370 elementary school coun- Inadequate vocational guidance for selors are needed to obtain the desired low-income black students can appreci- ratio of one counselor to every 500 ablyaffect employment opportunities students. Some 340 visitingteachers for black youth. Understandably, many and social workers are needed to re- black youth continuetomaintain a duce the current ratio from one worker narrow view of the world of work in to every 4,600 students to one worker spite of information they may pick up to every 1,500 students. Some 70 or about new opportunitiesthatwould morepsychologists are needed to be available to them if they were pre- reach desired standards. pared. Such information can sometimes Insufficient personnel obviously have peculiarpersonal meanings for means inadequate services. Inadequate them. A black youth may not know services undermine the development of which of the new opportunitiesare students,especially low-income black possible for him or how he can get students for whom the services pro- from where he is to where he must go, vided by the school. may be the only developmentally,inordertoqualify dependable and validsourceofin- for one of them. He may doubt that formation for guiding decisionmaking he has a real chance of obtaining such pertaining to their future personal, edu- an opportunity, since there is no one cational, and vocational goals. among persons he knows who has done Actually, the standards do not seem so. Further, his parents and friends are to prove desirable ratios of professional not likely to have sufficient experience workers to students in light of the extent to confidently or correctly assist him in of needs of black children and youth. makingappropriatechoices. Under Becausetheirsocialization sooften such conditions, he often drops out of takes place in the context of adverse school or otherwisefailsto develop circustances of home and community, saleable skills. these children present a high incidence Inspiteofaccessibility of public of personal and social difficulties with institutions of higher education in sec-

340 tions of the state, a marked dispropor- inadequate.Limited opportunitiesfor tion of black youth is not finding its vocational-technicaltraining and out- way to college. Creative guidance pro- dated vocational-technical curricula gramsatboththeelementaryand pose major harriers to economic 'oppor- secondary levels are needed to increase tunitiesforthepoor,especiallythe the chances of Georgia's black children black poor. and youth entering and succeeding in Thepost-highvocational-technical college or vocational-technical school. schoolsaccommodatefewerblacks, The undersupply of school guidance because fewerblacksthanwhites workers is not the only aspect of guid.; graduate from high school. and fewer ance services especially damaging to black graduates arc admitted to these black children and youth. Another is schools. Not only is there a need for thefactthatcounselors,especially more vocational-technical schools. there white counselors, often have not ac- is a need for the acceptance of more quiredthe neededprofessionalconi- responsibility by the school system for petence to work effk'tively with black helping black youth successfully enter children and youth. When schools arc these schools, desegregated. special problems arc The high school vocational curricu- sometimes posed by having ablack lum typically involves courses inthe counselor and a white counselor, only areas of home economics, agriculture, one of which can be placedinthe and commercial studies. The absence of school. Where thereisonly a white a more comprehensive program attuned counselor in a desegregated school situ- to occupationalaspirations and con- ation, there is a good chance that the cerns of students and to community needs of black childrenwillnot be needs in business and industry severely adequately met. The white counselor's penalizes poor black youth with limited limited knowledge and misperceptions opportunities for post-high school train- about how black children grow up in ing: the high school curriculum may America can handicap him in efforts afford their only opportunity to develop to understand their behavior. Typically, skills needed to get jobs. Indeed, high his experiences in schools, colleges, and school vocational and commercial community will have been in all-white coursesrepresentthelargestsingle settings. These experiences provide him source of training for persons not going with little background for understand- to college, and jobs that require no skills ing the needs and behavior of black are almost non-existent. childreninintegratedsettings.His Also,for many black youth a good limited understanding and skills in test- vocationalprogram,particularlyone ing minority group children make work that involves direct meaningful experi- in this area hazardous. And his lack of ences in the world of work, is often the understanding of his own behavior in motivating influence for ;:ernainingin interpersonalinterracialsettingscan school. A program of this kind may undermine,hispersonaleffectiveness. seem more compatible with goals they Such counselor deficiencies are some- have set forthemselvesthan an timesreducedbyspecialin-service academic program that fails to address training experiences.27 itself to the world in which they live. LIMITED OPPORTUNITIES FOR Restricted Opportunities for PRESCHOOL EDUCATION. The lack Vocational - Technical Education of opportunity for preschool education Georgia continues to improve and ex- may cause irreparable damage to the pand vocational-technical education child who happens to live in a home programs at the post-high and high environment that provides insufficient schoollevels;however,presentde- stimulation for optimum intellectual developments are generally known to be velopment. While there is almost no ex-

341 perimental evidence that preschool edu- (Negro) suggests that the two systems cation can have significant lasting effects serve student populations of different on cognitive behavior, thereissub- ability levels. Infall1967, the scores stantial evidence that the early years of of almost all (99 percent) of the enter- life are critical for the growth of intelli- ing freshmen in the USG (Negro) were gence and that preschool programs can lower than the average score of the help build the experiential and cognitive entering freshmen in the USG (white). readiness requisite for success in school. Less than one oercen± of the entering Opportunities forpublicpreschool freshmen in the white system had scores education do not exist in most counties as low as the average score of entering in the state. Among the children whose freshmeninthe Negro system. The development is most impaired by this lowest one percent of the scores of lack of opportunity are black children enterine freshmen at Georgia Institute ofthepoor,especiallypoorrural of Technology exceeds the scores of 99 families. percent of entering freshmen in USG UNEQUAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR (Negro). HIGHER EDUCATION. Higher edu- The distribution of scores of entering cation in the State of Georgia remains freshnien in the USG (white) reflects a largely segregated. A report from the wider range of ability than the distri- United States Office of Education re- bution of scores of entering freshmen vealsthat among black students en- in the USG (Negro). Thirty-three per- rolled in 22 state controlled institutions cent of scores of entering freshmen in of higher education during fall 1968, 17 the USG (white) exceeds the highest percent was in19 traditionally white score in the distribution of scores in institutions, and the remaining 83 per- the USG (Negro). More than 96 percent was inthree traditionally black cent of the scores of students of the institutionsAlbany State College, Fort USG (Negro) is as low or lower than Valley StateCollege, and Savannah the lowest one-fourth of the scores of State College. students of the USG (white). Additional observations relevantto These observations suggest thatin equality of opportunity for blacks in theUniversitySystem ofGeorgia, the state's higher education system are selective admission standards work to provided by a study of Normative Data the disadvantage of black students in all for the 1967-68 Freshman Class Uni- but three institutions attended largely by versity System of Georgia,areport blacks who received their elementary published by the Board of Regents. and high school educationin segre-. Comparisons of the Scholastic Aptitude gated public schools of Georgia. Under Test scores of entering freshmen at the present conditions, blacks not only stand University System of Georgia (white) slight chance of being admitted to more and the University System of Georgia prestigiousand academicallyrecog- (Negro) indicate the following. nized institutions such as Georgia Insti- Each year over the past 11 years, tute of Technology and University of 1957-58 to 1967-68, the average SAT Georgia, but eventheirchances of score of entering freshmen in the USG entering the junior colleges seem poor. (white) has exceeded the average SAT Ostensibly the rationale of a system of score of entering freshmen in the USG education that operates in this fashion (Negro). The difference between aver- is:Since black high school graduates age scores has increased. Over the last who seek admission to the State Uni- five years, the mean increase was greater versity System have been provided an than over the first five years. inferior education through public The distribution of scores of enter- schools of the state, this practice Phould ing freshmen in the USG (white) and be continued atthe post-high school ofenteringfreshmen in the USG level by maintaining theappropriate

342 kindsofinstitutions and admissions institutions designed for blacks who are policies. not bright enough to gain admittance to Underthesecircumstancesblacks the USG (white). Teacher and student continue to get the short end of the perceptions of this situation will serve public school system. Inadditionto to undermine teaching and learning and human wastage that accrues, this kind lower aspirations. of undereducating system has a self- As a result of the continued frus- reinforcing effect because many of the trations of their personality needs (ade- state's black public school teachers will quacy and self-esteem,etc.)by the continue to come from among graduates actual and perceived inferiorities of the of the Negro colleges of the system. Negro institutions in which they learn Thus poorly prepared teachers produce and teach, Negro students andtheir poorlypreparedstudents,many of younger teacherswillopenlyreject whom matriculate in teacher education these institutions along with those who programs at poor colleges and subse- support and sustain them. quently become poorly prepared teachers. A System That Miseducates Further, the racial separation of the The extent to which Georgia's public state's future leaders does nothing to school instruction in American History promote the kinds of understandings properly portrays the contribution of and appreciations that foster effective the Negro is the subject of concern of a relationsbetweenblackandwhite House Committee established after the leaders. 1969 General Assembly defeated a bill If current state and federal inputs in torequire Negro history coursesin the USG (white) and USG (Negro) public schools of the state. Similar con- should remain proportionately the same, cernhasbeenexpressedbyblack what are the logical consequences of parents who are distressed by racial the continuation of the current selective and class and nationalistic biases boldly admissions policiesof the University evidentintheirchildren'stextbooks System of Gc3rgia (Negro)? but apparently subscribed to by teach- An obvious result is an increasing ers who lack proper orientation to the discrepancy between the proportion of minoritygroupexperience in the the black and white populations who country. obtainschooling beyond high school The1965surveyofinstructional and who receive training for work in materialsconducted by theLincoln scientific and technical areas and in the Filene Center project on race and cul- professions. ture in American life found that the The students who enrollinthe text of most elementary readers and black institutions will be of increasingly social studies carried these messages. poor quality while those who enroll in The child should be clean and well- the white institutions will be of in- mannered; the ideal family is clean, cooperative, safety-minded, and white: the creasingly better quality. ideal family has been in America a long Blacks enrolled in all-black insti- time, owns a car and home, and is upper tutions will continue to receive a poorer middle class; hard work with the ax. quality of education while students en- shovel, etc. has got us where we are; other groups and countries do not seem rolled in the white institutions will re- to have our spirit and so we are supe- ceive a better quality of education. rior; the first ones to America (English, The differential in the quality of Dutch, French) [are] generally the best; education received by black and white and others [are] not well treated; qualities of the Negro are represented by his students in state institutions for higher slavestatus with verylittlemention education will increase. between reconstruction and 1954; the The black institutions will become Negro [is] slowly "earning" his place in increasinglystigmatizedaslow-grade society; progress depends upon the me-

343 chanical, technological, and economic anything aboutprejudice." Conferees growth of America and not on the im- agreed that "American public schools provement of democratic human rela- should 'grasp' missed opportunities to tions.28 reduceracialand ethnicprejudices. Withitswhite,western, Christian. despite the limitations of their powers upward-mobile bias, the public school to change the social systern."29 curriculum continues to support the de- As the struggle for equal rights and velopment of a negative self concept, equalopportunitiesproceeds,public patterns of self-rejection, and hostility school administrators and teachers will in black children, and in white children find it increasingly impossible to avoid internalizationofnegativeattitudes coming to terms with major socialis- toward Negroes and the development of sues if they are to effectively relate to unrealisticsuperiorityfeelings. There their constituency. On this Kohl states are signs that for black children this To teach honestly and not anger or depreciatory influence of the schoolmay alienate the children, one must be honest about failure and hypocrisy in be lessened by the new mood of black American life. One cannot talk of equal awareness, blackidentity, and black chance and freedom of choice to people pride. who have no opportunity or freedom, Perhaps the most critical shortcoming or at best very little. One cannot avoid the depths of prejudice in this society of the curriculum is its failure to ad- nor the misunderstandings of cultural dress itself to the most serious issues of differences ...30 our time,racism and poverty. This failure not only adversely affects black A Pedagogy Based on childrenand poor childrenbut ad- Misperceptions and vantaged white children as well, since Faulty Knowledge racism and poverty present a threat to A pervasive influence upon the educa- the nation's security that only cooperation of the black child in the United tive efforts of allthe oppressed and States today is the perceptions that edu- the oppressorscan remove. Certainly cational leadersschool board mem- the school can never fully serve the bers,superintendents, teachers,coun- "disadvantaged" until it exploits whole- selors, etc.hold of him. How he is heartedly the resources available to it perceived or defined significantly affects for eliminating conditions that produce public and private views of what ought disadvantagement. to be or what can be done about Um. If the black child is to achieve equal- Prior to the last decade, scants atten- ity, the school will have to help bring tion had been given to scientific study it about. Currently, schools fail to teach of the psychological, social, and cultural the black child political effectiveness aspects of black people in America. the value of political participation as Over the past few years, stimulaited by an instrument for individual and group the availability of funds for research betterment and the skills and strategies from the federal government and from of politics.The school has failed to foundations, monumental efforts have teach problems of the Negro in Ameri- been directed to the study of the "dis- canlifesegregation,discrimination, advantaged." However, along with many poverty, delinquency, dropping out of excellent studies, considerable misinfor- schoolas a central political and moral mation has been disseminated, often issue in American life. through studies of well-intentioned re- The result of a study released at a searchers unaware of their ethnocentric three-day symposium on Patterns of bias or inappropriate methods. In addi- American Prejudice conducted at the tion, there exists the perennial teacher University of California at Berkeley re- lore and the "from-my-experience" wis- veals that dom that all too often are highly er- "Virtually no one ineducational in- roneous and virulent. From these and stitutionsistrying very much to do other sources many educational leaders

344 have acquired faulty ways of perceiving tive sense. This is evident, for example. minority group children.These mis- in the use of the concept "culture of perceptions have sometimes furnished poverty," a concept in terms of which the materials out of which barriers to the behavior of the poor is viewed as equal educational opportunities are un- an unfortunate reaction to their condi- wittingly constructed. tion.32 Among some of the more common Baratz and Baratz propose the "cult- misperceptions of the black child are ural difference theory" as a framework the following. for interpreting Negro behavior. They He is culturally deprived (or cult- assert that The statistical differences noted by psy- urally disadvantaged, educationally de- chologists in intelligence testing, in fam- prived, economically deprived, etc., ily and social organization, and in atti- simply deprived or disadvantaged). tude studies of the Negro community are not the result of pathology, faulty He lacks interest in schools because learning, or genetic inferiority.These his parents basically are not interested differences are surface manifestations of in education. theviablestructuredcultureof the Negro American, a culture which is the He is lazy, lacks ambition, and will synthesis of African culture in contact not work hard at school tasks. with American-European culture under He cannot be expected to learn as slavery.33 much or as readily as a white_ child The perception of the black child in because of his innate intellectualin- terms of a deficit model has led teach- feriority. ers to expect him to learn minimally or He learns best in all black schools not at all and to treat him accordingly. where he will be more comfortable and Rosenthal and Jacobson in their research where teachers will understand his pe- on teacher attitudes have shown that culiar needs. teachers' expectations of children can The fallaciousness of these ways of he self-fulfilling.34 viewing the black child is firmly estab- Gordon elaborates the dynamics of lished in the literature of the behavioral this process as follows. sciences.Moreover, psychologists and Children who are treated in school as if other behavioral scientists are beginning they were ineducable tend to see themselves in this way and almost invariably to gain insight intc sources of some of become ineducable. Similarly. children their ethnocentricisms and biases that who are placed in inferior groups suffer in one way or another often support a sense of humiliation. .. They come misperceptions of blacks. to dislike themselves, and tend to function in a self-defeating, self-destructive A growing number of behavioral manner. Either they become consumed scientists are convinced that there is a with self-hate, which can take the form need to re-evaluate what psychology has of depressed apathetic behavior, or they come to project their self-hatred onto taught about Negro culture.31Almost society, in the form of delinquent be- all of the data that have been produced havior.35 to date have been interpreted in terms Formal research has revealed how of eitherone or the other of two schools confirm lower-status black chil- deficitmodels"biologicalincapacity dren in their sense of failure and incom- (genetic inferiority) or social deviance petence. Leacock found in the schools and pathology (environmental depriva- she observed that low-status Negro chil- tion)."Despite the importancethat dren were consistently treated as unable psychology attaches to biological, socio- to learn and were groomed to accept logical, and cultural factors in the un- their own basic inferiority and its ac- derstanding of behavior, psychology has companying low levelofaspiration. seldom explained Negro behavior in Their teachers were kind and casual, terms of Negro culture, except when but the intellectual level of instruction culture is used in a distorted and nega- was low.36

345 New support has been presented for lated for Georgia schools and are read- the view that there is no justification ily available in the following publica- for any child with an intact brain, who tions. is not severely disturbed, not to learn Georgia's Challenge, a total program of the basic scholastic skills. Bloom argues education,Conclusions of the Govern- that "95 percent of all children can learn or's Conference on Education. 1968, At- what we have to teach them." The prob- lanta: Georgia School Boards Associa- tion. lem has been "we haven't wanted every- Reducing School Dropouts, GEIC Rec- one to learn." 37 He agrees with Bruner ommendations,Atlanta. Georgia. Edu- that ways can be found to teach any- cational Improvement Council. 1968 thing: it is a matter of determining what "Georgia Education Needs," a paper for use at the Governor's Conference on procedures will be effective in helping Education.October8-9. 1969.(no particular students learn the subject un- author). der consideration.38In light of these The recommendations discussedin views, when children fail to learn, the the sections that follow either add new failure rests largely with the school. content and emphasis to some of the Approaches to Equality of approaches developed in the foregoing publications or introduce some general Educational Opportunity approaches not included in these pub- Because oftheenormously complex lications. problems that pertain to equalizing edu- COMMIT THE STATE OF GEORGIA cational opportunities, no simple or sure TO SPECIAL EFFORTS IN BEHALF OF solution is available. However, knowl- EQUALIZING EDUCATIONAL OPPOR- edge of approaches that might be suc- TUNITIES FOR MINORITY GROUP' cessfully pursued far exceed commit- In order to obtain the broad-scale pub- ment to trying them' out. While there lie understanding and support which are is no question that the school must ac- a necessary condition for equalizing edu- cept major responsibility for the achieve- cational opportunities for black children ment of equality of educational oppor- and youth, "intelligent, well-informed, tunity, the efforts cannot fully succeed and capable leaders" must accept the without the reinforcement and support responsibility for clarifying the issues, of the efforts of other segments of so- illuminating the possibilities, and pro- cietyincluding government,industry, posing forthright action." Basically, that business, and religious institutions. And leadership has to come from school basic to all these efforts, if they would boards, state departments of education. be meaningful, is a "productive commit- and superintendents for obvious legal ment" to the eradication of the funda- and psychological reasons. Elaborating mental conditions in society that pro- on the responsibility of educational lead- duce and sustain inequity rather than an ership, John Fischer states abortive preoccupation with "nice" ac- In a world in which education is essen- tivities designed to banish their symp- tial to virtually every form of social, economic, political, and personal ad- toms. vancement, it is pointless to argue that Among some approaches that appear the schools need only to follow the lead to confront fundamental conditions that ofothersegmentsofsociety.The affect equality of educational opportun- schoolswillperform theirfunctions ity within schools and school systems more effectively, of course, if they enjoy the support of a favorable community are the following: adult basic educa- climate, but the absence of such a cli- tion, community school, consolidation mate can never be considered an ade- of school systems, public school kinder- quate excuse for the schools' failure to garten programs, reduction of pupil- stand for what is educationally sound and morally defensible. Those charged teacher ratio, teacher aides, and teacher with the leadership of educational policy education.Excellent recommendations and practice accordingly carry a heavy on these approaches have been formu- burden of responsibility.39

346 A necessary first step toward achiev- average level of reading ability. ing the goal of equal educational oppor- By 1980. the number of Georgia Ne- tunities for minority groups in Georgia gro and white student's who graduate is commitment to this goal on part of from Georgia Institute of Technology the state.Essentially, this would be a will represent equal proportions of commitment to a fully functioning uni- their respective age groupsinthe tary school system.This commitment state's population. should be unmistakably evident in terms In formulating goals, the commission of both the precepts of the state's edu- should seek to consider the widest pos- cation officials and the practices of its sible range of conditions thataffect education agencies. Thus, the General equality of educational opportunity for Assembly and the State Board of Edu- whichthestateeducationalsystem cation should issueofficialstatements should assume some measure of respon- that are clearly in support of equalizing sibility.The conditions to which this educational opportunities for minority paper has called attention by no means groups.Further, the Georgia Depart- cover all aspects of inequality of edu- ment of Education should explicitly de- cational opportunity. fine the dimensions of the state's con- 2.Evaluate the state's current and cern in terms of definitive action pro- projectedeffortsandresourcesfor posals. achieving the goals. APPOINT A LONG-TERM STUDY 3.Designa comprehensivestate- COMMISSION TO FORMULATE wide plan for accomplishing the goals. GOALS, DESIGN PLANS AND GUIDE 4.Providedirection.support, and EFFORTS FOR ACHIEVING EQUAL- monitoring during the implementation ITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTU- of the plan. NITY FOR MINORITY GROUPS The commission should he broadly The task of equalizing educational op- representative of both the educational portunities for minority groups in Geor- community and the larger community. gia demands special attention and effort The membership ofthecommission beyond that which can he expected from should include a representative number existing structures and arrangements in of minority group persons. the educational community. Additional humanandmaterialresourcesare SHARE LEADERSHIP ROI SMITH MINORITY GROUP MEMBERS needed to provide the direction, range, Minoritygroup members should be rep- and intensity of efforts that are required resented beyond tokenism on all of the to make significant advances. Hence, a state'scontrolling boards.Immediate logical second step is that the appropri- moves should he made to insure that ate state body should appoint a long- new appointees*:o the now all-white term study commission to address itself educational policy-making groupsthe to this problem. Specifically, the com- Georgia Board of Education and the mission should take the following action. Board of Regents include a representa- 1.Stateinmeasurable termsthe tive number of minority group mem- goals of equalizing educational oppor- bers. tunities of minority groups in Georgia. The Georgia Department of Educa- In addition to the expected results, the tion should immediately initiate careful targetdatefor their accomplishment study of its policies and practices as should be indicated.Goal statements, these relate to the employment and pro- for example, should follow a pattern motion of blacks at both the professional similar to that of the illustrative state- andnon-professionallevels. Special ments below. effortshould be made todetermine By 1980, black and white pupils in whether blacks are underemployed and grades one through 12 in the public undergraded and to devise corrective schools of Georgia will have the same compensatorymeasuresifneedfor

347 themisindicated.And. in order to study. materials. and methods for teach- make certain that minority group mem- ing the following. bers are substantially represented among a. The natureofprejudice: how State Department employees at all levels, racial and religious and class prejudices the Department should begin recruiting affect those who bear them and those blacks tofill openings and new posi- toward whom they are expressed: how tions that develop. preindices affectthenation's welfare REDIRECT PUBLIC SCHOOL EDU- and undermine its credibility as leader CATION AND TEACHER EDUCATION among nations of the world. What we aim to do in teacher education b.Landmark documents. legislation. relates to the goals of our schools. What and laws that provide the moral and we aim to do in our schools relates to legal bases for equality of opportunity the kind of adult society we want and in the United States. knowledge about how children learn c. The functions of federal courts and grow. Thus, if one of our basic and agencies; how citizens use these to commitments is to a society in which safeguard and extend equality of op- thereis equal opportunity and equal portunity and justice. rights, those with leadership responsi- d. How local, state. and federal gov- bility for the education of children must ernments affect equal opportunity. consider the following questions. c.The use of the vote and other legitimate techniques for effecting social 1. What and how do we teach the change. childashe progressesthroughthe f. The history and culture of the grades and levels of the school to help American Negro. hint acquire the understanding, skills, 3.Provide teachers with information and attitudes for effectively promoting and experiences designed to assist them equal opportunity and equal rights and inmethodsofdirectingexperiential justice for all? learning. 2. What and how do we teach teach- There are several areas of teacher ers so that they acquire the necessary education that must be given special commitment and competence to prop- attention if schools are to have a signifi- erly teach the child responsible partici- cant impact on the world in which chil- pation in a democratic society? dren now live and the world in which With regard to the what and how of they live in the future,The Georgia teaching children to promote equality DepartmentofEducation,Gecsrgia and justice, those responsible for the Teacher Education Council, and the col- curriculum of public schools in Georgia leges and universities in the state should should initiate the following action. work together to insure that as teacher 1.Eliminate from among...approved education programs now focus on "an textbooks and other teaching materials, expanded dimensionquality" they in- especially United States historytext- clude preserviceandinset-viceexpe- books, those that in words, in pictures, riences designed to accomplish the fol- and illustrations present a uniracial, uni- lowing objectives. ethnic, unicultural view of society and 1.Effectiveness in interracial class- replace them with textbooks and teach- rooms. ing materials that reflect a multiracial, 2.Appreciation and respect for the multiethnic, and multicultural view. Fa- contributions of minority groups to the cilitate the collection, development, and growth of the United States. dissemination of supplementary instruc- 3.Understanding of the waysin tional units and materials for areas in which historical, cultural, sociological, which the appropriate new materials and political factors have influenced ex- cannot be found. periences of the Negro in the United 2.Include the appropriate courses of States.

348 4.Skill in detecting evidence of ra- More black students should be enrolled cial. class. religious. and ethnic biases in the traditionally white public institu- intextbooks and otherinstructional tions.In addition to more enlightened materials. admissions policies with respect to black 5.Understanding of the nature and students and increased provisions for consequences of prejudice and poverty. financial aid. special guidance and re- 6.Self-confrontationswithrespect cruitment efforts are needed if black to prejudices, ethnocentricisms, stereo- students are to fully exploit opportuni- typedideas,andunscientificbeliefs ties for higher education that Georgia about race, poverty, and ethnic origin. provides for its residents. One approach 7.Insights, stamina, and effective sets that might be considered is a compre- thatsupport readiness to cope with hensive state-widc effort aimed at help- frustrations, disappointment. and failing the black students and the black ure in working with children whose communities perceive the traditionally socio-economicand/orracialback- white public colleges and universities ground may differ from the teacher's. in more positive terms. Dimensions of In addition. to the more traditional such a program might include the fol- instructional approaches involving read- lowing approaches. ing. listening to lectures given by pro- I. Maximum effort on part of the ad- fessors. and discussion of the literature, ministration, faculties, and student bod- the teaching of prospectiveteachers ies in the traditionally white institutions should give increased emphasis to in- to insure that black students now en- volvement of both the education pro- rolled in these institutions and black fessor and his students it the following. workersnon-professional and profes- 1.Opportunities for learning through sionalat these institutions are treated first-hand experience, including not only fairly and considerately. observations,butmeaningfulaction- 2.Meaningful involvement of these oriented programs in communities. institutions in the black community and 2,The use of parents, youth, zrld of the black community in the institu- professional and nonprofessional work- tions. ers in low income communities as teach- 3. The inclusionof a substantial ers or sources of information. number of black persons among the 3.Opportunities for involvement in faculty and staff of these institutions. interracial learning situations. 4. Campus-based programs designed 4. Opportunities for experiential to involve black high school students in learning that facilitates discovery of per- new and exciting learning experiences sonal meanings of teaching and ways of in an interracial setting. using one's self morc effectively as a 5.Sustained mutually benefiting in- teacher. ter-institutionalactivitiesinvolvinga INCREASE AND EXTEND college and a high school. OPPORTUNITIES. FOR HIGHER PROVIDE MASSIVE FUNDING FOR EDUCATION HIGHER QUALITY ,PROGRAMS IN Some steps that should be takento PUBLIC COLLEGES THAT LARGELY ENROLL RESIDENTS OF THE STATE increase and cxtend opportunitics for WHO HAVE RECEIVED INADE- higher education for members of minor- QUATE PREPARATION FOR TYPI- ity groups are as follows. CAL COLLEGE CURRICULA. INAUGURATE A PLANNED PRO- There is need for all of the state's in- GRAM OF RECRUITMENT. FINAN- CIAL AID. AND COUNSELING FOR stitutionsof higher education.And RAPIDLY EFFECTING SIGNIFICANT thereisa special need for those in- YEARLY INCREASES IN THE EN- stitutions that devote their resources to ROLLMENT OF MINORITY GROUP the education of students who have a STUDENTS IN ALL PUBLIC INSTI- TUTIONS OF HIGHER EDUCATION weakacademicbackground,but a IN THE STATE. strong desire for college study.Institu-

349 tions of thistype, however. require inferior schooling at the elementary and more than the usual amount of funds to highschoollevels. Minority group operate adequate programs and services. youth are penalized by admissions tests This is even more true in the case of that do not measure strength of desire the three institutions that comprise the and do not take into a -punt differences University of Georgia System (Negro). between the educatiorn., .,pportunities of Huge amounts are needed not only to minority and majority group members. meet the unusual student needs for instruction, guidance, and financial sup- Some Favorable Conditions port, but also to help overcome cumu- Several developments affecting educa- lative institutional deficiencies in facili- tion in Georgia seem to have special ties,equipment, materials, and other significance for increasing educational resources, and to support the extensive opportunities for minority group mem- curriculum changes that are necessary. bers. Among these developments are Some of the more specific needs for the successful school desegregation that which traditionally black colleges and has been demonstrated in some systems, universities will require special financial the growing citizen interest in strength- support for at least 10 years have been ening public education, and the educa- pointed out by a special task force of tional matters on the agenda of the the Southern Regional Education 1970 General Assembly. Board's Institute for Higher Educational Opportunity which studied the "Special Successful School Desegregation Financial Needs of Traditionally Negro In October 1969, school desegregation Colleges," and recently published areport on its findings. The report indi- in Georgia had been effectedin 30 school districts, and in 46 other Georgia cates that special funds will be needed school districts desegregation in order to support special guided studies was pro- programs for disadvantaged ceeding under an accepted plan. Itis students; generally agreed that success in school augment faculty salaries; reduce teach- desegregation has largely depended upon ing loads so faculty members will be the quality of education leadership in able to devote more time to working the district. On this point, Dr. Morrill withstudentsindividually;increase Hall of the School Desegregation Center funds available for student financial at the University of Georgia, who works aid; and provide a full range of ad- daily with the state's superintendents in ministrativeservices,includingim- solving problems of school desegrega- proved student counseling, sharpened tion, said "the single most important internal management, updating of pro- factor in this area is the attitude of the gramstopreparestudents for new superintendents." 40Ithas beenre- career opportunities, improved recruit- ported,forexample,thatEmanual ing,andadmissionandplacement services. County had "pushed ahead with radical ADOPT AN OPEN DOOR ENROLL- (for southeastern Georgia) desegrega- MENT POLICY IN PUBLIC JUNIOR tion plans while surrounded by other COLLEGES AND VOCATIONAL-TECH- county systems which have done little NICAL SCHOOLS. or nothing." An HEW official spoke There should be no admission bqrriers glowingly of Carroll County "because to the state's junior colleges and its vo- of the effort the system has gone to to cational-technicalschools.An open- make for a smooth transition from seg- door admissions policy in these institu- regation to integration." 41 The success tionswouldextendopportunityfor of these two systems in school desegrega- higher educationtominorityit:,,nup ,tion was attributed to the school super- youth, many of whom have the desire Mendents. for post-high school education but hate some 1,230 adults and students in 13 underdeveloped abilities as a result of voluntary school desegregation districts

350 in the Atlanta region were interviewed :txpa7,,z and politiciansto by members of the staff of the Office of fci teachers --- teaching fewer Civil Rights in Spring 1969: it was the pupi!.5 ao, earlier age.' " and in gen- consensus of this group that "the pri- eral to -refom public school systems mary factors in determining what hap- throughout the state if parents and tax - pens within a desegregated school are pay tr s will foot the bill."This group. the roles of the administrators, prin- with the Georgia Committee of cipals. and teachers. These roles were the Committee for Support of viewed as more important than atti- Public :`;;c:lools, has planned a public tudes of the community in the history "Seminar on Education Ideas to be of the school issue locally.Further. faced by the 1970 General Assembly:* roughly nine out of 10 of the inter- Better Schools Atlanta. a citizen group, viewees agreed that "the whole desegre- has prepared and disseminated a report gation process was working much better in 1968 on "inequities in Atlanta's rac- than generally anticipated." 42 ially segregated and unequal systems of The success of these efforts suggests education." The report, in addition to that with enlightened leadership school prompting a protracted dialogue be- communities can be led to accept school tween the Better Schools Atlanta and desegregation. even under very difficult the Atlanta Board of Education, indi- circumstances. rectly led to a study of Atlanta Public Schools by the National Education As- Growing Interest in Improving sociation Commission on Professional Public Education Rights and Responsibilities.In July Many individuals in groups in Georgia 1968, the Georgia Educational Improve- are actively promoting public education ment Council "developed a work con- in several communities throughout the ference on dropouts that brought tostate. New organizations, along with gether Georgia educators, businessmen. well established ones, are developing and civic leaders," whose efforts cul- constructivesolutionstoeducational minated in a report, Reducing School problems. Black parents,individually Dropouts.The Education Committee and in groups. are manifesting a new of the League of Women Voters, in its interest in their children's schools. most recent expression of interestin the state's educational program, made A spin-off from the 1969 Governor's special senate Conference on Education is a program recommendations toa that has been launched to "carry the committee studying the Minimum Foun- message of Georgia's educational crisis dation Program. The continuing efforts of these and other volunteer groups on to every corner of the state." The Geor- behalf of public education can he ex- gia School Board Association is sponsoring a series of conferences in several pected to positively influence education sections of the State. At each confer- in the state. ence some 300-400 persons are expected Previously, attention was called to the to discuss topics including "public kin- fact that black parents have become in- dergarten programs, the dropout prob- dignant over one-way integration that lem. and adequate school financing," hasoftenresultedinclosingblack Among other organizations whose schools,firingblackprincipals,and educational activities have been public- transporting black children from their ized recently are Georgians for Quality communitiestowhitecommunities. Education, Better Schools Atlanta, the Black parents inincreasing numbers Georgia Educational Improvement are also paying closeattention to what Council, and the League of Women happens to their childreninschool. Voters.Georgians for Quality Educa- They are becoming increasingly sensi- tion,astatewideorganization,was tive to ways in which school policies formed in September 1969, "to inspire and practices affect their children and

351 are demanding changes in policies and for black children and youth in Geor- practices that would appear to block gia?Equal educationalopportunities the advancement of their children's edu- for black children and youth in Geor- cation. Black parents are offering con- gia will be realized when the following structivesuggestionsforimproving conditions are met. schools and they are beginning to hold When no child is psychologically the school accountable for their chil- harmed in schools because of his dren's educational progress.Further, minority group status black parents are growing impatient as a result of abortive efforts to establish When the minority group child achieves as much in school as the contact with schools by "going through white child the proper channels." They are now demanding immediateaccesstotheir When the schooling received by the school officials when their services are minority group child has thesame needed. potential economic value as that Black parents are increasingly par- of the white child ticipating in local politics to promote When the representation of minor- the election of school board members ity group members among recip- and other officials sympathetic to con- ients of higher education is propor- cerns of the black community and to tionately the same as that of whites. influence decisions on issues that per- As far as the black child is concerned, tain to their welfare. there is no evidence that all of these Educators have always considered conditions have ever been met anywhere lack of parental concern and participa- in the United States.This pervasive tion in' the program of the schoolas a and persistent failure of the democratic significantnegativeinfluence onthe system,nevertheless,shouldnot be child's school achievement. Therefore, taken as a sign that the system cannot the current spread of concern and inwork but rather as a cue for hastening volvement of black parents should be efforts to mike certain that it does. welcomed.If itis properly nourished this active concern of black parents can Dr. Wiley S. Bolden,a study director for become anincreasinglyvaluablere- the Academy for Educational Develop. ment. Inc., in New York, is currently serv- source for the betterment of schools. ing as director of the Tuskegee Institute The 1970 Georgia General Assembly Role and Scope Study. Dr. Bolden is also is expected to consider a number of associate director for Research and Evalu- matters that significantly affect educa- ation for the Southeastern Education Labo- tion in the State. The Constitution Re- ratory in Atlanta. Before going on leave from Clark College in1967, he served vision Commission has already approved there as Dean of Faculty and Instruction proposals that would provide for a more and chairman of the Department of Educa- representative Georgia Board of Edu- tion and Psychology. Dr. Bolden has worked with the Georgia Department of Vocational cation and would make the office of Rehabilitation as a psychologist at Alto state superintendent appointive by the State Prison. During 1963-64 Dr: Bolden Georgia Board of Education rather than participated in a National Science Founda- elective by the people. Proposals per- tion Science Faculty Fellowship for post- taining to the Minimum Foundation doctoral study and research with the Com- mittee on Human Development at the Uni- Program, financing of education, scho- versity of Chicago. He is a member of the larship support to private colleges, and Georgia Department of Education Evalua- other matters are expected to be pro- tion Committee for teacher education progressive. grams at Albany State College and is an active member of several community service organizations including Better Schools Goals Atlanta and the Metropolitan Atlanta Men- talHealth Association. He received his What conditions will denote the attain- Ed.D. degree from Teachers College, Co- ment of equal educational opportunities lumbia University.

352 Footnotes

1. Howe, Harold 1.,"Preface," (Harvard Educational Review, 38, Winter,1968), p. 4. 2. Campbell, Alan, "Inequities of School Finance,"(Saturday Review,Jan. 11, 1969), P. 44. 3,Dent ler, Robert A., Mark ler, Bernard and Warshauer, Mary Ellen,The Urban R's. (NewYork, Fred- erick A. Praeger, 1967), p. 44. 4."Georgia's Education Nerds," (A paper for use at the Governor's Conference on Education, Oct. 8-9, 1969). 5. Maddox, James G., Liebhafsky, E. E. Henderson, Vivian W. and Hamlin, Herbert,The Advancing South: Manpower Prospects and Prof NewYork; The Twentieth Century Fund, 1967). 6. Clark, Thomas D.,ThreePaths to t Modern South: Education, Agriculture, and Conservation, (Athens, University of Georgia Press,964), p. 10. 7. Coleman, James, "The Concept of Eq _city of Educational Opportunity,"(Harvard Educational Re- view,38, Winter, 1968), p. 22. 8. Bowles, Samuel, "Toward Equality of Educational Opportunity?,"(Harvard Educational Review,38 Winter, 1968), pp. 95-98. 9. Michelson, Stephan, (in Bowles,op. cit ,98). 10.Economic Report of the President, Together with the Annual Report of the Council of Economic Ad- visers,(Washington, Jan. 1966), p. 107. 11. In the decisions of the hearing panel in the case ofHenrietta Canty v, Office of Economic Oppor- tunity,Atlanta, Oct. 28, 1969. 12. Smith, W. Eugene and Garner, Phil, "Children the Real Losers in School Battle,"(The Atlanta Jour- nal,May 8, 1969), p. 1A. 13. McGill, Ralph, "Pandering to a Myth."f.The Atlanta Constitution,Nov. 18, 1968), p. 18. 14. Campbell, Angus and Schuman, Howard,Racial Attitudes in Fifteen American Cities,Supplemental Studies for the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, (Ann Arbor: University of Michi- gan Press, 1968), p. 19. 15. United States Commission on Civil Rights,Rne Ial Isolation in Public Schools.4 Washington, Govern- ment Printing Office, 1967), Vol. I, pp. 128.140; Katz, Irwin, "Review of Evidence Relating to Ef- fects of desegregation on the Intellectual Performance of Negroes,"(American Psychologist,19, June 1964), pp. 381 -399; Coleman, James, Equalityof Educational Opportunity,(Washington: Gov- ernment Printing Office, 1966), pp. 330-331; Weinberg, Meyer,Desegregation Research: An Appraisal, (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, 1968), p. 9-63. 16. Pettigrew, Thomas,Racially Separate or Together?.(New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1969), pp. 12-15; United States Commission on Civil Rights,op. cir.,pp. 110-113; Coleman, Equality of Educational Opportunity,pp. 331-333. 17. Bowler. Mike, "4 City Schools Losing Whites,"(The Atlanta Constitution,Sept. 9, 1969). P.5. 18. Task Force Survey of Teacher Displacement in Seventeen States,(Washington: The Commission on Professional Rights and Responsibilities of the National Education Association, June 1969), 19. "How the 'Elimination of the Dual School System' Is Affecting Negro Educators in 30 School Systems in North Georgia," GTEA Research Report, (Atlanta: Georgia Teachers and Education Association, June 5, 1969). 20. Dodson, Dan,Community Control of the Schools, A New Alternative,(Detroit: Michigan-Ohio Re- gional Educational Laboratory, 1969)), p. 6. 21. Jaffee, A. J., Adams, Walter and Meyers. Sanders, "The Sharply Stratified World of the Negro Col- leges,"(College Board Review,66, 1967), p. 25. 22. Bowles,op. cit.,p. 99. 23. Simon, Kenneth and Grant, W. Vance, Digest ofEducational Statistics, 1968,(Washington; Govern- ment Printing Office, 1969), p. 10. 24.Ibid.,p. 11. 25.Learning and Teaching in Atlanta Public Schools, 1955-56,Part 1, (Report of Survey and Findings, Princeton:Educational Testing Service, 1956), pp. 26. "Student Achievement in Atlanta Public Schools," (a report prepared under the auspices of Better Schools, Atlanta, 1968). 27.Bolden, Wiley S., Charland, William 4, and Kirkpatrick, David C.,Institute for Effective Service and Leadership in Desegregated Schools,(a project supported by a contract from the United States Department of Health. Education, and Welfare. Contract number OEC 2-6000166-1966. PI 88-352, Title IV, Section 404, The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Atlanta, 1966). 28. Gibson, John S., "Leaning Materials and Minorities; What Medium and What Message?" (Keynote address at the National Conference on the Treatment of Minorities in Textbooks, National Education Association, Washington, Feh. 9, 1967). p. 3. 29. "Schools Urged to Attack Prejudice,"EducationUSA. April 1, 1968, p. 169. 30. Kohl, Herbert, "Discussion: Implvnenting Educational Opportunity,"(Harvard Educational Review, 38, Winter, 1968), pp. 157-158, 31. For example, see Hylan Lewis in Lee Rainwater and William Yancey, TheMoynihan Report: The Politics of Controversy,(Cambridge: M.1.T. Press, 1967);and"Culture, Class, Poverty and Urban Schooling." a paper presented at the Sixth Work Conference on Curriculum and Teaching in De- pressed Urban Areas, Teachers College. (Columbia University, June 19-30, 1967); Jeffers, Camille, Living Poor,(Ann Arbor: Ann Arbor Publishers, 1967); Goodman, Yetta, "The Culturally DepriYed Child. A Study in Stereotyping,"(Integrated Education, 7,July-Aug, 1963), pp. 58-63: Mackler, Bernard and Giddings, Morsley G., "Cultural Deprivation: A Study in Mythology," (inThe Urban R's,et.al.);and Program of the 1969 Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association. 32.Baratz, Joan C. and Baratz, Stephen S., "The Social Pathology Model: Historical Bases for Psychology's Denial of the Existence of Negro Culture, (a paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Washington, 1969). 33.Ibid. 34.Rosenthal. Robert and Jacobson. Leonore,Pygmalion in the Classrooms,: Teacher Expectation and Pupils'Intellectual Development,(New York: Holt. Rinehart and Winston, 1967). 35. Gordon. Sol. "A Primary Unit in Urban Slums: A Mental Health Orientation," (in Dentler,et.al., op cit.),pp. 191-192. 36.Leacock. Eleanor,Teaching and Learning In City Schools: A Comprehensive Study,(New York: Basic Books, 1969), 37. Bloom, Benj Amin,(Integrated Education,May-June, 1969), pp. 16-20.

353 3R. Bruner, Jerome S.. The Process of Education. (New York: Random House. 19611. 39. Fischer. John. "Desegregating City Schools." (a paper prepared for deliver.. at School Administrators Conference. co-sponsored by the National Urban League and Teachers College. Columbia University. n. p. 3. 40. Smith. W. Eugene and Garner. Phil. "People Saw This As inevitable.' (The Atlanta Journal. June 11. 1969). p. 3. 41.Ibid. 42. "Status Report on Desegregation Efforts at Opening of 1969 School Year. With Attached Attitude Sur- vey of Some Desegregated i.chool Districts (Memorandum to Secretary from Office of Civil Rights. Department of Health. Education. and Welfare).

354 THE subject -Structure of Govern- ment in Georgia:" wilt be used in a very broad sense in this paper to cover all aspects of govewnerttlocal, state, and federal. As used here, it compre- hends not simply governmental organization in a narrow sense but all aspects of government and political organization,includingadministration, planning,distributionoffunctions among various levels of government, taxation, borrowing. politicalparties, andcitizenparticipationingovern- ment. Although the effortwill be made to deal generally with all major aspects of government, concentrated attention will be given to those aspects of gov- ernmentandpoliticalorganization which would seem to have the most effect on education. It is obvious, of By Morris W. H. Collins, Jr., Ph.D. course. that a paper of this scope cannot deal with every aspect of govern- Structure of Government in Georgia ment and political organization; there must be a great deal of selection. In most cases, the general plan of treatment istomake a brief analysis of present conditions and trends and to project and predict the overall governmental and political structure of the state during the next decade and a half, till 1985. The first section will deal with general conditions and trends in govern- mentlocal, state, and federal. This Professqr, will be followed by a section on local government in Georgia primarily coun- Political Science ty and municipal governments but giv- University of ing attention to emerging metropolitan Georgic! and other forms of area government. The final section will cover state government. In both the local and the state government sections, consideration will be given to the federal government and

355 the impact of federal programs and ac- which have been undertaken. The peo- tivities on the local and state govern.. ple. throughdemocraticprocesses, ments of Georgia. have determined thatgovernment should performvariousfunctions General COnditionsandTrends rather than private enterprise. InGovernment and Political Very often, of course., government Organization was the only agency which could perform new functions. The assumption of Governmental Growth new functions by government does not Itishardlynecessaryto document necessarily mean taking these functions the tremendous growth which we have away from the private sector. had in government. Indicative of this Much of the growth of governmental growth is the fact that 6,789 persons functions is a part of the increasing were employed by the state government standardoflivinginthiscountry. of Georgia in 1940 and that nearly There have been radical increases in seven times this many persons, 43,844, our governmental standard of living, in were employed in196;7. In local gov- the quality of services rendered as well ernment,12,674personswere em- as in the scope of services provided ployedinmunicipal governmentin and the degree of regulation imposed. Georgia in1940. compared with 28, As we look to the future, specifically 794 persons in 1967. In county govern- to 1985 in Georgia, there is every indi- ment. 7.074 persons were employed in cation thatthis governmental growth 1940. compared with 16,757 persons will continue. It is beyond the scope of in1967.*Itshoe' Ibe stressed that this paper to enter into detailed analy- this growth of government has taken sis of possible reasons for this. Suffice place at alllevels.Itis not just the itto say that increasing concentration federal government which has experi- of populations in urban areas, rapid enced tremendous growth, state gov- technological developments, major ad- ernments, cities, and counties areall vance in knowledge, greatly improved doing a great deal more. communication and transportation, and This growth is also indicated by in- major social changes willallplay a creases in expenditures. In 1942, total part in making it appear to people that expenditures . the state government governments should assume even more of Georgia were about $79 million. By functions and should do a great deal 1967, this had risen to nearly $1 bil- better job in performing some of their lion. On the local side, municipalities present functions. and counties had expenditures of ap- Does this mean that we are headed proximately $70 million in 1942, com- inevitably for a socialist state? Not at pared withnearly$500millionin all. At the same time that government 1967.* has been growing, we have seena Part of this growth of government tremendous growthin therange of has been quantitative, brought on by goods and services provided by private population increases. Some part of it, enterprise in this country. As a matter too, has been qualitative in the sense of fact, there have been studies which that governments have done a better indicate that the federal government is job of performing functions which they spending a smaller proportion of the have long possessed. But a great part of gross national product in civil domestic government growth on all levels is due activities than in the 1920s. to the broad range of new functions There are many implications for education in this continued governmental *All figures from reports of the U. S growth.Obviouslytherewillbea Bureau of aie Census. Census of Govern. great demand for a good many addi- ments. 1967 and earlier reports. tional kinds of education, particularly

356 on the adult level. Government itself. this assumption of powers by the fed- asit becomes larger and enters into eral government, and an analysis of more complex operations, requires an these is beyond the limits of the present ever-increasing quantity of adult edu- inquiry. A prime factor. of course, has cation on all levels. been the superior tax resources of the Perhaps even more important. the federal government stretching as they general increase in the "governmental do throughout the length and breadth standard of living" probably will mean of the nation. that people will demand in the educa- A major objective of many of the tional area of government a far higher federal programs has been to equalize level of performance. Higher quality opportunities and services available to will be demanded. the people of the nation. But few, if At the same time, additional new any, of these added federal functions functions and better performance of have taken anything away from the old ones will create tremendous finan- states or local units. In welfare, for ex- cial demands on governments. Educa- ample, there has been a funding on tion will probably have to fight mucn a scale never before provideda far harder to secure an adequate propor- cry from the alms houses and other tion of the scarce funds available. limited programs previously provided by local governmental units. Distribution of The same is true of health. Most of Governmental Functions the health services financed by federal There seems to be a widespread pop- funds were previously not provided at ular opinion stimulated by many in all. Educational programs financed by the political arena that a great central- the federal government are still another ization of governmental functions and example of the complementing of state powers has taken place in this country. and local programs. The belief seems to be that functions This is not to say that federal funds and powers are being taken away from have come with no strings attached; city and county governments by the certainly standards have been imposed. states and from the states by the fed- But, overall, most of these federal pro- eral government. The quick corclusion grams have resulted in new partner- is drawn that this accelerating central- ships among federal, state, and local ization willcontinueuntilultimately units of government; The state and local and state units of government will local units have been greatly expanded have littlemore than ministerial to carry out these federal programs.. powers; that is, they will merely carry A major trend in government in this out directives that come from the fed- country during the last few decades eral government. has been the tremendous growth of To say the least, such a mechanistic grants-in-rid from the federal govern- concept of centralization obfuscates the ment. A large number of these grants facts. Actually, it might be best if we have beeninterms of specifiic pro- stopped thinking in terms of centraliza- grams--categorical grants. These cate- tion and decentralization. gorical program grants have often in- As noted above, all levels of govern- fluenced the way in which state and ment are doing more today than they localunits of government have spent have ever done before. It is quite obvi- their own funds. ous that the federal government has In the last few years, there has been taken on a great many new functions, developing a move toward giving the some of which were formerly performed states and local units greater freedom entirely by state or local unitsfor ex- through block grants.It appears that ample, education and public welfare. the federal government will emphasize There are many complex reasons for more and more the block grant princi-

357 plc. attempting to give the states and knowledge more readilry availohne to local units more freedom to establish local units and provide the oppormunity their own priorities within broad fields for a greater degree of local !power. of activity; for example, health. educa- The new federalism would seemto tion, and criminal justice. Thenew make possible an ever greater degree federalism"stressesthepartnership of centralization of knowledge and de- concept, the idea that governments on centralization of power. or execution. all levels in this country are involved In Georgia, it can he predicted that inworking toward mutually desired there will be an increasing amount of objectives. state participation in federal grants to It should be noted that most of the local units and an increasing n2mber standards imposed by higher levels of of state grants to local units. The state government are desirable standards ap- willalso increasingly establish stand- plauded by all.Ultimately, of course, ards of all kinds which local units must these standards most have the approval live up tofor example, standards as of the people's representatives in Con- to the kinds of persons who can be gress, or else they will not stand. They employed in various country and mu are, then, democratic standards in the nicipal offices. It can be predicted that ultimate sense, democratically arrived the state will also increasingly impose at by the people of this nation. standardsofperformanceforlocal There appears to be an increasing units of government in such areas as demand for standards in government taxation andfinancial administration. to achieve improved quality of services. At the same time, the state government Not only the federal government but of Georgia will offer a great deal more state governments as well appear to be in the way of technical assistance to increasinglyadoptingstandardsfor local units of government. performance of functions by local units The implications forlocaleduca- as well as standards for employment of tional administration are obvious, par- certainkeypersonnel,for example, ticularly as regards financial adminis- policemen. Needless to say, states have tration including purchasing. long established standards for employment of teachers and other critical pro- Development of the Strong Executive fessional personnel. A major trend of government for some In considering: the whole question of time in this country has been the devel- centralization and decentralization,it opment of the ever stronger chief ex- might be useful to recall the admoni- ecutive onalllevels of government. tion of the great English statesman. On the national and statelevels, the Edmund Burke, who said that what is President and most governors achieved desirable is centralization of knowledge strong executive status many years ago. and decentralizationof power. Cer- On the local level, increasingly we see tainly inthis age we should applaud the mayor and some form 'of county the increasing centralization of knowl- executive becoming ever stronger. edge. Indeed very often the lack of A good part of this development has power on thelocallevelisdue to been due to the demand for more effec- ignorance, to a lack of knowledge. If tive performance of vital governmental from some central source the local unit functions. In an earlier day when gov- could have more knowledge,it could ernments were charged with relatively more easily exercise power on the local few tasks,thesefunctions could be level. rendered with a minimum concentra- The development of computers and tion of executive power. A multi-mem- of comprehensive information systems ber board or commission could get the on the state and federal levels should job done. The people of this country, do a great deal to make centralized withtheirfearof concentrationof

358 governmentalpower. seemedtobe tionwillfinditnecessarytoexert most happy when power could be de- strong efforts to attract and recruit its posited in a multi-member body rather share of persons with talents to fulfill than in a single individual. As the jobs the multiplicity of professional admin- of government became more complex istrative positions it will need to fill. and their effective performance more Changing Legislative Bodies important to the people, the attempt to accomplish through a multiplicity of Needless tosay,the most dramatic executives becameincreasinglydiffi- changestakingplaceinlegislative cult. bodies in this country are those brought making Increasingly,ithas become neces- aboutbyreapportionment, sary to establish a single chief execu- representation very nearly exactly pro- tivewith strong powers to get the portionalto population. Not only is governmental job done effectively. This this being required in state legislatures does not mean that the executive must and inthe United States House of he autocratic. As a matter of fact, the Representatives,itisalso beingre- single executive, clearly responsible to quired in city councils and in country the people (or the people's representa- governing bodies. Unquestionably, rep- tives)is propably much more control- resentation exactly proportional to pop- lable than officials in a multi-executive ulation will be applied increasingly to system where responsibilityis divided suchlocalunitsaselectiveschool and the people often know not whom boards.It seems unlikely that much to blame when things go wrong. weight will be given in the future to Concomitantly with the development representation on any other basis than of a strong executive, there has also population. The United States Senate developed the professional administra- wilt probably be the major exception. tor to carry out executive functions. There is a danger here, however, The city manager in council-manager which concerns many serious students government, the school superintendent, of government:majoritarianism. The and the hospital administrator repre- founders of our American political sys- sent the new breed of professional ad- tern were very fearful of majoritarian- ministrators.IncreasinglyinGeorgia ism as they had seen it operate on the we are seeing the development of pro- continentinEurope. The tyrannical fessional executives on the county level majority is indeed a fearful prospect. as county administrators. The guarantees of civil rights are pri- But the development of the profes- marily guarantees tominorities, pro- sionalexecutivegoes much beyond tections of minorities against majority this.In departments of state govern- tyranny. Though few would attempt ment and in large departments of local tojustifyhe gross inequities which governments in Georgia, there is de- had developed in representation in state veloping adistinct group of profes- legislative bodies and in the Congres- sional administratorswithvarying sional districts, one still can have legiti- levels of responsibility. It can be pre- mate worries about a democracy which dicted that this development will con- is based increasingly on numbers alone. tinue at an accelerated rate. The job of Certainly some of the most precious getting the vital functions of govern- values in education might be endan- ment done is becoming an increasingly gered if submitted to the whims of an complex one, demanding a high degree uninformed electorate. 'The answer, of of executive talent. course, is to inform, but this is often We can expect to see increasing de- a long-term task. A major task for our mands for professional administrators democracy during the next few years in functional areas as well as in general would seem to be the building of safe- governmentaladministration.Educa- guards against hasty actions by major-

359 ities which they may later regret. The ever more become important tothe classicalillustrationof tragicmajori- persons within their areas; and it can tarianism is, of course, popular actions be predicted thatthe people willin- in the wake of the French Revolution. creasingly turn to some of them to per- But representation is not all that has form more functions. This will be dis- changed inlegislative bodies; increas- cussed in greater detail in the section ingly, they have developed better staffs on local government below. andbetter means of getting atthe facts on Which policy or legislative de- Developments in cisions must be based. We can expect Governmental Personnel to see a great deal more of legislative In the early days of this country, gov- staff development in the future. This ernment particularly on the local level will be commented on in more detail in was looked on asavery lowlevel the discussion below of the state legisla- operation. There was a laisczfaire atti- tUre. tude toward government, the less gov There has also been developing on ernmentthebetter;thefeeling was the county level in Georgia something that government was not very impor- more nearly approximating alegisla- tant and that perhaps one way to keep tive body in the form of multimember itfrom becoming important was to county commissions.Itisto be ex- keep down the quality of persons man- pected that this trend will continue. ning it. The prevailing belief was that almost anybody could fillthe jobs of Development of New Kinds of government on the local level. Govern Governmental Planning and mentjobs,then, becameasortof Service Units plunder to be distributed to the victors How geographical areas are organized in a spoils system. for government isafascinating busi- Todaythe picture is changing ness. Most often we picture govern- rapidly. As more and more vital func- ment inthis nation as consisting of tions have been given to government, states and cities and counties (towns ithas become increasingly important and townships). Increasingly, we have to the people that these functions be seen the development of various other performed effectively. Government has kinds of area governmental units. required an ever larger number of pro- On the federal level, we have seen fessionals, persons trained to do highly the creation of interstate regionala- complex jobs. We have seen the de- gencies:theAppalachian Regional velopment of professionalization at all Commission andtheCoastalPlains levels of government. There has been Commission, bothof which include a rapid application of technological de- considerable portions of Georgia.In velopmentsingovernment.Research the state itself, we have seen develop has been initiated on a broad scale in some 17 area planning and develop- most functionalareas.All units and ment commissions, embracing nearly functionalareas require larger num- every county in Georgia. On a limited bers of professional, scientific, admin- basis we have seen the beginnings of istrative, and technical personnel. metropolitan area services,of metro- In an earlier day when the spoils sys- politan councils of government, partic- tem prevailed, there was developed the ularly in the Atlanta area. civil service or themerit systemto Itshould be stressed that none of "keep the rascals out." The emphasis these regional units is in the true sense wasonmakingcertainthatthose a comprehensivegovernmentalunit; whom government employed possessed they are, infact planning and service the requisite qualifications for the posi- units.Buttheserviceswhichthey tions which they filled. The emphasis is render, whether planning or otherwise, totally changed today. Today the major

360 probicm is to go out and recruit quail. attract a greater proportion of the most fie{ pe.'ple and persuade them to ac- competent personsinour societyto cept employment in government. One the educational field. But there will be can predict that increasingly the major need for even more intensive recmit effortin personnel administration will ment. be directed toward thepositiveap- It seems rather certain, too, that in proachof gettingthebestpossible the next 15 years that education will people into government. become fully unionized and that edu One can predict too that increasingly cational administrators will be forced personneladministration ingovern- to deal with employees through their ment as a function of executive man- unions. agement will be placed directly under the executive rather than under an in- ThyBeginning Development of dependent merit system board or civil Comprehensive Program Planning service commission. Increasingly,federalgrants-in-aidare People will demand of their govern- .....requiring comprehensive planning as a ments particularly on the local level a basisforthegrants.Examplesare sophistication of management in gov- health, urban renewal and housing, jus- ernment which we have not known tice,waterresources andpollution, heretofore,sophisticationnot for the and transportation. Inpart,as a re- sake of sophistication, but to achieve a sponse tothesefederal requirements, much more effective rendering of gov- we have seen developing at the state ernmental services. To achieve this, we level much stronger planning agencies, can expect to see pay and fringe bene- concerned not just with traditional phy- fits for governmental personnel becom- sical and natural resource planning, but ing more fully equivalent to those re- alsogeneral,comprehensive program ceived in comparable private employ- planning. ment. It can be predicted too that with Concomitantly, these kinds of plan- comparability in pay and fringe bene. ning units have been developing also fits, the public service will have a con- at the local level. A notable example in siderably greater appeal to young per- Georgia are the 17 area planning and sons of this country, with a concomit- development commissions, all of which ant increase in prestige and status of have taken on comprehensive criminal public employment. justice planning and some of which are It can also he predicted that unions beginningtoconsider orengage in of governmental employees will grow comprehensive health planning. Com. stronger and become more important. prehensive governmental planning will More and more governmental agencies be developed increasingly atthe city will find necessary to deal with their and county governmental levels as well. employees through unions. It can be predicted that comprehen- These personnel developments will sive program planningisjust begin- of course have directandforceful ning,thatitwill grow apace inthe effects on public education. One effect years ahead. In the past, planning has will be a.demand for a great deal more meantprimarilyphysicalplanning, education for the governmental service, most often ;n connection with land use. both pre-service and in-service. To se- This kind of planning will continue to cure and maintain the kinds of com- grow and develop, but itwill become petent personnel demanded will require more and more subordinate to overall education for the public service on a comprehensive program planning. scale hitherto unknown. Educationwill undoubtedly move The achievement of more compara- to a much greater comprehensiveness ble pay and fringe benefits should also in its planning in the future. It will be mean that education willbe. aMe .0 ,,;.:Teasingly necessary to carry out ed-

361 ucational planning in close conjunction must do a better job of justifying its with planninginallother areas of programs and its needs as compared governmentalactivity.Thiscompre- with other urgent and !messing needs hensive planning will require a much of government. sharper definition of objectives and a Education may have had an easier much greater degree of quantification time securing its present proportion of and costing of thr,:. objectives. public financial resources thanitwill have in the future; certainly this will Programming and Budgeting be true unless it rapidly adopts sophis- One of the most fashionable phrases ticated techniques of planning and pro- in government today is "PPBS" (plan- gram budgeting,utilizing afull-scale ning,programming, budgeting,. sys- systems approach. tems). Controversy swells around how these administrative processes are to be Borrowing and Capital applied, but one thingiscertain,all Improvements four processes will be increasingly uti- Itis obvious that borrowing and capi- lizedin government ina comprehen- talimprovements will increasingly sively related manner. come only as a result of careful plan- To an even greater extent, planning ning and programming. It will be nec- will be done in terms of thz dollars essary to justify capital improvements whichitwill costto implement the in education as against other needs of plans. This will mean quantification of government to a considerably greater objectives.It will also mean program- extent than has been true in the past. ming of these objectives and plans and A much greater degree of quantifica- the phasing of their implementation. It tion will be required and a much more will mean a careful budgeting of these carefuljustificationinterms of pro- programs and the instruction of a sys- gram objectives. On the other hand, tems approach to achieve the objectives once the determination is made on a and programs sought. comprehensivebasis that educational No matter whattheterminology, improvements are needed, it should be some form of PPBS seems destined to much easier to sell them to the public be here to stay. Increasingly, govern- andsecure approvaloftheneeded ment will be carried on in accordance financing. (This implies, however, that withcarefulprogramplanningand government isa wholly rational pro- quantifiably costed objectives. The cess, whereas we know that the non- scarcity of financial resources will re- rationaloftenpredominates,particu- quire ever more refined techniques of larly in political processes such as a decision-making to enable policy-mak- bond referendum.) ing officials and legislative bodies, as well as the citizenry at large, to make Changes in Taxation the best possible determinations as to There has beenarathersteady inwhich objectives and which programs crease inthe percentage of personal shall have priority income takenfortax purposes.*In This means thatinthe years just view of our projectionthatgovern- alnea'l educational administration must mental growth will continue at an ac- be radically overhauled to implement a celerated rate,it seems likely that the wholly new system of program percentage of personal income taken planningandbudgeting,utilizinga thoroughgoing systems approach. As *This is not in conflict with the statement noted above, it means that educational made above that the percentage of the objectivesmust bequantified national gross product' devoted to fed- to an eral domestic civil programs is less today extent that they never have been be- than several decades ago. Here we are fore.It further means that education talking about personal income.

362 in tax dollars will also continue to in- grammed on a priority basisif sonic crease. forms of revenue are protected by a Recent developments; however, have fixed allocation. It seems probable that indicatedthatlowerincomegroups in the decade and a half ahead, educa- might come to have a small proportion may be forced to seek its funds tion of their incomes taken by taxa- from the same general treasure on the tion.Students of taxation have long locallevel asallother governmental stressedtheregressivenessof much functions.If,as seems Rely, educa- of our taxation, particularly the prop- tion becomes financed wholly by the erty tax and sales and excise taxes of stateandfederalgovernments,this various sorts.It has been conclusive. will, of course, become an academic ly demonstrated timeafter time that question. persons with lower incomes bear the greatest share of taxationrelative to Governmental Reporting and their incomes. Communication In recent years there has been in- The job done by Georgia governmental crcaced advocacy of using taxation as units in reporting their activities to the a means of establishing a basic mini- people isatthe moment most primi- mum incomeestablishing aguaran- tive,with .afew notable exceptions. it is teed incomelevelorlevyingaso- Where there is any reporting at all called negative income tax.President most often rather pedestrian, through Nixon, in his message to Congress on printed media.Use of television,ra- welfare in the summer of 1969 added dio, electronic devices. exhibits, open astrong voicetothis advocacyin houses, etc.israre.Itislikely that proposing family maintenancestand- thiswillchange considerably inthe ards. years ahead.Itseems probablethat It seems quite likely that some form reporting and communicating to the of guaranteed minimum income will people by governmental units increas- be established in the years just ahead, ingly make use of advanced electronic or at theleastthatfamilies willbe techniques.Iffor no otherreason, assured of minimum maintenance pay the needtomobilize publicopinion ments. It seems likely, too, that lower behind the programs and objectives of income personswillbe givenother the governmental unit or agency will kinds of relief in taxation. require increased public support. One can predict further that taxa- Overall, education in Georgia seems tionwillincreasingly be usedas a to have done a particularly poor job means to achieve objectivesadopted of reporting and communicating to the as socially desirable, objectives other people. If education is to maintain sup- tharthe mere extraction of revenue. port and secure its share of scarce pub- Ttis probable, for example, that addi- lic funds, high priority must be given tionaltaxadvantageswillbe given to a maximum utilization of all avail- toparentsinconnection withcosts able techniques of communication and incurredineducatingtheir children, reporting. particularly if this education meets determined public needs in critical occu- Realization of Democratic Ideals pational categories. During the last two or three decades, Itisprobable also that withthe governments in this country have taken growthof comprehensive planning fairly major strides toward a greater and the concomitant development of realization of the democratic ideals on programming and budgeting, the sys- which the nation was founded. Equal- tem of a separate tax for school pur- ityin treatment by government and poses will he done away with. Expendi- in opportunities which it provides have tures can hardly be planned and pro- beer/mostapparent. Moves against

363 segregation withitsattendant inequi- tomake morevigorousefforts Ile ties have been most dramatic. It seems achievefullracialintegration.They rather certain that all vestiges of segre- also will be forced to give up entirely gation. at least as they are enforced by on any form of religious observation any unit of government. will be wiped in the school and on demanding any out during the next 15 years. expression of patriotic feeling toward Even more, however, it appears that the flag or the national anthem. government will continue to promote vigorouslyfull-scaleintegration,tak- Participation in Government ing positive steps to achieve this. One canbecomequitediscouraged Governmentalefforts to achieve with the democratic process when he eauality have not been limited to the studies voting statistics and notes the abolition of segregation or the achieve- lackof citizen participationinelec- ment of integration for racial minori- tions. The record has been particularly ties. There have been significant moves poor in Georgia. To illustrate, of the bygovernmentstoachievegreater citizens of voting age in Georgia, itis equalityfor women andforother estimated that only 36.5 percent voted minority groupsincluding even in the 1968 presidential election. One youth, though most of the latter prob- can predict thatthe extentof voter ably feel that these have been rather participationisalmost bound toim- timid moves. prove in Georgia;itcould hardly be In Georgia we have seen a massive worse. The development of a two -party program aimedatachieving greater system and better education will prob- equalization of assessment for property ably produce some increase in partici- taxes. We have also moved to promote pation. The improved organization of equal opportunity in education through both parties, which will be discussed the Minimum Foundation and other below, should also increase participa- programs.Itcan be predictedthat tion. these efforts to achieve equality, par- A somewhat philosophicalattitude ticularly equality of opportunity, such aboutvoter participation canbe as in education, will be accelerated in adopted.It has been propounded by the years just ahead. some authoritiesthatdemocracyis Buttherealizationofdemocratic essentially a system which permits per. ideals involves more than the ideal of sons tovote when they really want equality. We have also seenacon- to, "when the shoe pinches."If voters siderable increase in the degree of free- aregenerallysatisfied,thistheory dom granted and promoted by govern- holds; thereisreally no need to be ment. An exampleisreligiousfree- concerned when they do not go to the dom, as demonstrated in the prohibi- polls and vote. The key to democracy tion by the courts of the holding of isthat they have the opportunity to any kind of religious services in the go if the shoe pinches. classroom. Other freedoms in connec- It must be recognized, however, that tion with saluting the flag and observ- the lack of participation may often he ing the playing of the national anthem the result of poor education. One can come readilyto mind. Freedom of cherish the hope that as voters become publicationand of dramaandthe more educated on the issues at stake, movies has also received considerable theirparticipationwillincrease. At support from the courts in recent years. any rate,it seems safe to predict that It seems unlikely that the tide will there will be considerable increases in turnsignificantlyintheyearsjust voter participation in Georgia. ahead, though some excesses will sure- It can be predicted also that local ly be curbed. As for education, the and somewhat militant elements of the schools undoubtedly will be required citizenry will become even more active

364 in making theirwishes or demands morethan340,000 Georgiablacks known tothosein governmental au- were registered to vote. Thereis no thority. way of knowing what percentage of There has been some progress dur- these hlacks actually voted, but allin- ing recentyearsininvolving more dications are thatit was atleastas peopleingovernmentatthegrass high as the percentage of whites. roots, the neighborhood level. Involv- Looking to thefuture,itcan be ing citizensinpositive,participatory predicted that more and more eligible actionharnessestheirenergies to blacks will register and vote. Indeed, achieveagreed-upon objectiVes. It with aggressive action among blacks, should hestressedthat participatory itis quite possible that the percentage democracy, as envisaged here,is not registered to vote will exceed that of conceived merely asparticipation by whites. poor people. In the transitional phase,itisun- It seems likely that there will be a doubtedly truethatthere will be a considerable increaseinparticipatory great deal of block voting by blacks: democracy in the years ahead,The white candidates will receive very few additionalleisuretime 'which many blackvotes when opposed by black persons have as a result of the shorter candidates. In this transitional phase, work week and labor-savingtechno- it is most likely that a number of Geor- logical developments should create a gia counties, those with preponderant considerably greater reservoir of perblack majorities in the population will sons with time to spend in such par- have all, or nearly all, elective offices ticipatory activities. filled by blacks. It would appear that there has been It is also probable that a number of arather low degree of participation the central, core cities of the metro- in education by the citizenry of Geor- politan areas of Georgia--those where gia. To achieve greatly increasedin- blacks outnumber whites in the popu- volvement willrequire aggressive and lationwill elect black candidatesto imaginative action on the part of edu- allorvirtuallyalloffices.Itseems cators. Efforts to secure such involve- probable. however, thatin the long ment might be given arather high term, as we move more and more to- priority, since it can be predicted that ward an integrated society, the color if there isnot a great deal more in- factorwill become less 'dominantin volvement, the educational system will attracting black voters as a block. Ex- be facedwithinsistent demands by perience has indicated that in the long persons who feel that their good and term, voters as a whole tend to choose the good oftheirchildrenarenot candidates for reasons other than affin- receiving due consideration. ity of race, color, or religion. On the A major trend in the political proc- other hand, itis likely that these fac- esses of Georgia during the last two tors will always play a role -in attract- decades has been the increased partici- ing a block support by persons who pation of blacks. As late as the mid- will vote on an affinity basis. I 940s, there was very little black par- It has been freely predicted by many ticipationlimitedtoelectionsina that metropolitan core citiesin Geor- few municipalities and sparse voting in gia,likeAtlanta,willbe governed generalelections. The latter counted largely by black officials due to the for very little at that time since nomi- impending predominance of blacks in nationinthe Democrat primary,in the population. It is possible, of course, which blacks had virtually. no part, thatthe Georgia General Assembly was tantamount to election. will forestall this by enacting consoli- In contrast, in the 1968 presidential dation legislation creating a white ma- election,ithas beenestimatedthat jority.Itshould be noted, however,

365 that a white majority will not insure system, the growth of the Republican the election of white officials.Highly Party. It is well known, of course, that qualified and popular black candidates theRepublicancandidate received may beabletoachievevictory by more votes than the Democratic can- securing alarge proportion of black didate in the last two presidential elec- votes and a sizeable minority of white tions.Itisalsowell known that the votes. Republican candidate for Governor in Another possibility is that the courts the 1966 election received more votes might prohibit such legislative consoli thantheDemocraticcandidate.al- dation on the grounds thatitispat. though the latter was elected by the ently discriminatory, or that it involves General Assembly inthe absence of denial of the right to elect officers of a majorityof all the votes for the Re- ones choice, or that the people con- publicancandidate. It might also be cernedwithconsolidationmustbe noted that there are now 26 Repub- given a voice as to whether itis to be licans in the 195 member State House effected. of Representatives and six Republicans In any event, one can predict that in the 56 member State Senate. Large there will be a great many more black numbersofelectivelocal offices governmental officialsin Georgia and throughout the state are also held by a great deal more black participation Republicans.Intwoofthestate's in government in the years to come.* largestcities.Macon and Savannah. The great influx of blacks into the the mayors are Republicans. Two of political processes of Georgia presents the United States congressmen from a tremendous challenge to education. the Atlanta metropolitan area are Re- the challenge for a massive upgrading publicans. to overcome cultural and educational In sum, Republicans have made con- disadvantagessothatthisvast bulk siderable strides in d e v el o p i n g a of new participants may exercise their stronger, more competitive party. They democratic privileges more effectively have begun to hold primaries, and their and intelligently. There is a tremend- organizational efforts have often been ous need for adult education, includ- quite sophisticated and effective. ing civic education. This grow t h of the Republican This massive influx will accelerate de- Party has stimulated the Democratic mands by blacks for a great deal more Party to organize in a way that it has from the educational system, including never done before. The Democratic education to foster the pride of black Party for years discouraged widespread children.Itiscertain,too,thatde- participation, preferring to leave con- mands will be placed on the educa- trolinthe hands of a few at the tional system for the kind of inten- county and state levels. The competi- sive education which will be required tion of the Republican Party, among to overcome severe cultural and eco other things, seems to be stimulating nomic disadvantages. organization to much larger numbers Political Organization of voters in the Party. It can be pre- One of the fascinating politicalfacts dicted that these organizational efforts inthe last few years in Georgia has will grow and be intensifiedinthe been the development of a two-party years ahead. These organizational efforts should stimulate considerably *In 1968.Georgia had 14 black members more voter participation. of the General Assembly (2 in the Senate It seems probable that the growth of and12inthe House)There were 5 blacks serving on county commissions the two-party system in Georgia will and 6 on citycouncils. There was an leadto more responsibleparties,to undertermined number serving on school parties that take stands on issues and boards throughout the state. are judged much more previously on

366 how well they deliverLon the prom- allsorts. ises which they make and the perform- On the other hand, despite the ple- ance of the candidates elected. thora of local governmental units, we The implications for education are find large areas of suburbia in Geor that it will become increasingly difficult gia metropolises which havelittleor tokeepeducationoutofpolitics. no governmental organization. As an School board members for example, example,inmany areasof DeKalb may be elected, theoretically, on a non- County (suburban Atlanta) the voter partisan basis; but as parties become does not reside within an incorporated stronger, candidates will become iden- municipality. Studies of these residents tified as Democrats or Republicans. So have shown that many of them have often the kind of person who is willing very little contact with any local gov- to run for an electedoffice, be ita ernment. They pay their taxes and buy school board member or some other their automobile licenses by mail; they office,isthe kind of person who has do not serve on juries. Some of them been active inhis party; he is some- do not even know where the court- thing of a political animal. house of their county governmentis There will be a necessity for educa- located. Some students of government tionalleadersandadministratorsto feel that there is a real need for these work harder at persuading party lead- suburban"governmentalwastelands" ers as to the soundness of educational to be organized attheleast to have programsfor example, bond issues. some kindofparticipatorygovern- This does not mean that such school mental organization. issues will become narrowly partisan; it does mean that party leaders and Structure of County governmental officials may not always Government in Georgia he the same persons and thatit very Oneof the most striking developments often will be necessary to convince all in Georgia county government inre- of these of the soundness of educa- cent years has been the development tionalprograms andobjectives;else of an executive and of alegislative they are likely to go down to defeat body in many c o u n ti e s. Formerly, at the hands of party leaders who have countiesweregovernedwholly by not been informed. elected officers, each elected to carry So much for general trends. As we out a specific function. AF counties be- discuss local and state government became more important and moved into low, there will be an elaboration on new areas of activity, such as road some of these general conditions and building. it became necessary to estab- trends. In many cases, however. refer- lish a different kind of official. At first ence will simply be made to what has theordinaryexercised miscellaneous been said about the particular subject executive functions. Increasingly, how- in this section. ever, countiesin.Georgia have turned from the elected ordinary to an elected county commissioner, or a board of commissioners of road and revenues. Structure of Local This trend has continued until in 1969 Government in Georgia there were only three counties remain- Georgia Is blessed with local governing inthe state which did not have ments. She has more county govern- county commissioners, either a single ments(159)than anystateinthe commissioner or boardsof commis- union save Texas. The latest census of sioners. governments found withint lestate's, Most of the larger counties had in- borders 561municipalities and more stitutedamulti-member board of than 300 ad hoc special districtsof county commissioners to serve as some-

367 thing of a county legislative body.* In made the office of constable in militia those counties with single commission- districts(Justice of the Peace Courts ers,thereis no legislative body: the forsmallclaims)appointiverather commissionP qubines both executive thanelective.Thejusticesofthe and legislat,-,unctions in his person. peace, who preside over these small Inmulti-membercommissions,t h e claim courts, have been abolished in chairman tendstobe something of a number of counties recently in favor an executive, although oftentimes an of some other kind of small claims administrator selected by the commis- court. sion functions more nearly as the exe- A striking development, of course, cutive. This officialis most often the has been the change of county school clerk of the board. superintendents from an elective to an Lately there has been a considerable appointive basis in some 25 counties, move towardemploying professional often accompanied with provision for county administrators,particularlyin an elected school board. Itishighly largercounties.Fulton County (At- likelythat many more counties will lanta)hasfor many yearshada change to an appointive superintendent county manager form of government. and an elective board during the next Most other counties have established fifteen years. a much less formal system, simply em- It seems safe to predict that there ploying a professional administrator to will be a continuation of thetrend carry out executive functions of the toelectfewer county officers. More county. and more they will be appointed by a Itcan be predicted that more and county executive or legislative body. more counties of the state will move to An important development in county establish a truer legislative body and a governmentrecentlyhasbeenthe stronger executive. It can be predicted, emergence of the urban county. There too,thatanincreasingnumberof is, of course, nothing fixed about the counties, particularly larger ones, will functions which a city ora county employ professional career administra- can perform. Increasingly,inconcen- tors to exercise overall administrative tratedpopulationareas,residentsof supervision under the direction of the counties have demanded and gotten 10 elected commission. municipal-typeservicesf r o m their Another interesting development in counties. These counties, primarily in c o u n t y government in Georgia has metropolitan areas. often come to ren been the reduction in the number of der a wide range of municipal-type county officers. Most counties of the services,suchasprovision of water statehaveabolishedtheoffice of and sewerage.collectionof garbage, county treasurer and per f o r m this streetlights, curbs and gutters, storm function in other ways. The great bulk sewerage. fire protection, traffic control of counties have also consolidated the devices and many others. o-;ficr:.-s of tax collector and tax receiver Along with what might be called the into the single office of tax commis- urban county, we have seen all coun- sioner.* A recent development has also ties in Georgia assuming new services and expanding others. For example, *Numbersof members on county commissions in 1969 were as follows: single public health,forestry, welfare, plan- commissioner.29counties:threecorn ning and zoning, andindustrialde- missioners. 62 counties; four commission- velopment. Counties have also been ers.2counties;five commissioners. 58 persuaded by the state and federal gov- counties; more than five commissioners, 5 ernmentsto assumeotherfunctions counties. such as libraries and airports. *Only 41 counties retain separate offices The point to be noted here isthat

368 counties have increasinglyassumed noted above, some of them have be- new functions and expanded old ones, gun to participatein or look toward even in the large number of counties comprehensive health planning.It which have been losing population. For seems likely that these area planning large numbers of Georgia citizens, the and development commissions willin county remains the strongest and the time assume considerably more plan- most viable unit of government under ning functions as well as some opera- whichtheylive andthisincludes tionalfunctionsfortheareasthey some of the state's metropolitan areas. serve. A striking development in Georgia As will be noted below, there seems has been the growth of intergovern- little likelihood that we will have many mental cooperation among counties of county consolidationsinGeorgia.It the state.Itis probable that the very is likely. however, that there will be a number of counties in the state has fos- great deal of functional consolidation teredfunctionalconsolidationona among counties. multi-county basis, and it .is predicted There has also been a great increase that this will continue and accelerate in city-county cooperation in Georgia. in the years ahead. Examples of multi- Historically,attemptstoconsolidate countyfunctionalconsolidationa r e citiesandcountiesin Georgia have health, where most often hospitals and failed, as they have nearly everywhere medical centers serve multi-county dis- else inthenation. A greatdealis tricts. The same is true of regional li- made of the fact that certain consolida- braries and regional forestry units. The tions have taken place in the South in construction and operation of airports recent years, name! y, Baton Rouge, and ambulance services are examples Miami,Nashville,andJacksonville. of other functions which arebeing (One might argule that Baton Rouge rendered on a multi-county basis. and Miami are more federations, or There hasbeenarather limited confederations, than true consolida- multi-countyfunctionalconsolidation tions, but this is not an issue at point in older and more traditional functions, here.) Much has been made of these such as education. But we have seen consolidations because of the almost sonic beginnings of educational coop- universalfailure of such efforts else- eration among counties. and itis pre- where. Efforts in recent years to con- dicted that this will grow greatly in solidatethe city and county govern- the future. ments in Macon, Albany, Columbus, Perhaps the most dramatic develop- Athens, and Brunswick have all failed. ment has been the growth of multi- There seems little prospect that there county planning.In10 years, from will be any outright consolidation of 1959.1969, therehaddeveloped city and county governments inthe throughout the state 17 area planning state in the near future. At most, we and development commissions, cover- would expect very few during the next ing virtually all counties in the state. 15 years. These commissions, consisting of the There will be a steadily increasing municipalities as well as the counties amount of functional consolidation and of the area, all receive state grants which much closer cooperative relationships they are required to match on a local among cities and counties of the state. per capita basis. Fairly effective metropolitan-wide serv- The functions of these areaplan- ices will be developed in large metro- ninga n ddevelopmentcommissions politan areas, and councils of govern- seemto be expanding, though not rad- ments will be established during the ically. They recently have been given next fewyearsinallofGeorgia's the job of comprehensive criminal jus- metropolitan areas. tice planning for their area; and as Perhaps the most notable city-county

369 functionalconsolidationof thestate attempted to encourage functional con- has been in the schools. In 1969, there solidations by providing that statefi- remainedonly36independentcity nancial aid might he given to facilitate school systems; the rest had consoli- and foster such consolidation, but this dated. legislation seems to have had virtually Fulton County and the City of At. no effect. lanta had a dramatic consolidation of A major concern in state..county re. numerous functions in the early 1950s, lationsislocal legislation. Many im- the city assuming responsibility for cer- portant matters that affect county gov- tain functions and the count y for ernment are handled primarily by local others. legislators on a local courtesy basis in There has ben a steady move toward the general assembly. There is no ef- functionalconsolidation among cities fective home rule for Georgia coun- and counties all over the state, includ ties (or municipalities). It is probable ing health, libraries (health and libra that long-time efforts directed toward ries are almost universal), tax assess more effective home rule will prevail ment, tax collection, planning, utiliza- in the years just ahead and that coun- tion of computers, and purchasing. In ties willachieve a greater degree of the case of purchasing, the consolida- independence from the state govern- tion has extended to schools and hos- ment. pitalsissome counties. There have also been some consolidations of pub. To completetheexaminationof lic safety functions police and fire county relations,itis clear that there protection. Joint city.county buildings has beenanincreasingrelationship and other facilities have been erected with the federal government in recent in a number of counties. It seems cer years, particularly in the areas of eco- tain that there will he great increases nomic development and soil and water in functionalconsolidationbetween conservationprojects.Inpartnership cities and counties in the future. par. with the state, there has also been con- ticularlyinsuchareasastaxas siderable growth in a number of fed- sessment and tax collection. eral welfare programs, such as surplus Turning now tocounty-staterela- food and food stamp programs. Per. tions.itshouldbenoted thatthe haps most striking of all has been the county originally was established pri development of a multiplicity of fed- manly as anadministrativeunitof eral programs with the county school the state. As demands of the people for systems, through the Georgia Depart. governmentalserviceshavegrown, ment of Education. counties have increasingly performed It seems unlikely that there will be local governmental services apart from any significant development ofinde- the state. The state still uses the county pendent federal-county relations; rather, as a basic unit for carrying out cer- it appears that most federal programs tain functions. will flow through state agencies to the In part because they are administra- counties. tive units for the state, there has been There has been considerable progress a closer relationship between the state in modernization of county government and the counties than between the state in the state. 'What was said above about and its municipalities. the lack of professionalism in govern- The statehas attemptedtofoster ment applies particularlyinGeorgia functional consolidation. Many of the countygovernment.Increasinglythe multi-countyservices not e dabove, county employee is becoming a pro- such as health and libraries, are carried fessional. Highly qualified persons are outprimarily by thestatethrough being employed to carry on the county's multi-countyunits. A recentstatute business. This trend will certainly con-

370 Untie at an accelerated pace in the years amount of fragmentation of govern. ahead. ment on the locallevelinGeorgia. The county has been primarily de The independence of local school sys- pendent on the property tax, although tems is well known. The school board some other sources of revenue have establishes its needs and, within estab- been developed, particularly in urban lished legal limits. determines what the areas. Liquor and beer licenses some- millage rates shall be for the succeed. times affordsignificantrevenue, and ingyears,transmittingthistothe some counties are beginning to collect Board of County Commissioners, which business license fees. Grants from state is obligated to impose the millage rate. government have also been a significant In recent years there have grown up source of revenue for many Georgia in many counties independent hospital counties. authorities, wholly divorced from the Urban counties will undoubtedly con- regularly constitutedoperations of tinue to seek expansion of their taxing county governments. Similarly, indus- authority, since the property tax alone trial development authorities have been will hardly support the services which established, At the same time,there they are rendering. More and more has been a mushrooming of ad hoc they will also impose charge% for ser- specialunits of government through- vices rendered. out the state (sewer districts, water dis- It is likely that an even greater pro. tries, sanitation districts, etc.) portion of school costs will be borne All of these separate and independent by the state government; there possibly units of government create a fragmen- could he a complete assumption. This tation on the local level which makes will free local property tax revenues to exercise of overall county government finance other functions of county gov- quite difficult. It can be predicted that ernment. moves will be made in the future to Financial administrationincounty overcome thisfragmentation and se- government has improved considerably cure considerably more unity. This will in recent years. A few years ago, a he particularly true as counties develop budget waspracticallyunknownin more sophisticated program budgeting, most county.governments of the state, based on program planning. It is prob- and audits were often worth little more able that school boards will lose their than the paper on which they were independenceinestablishingmillage printed.Itisprobable that the state rates. (Of course, if the state assumed will increasingly regulate financial ad- full financing of schools, or virtually ministration of counties and impose all of it, such a power would be mean- standards which they must meet in this ing anyway.) administration. The years ahead will I probable that counties will more also see an introductioninurban and more require certain administra- county governments of programbud- tive functions of school systems to be gets based on planning and the insti- integrated or closely coordinated, with tution of a sophisticated systems ap- those of county government in gen- proach. eralsuch functions as planning, pur- Borrowing by county governments chasing, and maintenance. As noted willincreasingly be subjectedtothe previously, the development of com- same kinds of considerations asdis- prehensive planning willrequirethat cussed above in connection with pro- educationalplanningbecomemuch gram budgeting. It seemsprobable that more a part of overall governmental the state will assume most, if not all, planning. of the costs of capital improvements What is the future of county govern- for education. ment in .Georgia? The future is prob- There has been a considerable ably quite bright for most counties of

371 the state, Despite all the line and cry, As noted previously, there has been itis probable that few, if any. coun a great increase in the functions per- ties will he consolidated. What is more formed by municipal governments. The likely is that there will be massive con- large cities of the state have probably solidation of functions among counties had the greatest proportional increase and between cities and counties. Many of functions ofallunits of govern- county courthouses may become vir- ment. tualshells which do little more than A striking development in city gov- serve as a courtroom, but the symbol ernment in Georgia, as elsewhere, has of the courthouse and of the county's been the development of the strong independent existence will remain. executive. the strong mayor, and the Thesymbol,thenon-rational, is professionalcity manager. There has highly important in government. If ar- been quite a growth in council-man- rangements can be made to provide ager government in Georgia. Today 21 effectivegovernmentalservices,few of the 33 cities over 10,000 (nearly 64 would argue that the symbol should percent) have council-manager govern- not remain. ment. In those cities without council- Perhapsthechiefimplicationof manager government, the mayor has this for education is the major efforts becomea much strongerexecutive. to achieve radical functional consoli- This isparticularly true inthe large dation among county educational sys- cities. tems would probably be quite success- There has been the same develop- ful. But great care should be taken to ment of professionalism in administra- preserve,sofaras possible, county tion and of sophisticated administra- identification(thesymbols)insuch tionthat has been noted inprevious matters as names of schools. sections of this paper. This has been City Government particularly true in financal administra- Much of what has been said already tion where larger Georgia municipali- applies to municipal government in the ties are beginning to move into rather state and will not be repeated in this effective program budgeting. section. It should be noted, too, that Georgia's municipalities have been school systems of the state are primar- quite limited in their sources of taxa- ily related to counties and to the state tion. Some have beenabletofare government.Increasingly,however, rather well on revenues from munici- adult and vocational-technical activities pally-owned utilities. Some have done are directly related to municipal gov- quite well in buying gross receiptsor ernments. Certainly there are some dis- license taxes. The picture, however, is tinctive matters concerning citygov- quite uneven. and many' municipali- ernment in Georgia which should be ties have had to rely almost entirelyon covered at least briefly. the property tax. Some of these mu- Georgia is primarily a state of small nicipalities have found themselves in municipalities.Inthe 1960census, dire straights. Large municipalities are there were only six standard metropoli- desperately seeking new sources of rev- tan statistical areas in the state(Al- enue, but most often find these blocked bany, Atlanta, August a, Columbus, by state prohibitions. There has been Macon, and Savannah). The popula- a strong effort to secure major state tion of only 11 of the 561 municipali- grantsformunicipalities,butthese ties exceed 25,000 persons. Actually, have achieved only limited success. the great majority of Georgia munici- Municipalities of the state willin- palitiesis below 2,500 in population creasingly receive greater latitude from (447) and thus do not qualify as urban the state in levying taxesto support areas under the census definition. their operations. It seems likely,too,

372 that there will be considerable increw the discussionof county government es in grants-in-aid from the federal gov- has developed in the 'municipalities.It ernment that flow throught thestate seems likelythatthe same develop- government. particularly to support so- ment will take place h're as in coun- called urban programs in metropolitan ties and that the future will see a pull- areas. It seems unlikely that there will ing together of these fragmented,in- be any significant increase in outright dependent functions of government into stategrantstomunicipalities.Itis the duly constituted overall municipal more likelythat state funds will be government. coupled with fedent grants and dis- Turning to intergovernmentalrela- tributed to municipalities through these tions.city-countyrelations weredis- programs. cussed in the preceding section. Rela- A major problem of Georgia's cities tions among cities are of primary im- asinother areas of the nation has portance in metropolitan areas. There been annexation. For the most part, is a wide range of possibilities for gov- suburban residents have been loathe to erning large metropolitan areas, vary- vote for annexation to contiguous cit- ingf r o m looseconfederationsto ies.If annexation continues to depend highlyunified,totallyconsolidated upon the votes of suburban residents, structures. itis unlikely that it be very successful It seems likely that most Georgia unlessclear-cut economic advantages metropolitan areas will evolve into a can he givento suburban residents. loose confederation type government in Oftentimes, the cities themselves have the years just ahead. This applies par- seemed reluctant to impose the kinds ticularlyin the Atlanta metropolitan of changes for municipal-type services area. Certain metropolitan-wide ser- rendered which would virtually force vices will be developed, and there will suburban residents to become a part be some regulation on a metropolitan- of them. A solution, of course, would wide basis.Councils of governments be for the state to establish some form will be formed, but they probably will of automatic annexation when certain be rather weak. conditions were satisfied in contiguous Federal policyenvisagesincreased areas such conditions as population efforts to promote planning and admin- density, ability of the city to provide istration on a metropolitanwide basis. urban services. etc. Although itprob- and many of the federal urban pro- ably will not go this far, it is likely in gramswillencourage and stimulate the years ahead that the General As- this. It can be predicted, however, that sembly will make annexation easier for municipalities and counties comprising Georgia municipalities. It seems likely. metropolitan areas will retain a large also,that cities themselves may take measure of independence and separate more vigorous action to force annexa- identity---close cooperation, yes; con- Lion throughimpositionofheavier solidation, no. charges for the services they render The state government seems destined to suburbanites. It seems unlikely, how- to move more and more into urban- ever, that annexation will significantly type programs with their cities,par- solve the basic problems of governing ticularly through joint programs with thelargemetropolitanareasof the the federal government. The "new fed- state. eralism" envisages a considerably As with the counties, municipalities greater rolefor thestateinfederal have been faced with the development urban programs. Indeed, there seems of autonomous, or virtually autono- no other way to carry out many of mous governmental units functioning these federal programs except through withintheirjurisdictions. The same the state governments. Too often, the kind of fragmentation noted above in problem areas coveredinvolvemill-

373 tiplemunicipalities and counties, and that the Georgia Constitution is thor- very often these problem areas extend oughly outmoded and badly in need across state boundaries. of major revision. But revising the fun- Statesare moving into such new damental law of a stateis a difficult areas as housing and rapid transit. The task, sinceit poses threats to the se- future will see a great deal more of this curity of many persons and agencies. in Georgia. The solution of metropoli- Wholesale revision of an entire con- tan problems becomes a state-wide con- stitutionat one time may be impos cern, particularly in view of the fact sible in Georgia. If the 1970 effort of that such an increasingly large propor- complete revision fails, itis likely that tion of the state's citizens live in these the state will move toward piecemeal areas.It can be foreseen too that the revision,submitting one orasmall state will give an increasing amount of number of revised articles at a time to technical assistance to her municipali- the people for ratification. Such a re ties in a great many areas. vision by installment does face as much In terms of numbers, the great pro- opposition for one or a few articles portion of Georgia's children will be as when atotalconstitutionispre. educated in her municipalities. Indeed, sented. in the years ahead, itis probable that In any event,itispredictedthat a majority of the children will come Georgia will achieve a new constitu- to live in metropolitan areas. The qual- tion during the years just ahead. Itis ity of government in these areas will unlikely that this constitution will have a considerable effect on the edu- achieve some of the objectives which cation conducted therein. many reformers seek, for example real There is a great need for education brevity and concern only with funda- on city and county government, both mental matters.Itisprobable, how- in the schools and on the adult level. ever, that many improvements will be A major challenge to the educational made. system is to develop an effective edu- It seems highly likely that this con cational program for Georgia citizens stitutionwillreduce the number of concerning their local government. popularlyelectedstateofficials.and These are the governments that are the there is a high probably that the State closest to the people;itishere that School Superintendent will become an democracy,thedemocraticprocess, appointed official of the State Board of takes place. Education. Nearly every recentpro- posed constitutional revision included Structure of State Government this change. In many ways stategovernmentin Itisalmostcertainthat extensive Georgia is of more concern to public sectionsofthepresentConstitution education than local government since which are clearly statutoryin nature such a great proportion of educational will he eliminated. This includes long costs in Georgia are financed by the sections of the present Constitution on state.Itis at the state level that pub- certaineducationalmatterssuchas lic education must compete for a Llrge loans and scholarships. proportion ofitsfunding asagal:;Y:t It seems probable, too, that the re- other demands of state governmenC It vision will move the state toward di- iscrucially important, therefore, that rectobligationborrowingofkinds there be a clear understanding by edu- and at least an eventual abandonment cators of the present and predictable of the authority technique of borrow- future of this government.- ing. Constitutional Revision Functions of State Government Itis crystal clear to nearly everyone It is rather clear that the state govern-

374 ment of Georgia will be requi:.A1 to governmentwillincreasinglyassume undertake a number of additional func- responsibilityfor maintaining certain tionsand so considerably expand services at the same level throughout others. particularly the so-called urban the state. A prime example is educa- functions. The state will find Use]: in- tion. Increasingly, it would appear, the creasingly involved insuch funcvions state will assume responsibility for pro. as housing, mass transit,airport .de- viding every childin thestatewith velopment, anti-poverty programs, the substantially equal opportunity to se- arts,and esthetic and environmental cure the same quality education.This regulation. may well lead to assumptionby the The state will find it necessary to ex- stateofall,orvirtually all,of the pand greatly and to improve its activi- costs of education. It is probable,how- ties in the field of health, particularly ever, that localparticipation and de- environmental and mental health. The cision-making will he retained at about state government will also become the same degree as at present. even more heavily involved in welfare The stateisalso likely to assume programs.includingincomemainte- even greater responsibility forhealth nance and programs to combat hunger activities throughout the state. And, as and malnutrition. Natural resource de- noted above, it can be predicted that velopment and conservationwillbe- itwill become more heavily involved come ever more important as will the in public safety to assure greater ef development of vast new facilities and fectiveness in police and fire protec programs for recreation. There will he tion. tremendous demands for education, in- More and more, the state govern. cluding manpower developmentand ment of Georgia will be expected to retraining and massive adult education. establish standards which must be met Thestatewillbecome much more by local units. This will include stand- heavily involved in law enforcement on ards for the employment of personnel the local level. (such as policemen, firemen, tax as- Many of these functions will be fi- sessors,financeofficers;.Thestate nanced in good part by the federal gov- government will al.,o impose standards ernment. Increasily, the states and. the of performance ki functions in such federal government will enter into part- areas as public finance, and taxation. nership incarrying out governmental At the same time, it can be expected' functions.But thestategovernment that the state government will greatly will be given considerably more lee- increaseits programs of technical as- way thanith'as hadinthepastin sistance to local units of government. broad functional areas. The day of the This willincludeassistanceinsuch strict categoric grant-in-aid is probably areas of tax assessing, lawenforcement, very close to an end. fire protection, finance administration, This new partnership with the fed- management information systems,and eral government will often require that personnel administration. the state government enter into cooperative programs with local units. The Structure of the Executive Branch of federal grants will establish standards Georgia, State Government and impose conditions on the kinds of The Georgia state government is made depart- localprograms which must be con, up of more than 150 sept:rate ducted. There will be requirements ments, -agencies, boards, cor-,imissions, thatfunds bespentin, appropriate authorities,etc.Often these agencies places,forexample,inmetropolitan function independently of the Gover- areas. nor or any other executiveofficial. As to relationships with their local There are nine elected single officials units,it seems certain that the state instategovernment(thegovernor,

375 lieutenant governor, and seven so-called which hale more agencies headed by statehouse officers[secretary of state. hoards or commissions than Georgia. treasurer. attorney general, comptroller Ithas been said that Georgia is the general. state superintendent of schools, most "boarded up" state government in commissioner of agriculture, commis- the nation. While itis true that the sionerof labor] ).Additionally,the Governor may influence the choice of people of the state elect a five-member the executive chosen by the board to PublicServiceCommission(utility administer a department. in many cases regulation)and16 members of the he has very little say in the selection. appellate courts (seven Supreme Court The Governor of Georgia as chief justices and nine judges of the Court executive is considerably hampered in of Appeals). exercisingexecutiveleadershipand A major problem area in Georgia management by the large number of state government is the long ballot. In independently elected officers and by atypicalgubernatorialelection,the the small number of agencies report- voter is asked to choose a minimum ing directly. w him. He can exercise of 15stateofficials(nine statehouse considerable control by the influence officers,one member ofthe Public of his office and, primarily, through his Service Commission, two justicesof budgetary powers. But the state gov- the Supreme Court, and three judges ernment of Georgia, like moststate of the Court of Appeals). Since there governments, has become too large and very often will be vacancies on the too complex to be controlled by a sin- PublicService Commission and the gle executive without major assistance. appellate courts, the number will most Efforts have been made in Georgia often exceed 15. All of these offices, as wellas throughout thenation to along withlegislatorstobe chosen achievetheconsolidationofsimilar for House and the Senate, pose for the functions now locate'in different agen- voter a very large number of choices. ciesintosingledepartments. As an Itisdifficult for the voter to learn example, the effort has been made re- enough about so many different candi- peatedly in Georgia to bring together datestomakeintelligentdecisions. various natural resource functions into Having to vote for so many offices dis- asingledepartmentofnaturalre- courages participation. It is quite likely sources (including forestry; game and that there :11 he a reducation in the fish; parks; mines, mining and geology; number of elective state officers in the and water resources). Efforts have also years just ahead. been made to create a unified depart. Another problem area in state gov- mentofcriminaljustice,including ernment is the few departments over corrections. probation and parole. and which the governor has control. juvenilecorrectionalactivities. There wally there are only four major de- have also been some efforts to group partments headed by officers who are all administrative activities into a De appointed by and report directly to the partment of Administration and to pull Governor (Revenue. Family and Chil- together health, education, and welfare dren Services, Parks, and Public De- into a single agency. fense). The other four which report Theseconsolidationeffortsh a v e directly to him are quite small (Pur- been notably unsuccessful in Georgia chasesState Library Mines, Mining and throughout the nation. Each func- and Geology and Banking). All of the tionaldepartmentisintenselyinter other major departments of stategov. ested in maintaining independence and ernment are headed by a board of is fearful of losing status as well as commissioners, most of which employ support ifitis merged with other de- their own executive official. partments. There are few, if any, other states But the need remains to achieve bet.

376 ter executive coordination and control educationand closelyrelatedfunc- in state government. Some states are tions. moving !o create an additional execu- Itis also probable that there will be tive level to aid the governor in dis- a considerable reduction in the num- charging his executive responsibilities. ber of boards and commissions admin- Instead of consolidating departments. istering departments of stategovern- agencies withrelatedfunctionsa r e ment. More and more of these boards grouped in broad functional areas, each and commissions will become advis- under an executive directly responsible ory bodies to single executive heads. It to the governor. (The title often used seems probable. however, that public for this executive is "Secretary.") Mas- education, as well as higher education, sachusetts, for example, is attempting will retainits strong board during at to .groupall departments under nine least the next decade and a half. secretaries.Itwilldothisovera It can he predicted that there vylli period of years, working slowly toward he a consolidation of retirement systems achieving the most satisfactory group- administered by the state government. ing of functional areas. Californiais A unitary state retirement system has attempting to group its functions un- been strongly advocated by experts in derasmaller number ofthese top the field, and its numerous advantages executives. This type of organization for the state as well as for recipients instate government is sometimes des- would seem to make its adoption prob- ignatedthe cabinet system, with the able during the next few years. secretaries forming the cabinet. Administrative Developments in Organizingtheexecutivefunction Georgia State Government in this manner is. of course, quite well known inthe private corporate field, Most 1theprojected administrative where these executives would be the developments in Georgia gate govern- equivalent of the vice-presidential level. ment have been dealt with previously; Many universities have also created an therefore,littlemore need be done executive layer of this sort, using vice- here than make reference to previous presidentsto coordinate broad areas sections. of university activity. Developmentof PPBS(program, planning, budgeting, systems) was dis- Thesesecretarieswould bedele- cussed above. Itis certain that there gated budgetary and personnel powers will he a massive development of plan. by the governor. They would speak in ning and programming in state govern. his name and, in effect, would serve as ment, placing on public education the "vice governors." It can be predicted requirement to plan and program on a that some such grouping of executive scale never before contemplated. De- functions wilitake placein Georgia velopment of this planning and pro- state government during the next few gramming and of the systems approach years. Itis probable that public edu- will give to the policy-making arms of _ cation will be grouped with higher edu- state government refined tools for de- cation, with health, with welfare, and cision-making among competing pro- with other similar activities in numer- grams. As noted previously, capital im- ous smaller agencies. It is possible that provements will be a major component .corrections. probation, and parole will of this planning and decision-making. also be included in this grouping. It can be expected that state gov- At any rate, education probably can ernmentwillmove away fromthe expected to be grouped with other re- negative concept of personnel admin- latedfunctions ofstategovernment. istration, adopting a positive program This grouping should produce better of recruitment and personnel develop- cooperationandcoordination among ment. The personnal function will be- _ 377 come more afunctionof executive state taxes.particularly ongifts and management atalllevels. As noted estates. The statewillprobably join previously,it seems highly likely that with the federal government in some pay and fringe benefitswill become form of income maintenance for per- equalized with comparable private em- som below the poverty line. It can he ployment. enablingstate government expected that there will be continuing to compete for the best personnel. As largeincreasesin intergovernmental also notedpreviously,therewillbe revenues from the federal government. great demands for additionaleduca- tionof personnel employed instate Grants to Local Units government. As noted above, with the aidtr.11fed. Management information systems eral grants. the state will provide its willhe developed ona large proportion of matching funds and pass throughout11-:'state government and these funds along in the form of grants will play an important role to local units to carry out broad func- in policy decisions. This will 1.:w pc,. tions.particularlythosedesignedto siblebecitse of major technological meet critical urban problems such as developments in computers and com- rapid transit and metropolitan airport puter applications in state government development and operation. in the years ahead. Due to improvements in personnel Structure of the Georgia Legislature and totechnologicaldevelopments. Itis predicted that the Georgia House state government will come to be a ofRepresentniveswillbereduced great deal more efficient and econom- during the next decade and a h:slf to icalthan at present. The public will 125 members and the State Senate to demand a higher degree of efficiency 40. (The present size: House of Repre- and economy. sentatives. 195: Senate, 56.) It is probably impossibleto predict what will Debt happen as regards the terms of state It can he expected that the state gev- senators and representatives. With per- ernmentwill continuetoborrowat sistent efforts. terms might be increased about the same percentage of income to four years for both senators and rep- as at present. Due to the increased de- resentatives. butitseems most likely mands forcapitalfacilitiesinother that Georgia will follow the example areas, education may find it necessary of most other states and establish the to fight much harder to retain its pres- term of senatorsatfour years and ent porportion of capital improvements maintain that of representatives at two funds. It seems probable that the edu- years. cationalpercentage willdecreaseas It would appear that the following other functions become better able to developments willoccur in the com- present their cases for capital improve- position of the state legislature. Due ment funds. At anyrate,education to increased pay and fringe benefits, mustexertmuchgreatereffortsto the educational level and professional justify its capital improvement needs. experience of legislators will be greater. There will he an increasing percent- Taxation by State Government age of Republicans, of blacks, and of The state will continue to place heavy women servingintheGeneralAs. reliance on the sales tax,btititcan sembly. he expected that there will be changes An increasinglyPrge percentage of to decreaseitsregressiveness.Itcan members will cox' .:from urban and hepredictedthattherewillbein- from metropolitan areas of the state. creases in the rate of state income tax- Itshouldbeemphasized,however, ation, as well as increases in most other that this does not mean there will be

378 radical chances in orientation or vet Georgia. a system which will provide ing.Reapportionment has al r eady for administration of allstate courts demonstrated not only in Georgia but under the supervision of the Chief Jus- throughout the nationthat increased tice. representation from urban areas may The state can expect to see also the result in an increase of "conservative" developl,ient of a much stronger sys- representationfromsuburbanareas. tem of juvenile courts. These courts It does seem probable. however, that will come to utilize the resources of the greater levelof education which the community to a much greater ex- can he predicted in the state legislature tentthanatpresent.utilizingcom- willresult in more attention to some munity-based resources working crucial problems facing the state,in- closely with the local schc .ystem. eluding the so-called urban problems. Withoutquestion. Georgialegisla- Developments of Selectedtote tors will achieve much more adequate Programs andTheir Implications facilitieseitherthrougha new and For Education separate legislative building or by ac- WELFARE.In the years ahead, the quiring a great deal more additional state will enter into programs with The space. federal government to establish mini- A major change inthe legislature mum economicstandards,including willhe the employment of a great some form of minimum income main- many more staff personnel. The Gen- tenance. The state,withthefederal eral Assembly will develop its own ingovernment. will also do a great deal dependent budget review staff and pos. more to combat hunger and malnutri- sibly also a planning review staff. tion. working closely with the school The implications for p7tlic educa- systcri. State welfare agencies will work tionarethatthisstaff development much more closely with the school sys- will give the legislature a much greater tem in the years to come in programs capability of reviewing educational pro- to overcome cultural disadvantages. A grams. Educational committees of the broad development of early childhood two houses w ill no doubt have expert education programs will bring welfare staffs and these stall specialists will pro and education much closer together in vide a means for legislative study of planning and executing these programs. education not hitherto available. This REHABILITATION. There will he will present a fine opportunity for close aconsiderableexpam'..41ingovern- working relationships between admin. mental rehabilitation efforts going far istrative personnel in public education beyond mere vocational rehabilitation. and these staff specialists. Worthwhile Society will become ever more inter- educational programsshouldreceive ested in making certain that every dis- much better consideration by the leg abled person has maximum opportu islative branch. nityfor development. Education,of The Georgia General Assembly will course. will play a major role in these also develop a comprehensive legisla endeavors. tive information system during the next 15 years, involving the extensive Use CORRECTIONS. The whole correctional field will undergo a major revo- of computers. This willgivetothe General Assembly a much better ca- lutionin the next few years, spurred pacity for securing information quickly on by massive sums whichwillbe to make better decisions. available from the federal government to enable it under the new criminaljusticepro- Structureof the Judiciary gram. Rehabilitationwill beZome, in There are strong movements afoot to fact,the major goal. Education.- establishaunifiedcourtsystemin play a much greater role in these re-

379 habilitationefforts.This meansthat law enforcement and correctional fields educational programs will be greatly much more attractive to high school expanded in penal institutions as well as graduates. The schools will also be en- with probationers and parolees. Edu- couraged and stimulated to adopt inten- cation will also he much more closely sive training units in criminal justice. tied in with correctional efforts in the TRANSPORTAMN. The s t a t e. juvenile field. along with the feeler:I government. will RECREA frIGV. There will be a vast help bring about major improvements expatsionir\ Taterecreationalfacili- in all kinds of transportation. It seems ties and pro.,!ams. With shorter work probablethattheremay he major weeks and labor - saving technological breakthroughs in technology to change advances. large numbers of the state's radically the patterns by which land r;::izens will have a great deal more movement is accomplished. Such revo- time for leisure. The challenge to edu lutionary developments might haw: cation is to educate for more effective major implications for education, par- andenjoyableutilizationofleisure ticularly as to locations of various kinds time. of programs. As an example, it might MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT become quite feasible to transport the AND TRAINING. Government will various groups of exceptional children face an ever-expanding need for train- long distances each day to participate ing and retaining of persons to meet in specialized educational activities. the changing needs of the economy. The implicationsforeducationare State-Federal Relations obvious. This c,lbjecthas been touched on a HOUSING. It can be expected that number of times throughout this paper. the state government will become No more need be done here than to more and more. involved, along with makebrief summary statementson the federal government, in housing ac- major points previously !:covered. tivities. Within the next decade or so, The "new federalism" will produce it can he expected that decent housing a real partnership among the federal, will come to he looked on as a "right," state, and local units of government something which every person has a of Georgia. We willsee more and more block grants giving the state and righttoexpect. The day willcome her localities a great deal more free- when every school childwilllivein a decent house. dom to set their own priorities within broad program areas. HEALTH. Muchmoreattention There will he large increases in the will be given toall phases of health. amounts of federal funds available in Good health care has already come to such areas as education,health,wel- be considered aright. There will he fare,criminaljustice,transportation, tremendous expansions in comprehen- housing, and many others. sive health planning, planning for the There will be a continuing develop- total health of the community. Schools ment of federal-state organizations will become much more involvedin such as the Appalachian and Coastal health care andinhealth education. Plains Commissions and their agencies, Superiorschoolhealthserviceswill which willcontinuetohave educa- come to he expected as the rule rather tionas a major component of fheir than the exception. programs. PUBLIC SAFETY. Within the dec- The federalgovernment will exert ade, the schools will be required to ever more pressure on thestatesto conduct driver training on a universal bring about a greater degree of equal- basis. Criminal justice programs, large- ity of opportunity for all citizens. There ly financed by federal funds, will make will he major and intensified efforts to

380 establishin fact a more nearly non- gia. received hi. Ph.D. from Harvard Uni- discriminatorysociety. Educationwill versity. He has held several governmental positions including executive director. Gov- he encouraged. probably required, to ernor's Commission for Efficiency' and Im- take positive steps to educate against provement in Government (1%3-66). and staff director, The Governor's Comrr ;ssion Obviously, the statement of predic- on Economy and Reorganization (1959). tions and projections in such brief and Presently:. Dr. Collins is a member of the Executive Council. American Society for dogmatic fashion as done in thissec- Public Administration: chairman, Confer- tion is dangerous husiness. No one can ence of University Bureaus of Governmen- see clearly into the future. It is rather tal Research: Advisory Council. National Civil Service League; and the Editorial Ad- certain that some of these projections visory' Board, Georgia Municipal Journal. and prediction will not eventuate. But He has has served as a general consultant. they are "projections": present condi- Georgia Tax Research Council: consultant tions and trends indicate thatthisis to Stanford Research Institute on Govern- what can he expectedinthe decade mental Aspects of Pk.nning Metropolitan Transit for Atlanta: and consultant to the and a half to come. Secretary's Committee onFederal-State Health Relationships. Department of Health Education and Welfare. He is the author Or, Morris W. Collins, director of the and editor of several books, articles, and Institute of Government and professor of papers. political science at the University of Geor-

361 POLITICALculture in Georgia is the product of intrusion of the technological society into an environment dominated by agrarian practices and styles of leadership. The dominant style of agrarian leadership is the practice of control politics through a series of procedural and legal means. The problems to be confronted between 1969 and 1985 stem from the fact that technology creates an entirely new political milieu in which planning for meeting the demands for service by the public will dominate. The parochial nature of the agrarian environment and the low level of participation generated by the politics of agrarianism create an unstable base on which to build the participatory/service society of the By Donald L. Fairchild, Ph-D. new age. The major needs over the next decades are consistent with but not necessarily limited to the creation of an environment The Political Culture of Georgia conducivetothedevelopment of a participant culture; the stimulation of planning as the end of politics rather than control; the development of a re- socialization mozhanism in order to in- duct into the system those who have beensystert,iticallyexcluded through limitationsintheexisting process of socialization. 7r,o,

CULTURE as an approach to the I - study of political systems isdirected toward the analysis of the orientations and perceptions of the peop::: who create, modify, and absorb the effects of the ever changing environment of political development. While culture has been variously defined, it is useful to consider it as the sum of thelife styles of a population w1-ich set the scope and direction of poi:deal action and are con-

/383 sidered to be fundamental enough to its result from the life circumstances of each pemexliation to be passed on through individual. Effects of this culture will be the u,.itutions and processes of the sys- displayed by looking at the ways in tem. w-Nich Georgians relate to the formal Sorted out, these life styles encompass stre,:tures of government, to the law, social, economic, and political attributes customs. and constitutions undergircm., linked together in such a manner as to these structures and to the party and specify the range of acceptable public non-party influences in the political sys- policy alternatives which give force and tem. effect to a particular system. An ideal linkage would be one in which social, eco- Environmental Factors in nomic, and political variables were interdependent so that change in any one Political Culture would cause conforming cha,',e in the Political culture in Georgia, represents others. This idealis rarely attained ka political association on the state level any culture for the environment react which is influenced by and directly rela- with these variables in a variety of ways ted to political association patterns com- and with differing degrees of intensity. ing out of the process of nation building In seeking to come to grips with the through which the United States has been knotty problem of ascertaining the direc- going for nearly 200 years. Specific in- tion of change likely to result from a fluences operative at a given period of particular mix of environment and life time represent patterns of continuing styles, in attempting to maximize the in- events which range from those origina- fluence one can have over the outcome of ting in the early period of development change in a culture and in giving one a to those of contemporary origin. Sele:- perspective from which to evaluate the ting out intervals from these recurring configuration of the particular linkage trends in political association, it is possi- in any one culture, it is useful to employ ble to benchmark three distinct types of traditional conceptual approaches as well environment, the agrarian, the industrial, as the tools of analysis associated with and the technological. contemporary social science research. The basic assumption in this paper is In terms of the former, the political that the dominant environmental factors culture of Georgia will be treated from in Georgia are those associated with the the standpoint of developre .ntal analysis. agrarian pattern of development and that This technique will put the present en- environmental changes reflect the clash vironment into perspective and provide a between this setting and the confirming means for isolating the environmental inputs of the tech ,s logical society. In elements which combine with the per- this paper, emphasis will be on the conceptual framework of the people. With fioration of the agrarian level and the respect to the latter, the economic, social, developmentalaspects caused bythis and political variables associated with the technological intrusion. orientations and perceptions of Geor- The classic description of the agrarian gians will be analyzed through the use of environment was offered by James Madi- survey research data obtained from re- son inThe Federalist Papers.Madison cent studies of the Georgia public. saw conflict as the basic feature of a Put in different terms, the political society in which there was a variety of culture of Georgia will be analyzed from class levels and a disproportionate distri- the way in which Georgians are located bution of property, For Madison, the within their environment with respect to purpose of the Constitution was to effect the factors of time, place, and other peo- control over the plural society so as to ple. Characteristics of this culture will minimize the ability of factions to inter- bedetailedbyexamininginfluences fere with the unitary authority imposed which cause a variety of perspectives to by the central government under the

384 federal system. In his view the regulation from the need to depend on popular sup- of these various and interfering interests port for tenure of office. The failure of formed the principal task of legislators. this strategy was marked by the defection The Federalist Party principles which of elites from the Federalist government grew out of this Madisonian philosophy and the consequent rise of an opposition placed the social and economic elite in -party" as the only was' to contest for the role of the authoritati, -decision- power without courting the election maker without dependence on the mass of the system or the acquisition of equal for the source of power. The relationship power among those whose roots were in between the elite and the mass was one the mass. of -virtual" representation inthat the What this meant was that there was no elite would do what was best for the mass systematicconfrontationbetweenthe andlegislate on their behalf without elite and the mass over the right to hold being dependent on them or subject to public office. Effectively, the mass was a veto from them. '1 he strt--,;.ss of legisla- limited to filling cadre positions. In the tion was in the degree to which it r t2 - contestsforthesepositions.factions, vented the mass from coming nto con- cliques, families, juntos and caucuses de- flict with the elite or forming communi- veloped among themselves a high level ties of power strong enough to contest of political conflict but neither threatened the rule of the elite. the role of the elite nor involved them Robert McIver has, characterized this directly in this "lower" form of political agrarian level as a period in which equili- competition. brium among the plural social forces is The political style of the parties devel- maintained by adherence to the "Rule of oped from this in that as the out-party, Procedure." By this is meant that the cul- the newly formed Democr. Party tural requisite is to accept the outcome of inevitably appealed to those who were at- public decision as representing the best tempting to come to powerthe mass interest of the system and to rely on while the Federalists steadfastly based procedural methods to obtain an alter- the security of their political position on nate outcome or seek relief when an out- a coalition of those who were already come impinges on private rights. Such a powerful as a result of prior accomplish- course places maximum responsibility on mentinthesocio-economicsystem. thedecision-makers to determine the There was little enthusiasm among the needs and goals of the system from the Federalists for the argument that politics perspective of their own competence in was a means to obtain socio - economic interpreting the rules rather than as a status. response to the collective pressures of the ThisdescriptionoftheFederalist- generalpublic. Consequently,ahigh Democrat differences goes into some de- levelof deference toward constituted tail because knowledge of this is critical authority is encouraged and promoted as to the understanding of the nature of the surest way to minimize conflict be- political organization within the Southern tween 'nose who exercise authority and environment as the transition from the those over whom it is exercised. agrarian to the industrial society took' The definition and character of the place on the national level. The conse- American political culture developed un- quence of the defeat of the Confederacy der the influence of this agrarian environ- was to place the South out of the main- ment. Itis important to note that the stream of industrial Development in the political strategy of the Federalists was post-civil war period and thereby pro- based on the principle of a separation of longthe dominance oftheagrarian powers in which one set of elite, inde- environment into the post-industrial or ps-,Aent from other sets, would effect technological age. controlin a political atmosphere free For Georgia as for the rest of the

385 South the effect was to develop a hybrid influences of the industrial Level nor Vk as DemocraticPartyunlikethatwhich required to work out solutions for the dominated among the industrial, urban problems cenerated by minority politics. populations of the North. Earlier, the urban congestion. labor unrest, and sim- Federalist party had evolved into the ilar problems. Denied an active role in W,71.;. gs and some minor political factions the progressive chances wrought by ad- while maintaining most of the Federalist vancing industrialism. the Southern sec- principles intact. The split in the Whig tor of the Democratic Party was for all party ledto the development of the intents and purposes a third party in ef- Republican party in the North and a no- fective coalition with the national party party coalitionin the South. The un- at the central government level but quite willingness of the industrial leaders to independent in terms of base of power carry the emerging industrial state to the and philosophy at the local level. South and the barrier between the Re- The success of the Republican Party at publicansandtheSouthernWhigs the national level from 1860 to 1932 caused by the secession and slavery issues was based on the absence of the South created for the South a fusion of the from the industrial revolution and the Democratic mass and the Whig elite un- split of its economic opponents in the der the banner of the Democratic Party. East and Midwest over social issues. The The modern Republican party is the coalition of the newly rising middle class product of the industrialstateas the and the traditional propertied classes in Federalist party was the product of the the Republican Party was continually agrarian. The primary and the continu- strengthened as they reached common ing role of the Democrat party is a agreement on the economic and social transitionalone inthatitspower is conceits on which the party would he based on an appeal to those who are not bast.The Republican Party was strong- fully socialized in the system and need er internally than any combination of the added assistance of political supports forces outside the party which might to move from one level of political com- thrii:*.)-1 the coalition. At the same time. petence to another. The failure of the in- the differences among the various com- dustrial state to intrude on the agrarian ponents of the Democratic Party, North. South and the decision of the Whig elite/ South. Midwest or elsewhere. made con- Democratic mass not to give support to flict among these groups more important the process of socializing the Negro left than conflict with the Rcpuhliean Party as the sole alternative the development and encouraged the strengthening of the of a one-party structure under the name local party structure at the expense of a of Democratic for functional political re- strong national party. quirements while living within the limit- These conditions were ideal for the ing framework of Federalist principles. independent i.:evelopment of the South- The fusion of two such opposite forces ern Democratic Party and the course could be prolonged only as long as none taken locked the party in the mold of the of the conditions creating the fusion economic, social, and political environ- changed. In effect this meant that the ment derived from the agrarian origin. forces of transition would have to be For the non-South, the transition from imposed on the system for there was no the agrarian to the industrial level took basis for a self-generating industrial sys- place once the consolidation of the eco- tem or for the bringing of the Negro nomic,social,andpoliticalforces intoaposition of equality withthe reached a point of alignment sufficiently white mass on social, economic, or poli- viable enough to permit routine change tical levels. and adjustment without creating a threat The net result was that Southern cul- to the basic structure of the society. ture neither benefited from the refining Party structure and function in the

386 South were distinct political phenomena tinnily of control politics rather than on in that thereas no means by which the the basis of ser% ing wlfare needs. function of integrating, the mass with the Parochialism disci:um:vs public effort system could he routinely effected and to augment chance in existing patterns of there was no self - generating alignment social, economic. and political alignments between the elite who had power and asproress is considered to be the pro- the middle class whose role derived from duct of a linear, evolutionary process. serving the interests of the elite. The one- The function of the .agents of socializa- party South evolved a Democratic party tionthe family. the church, the school. which was more Federalist than Demo- the political party,--is to assure con- cratic in political style. It did not share formity with and continuity in the cus- with the national party the view that it toms, mores, laws, and procedures deyd- could or should be a means for the con- aped over time and venerated more for tinuing socialization of the out-groups. their antiquity than their relevance. What, then. were the characteristics of For those whose attitudes are devel- the political environment in the South de- oped in a parochial setting. there :s a rived from this agrarian mold? definite limit placed on the level of expectation with regard to the kinds of output one can expect from government. Parochialism Accustomed to viewing the function of Parochialism is the most obvious. More government in terms of control. one is than symbolizing an in-turning of atten- led to look with suspicion on attempts tion to familiar. traditional cues, paro- by authorities to el:tend the range of ser- chialism implies a tendency to interpret vices beyond the minimum required for and evaluate all political activity from transportation and sanitary needs. In the the perspective of the norms operating same vein, a 'strongly ingrained belief in atthe local level. The seedbed of political self-sufficiencyprecludeslookingto culture in an agragrian environment is government as a proper source for ob- the local court house. Here the elites taining the necessities of life when one is seek ways to perpetuate power without unable to secure them through one's own enteringinto contestswith the mass work.Individualorgroup demands while the newly enfranchised are exposed which are inconsistent with the cultural to the rapid political socialization process expectations are considered radical. The of local politics. While the responsibility accepted response to such demands is to for selecting national political leadership control by various legal and procedural has a srecial impact on this socialization means the extent to which one is per- process, itis more likely to cause one to mitted to make such demands more of- judge national leadership requirements ten than to attempt to determine if a from the norms of local experience than legitimate need exists which can he equi- to generate conflicting attitudes. tably settled by government intervention. In consequence, the function of the What occurs hereisa normal and nationalgovernmentisconceivedas functional response in a political environ- being guided by the same principles gui- ment wherein the dominant mode of ding local government. Government at political actionis that of control. De- any levelis considered as fulfilling its mands for new controls occur when one basic obligation to the public when it is faces arequest whichisoutside the abletocontaintheinherentconflict range of experience of thedecision- among groups by simply preventing the makers and not amenable to control in confrontation between the haves and the routine, patterned ways. Whim is sought have-nots.Patronage and privilegeis is not additional information as a step dispensed commensurate with the con- toward understanding the unfamiliar, but tribution one is able to make to the con- a means to isolate, to restrict and, hope-

387 fully. to reorder it in terms and in ways model citizen as being the one who exer-, that are in keeping with long established ekes his rights and obligations by be- patteens and tamileir procedures. cominginvolvedinpoliticalaffairs. This is most likeh to occur when in- weighing the t-sues and c.,ndidates and fluences with an origin outc.ide the sys- voting aecording to his (yen preferences tem are extended into the ..-s.stern. Such independently reached_ Recent studies of influences areusually- accepted when various political cultures sugget. how- control over their extent and power re- ever. that low participation is more often mains in the hands of local authority. the norm than the exception. This desire to maintain control over po- Explanations as to why the system tentially disruptive influencesis often continues to function when participation couched in terms of "states rights"or is minimal range from the suggestioti that "'local rights" in order to evoke a sense low participation is indicative of a high of legalism out of an action which is level of satisfaction with the system and essentially designed to limit the extent to the system leaders to th,ise that point which external power can he imposed out that critical decisions basic to the over the arbitrary power of local elites. ongoing of the system arc made routine- This in turn creates conflicting pres- ly by decision makers as part of their sures for individuals who perceive im- function. As long as the decision maker provement in their own life style if these is aware of the range of possible deci- new influences can become operative but sions -hich will he acceptable to the pub- who lack the necessary channels or ex- lic. he is relatively free to work within perience for carrying their desires to the this range without risking defeat at the decision-makers. What happens in such a polls by disgruntled voters. context is that the articulation of de- Most of these explanations overlook mands for change or for the reallocation those factors which are dominant in the of resources on the purely local level Southern culture and are a product of must move out of the procedural chan- the extension of the agrarian culture nels of that level and align with similar over the period in which the rest of the demands elsewhere in seeking a surrogate nation developed an industrial culture. at some other level. The desire to main- The style of party competition is an tain an equilibruim of f 'Tees at the local important variableindetermining the level which functions to maintain the participatory level of the electorate. The paiochial spirit sets up, then. an inherent control politics of the .one-party South conflict betwccr the demands and ex- createdunchallengedloyaltytothe pectations which ce,,e associates with the Democratic Party and focused the com- national culture and those which are petitive function on the candidate. Issue part of the local culture. The resolution differences were minimized at the same of ibis conflict is most often at the ex- time. Candidate orientation served to de- pense of local authority- velop loyalty to personalities and in a contest :thong several personalities, the Port/cipotion in Politics incentivetoparticipatedrops when By the People particular personalities are eliminated. A second characteristic. closely paral- Election laws requiring a majority for leling, the first, is limited participation in nomination or election have the effect of the political life of the society. political systematically eliminating potential con- participation is an accurate-gauge of the tenders and discouraging coalition poli- level of conflictina political system ties. Such laws dominate in the Southern more often than it is an indicelion of the culture. fulfillment of a need or responsibility The absenceofparty competition imposed bythesysicen.Ttaditional works tothe disadvantage of citizen democratic theory hasvisualizedthe participation when the single-member

388 constituency system of electionis used competitive parties as a means for con- to fill multiple offices in an election sys- trol over political leaders. Separation of tem. As changes in the socio-economic power in a state system has the effect of alignments at the local level amplify the invokingafederalapproach tothat range of strata within the mass, a strug- which is essentially unitary. State govern- gle for power in each strata is kept con- ments arc unitary in the sense that local tained within the strata by this device. government is an extension of the law- Potential alignments of people with sim- making and law enforcing authority con- ilarissueorpartyorientationsare tained inthe single state constitution. avoided by a division of constituencies Federalism implies independence in both according to geographic boundaries and the source and tiextension of these simple head count. This permits the con- authorities. By creating within a unitary tainmentofthepluralforces within system political conditions in which most separatevotingunitswherecontests administratives officials are elected, spe- operate on a winner-take-all basis. En- cial legislation is necessary for the exten- thusiasm for participationfallsoffin sion of power and authority to the local relationtothe elimination of favored level and the executive lacks effective contestants when thereis no annealing control over key legislators, the effect is force of party responsibility to cause the to federalize the system. In the absence supporters of a defeated personality in of party responsibility, then, local poli- one constituency to get out and vote for tics is virtually independent from, state the party candidates running on a state- authority. wide basis. Combined with the low level of parti- The controlling myth in this situation cipation, the resultisthat thc various isthe oft-repeated contention that one elites are not dependent on a hierarchy votes for the man, not the party. When of authority for 'perpetuation of power this is the motive force for involvement, aslong asalaissez-fairere!..tionship it leads to a political climate in which among elites is maintained. In periods of elected officialsretaina high level of stress and potential voter revolt, it is not independence from the moderating in- uncommon for the state legislature to fluences of party discipline and can cause avoid dealing with needs and demands by that particular malady of many person- giving over the responsibility for meeting alities, an ear tuned to the people one these demands to the local authorities. wants to hear but deaf to all others. This is often hailed as evidence of the When participation is high and politi- desire to return power to the "people" cal conflict at a maximum controllable but has the real effect of isolating mem- level, the elected official is the agent of bers of the public from each other by the electorate. The demand level of the taking a decision out of the representative public on this official is thereby broaden- assembly and parcelling it out to the myr- ed and the expectation that the political iad of local authorities. While each sena- system can serve the individual rather tor and representative can absolve him- than control the plural forces of society self of the responsibility for having is heightened. When participation is low, passed onerous legislation (and perhaps expectations are necessarily reduced and prevent defeat at the next election), this politics becomes dysfunctionaltothe creates a situation in which group needs needs of the individual. are bypassed and no effective surrogate for individual needs emerges. Political Leadership Style The resultis' not a group consensus Another variable critical to the level of on the style and nature of state govern- participationisthcstyleofpolitical ment as much as an ordering of potential leadership. This style was set by the conflict at a minimum level. An informal substitution of a sepaiation of powers for bargaining process among the political

389 elites as to what should be done and those who are willing lo invest in the how it will be done is substituted for the political future of a particular individual. confrontation of politicalforces. This The absence of party competition re- avoidsthenecessityof dealing with duces the contest for office to the level of issues of genuine concern to the elec- the primary and treats what is normally torate while permitting the maintenance a party function as an elective function. of the system at a relatively static level. The primary is a device for choosing The linkage of classes and divisions in candidates. An election determines who this manner is accomplished by the agree- will fill an office. In a one-party system. ment among decision-makers who pur- the general election is reduced to a rou- portedly speakforconstituencies but tine of obligation in which one is asked does nothing to disturb the equilibrium merely to certify prior decisions. At the which keeps each strata isolated from the same time, the partisan flavor of the others. Efforts for reform, control, or primary is diluted by the absence of re- abolition of this separation of power by strictions on those who are permitted to the development of responsible political participate in this purely party function. parties .are usually discouraged, for such The closed primary is unknown in the a step would cut the base of those who South as is the concept of party registra- have learned to use the system as it is. tion. Both of these factors arc positive Political Recruitment Style inducements to participation, for party Thestyleofpoliticalrecruitmentis loyalty leads all other forces in getting another critical aspect of the level of out the vote. participation. The separation among the The naturc of politico" recruitment is elite which prevails in this system has a such that for one to contemplate a politi- counterpart in the continuing patterns of cal career, one must be finely tuned to separationbetween theeliteand the theelites who control the procedures mass. Particularly. pertinent in this sepa- rather than to the electorate whose demo- ration is the control exercised by exist- cratic control has been seriously inhibited ing elites over the selection and sanction by procedural proscriptions. If the court- of those who will succeed to power houseisthe symbol of theagrarian when change becomes necessary. society,itis also the symbol of the re- Maximum participation in the politi- curring belief that the voter must make a cal system is encouraged when afree deliberate effort to he certified to vote, and open process of candidate selection and properly humbled in the process by is maintained. In systems wherein the standing in lines to serve the procedures state assumes the cost of conducting pri- of the elite. As the voter is faced with mary and general election contests, the the necessity of proving his worthiness to cutting point in terms of potential candi- participate,thereisa tacit suggestion dates is determined by factors other than that one participates by sufferance rather whether one can bear the cost. of offering than by right. Such a situation assures a for office. The model in this regard is the high level of instability within the mass British. system. Here, in a unitary system and a consequent minimum development similar to that in the United States, fees of a viable political community at the for filing are returned if one can secure mass level. at little as five percent of the vote cast Bymaintainingcontrolover who in the election. The amount of personal should rule and who should choose the cost is kept low by state assumption of rulers,elitesalso determine what the most costs and a strict limitation on ex- rules should be. The contrast between penditures. In contrast, filing fees, cam- the participant life style and the world pai7. costs, and related expenses mean as seen by the decision makers is quite th fine must be willing to commit a bold. Legislative bodies whether on the personal fortune or secure the backing of local, state, or central level, are more

390 often involved in protecting the perqui- leave. and the system would retain its sites and privileges of the elite and up- static alignment between those who did dating the legal basis of the system than not desire change and those who were inlaying the foundation for equitable incapable of articulating a demand for relationships among individuals and be- change. tween the government and the individual. Up tothis point. the emphasis has In consequence, constitutions are con- been on the environmental factors which tinually amended by adding t" the basic provide cues, direction, limits, and sim- law transient needs and impulsive de- ilarobjective determinants of political mands which at most should be the subculture. For the South, as for Georgia, ject of the legal code. Legal codes do culture has been molded by an agrarian not escape the almost continuous addi- culture which survived in parallel with tion of matters which are purely routine the development of an industrial culture and administrative but which tax the for the rest of the nation. Over the next limited time which legislators have to two decades, Georgia will be confronted provide for. the functioning of the system. with the necessity of adapting to the en- An interesting aspect of the legalism vironment created by the intrusion of the pervading the legislative function is the technological culture. This section of the tendency to project a code of personal paper will be concerned with the conse- morality onto a corporate system as a quences of the molding of an agrarian method for controlling unwanted beha- culturewithenvironmentalimpulses vior and for the convenience of the law created by rapid technological intrusion. enforcer in need of a procedure for controlling behavior deviant from that which Employment Picture the elites are willing for the mass to enjoy.This is not to say that the same In1970, the United States will have proscriptions apply to the elite for itis some 60,000 computers in operation and considered within the function of the a need for 260,000 programmers. By elite to restrict forms of behavior even 1990, programming as we know it to- though the behavior itself is an accepted day will be obsolete, and those who en- custom of the society. The anomalous tered the field for the first time in 1970 situation of "voting dry and drinking will he moving toward a third or fourth wet" of which both legislators and lower retraining program in an effort to devel- elites are guilty, has a perfectly rational op skills necessary for adequate employ- explanation when viewed not as a means ment at that time. By 1972, 46 percent for reforming the system but for con- of the population will be under 25 years trolling the potential of the mass to en- of age. Most of these people will be in joy the symbiosis of politics and pleasure. school, and many will harbor educational Inherent in this recruitment system is goals for jobs that will not exist by the the encouragement given to the out- time they get out. More importantly, a migration of those who lose out in the large share of them will be employed in contestsfor power, whether political, jobs that do not now exist. By 1975, the economic, or social. The standard rejoin- demand for teachers will equal the sup- der to the suggestion that perhaps inno- ply and we can anticipate a decreasing vationsand improvements would be demand for primary teachers but an in- beneficial isthe suggestion that if one crease of nearly 25 percent in the demand did not care for the way things were for secondary and junior college teachers being done, one was free to leave. By over this period. At the same time, the minimum attention toreform or re- demand for professional, administrative, alignment, the outmigration would serve and technical people will range near the as proof that no changd was really called 800,000 mark. Among these, it is anti- for.Intime,the discontented would cipated that an 80 percent increase in

391 computer systems analysts, pollution con- doing business, goals of education, and trol engineers, and a 40 percent increase a host of other subjective orientations in research and development personnel and perceptions will he seriously chal- will draw heavily from those who at less lenged as technology moves into the void complex periodsinthe society would created by the failure to develop the in- have been recruited into the traditional tegrativeandassociationaltechniques professions of law, medicine, religion. which are the basic product of a mature education, and engineering. industrial society. Georgia is faced with Simply put, the proliferation of options the necessity of coming to grips with open to the jub seeker is in direct relation rapid obsolesence of traditions and tech- to the complexity of the society and the niques in the midst of geographic and range of skills necessary to maintain it. social mobility of the population, chang- The likelihoodis great that the high ing patterns of authority between mass school student who is now contemplating and elite and the geometric effect of a career in medicine, law, religion, or changing demands and inputs into the Leaching or who is already checking the system. catalog from Georgia Tech is a product The process by which the individual oftheagrarianculture, a culturein learns how to relate to an environment, which these are considered prestige oc- whetherstaticor dynamic,iscalled cupations. More to the point, the agra- socialization.Here, we are concerned rian culture on the threshold of transition with one aspect of this, political socializa- is committed to the view that progress tion. Dwaine Marvick has suggested that and advancement can be facilitated if a "political socialization... is concerned system of technical schools is developed with how a person conies to terms with as a complement to existing junior and the roles and norms of the concentric senior colleges. It is also the mark of the political worldslocal, regional, and na- pre-transitional or early transitional sys- tionalinto which he passes as he grows tem to look on the technical school as up". Moreover, "in any extensive society the answer to the occupational demands there is a plurality of political milieus of the lower and the lower middle class, into which a person coming into adult- the liberalarts and secondary-primary hood passes."Itisthese worlds and education colleges as the domain of the milieus which leave psychic prints on middle class and the university with its each individual and determine the level professional orientation the reserve of and kind of demands and supports he is the upper class. likely to be capable of. Of widespread popularity in the agra- Each individual stands between the rian culture is the assumption that the cultural environment, which is a fairly function of education is to initiate the stable impulse, and the day-to-day events individual into the economic world of which reflect the dynamism which only freeenterprise,conservativepolitical an increasing number of variables and views, and fundamental religious beliefs. options in an ongoing system can create. Any deviation from these. norms within the individual stands so that his per- the system as a whole or on the part of spective is influenced by two levels of the educational institutions courts quick decisions, the allocative and the involve- and effective control through economic ment. With regard to the first, he is re- sanctions or forced exodus from the cul- quired to make decisions regarding the ture of the perpetrator of the deviation, quantitative limits to be set in the acqui- And yet,itis the norm of the emer- sition of physical necessities for the funz- ging technologicalsocietytotake a tioning of the state and the qualitative course which comes into basic conflict decisions concerning the hature and ex- with thec.-: norms and expectations. The tent of physical facilities to be employed. stability of traditional politics, ways of On the second count, involvement deci-

392 sions establish the nature of the indi- held, the configurative basis of these per- vidual's commitment of self and sub- ceptions and orientations. the problems stance to the state. Basically, there are inherent in the interaction of these ob- two considerations; the first being the jective and subjective determinations, and degreeof compliance withlegitimate the specification of the optimum achieve- requisitions of the state in terms of taxes, ment to be hoped for over the next two personal service, and material possessions decades can be suggested. and the second the degree of voluntary contribution one is likely to make over Developmental Trends and above the minimum. The nature of the present environment The nature of these decisions reflects has been outlined. The patterns of per- theenvironmentalinfluences and the ceptions and orientations can be analyzed cognitive. affective, and evaluative effects and the configurative basis outlined by of one's perception of and orientation recourse to subjective data obtained from toward the government, the regime, and recent surveys of the Georgian public. the political community. David Easton From these sources and by specifying defines the government as "the authori- the probable nature of the emerging ties who make the binding decisions," technological environment, one can have the regime 1,s the constitutional order, available enough information to suggest norms, and basic form of the system, and courses which would tend to focus de- the political community as the "group of velopmental trends in the dircction of persons who are bound or drawn together specifitl goals for the eighties. to solve common problems, participating The patterns of perceptions and orien- in a common division of labor." tations are drawn from a random survey To what extent does the life style of of the population of Georgia conducted Georgians facilitate this decision making within the last few months. The ques- process as a variety of new pressures re- tionnaire used permits taping the way form the environment? One, of course, Georgians feel about their government as cannotextrapolatedirectlyfrom the a political institution and themselves as known life styles of the present configu- political participants. ration of the Georgian population to a A series of questions was posed to point more than a decade in the future determine the level of cynicism within without treating wirn a highly technical the Georgian electorate. More than one- body of data which is outside the scope third of the public have strongly negative of this paper. Nevertheless, it is possible, views with respect to the conditions of as Harold Lasswell putsit,"to think competence, efficiency, trust-worthiness, creatively about how to alter, deter or representativeness, and honesty among accelerate probable trendsin order to government officials. Responding to the shape the future closer to (one's) desire." question, "Do you feel that almost all of This, of course, is a primary function of the people running the state government development analysis. Lasswell differen- are smart people who usually know what tiates among goal-thinking, trend-think- they are doing, or do you think that quite ing, and scientific-thinking as three dis- a few of them don't seem to know what tinctcomponentsof decision-making. they are doing?", 37 percent of the 584 For Lasswell, goal-thinking is "... the respondents in the survey acknowledged analysis and selection of values or objec- that, in their view, "quite a few of them tives towards which decisions are direc- don't seem to know what they are doing". ted." This is heavily dependent on hard Thirty-eight percent of the same re- thinking about the way things are likely spondents believe that "people in state to turn out. In this respect, the nature of government waste a lot of money we pay the probable environment, the patterns in taxes". A somewhat greater number, of perceptions and orientations presently 44 percent, did not feel that it was pos-

393 sible to trust the government of Georgia society. To conceive of one's role in the "to do what is right". system as having a single dimension is One may he inclined to argue that the antithesis of the participant life style these basically negative orientations are ofthecontemporary citizen.Options at variance with the common sense of such as participation in voluntary organi- the public, for after all, are not these of- zations, action through mass movements ficials their representatives? The fact that and protest groups. representation of in- 46 percent of the sample felt that the terest by pressure groups, communication "government is run by a few big interests with elites, and many other activities are looking out for their interests" is testa- normally open and retain va:ying de- ment to the largely negative connotation grees of sanction in the modern society. given to the concept of "public servant". Almond and Verba, in their seminal Less than one out of five Georgians study of the "civic culture," point out considers elected officials to be basically that a sense of civic competence is the honest in their lifestyle. Nearly one- sine qua non of participatory democracy. third hold the view that quite a few are To assume that voting is the only route crooked and the most that the majority to influence, one would have to be ex- could say was that after all, not many posedtoexperiences and instruction are crooked. This would suggest that, keyedtounidimensionalroles.Civic among Georgians, there is a relatively training and civic experience in the agra- high level of tolerance of corruptness as rian society commonly follow this ap- a normal and expected factor of political proach.Itisanespeciallyeffective life. method for politicalcontrol when the Lest one be inclined to dismiss these elites of the system are permitted to statistics a5 distorted because of the num- exercise a great deal of latitude in ex- ber of pe.)ple involved in the survey, it tending or restricting the voting function. can be said that the procedure used in The cutting edge of responsible and theselectionof the sample followed responsive government is in a reciprocal technical requirements which permit one feeling of importance between the 'public to say that the same results would occur and the government official. For this to 95 times out of 100 within four percen- occur it is necessary that the citizen be- tage points more or less. Thus, 46 per- lieve that the official evinces concern for cent could be read as 50 percent or 42 individual welfare along with his cor- percent or somewhere in between for 95 porate function of representing the in- out of 100 observations no matter how terests of state. At the same time, public many more than the original number officials need to believe that what they were contacted. do is subject to the approval or disapproval of the public as a matter of course. The Individual's Role This isan additional attribute of the Turning to questions concerning indi- sense of civic competence pointed to vidual perception of one's own role in above. the political system, a set of four ques- Nearly half of the respondents, repre- tions probed forfeelings of personal senting, in turn, an equal proportion of worth and value to the political system. the total population, readily admit that Eight out of ten Georgians feel re- they do not think that public officials in moved from the functioning of govern- Georgia care much about what "people ment to the extent that they perceive like me" think. voting as the one way and the only way The behavior of state officials in con- open to them if they want to have a say ducting the affairs of government often in the way state government runs things. takes on the characteristics of a group of The narrowly construed function of the anointed mystics conducting mysterious individual is a hallmark of the agrarian ritesand performing complexrituals

394 which only they are privy to. While this entitled SCRATCHING OFF. The pur- is by no means restricted to Georgian pose of this piece of legislation was "to officialsalone, the complexity of pro- prohibit drivers of motor vehicles from cedural methods, the lack of routine in- deliberately causing tiresto lose firm struction inthe methods common to traction with the surface of the road, parliamentary and administrative beha- causingtheirvehicletoleaveblack vior as well as limited periods in which marks upon the surface of the road." the public is sufficiently interested to find Some optimisim may be permitted to out what is going on combine to con- creepin, however, when one is con- vincesixout of ten Georgians that fronted with the knowledge that a ma- "sometimes Georgia politics and govern- jority of those polled feel that they have ment seem so complicated that a person a "say about what the government in like me can't really understand what's Georgia does." Since it has already been going on." made evident that voting is conceived as To what extent can it be said that the the way in which this "say" is perceived "people's representatives," the state legis- to be accomplished, the door can be lators, present objective evidence that a closed on this optimism in light of the concern for individual welfare shares a traditionally low voter turnout, lack of role equal to the responsibility devolving political organization, and basically un- on them to represent the interests of the representative nature of the electorate in state? The kinds of activities which are many of the counties having the greatest characteristic of the legislative function need for corrective rather than control present a convenient index of individual politics. vs. state interests. An examination of the sample from Somewhat more than a quarter of the another perspective provides clues as to 159 countiesinGeorgia suffer from the general orientationin terms of ex- acute poverty problems and were de- pectations,supports, and basic consis- signated as "hunger" counties in a recent tencies in outlook between the general study of hunger in the United States. voter and the various elites in the system. Some 33 House Districts and 20 Senate For the public as a whole. expectations Districts cover these counties. Of the of serviceto the individual from the nearly 400 bills introduced during the state are limited to the continual under- last legislative session from these House writing of the educational system and and Senate districts, only one was direct- the provision of adequate supports for ly appropriate to the basic problem of comprehensive mental care. Concern for hunger. Matters of state such as a bill to the maintenance of humane prison sys- provide standard time for the state of tems, the ubiquitous highwa; system, and Georgia,theprovisionof araisein local governments commands less enthu- salary for Superior Court judges. the siasm for most Georgians. regulation of obscenity, the graving of Education a a service co-opts other special tax advantages to certain retired concerns for individual service and, by military personnel and a host of "house- its inclusiveness, creates the illusion that keeping" bills designed to adjust structure the spectrum of personal needs, educa- and function of government dominated tion, welfare, and maintenance will he the input from Senators and Representa- met thereby. Thus, demands for public tives of these counties. kindergartens or support for such pro- Additionally, the citizen can be for- grams may result from the basic need for given if he has difficulty in comprehend- custodial care of children of working ing the function of the public legislature mothers as much as from a pervasive when several representatives were con- desire to see the child adequately pre- cerned enough about the appearance of pared for the socializing experience of road surfaces to introduce House Bill 50, formal group life apart from the family.

395 Similarly, willingness to allocate money able economic institution from the stand- for school bus transporation can as easily point of the patronage and sheer political reflect the absence of a second car or a power possessed by these commissioners. car-poolatthe lower income levels. Unless the school district elites and the Might it also be suggested that support county commissionersarewillingto for the underwriting ofschool is more raise and expend funds for corrective highly correlated with a winning athletic politics. there is almost no basis for sup- program than with academic excellence? port of such endeavors at the local level. Finally, a school lunch program, jani- Just in the area of prison reform alone. torial services, bui:ding and ground main- the anomaly of asking the commissioners tenance, transportation equipment and to reform what has been a traditional the drivers and maintenance personnel source of cheap labor is apparent. more often combine to form the most important economiccomplexinan Political Elites otherwise poor county and furnish important sources of patronage and power In attempting to find a handle which will for the elites who control the school enable one to grasp the nature of political boardthe most basic level of political culture at a particular point in time. then, lifeat the local level. the main benchmark isin the personal One cannot judge support for educa- and corporate characteristics of the indi- tion on the part of the public as support viduals who have successfully used the for the function of learning alone but existing system to obtain and retain posi- rather as support for an inclusive insti- tions of leadership. In other words. the tution which has come to provide many public and private behavior of political of the subjective needs of the public elites is a much more accurate display of within the context of a political subdivi- the underlying attitudes and opinions of sion close to and controlled by the client. the culture than is the description con- Consensus between the public and vari- tained in the variety of public relations ous elites on a wide range of educational brochuresandnewspaperaccounts. expenditures, practices and proposals has Elitesoperatewithinthechannels been documented in a corollarysurvey marked by public tolerance for modes of to the one mentioned above. In view of behavior at one end to the proscription the number of ways in which individual of procedures and methods at the other. demands are met through educational The identifying characteristics of action over time, in this sense. vary with supports, consensus is the expected outcome. the nature of tht- individuals chosen for leadership, their modes of behavior, con- There isa danger, of course, in the ceptions of strategy as well as their belief high level of support for education in the in the end-producing value of the vari- sense thatittends to divert attention ous techniques chosen. One must then from additionalservice needs witha describe events and situations against the much less effective support level. Most norm of behavior of the principle mix of counties have traditionally operated with individuals involved in decision making two political units, the school board and rather than the standards set by past so- the road commission. The taxing power cieties or even those emanating from a of one is independent of the other but more inclusive national society. Given both rac permitted to assess taxes at the the environment, the events and the peo- local level as well as share in the distri- ple, are they reacting as they would most bution of funds from the state govern- likely react? While the reaction may he ment level. If the school district fulfills out of touch with the past or the total the role of the most important economic society, the action, if congruent with the complex in many counties, the board of expected norm, would lead one to an- county commissioners is a more formid- swer, "yes".

396 Inanagrarianenvironment,elites can bring benefit to the system if they are dominate the decision making process able to work ina supportive milieu. with little effective control exercised by Metropolitan Atlanta offers the greatest the mass. This is the state of political cul- potential. but itis questionable whether ture in Georgia at present. In the next the environment in the rest of the state decades, Georgia will be moving toward will change sufficiently enough in the the integration of the technological socie- next decade to sustain long term innova- ty with this culture. There is little doubt tion. but that the economic culture will quick- The nature of .political conflict likely ly adapt to the force of this intrusion. to occur will be moderated but by no Political culture, however, is disjunctive means eliminatedinthe metropolitan with economic culture at various stages area. For the state as a whole and for of development. While itis possible to the non-Atlanta arca, the emerging politi- pass on economic culture in alinear, cal conflicts will he a function of de- incremental sense from one set of eco- mands for the development of an inclu- nomic skills to another, the political cul- sive,participatory society onpolitical ture associated with one economic level leadership styles which are more influ- does not function with skills which can enced by past experiences than the de- be easily adapted or improved for the mands and realities of the political milieu next level. A basic failure to understand created by the technological society. that political culture is a discreet phe- Edgar Litt has pointed out that tradi- nomenon requiring specialskills and tionalpolitics has followedclass,re- techniques can easily upset the mode of gional, and ethnic distinctions. The poli- transition from the agrarian to the tech- tical machine inthe industrial society nological society. The national culture was a major instrument for both integra- faces the transition into technology with ting and separating individuals in class, philosophies, ideologies, and procedures regional, and ethnic alignments. Political developed out of the agrarian culture as leadership was most successful when the does the southern culture. The basic dif- decision was made to support strategies ferenceisthat the national cultureis ofintegration or separation but was guided by elites whose experience and destined for failure when both ends were successes have been gainedin coping pursued. At the same time, the consistent with the industrial culture. use of courthouse politics to preserve the distinctions between elites and mass in Great Impact the agrarian society assured effective con- The extension of technology to the South trol over any change in alignments at has had the greatest impact on Georgia. this level. Georgia is then the prototype for deter- If the political community created by mining how and with what effect tech- this diverse leadership was consensual, it nology and agrarianism merge. At the remained so only as long as the environ- outset the effect is disruptive because of ment was subject to unchallenged con- the long-term tendency to export prob- trol by political elites. As the society be- lems, resources, and surpluses rather than comes more affluent under technology learning how to deal with them. The de- the tendency will not only be for it to velopment of talents and abilities in sta- fragment and in the process blur the dis- bilizing the diverse, plural populations of tinctions of class, regions, and ethnics, the industrial society was not an impor- but also increase the level of individual tant part of the socialization experience competence to the point at which the in- of the Southern culture. Georgia, through dividual will no longer be routinely in population mobility, has obtained from consensus with the elite on key issues of the industrial society many who are ade- the system. quately trained in these techniques and The party system, by drawing from

397 groups, levels, and regions tended to bal- ingredient in this is what can be called ance thepoliticalsystem. Butifthe "psychic mobilityor the ability to relate technological society continues to meld oneself to a variety of secondary symbols groups, levels, and regions into similar and public issues without being personal- patterns of socio-economic status, poli- ly involved. The confrontation of indi- tics based on balancing elites with ethnic, viduals with the realities of race, war. class and regional demands will become and technology which the parochial na- divisive rather than conciliatory as the ture of the society previously prevented affluent move farther from the non- af- makes efforts to withdraw from the reali- fluent on the socio-economic scale. The ties by a series of legal and procedural re- end of community is a real prospect as strictions now obsolete. Psychic mobility the economic middle class moves toward is the result of the ability of mass media philistinism and the ideological middle to cut across previously existing barriers class becomes more labile. to achieve interhuman communication. The success of the parties in socializa- The folk view of society is fast becoming tion comes in conflict with the inability obsolete at the very time that it is still the of the party mechanism to be the vehicle basis of civic training in the schools and for assimiliation of the last unsocialized colleges. The function of education must groups, the low income, the low produc- change with basic changes in the stages tive, and the low valued individual. Poli- of development of a society. At the tech- tic- must, in the technological society, nological level, the need is for resocializa- follow output demands in the forms of tion. As experience and visual contact service to individuals. Politics is geared through travel and television accentuate to the support of capital goods acquisi- the gap between the folkview and the real tionbutnotto long term individual society, one begins to seriously question needs. Thus, individuals fear technology the regime norms. Unless these questions to the extent that it forces them to see can be adequately answered, the pros- peopleasindividualsrather than as pects for a smooth transition to the tech- agents of production. Historically, politi- nological society are dim. cal power has resulted in an increase in lower class sacrifices, a rise in middle class power and effective control over Dr. Donald L. Fairchild isa professor of both by the elite. Political Science at Georgia State Univer- The problem of the redefinition of pur- sity. He received his PhD. from the Univer- pose for the institution and the individual sity of California, Los Angeles. and has cannot be solved by treating it as a uni- served as both a Faulk Fellow and a Dan- forthTeacher(ontwooccasions)at tary problem but rather by the recogni- U.C.L.A. Dr. Fairchild was an associate tion that only with conscious concern for professor of political science at The Cita- and awareness of the disjunction between del, Charleston. S. C. In 1968, Dr. Fair- modern technology and traditional fac- child co-directed theAtlanta Metro Presi- dent:al Poll,the results of which were pub- tors of statecraft can a realistic approach lished inthe Atlanta Magazinein July. He be made. The function of thestate was also director of theDe Kalb Survey on toward such an approach is not to con- County Government,co-director ofPublic Attitudes on State Government(in conjunc- tinue to seek methods for control over tion. with the American Institute of Urban this disjunctive effect but rather to devise and Regional Affairs) and a consultant for innovative methods for facilitating the the Educational Needs Survey, Georgia, capacity of the general public to cope 1968,for the Georgia Department of Edu- cation. His publications includeVoluntary with society as it is. Organizations and Opinions on World Af- Daniel Lerner characterizes this capa- fairsand a co-authored report,"Constitu- city as a "participant lifestyle". The basic tional Revision."

398 IN ORDER to understand the political culture of Georgia, one must raise the following questions. What is the nature of the formal rulesthat regulate decision -making? What kinds of persons occupy the rolesofdecision-makers,particularly in terms of their social and economic characteristics? In what ways are the decision- makers recruited and selected? What kinds of norms regulate the public's participation in the deci sion-makingprocess,andhow widespread isthe acceptanceof these norms? How do people learn the norms that regulate the making of de- cisionsas well as the choice of decision-makers? Let us now consider the answers that Professor Fairchild provides uswith about each of these matters. Professor Fairchild offers very little information about the formal rules of Georgia's politicalsystem, exceptto note that the current systemis one critique: in which power resides in the hands The Political oflocaldecision-makers,i.e.,the "courthouse" politics.In my opinion, Culture of his analysis about formal rules especially the way in which they can af- Georgia fect Georgia's political culture is much too brief. It seems to me that the kinds of social and economic changes now occurring throughout the United States. such as increasing population size and theshiftin population concentration from rural to urban areas, and from centralcitiesto suburbs,ultimately will compel most state governments to alter their constitutions. Even now, sev- eralstates such as Illinois are plan- - ningconstitutionalconventionsde- signed presumably to make the governing of thesestates more efficient and more responsive to thepublic's demands. Once such changes are instituted, they undoubtedly will have a great impact on the political culture of these states, particularly the norms that govern citizens' obligations to par-

399 ticipate inpolitics, and some of the petionbetween the Democratic and informalmeans by whichdecision- Republicanpartiesatthestateand makers arerecruited. The possibility local levels of government. Inasmuch of a statewide constitutional conven- asthe growth of Republicanismis tion and its consequences for the po- based on increases in education, indus- litical culture of Georgia should.at trialization, and urbanization, there is least,have been considered by Pro- little doubt that as these latter trends fessor Fairchild. continue in Georgia, theRepublican With respect to the kinds of persons party will continue to grow in strength. who occupy the roles of decision-mak- And, as Professor Fairchild comments, ers in Georgia politics, Professor Fair- such competition is a healthy symptom child's answeris more or lesscon- of the body politic and will help to tained in his characterization of Geor- promoteincreasedparticipationand gia politics as "agrarian." He believes interest of Georgia's citizens. that Georgia's decision-makers are an The fourth major topic which itis elite inthe sense that they possess a necessarytoexamineconcernsthe greatdealof power, and seek and kinds cf norms that regulate the pub- exercise controlinpolitics.Iwould lic's participation in the decision-mak- tend to concur that Georgia politics are ing process and the degree to which traditionally oriented insofar as there these norms prevail among the public. seems to be a high correlation between Professor Fairchild suggeststhat the the power of individuals to make de- fact of relatively little participation in cisions in the public arena and their politics is consistent with an agrarian powerinetherareasof thestate, type of political system. This assertion notably the economy. (Still, one should is correct according to certain theories try to gather evidence about this mat- of modernization and politics, but Pro- ter by making a brief examination of fessor Fairchild nowhere presents evi- thebackgroundsofstatepoliticians dence about the actual level of partici- and local politicians.)In addition,it pation in Georgia politics. One ought seems to me that Professor Fairchild to inquire, for instance, whether the should have given more thought to the levelof participationinelections in possible changes in the social and eco- Georgia is now lower or higher than ncmic characteristics of Georgia's de- it was 10 years ago. More specifically, cision-makers. For instance, if we can one ought to ask whether Georgia dif- believe the evidence about the chang- fers at all from other states, especially ing characteristics of local politicians, Southern ones,in terms of the pro- one would anticipate that as Georgia portion of her citizens who participate becomes more urbanized and indus- in politics. My own reading of the sit- trialized, there will be a growing num- uation is that the level of interest and ber of decision-makers who are pro- participation is lower in Georgia than fessionalpoliticians concerned with in the North, West or East; but, to the the practice of politics per se and extentthatinterest and participation a simultaneous decline in the number are direct functions of education and ofdecision-makerswhoseexpertise party competition, then as these fac- rests solely on their success in busi- tors rise in Georgia, there should be a ness, or their possession of wealth.' corresponding increase in political pm- Professor Fairchild gives some atten- ticipation and interest. tion to the manner in which decision- Professor Fairchild also examines the makers are and will be selected, but degree of acceptance and natureof his conclusions about this question are the norms regulating the public's par- vague. It seems to me that one of the ticipationinpoliticsin Georgia. He most visible facts about contemporary concludes that about one-third of Geor- Georgia politics is the increasing corn- gia's citizens feel that their state gov-

400 ernment is remote and its officers ap- pationinthepoliticalprocessrises, parently untrustworthy. This level of there will be a corresponding risein political cynicism raises several ques- the importance of educating persons tions. First,isthis proportion high or for active roles -as citizens. In this re- low in comparison .A.ith that in other gard, the educational system can play a states? Second, what are the possible vital part by teaching youth about the changes that will occur in the level of importanceofpoliticalparticipation cynicism between now and 1985?I and awareness as well as stressing the suspect that changes in the formal rules principles of controversy, conflict, and ofthestateandlocalgovernments tolerance in the political arena. which would serve to increase public The final matter which I wish to dis- participation in politics also would re- cuss here concerns the absence of any duce the degree of political cynicism considerationinProfessor Fairchild's in the state. And third, it seems to me anaylsis of thedifferentsocial,eco- that there should have been some con- nomic,andethnicdivisionswithin sideration of the manner in which cyni- Georgia. IndustrializationinGeorgia cism varies with social class, religion, in the past10 years or so has been or ethnicity. Past evidence about the concentrated in large urban areas and links between these social variables and has promotedpopulation growthin political attitudes reveals that cynicism these Centers. As a consequence, an is concentratedamongtheunder- almost indelible division has developed privileged and discriminated segments between the political culture of urban of the population.2 Hence, if the pro- and rural Georgia.Ifthedisparities portionsof these groups shouldin- in population growth and industrializa- crease inGeorgia over the next15 tion persist, then this political cleavage years,thenthereshould beacor- will probably continue and, more so responding rise in the extent of cyni- than in the past, may be reflected in cism. Yet, if there are increases in edu- thepartycompetitioninthestate. tion and wealth in the state as well as Itisalso likely that the large urban in the level of participation and inter- centers themselves will become foci for cst in politics, one also would expect strongpoliticaldivisionsparticularly a decline in the extent of political. cyni- between the central city and the sub- cism. urbs. Undoubtedly, this kind of urban Inarather oblique manner, Pro- expansion will produce new kinds of fessor Fairchild also addresses himself governmentalarrangementsbetween to the matter of political socialization, the center city and fringe areas. One thatis, how people learnthe norms should also entertain the possibility that thatregulatethe decision-makingas such large aggregations of people may well as the choice of decision-rriakers. produce new kindsofregional,or Themost importantconsideration even intra-state, political systems which about the political socialization in the are designed to be more effective and future of the state is the fact that the efficient than the current systems. In rules and norms in politics will change short,itisquitelikelythat as the in the next 15 years, becoming, in part, urban centers expand, the importance much more complex. Naturally,the of urban governments will increase at change in content of politics will be re- the expense of both state and ,small flected in the mass media and in the municipal governments in Georgia. family. Yet, agents of socialization like AlthoughProfessorFairchildad- the educational system can also play dresses himself tothe roles of class a major role inpolitical socialization. and ethnicity in the development of Specifically, as the complexity of the Georgia's politicalculture,I am not political system increases, and as the at all clear about his interpretation of needtoeducate persons forpartici- these phenomena. In. my opinion, the

401 new party competitionin Georgiais accuratereflectionof their numbers, becoming divided primarly along class especially in communities such as At- lines. That is,large segments of the lanta. Assuming that thereisanin- middle- or upper-classes are becoming creasein the number and ecological Republicansinstateand local poli- concentration of blacks, thereislittle tics,whilethelowerclassremains doubtthatthey willbecome better Democrat. If such a trend continues, represented in national, state, and local then in the next15 years or so, we politics. In any event, the interests and may find that the interests of and con grievances of whites and blacks, espe- filets between social clams in Georgia cially those of blacks, must find some willbe moreeffectivelyrepresented form ofpoliticalexpression through and resolved at the level of state poli- the regular channels of Georgia's po tics. liticalsystem. Without thelegitimate Besides social class, there is also the and continuous expression of the inter- matter of race in the future of Geor- ests of blacks and whites, itis highly gia politics. At present, the participa- improbablethat thepoliticalsystem tion of black Americans isminimal, and culture in Georgia in 1985 will be and their representation inlocal and a viable one. state governments is by no means an

Footnotes 1.Dahl, Robert A., Who Governs?, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961). Schulze, Robert 0., "The Bifurcation of Power in a Satellite City," (Community Political Systems, Glen- coe: Free Press, 1961), pp. 19.80. 2. Almond, Gabriel and Verba, Sidney, The Civic Culture, (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1965).

402 THE past half century, marked by remarkable scientificadvances and a shiftingsocialscene, hasgreatlyal- tered medical care and health services. Patient care on an interpersonal basis betweenpatientandphysicianhas changedto healthcaregiven bya group of professionalpersonnel,increasingly concentrated in medical centers. The spectrum of health care has been extendedtoinvolvepreventive and restorative care as well as the diagnosis and treatment of a specificdis- ease. With greater knowledge of human biology.withrisiugeducationaland economic levels, expectations and demands for health services have grown. In Georgia, the trend of health services has followed the pattern of other parts of the country with the great difference of fewer health professionals By Harry B. O'Rear, M.D. and lessavailable services.Statistical information indicates thatin Georgia life expectancy is lower, and major diseases causing morbidity and mortality Perspectives on Health Care: Georgia 1970-1985 occur with higher frequency and de- bility than in other areas. Medical care and health services are of relatively good quality, rendered by a dedicated group of practitioners. Un- der theexisting system,the quantity and quality of services are related di- rectlytothe economic levelof the area. Comprehensive Care Preventive health services such as an- nualphysical examinations,semi-annual dental examinations, screening for major diseases, and multiphasic screening of population groups willbea larger part of health services. The problem of birth control is being approached from social and cultural as well as biological dimensions. More efficacious methods and greater understanding of the need for family plan-

403 ning will evolve over the next 15 years. can and will be returned to full pro- Genetic problems in many ways closely ductivitythrough applicationofre- relatedtobirthcontrolhavebeen storative and rehabilitativeprocesses. studied intensively in the past decade. Healthmaintenanceapplicableto In the next 15 years prenatal diagnosis the whole life span has particular sig- and therapeutic management of genetic nificance for those in the upper age problems will advance rapidly. groups. The amelioration of the effects Environmental factors such asen- of long-term degenerative diseases and vironmental toxins, nutrition, and pol- other aging processes will improve the lution will be subject to increasing con- functional ability of this group. trol. Nutrition will continue to be the focus of research and application, as thereismore awarenessthatsubtle Systems Applications forms of malnutrition are major con- Although tremendous strides are being tributors to health problems. made in advancing medical science and Bioengineering contributions will im- technology, the improvement of pro- prove the management of medical care ductivity in the delivery of health serv- and health services. Chemotherapeutic icesisacriticalneed. Management agents will be developed to help man- systems to better utilize the health re- age a broader group of debilitating dis- sources can be realized through em- eases.Nuclearmedicinewillhave ployment of systems specialists in col- greater applicationto ,diagnosisand laboration with traditional health per- therapyincancer and detectionof sonnel. Improvements in the availabil- early functional changes in organ sys- ity,accessibility and acceptabilityof tems. health servicesisone area in which Organ transplantation and develop- systems specialists and health profes- ment of artificial organs will continue sionals could effect change. Determina- to be a focus of interest. While kidney tion of the mix of highest quality and and heart transplantations have been greatest quantity of health services can studied most intensively,transplanta- be approached through systems analy- tion of other organs such as lungs and sis techniques. liver will be explored. The main thrust of centralizing or Mental health services will become concentrating healthservices around more widely available and will reduce hospitals and clinics will continue be- the large number of people who have cause of commitments which have been in the past been placed in institutions made. with little hope of return to a produc- The development of neighborhood tive life. Non-medical use of drugs, pri- clinics now being subsidized for low marily used to escape from distressing income communities may providea life situations, represents in parta cul- model for better health care forall tural phenomenon and will lessenas segments of society. A shiftin em- the cultural factors which have brought phasis to that of health maintenance about such use are better understood and health management could lead to and handled. the dispersal of health services and fa- Restorative and rehabilitative meas- cilities to the locales identified by pop- ures have broadened the- outlook for ulation density or population gathering alarge group who in the past. have points. Studies and models of clinics beenseverelyhandicappedandin- and hospitals designed to avoid obso- capacitated. Further advances such as lescence will substantially influence de- the development of better prostheses, sign of health facilities. will make productive an even larger The rate of increaseinphysicians group of incapacitated people. Those within Georgia has exceeded the rate people with shorter term incapacities of increase in population. However, the

404 physician to population ratio remains "In many respects the requirement for below the national average. To main- health services can he virtually insatiable, tain depending upon a society's level of expecta- the present ratio 3200 new phy- tion and the resources it wishes to allocate sicians will be needed by 1985. This . At at any rate. it would appear that any could be accomplished, with improve- characterization of the dimensions. quanti- ment of the ratio, by expanding enroll- tative and qualitative, of requirements for ment in medical schools and attracting health servicesisarbitrarilydefined,at letat within the limits of the present soot_ physicians to the state. tific ignorance." To maintain the current ratio of den- .. Dr.. William L. Kissick tiststo population 1200 more dental graduates will be needed in the next 15 years.Auxiliary dentalpersonnelto assist the dentists will need to be increased by 1300. The dental situation HEALTH has been a basic human in Georgia requires immediate and con- concern from the time of first recorded certed efforts to effect better organiza- history. Before modern medicine, how- tion and delivery of dentalservices. ever, disease was surrounded by mys- Demand for dental health servicesis terysinceitstruck_ quickly,without increasing atleastas rapidlyifnot warning, and oftentimes fatally. Death more rapidlythanthedemandfor in childhood and during the most ac- medical services. tive and productive yearsof young Nursing and allied health professions adulthood was a common occurrence. mustattractthe greatest number of The average life span was short. Most those concerned with health services. people died from acute infections. The New allied health specialties must be past half century, however, has wit- developed to render the needed serv- nessed remarkable scientific discoveries ices.Training belowthe. professional and advances in the treatment of dis- level must be improved and career de- ease.As aresultoftheseradical velopment programs developed so that changes and the shifting social scene, individuals may have upward mobility. thepracticeofmedicinehasbeen Nursing andalliedhealthpersonnel greatly altered. willprovide more immediate health Traditionally, patient care was on an care with physicians, dentists, and other interpersonal basis between the patient highly skilled specialists utilizing time and his physician. The family assumed and skills more effectively. responsibility for nursing care inthe home. Home and office care predom- inated; children were born, acuteill- nesses were treated, and most people Educational Implications died in their homes. The physician had In Georgia a population increase of 20 a small office, a roll-top desk, a black percent may be expected by 1985. The bag, and very little overhead. Solo gen- demand forhealthservices may in- eralpractitioners dominated the field crease by 50 percent. To meet this de- and were generally locatedinevery mand, the educational system must be community. Their practices were de- responsive from the early school years voted to acute infections and contagious through vocational schools and higher disease, prevention of infant and ma- educational institutions..Educational ternalmortality, and emergency sur- and training concepts and practices will gery because the primary concern was need revision to insure the career pat- prevention of death. Medical practice terns needed for the varieties of per- was based on empiricism and art; re- sonnel who willbe providing health liance on the laboratory was minimal. care services. Hospitalization was rare and regarded

405 as a terminal effort or a place to die. tirehealth and medical-care complex, The hospital team was composed of as indicated by the following trends: the doctor and nurse. The public was the gradual rise in proportion of total poorly informed, and its income spent on medical care: more expectations prepayment coverage for health care in were low. There was no government inan increasing variety of plans: demand volvement in medicine. Medical school for more health information by the gen- faculties were volunteers and research eralpublicandfor more informed activity was minimal. sources in addition to attending physicians: the growth of group medical Today, a host of medical and allied practice and demand for more general- health personnel are involved in patient ized health coverage despite increasing care. Most health care takes place in specialization:increaseinpreventive the physician's office(usually a suite medical care in various forms of -check- of offices ups": increased support for medical re- withafull-timestaff.so- search from varying public and private phisticated and expensive equipment, resources: and an increasing importa- and consequently very high operating tion of physicians into.the United States costs) and the hospital which is now from other countries to meet the accele- considered a place to get well. The hos- rating demand for medical services. 1 he question therefore is in order: Does this pital team is comprised of full-time ad- increase in the use of medical services ministrators,pathologists,radiologists, andfacilitiesindicateasignificant anesthesiologists,technologists,dieti- change in the attitudes of the Atherican tians, and others.Specialists dominate people toward medical and health care the medical field and are concentrated during the twentieth century?2 around major medical centers, in large In attempting to answer this rhet- cities, and in affluent suburbs. Rural orical question, several factors can he areas and the inner city have a deficit identified which havecontributedto of available medical personnel. American attitudes and opinions about medical care. Obviously, advances in Today,theprimaryconcernsof clinical medicineare medicinerelatedlargelyto preventionofillness, scientific chronic and degenerativedisease, developments have resulted stress syndromes, trauma, and major in the patients' bringing with them in- creasedexpectationsofthe correctivesurgeryallofwhich are medical firmly based on science, technology, care they receive and criticism of care fallingshortoftheseexpectations. and laboratory procedures. As a re- Moreover, in moving from an agrarian sult of mass media, the public is highly to an industralized society, our value informed, andtheirexpectations are unrealistically system has changed from one to self- high. The government sufficiency now collaborates with medicine as a to one based upon group third party payer and as a provider dependency. A second factor is an expandedcon- of funds for medical education and cept of disease and illness which in- research. Medical school faculties are cludes many more problems of human generally full-time and committed to behavior in need of medical attention. research activities.' In Georgia the pat- Acute illnesses are being replaced by tern is much the same as, if not more chronic traditional than, it is nationally. illnesseswhichrequirepro- An article by Jaco entitled "Twen- tracted and different types ofcare. The healing role of the physician hasbeen tieth Century Attitudes Towafd Health expanded and Their Effect on Medicine," states toinclude such thingsas obesity,fatigue,emotionaldisorders, Americans today are spending more. us- maritalconflicts,addiction,andde- ing more and apparently expecting more from their physicians. their hospitals, linquency. As thesenew"diseases" and their clinics than ever before in his- arise and are successfully treated the tory. The increased demand by the Am- public demand for such services in- erican public for medical care in gen- creases extensivelyaswellasinter- eral has affected every phase of theen- sively.

406 A third factor affecting medical care recting human ailments and environ- isexpansionofmedicaltechnology mental hazards,health workers must leading for reasons of economy to cen- now apply broad concepts of preven- tralizationof the medicalapparatus. tion. This development has given rise to the As yet, our indices of health status hospital and clinic and has shifted the dealonlywithabsenceofdisease. treatmentsettingfromthepatient's Even inthis limited context, 'Georgia home to the physician's office and the has a paucity of data on chronic dis- hospital. The end result has been an ease morbidity as well as data regard- increased need for allied health per- ing care and the impact of the disease sonnel, increased fragmentation of serv- processes.Consequently,epidemiolog- ices, and higher costs of medical care. istshave urgedthe formation of a Privateprepaymentinsurance and Georgia Center for Health Statistics Center governmentprogramshaveenabled patternedaftertheNational more segmentsof Americansociety for Health Statistics. than ever before to obtain care, there- In gauging the healthstatus of a by increasing public demand. The eco- population group, certain standard sta- nomic and social changes of the twen- tistics are cited, such as life expetaney, tieth century have led some to con- infant mortality, and morbidity rates. sider medical care as a tangible product The State of Georgia ranks 46 out of to be demanded and consumed,while 51 in life expectancy. Whereas the na- most view it as a right.Furthermore, tional average for lifeexpectancy at thethird-partypayerisdemanding birth is 69.89 years, for Ceorgia itis that the cost of care be kept down and 67.91 years.4 Nonwhites have a lower that health services andfacilities be life expectancy than whites; this phe- efficiently organized and distributed as nomenon has been explained as a re- a means to that end. flection of poverty with its concomit- The significant question,then, be- ance of poor nutrition and lack ofmed- comes the value of medical care and ical care. health since attitudesarerelatedto In infant and maternalmortality, values and sentiment. Georgia is above the national average. . withthe advances in scientific medi- In 1967 the mortality rate in Georgia cine, the expansion of the concept of ill- was 26.6 (per 1000 live births) while ness and treatment, and the enormous increaseinmedicaltechnologyand the national rate was 22.1. Georgia's treatment centers, the demand for more maternal death rate was 3.2 (per 10,000 and better medical care has risen tre- live births) as compared with the na- mendously in America during the twen- tional average of 2.9.5 Neonatal and tieth century. But also. production of better but fewer physicians per capita fetal deaths were also above national population, more ancillary and para- rates. medical personnel, more hospitals and clinics and higher costs have paralleled Mortality data are only a partial in- the increased quality of medical care. dication of morbidity in a population These developments suggest the value group. Health surveys are frequently of good medical care has probably in- necessaryto measure accuratelythe creased in American society during this incidence of many conditions and hence centory.3 Modern concepts of health have re- gauge the health status of the people. jected its definition as absence of dis- Unfortunately, systematic, compre- ease in favor of the totalwell being hensive surveys have not yet been un- of an individualinhis environment. dertakeninGeorgia.Therefore, we This broad definition contains biologi- must turn to national sources. cal, physical, and socialaspects and Thecardiovasculardiseasedeath thus has implications not only for the rate for Georgia is in the highest quar- medical sciences but also for the be- tile for the United States, along with havioral sciences. In addition to cor- North and South Carolina.° According

407 to the Georgia Heart Association. 52 great gaps, high costs, and wasted ef- percent of all deaths in Georg:,,re fort)thananintegratedsystem in caused by heart disease. Estimates of which needs and efforts are closely-rev cancer morbidity for1969, however, lated."h This fragmented system throg show Georgia below the national rates which careis provided must be -inn- with 124 per100,000 population as proved in order to obtain the highest compared to a nation average of 196 possiblereturnfromtheresources per 100,000. committed. We can expect to see in :the The population of Georgia, like that years ahead more research and pilot of other southern states,isshifting projects relative to the health care sys rapidly from rural-agriculturalto ur- tem and its reforination. ban-industrial. By 1975, half of our An integral part of the health syr population is expected to reside in the tem is comprehensive personal health 12 counties which comprise Georgia's care. The range of services included in sixStandardStatisticalMetropolitan this concept seeks to promote positive Areas (Atlanta, Augusta, Macon, Sa- good health through iestablished pre- vannah, Columbus, and Albany). This ventive measures,early -detection at concentrationof copulationwillag- disease, prompt and effective treatment, gravate the problems of polarization of and physical, social, and vocational re- medical resources in urban areas and habilitation of choose with residual dis- lack of care for the isolated and disabilities. The goalof comprehensive advantaged. care is continuing health services,--tion The birth rate is higher than thena- ginningbeforebirthandlasting tionalaverage(19.1asopposedto throughout our Waves, not only to Meat 17 8 per 1000) and the present pop- us when ill but also to keep us health's( ulation of 4,588,000is expectedto Scientific and teahnologicall advances reach almost 5.5 million by 1985.7 At in the various aspects of comprehensive the same time, the age composition of care (preventive, diagnostic, therapessn the population is changing to contain tic, restorative, and maintenative) wilt more of the very young and very old. have a great impact on the organiza- These factors will add even greater de- tion and delivery of health services. mands for health care services to an already overtaxed system. Comprehensive Care Preventive Organization and Delivery There are two aspects of preventive Of Services careprimary or prevention of ocean-- Experts inthefield of health man- rence and secondary or prevention of power believethat increased medical progression. Prevention of occurrence services alone will probably have only is represented by such simple example limited effects on hardcore health prob- asimmunizationsand treatment eat lems since the excess of demand over watersupplies. Such measures have supply will continue to pull additional greatly reduced the incidence of in- services to geographically and econom- fectious diseases like diphtheria, mee.i ically attractheareas which areal- sles,polio, and typhoid and aree&-- ready moderately high consumers of ficient and economical approaches tc health services. Thus, the adequacy of certain health problems. health services will depend as much Prevention ofprogressionincludes upon the organization of health per- such measures as annual physical and sonnelandtheircombinationwith semi-annual dental examinations, mass other resourcesasitwill ontheir screening for cancer, and multiphasic numhets alone. At present, medical screening of population groups. This care 'more a collection of bits and second line of defense not only en- pieces '(vaithoverlapping, duplication, ables the early discovery of disease and

408 consequent minimization ofilleffects socioeconomic groups. While itis true but also may be sensitive to pre-disease that people with low educational back- indicators. For example, prenatal care grounds do not recognize the advan- has had a definite impact on prevent- tages of birth control and have poor ing pregnancy complications and on motivation,thefailureof voluntary reducing maternal and infant mortality. familyplanning methodstocontrol Itis safe to predict that preventive population growth withinthese low- measures will be greatly expanded in income groups cannot beovercome the next 15 years with more emphasis simplyby making services available on mass multiphasic screening by al- and bridging the ignorance gap. We lied health personnel. Multiphasic live in a society whose cultural values screening is the examination of patients are based on an expanding population. inamulti-testlaboratoryclinicin Atalllevels,from thefamilyunit which numerous physical and chem tothenationitself,the economy is ical tests are made and evaluated using gearedtoachieving expansion rather automated equipmentandelectronic than equilibrium. At all cultural levels, data processing. In this manner much infertility or relativeinfertilityisun- data can be collected on many patients fashionableand unacceptableasa rapidly and accurately and be analyzed life goal. The childlc,s couple or the immediately,thusconservingtime, one-childfamilyisviewed with sus- manpower, and money. Although more picion and pitied rather than admired people are aware of the benefits of and and envied. On the other hand, multi- utilizethe preventiveservices of the child families give status and personal physician and dentist,still too many satisfactiontoindividualsatallcul- individualspredominantly from low- turallevels. An educational program income faMilies only seek care in the designed to persuade the indigent to acute stages of illness when the cure acceptalevelof personalfertility is more costly and time consuming. lower than that which is accepted by As preventive and therapeutic mea- the better motivated and more knowl- suresinalldisciplinesofmedicine edgeable members of the middle class have resulted in greater health, fewer is bound to fail. Well meaning, middle deaths, and a general prolongation of class white proponents of family plan- life, birth control has become the sin- ning have been accused of genocide. gle most critical aspect of preventive For the lower classes, an educational medicine.Concernedpopulationex- program to persuade adoption of stand- perts have repeatedly pointed out that ards set by the middle class for them, we have until 1985 to develop widely in a society which denies them access used, effectivefamily planning mea- to middle class status, necessarily con- sures or face worldwide starvation. tains elements of hypocrisy which are The introduction of oral contracep- quicklyrecognized.Itthusappears tives nearly two decades ago and .the that prime consideration over the next reintroduction of the intrauterine con- decade must be giventoeducation traceptive device a few years later have whereby each and every individual per- provided the most efficacious methods ceives the personal gain to be achieved ofcontraceptionpresentlyavailable; by limiting our population. This will yet neither of these methods isideal. entail altering the cultural goals of our Both have significant side effects, and society with regard to human breeding. neitheristotallyacceptableforall Governmental and other concerned strata of society. In addition to their grantingagenciesarepromotingin- unacceptability to some onreligious vestigationinto additional,moreef- grounds, there have been social reasons fective,safe,simple,andreversible fortheirlackoftotalacceptance methods of contraception, particularly among thoseinthe non-white lower in areas such as tubal motility in the

409 female and methods that would be ef- Inthis context, the next15 years fective inthemale. Implantation of will be concerned with prenatal diag- certain gonadal steroids by means of nosis and therapeutic management of silasticpellets with the time duration genetic problems as opposed topre- of one year, yetreversible,arestill natal alteration of the genetic material. under investigation. Immunological Cytological and biochemical study of methods have pro,:ed somewhat dis- the unborn fetus will allow salvage of heartening because of the inability to normal babies previously doomed by formfixedcellularantibodies.Itis lack of statistical evaluation as well as clear that over the next decade and a prevention of certain serious birth de- half there will be much research ac- fects. In the past year there have been tivity into improved methods of fer- severalreports(includingstudiesin tility control. the State of Georgia) of prenatal diag- nosisofchromosomalabnormalities Another area of preventive care that which,if undetected, would have led will be greatly expanded in the years to serious irreparable malformation in toward 1985 isthat of prenatal and the infant. Likewise, some success has postnatal manipulation of genetic ma- been reported in diagnosing certain in- terial. This concept is not a new one, herited metabolic diseases. In the next but only recently hasit been raised 15 years, the list of congenital diseases from the realm of pure speculation to subjectto prenatal diagnosis will be the level of practical possibility. Par- considerably lengthened. allel advances in several separate scien- Looking toward 1985, there will be tific fields are providing the technologi- a need to provide for more complete caltools and theoretical background and earlier prenatal examinations and necessary for practical application to family evaluation with a view toward the management of genetic problems uncovering possibleinheriteddisease. in Georgia. Significant advances in un- At the present time only two genetic derstanding the biochemical structure units exist in the State of Georgia, and and function of important biological both of these are primarily research macromolecules, improvedtissue cul- rather than clinical units. At the very ture techniques, and amniocentesis tech- leastthereshould be oneextensive niques have made possible various sig- center to which patients with potential nificant studies and offer the possibility geneticproblems couldbereferred ofbothdiagnosticandtherapeutic for specialized treatment and genetic treatmentin utero. For example, in- counseling. In the coming years, there trauterinefetaltransfusionisbeing will also be a need for more medical carried out in the management of Rh and paramedical ("paragenetical") tech- incompatibilitydisease.Inaddition, nicians with traininginthe area of microbiological studies on the biochem- genetics, cytogenetics, and biochemical ical structure and infective mechanisms and histochemical assay methods. In of viruses and other intracellular or- view of the explosive research interest ganisms offer a possible mechanism for ingeneticinfluence on disease, our directed mutation of the genetic ma- presentfacilitiesandpersonnelfor terial. Methods are currently being de- gentic training are woefully inadequate. veloped and improved for handling and In most medical schools today, gene- manipulating both maleandfemale ticsis considered to be a subject of gametes and early conception products. low priority. Unless this deficiency is FL.ally, techniques for transplantation corrected,clinicalabilityandpro- of ova and early embryos fromone ficiency in dealing with genetic prob- uterus to another may make it pos- lems willfallshort of thepotential sible for some childless couples to have being provided by current research ef- children of their own "genetic stock." forts.

410 Environmental factors are and will nourishmentis common atalleco- he an important aspect of preventive nomic levels and influences health in care. A new emphasis on preventable a variety of ways short of the classic environmentalinfluencesotherthan deficiency syndromes,thatfoodeat- infectious agents, such as environmental ing habits have changed a great deal, toxins,nutrition, and smokingisal- and thatthe basic foods which are ready occurring. The rapidly increas- being supplemented no longer form an ing awareness of the fragile nature of adequate proportion of the totaldiet. man's environment andhisabsolute As a result, supplementation is not as dependence on it for continued exist- effective as it used to be, and these ence along with more emphasis on the problems are likely to increase in mag- needsof groupsofindividualswill nitude as processed artificial foods be- clearly alter the concerns of medical come an increasing proportion of our science and medical education as well diet due to lack of availability of nat- astheorganizationand deliveryof ural foodsas thepopulationgrows. health care. Among the environmental The State of Georgia is one of the factors which modify health and which main lociinthis countryinwhich will rapidly grow in importance is nu- relativelylarge numbers of malnour- trition.Thisfieldobviously has im- ishedpeopleexisttoday.Withthe plications for educationatalllevels changing economic problems mentioned throughout the state sinceit involves above and the population growth gen- problemsofproduction,economics, erally. this problem should increase in distribution, marketing, and processing. magnitude in Georgia and elsewhere in The rapidly increasing population, the the country. rapidly increasing price of food, and Diagnostic and Therapeutic the increased political effectiveness of Changes in this area have been enor- low economic groups inthis country mous and rapid in recent years, and all serve to accentuate the importance we can expect more such changes be- of nutrition. tween now and 1985. Within the past Research inthefieldof nutrition few years.imaginative and energetic has concentrated on biochemical and research has yielded chemotherapeutic metabolic aspects, and much valuable agents which destroy malignant tumors information has been acquired. For ex- that despite surgical procedures once ample,studieshaveindicatedthat producedhighmortalityrates.The chronic inadequateprotein-caloriein- tremendous amount of research undertake may be a major factorinthe way will undoubtedly lead to new and frequentcomplicationsof pregnancy more effective drugs, antibiotics, and and high infant mortality rate in this vaccines. region as well as a factor in retarding The technology of engineering has mental and physical growth. However, a great deal of potential for medicine application of this knowledge to im- andisjust beginning tobe tapped. prove health has lagged. The classic Hence we now have such thingsas severedeficiency syndromes virtually heart-lungmachines,renaldialysis disappearedfromclinicalmedicine (kidney)machines,lasers,etc.Yet when their causes were delineated dur- there is a lag between technology and ing the first third of this century and applicationwhichwillcertainlybe preventive steps were taken primarily overcome as the specialty of biomed- by means of nutritional supplementa- ical engineering (such as the program tion of widely used-basic foods in the atGeorgia Tech)grows. Even the early forties. Now we are aware that space program technology has appli- a great deal of severe malnutrition con cations inthe health carefield. For tinues to exist for socioeconomic rea- example, the spaceman in his capsule sons,thatchronic moderateunder- is analogous to a premature infant in

411 an incubator; the problems of keeping thegenerationof computer software men alive in space are much the same isstill a critical unsolved problem. as those of keeping a "'preemie" alive Another development that should be in an incubator. The space techniques refinedwithinthenext15 yearsis of monitoring vital functions willal- neutronradiography.Radiologistsin low patientsinoutlying areas to be Georgiaare working inconjunction monitored by medical centers and have with scientistsatthe AEC Savannah specialistconsultation.TheRegional River Plant to perfect the technology Medical Programs are prompting the for X-raying soft tissue by means of a application of this technology, and its beam of neutrons. This diagnostic tech- use will increase. niquewillhavegreatpotentialfor early discovery of suspected soft tissue With the harnessing of nuclear en- cancer. ergy,thefieldofnuclearmedicine Perhaps the most dramatic develop- should rapidly expand in the next 15 ment has been in the field of surgery, years.Ridioisotopes andnuclear en- particularly in regard to organ trans- ergy have many applicationsinthe plants. Advances in kidney transplan- diagnosis and therapy of cancer and tation have been rapid in the past 10 in the assessment of functional changes years.Already transplantsfromse- in organs and glands. Currently under lected related donors are experiencing development are short life isotopes that 90 to 95 percent one year survival can be made in the hospital and ad- rates with very few losses thereafter. ministeredtothe patient with fewer Even kidneys from cadaver donors are harmful side effects. doing fairly well, with 50 to 85 percent one year survival rates depending upon The biomedical instrumentation that howclosethetissuecompatibility is most likely to have the greatest im- match is between donor and recipient. pact on medical care delivery systems Improvementintissuecompatibility is the computer. The use of computers testing has been the major advance in inthe medical fieldisinits infancy the past five years, especially between despite introduction nearly five years related donors. Unfortunately, thetis- ago. Although a few hospitals in Geor- sue typing methods are not as good yet gia have computer-based patient billing for predicting survival of kidneys (or and medical recordstorageandre- other organs) from unrelated donors trieval, there has been no coordination as they are for related donors but prob- of computer capabilities into an over- ably will be within a few years. all,efficient system whichintegrates Coronary artery disease is increasing medical, statistical, and financial data. in incidence in Georgia (approximately The ability to retain and recapitulate 21,000 deaths per year) sothat we data is the computer's primary useful- would anticipate this over-all problem ness in medicine and will enable the to be much greater in 1985 than it is physician to examine more informa- now. Itis possible, however, that die- tion more intensively with agreater tary factors or other developments in degree of uniformity.9 It is difficult to thisfield may significantly alterthis project the extent to which computers diseaserate. An aggressive attackis will automate the health care field in currently being made surgically to im- the next15 years. Among thepos- prove myocardial blood flow in patients sibilities are automated poison control with coronary disease by 'implantation centers, organ donor matching, ECG of internal mammary arteries into the analysis,historytaking,multiphasic myocardium.Extensiveexperimental screening, diagnosis, and computer-as- investigationsare in progressto im- sistedinstruction.However,thede- prove myocardial blood flow by other velopment of more efficient means for means. These techniques may signifi-

412 cantly alter the number of patients who of suppressing the immunological re- may be candidates for cardiactrans:. sponse. plantation in the future. In addition, Continued study will be made of the earlier diagnosis and currentinvesti- factors associated with differential long- gations will most likely lead to a re- term survival rates of patients under- duction intheincidence ofmultiple going either organ transplants orin- valve disease and congenital heart dis- sertion of artificialorgans. The Na- ease,thusreducingthe number of tionalInstitutesofHealtharecur- candidates for cardiac transplantation. rently giving greater monetary support At present the problems relating to to the artificial heart program than to lung transplantatiol seem greater than transplantation. In general, one might thoseof cardiactransplantation,but predict that current methods directed further developments may change this toward prevention and control of heart relationship. Up to June 1, 1969, there disease possibly will reduce the num- had been 133 heart transplants in 131 ber of candidatesfor cardiactrans- recipients, performed by 52 surgical plantation in 1985. It seems likely that teams throughout the world, whereas during the interim the indications will there had been only 20 lung transplants be more refined and that cardiac trans- with only one long-term survival. With plantation or replacement with an ar- theincreasingaverageageofthe tificialheart will become quite com- population and with an increasing num- monplace. Furthermore, by 1985 there ber of people with chronic pulmonary will probably have been developed bet- disease. there are literally thousands of ter and safer immunosuppressive meth- candidates for lung transplantation. It ods, which may allow transplants from isdifficult to predict the influence of not closely matched humans and meth- various developments on the number ods of preserving organs by freezing of people with chronic pulmonary dis- them so that organ "banks" can be es- ease 15 years from now. tablished to make available highly compatible organs. In general, there are many problems there involvedintransplantations. One of Becauseoftransplantation, the major obstacles has been donor has been greater emphasis on research procurement.Anotherveryserious in immunology. As yet itis not clear problemisimmunologicalresponse. what clinicalapplicationswillresult, There have been some reasons to be but itis predictable that research in lieve that both the heart and lungs are this area will yield potential preven- more antigenic than the kidney; that tion for many illnesses, especially those is. it is more difficult to control the rein which the body produces harmful jection phenomena inthese instances. or autoimmune responses of an un- Rejectionissuppressedtoa certain known etiology. degree by variousdrugs,butthese Intreatingtheindividual,mental drugs are extremely toxic and on oc- health will be given more emphasis. casionwilldepressthenaturalre- The greatest responsibility will lie with sistance of the body so that infection general medicine, for itis the primary issuperimposed. Infection,therefore, physician who usually firsthas con- has been one of the most common tact with individuals manifesting psy- causes of death in patients with organ chiatric problems. Yet, until recently, transplants. The most serious obstacle the average physician has little under- tosuccessfultransplantationisthe standingofpsychiatric problems as immunological barrier, but great pro- scientific cause-and-effect processes and gress is likely in the coming years in is poorlytrainedforanticipatory the form of improved techniques for guidanceand managementof emo- matching tissue and improved methods tional and behavioral disorders. As a

413 result, the less than optimal handling societal problems. Itis certainly true of patients with psychosomatic illnesses, that many of them are associated with neurotic problems, and classicalpsy- these developments, butitis doubtful chiatric illness is a great shortcoming. that technology can be assigned causal Medicaleducationis now andwill blame. Modern civilized man ismore continue to emphasize more effective apsychological animal than hehas management of these problems. probablyeverbeenbefore. Modern Traditionally, the state has assumed technology has freed him frompri- responsibilityforhandling the more mary concern with the satisfaction of serious types of mental illness, mainly basic biological needs, leaving him the ininstitutions which are not particu- time and energy for concern withan larly noteworthy for their quantity and increasingly complex hierarchy ofpsy- quality of care. Yet itisrecognized chologicalneeds. Among these con- that institutionalization is not the ans- cerns are his identity as a human being, wer to the mental health problem, and the meaning of his existence, andper- astateplanfor community mental sonaldestiny.Thesequestionsare health programs has been approved. frightening in themselves. The lack of Progresshasbeen minimalbecause answers and the lack of ability to de- of lack of adequate financing or both termineone'sdestinyare frustrating the state and community levels. Fur- and upsetting to performance-oriented thermore, better training programs in modern man. psychiatry and related fields are needed Since many who are finding relief on the undergraduate and graduate lev- through drug usage experience tension els to prepare people adequately trained and frustration from cultural and psy- to staff mental health programs. chological factors, the solution to the present drug problem must be sought Great progress has been made in in further understanding and correction altering personality and treating men- of basic social and psychological causes talillness with various drugs so that as well as in attempts to deal with the patients who would have had to be problem on a symptomatic level. institutionalized can now function and Itis be treated difficult to assess the real extent of the, withintheirown com- drug abuse problem, either nationally munity. Such psychotrophic drugs are or locally. Apparently the problem has being used for a wide variety of rea- not been nearly as great in Georgia sons. Under medical sanction they are as indicatedfor in other parts of the nation,al- controlling mood,be- though thereis havior, or muscle tension. Under non- evidencethatitis medical auspices they are used as an increasing. Most of the illegal use by escape from distressing life situations, the young in our area is associated with individualneuroticand asacrutchindealingwithlife's personality stresses, or for attaining several types problems, and culturalpressuresare of idealized goals, such as self-realiza- less of a causal factor than in other tion and the "good life." Some indi- regions of the country. viduals use drugs as a way of protest- In general, the overuse and abuse of ing and under the guise of the drug prescribedpsychotrophicdrugsare effect, as a way of acting out hostile probablyatleastas widespreadin Georgia as theyare inthe country and rebellious feelings. at large. Though less dramatic, this is Since the present drug problem is probably a more serious health prob- partly a cultural phenomenon,we should lem than the use of psychedelic drugs perhaps examine some of the cultural by the younger generation. Nor is the factorsthathavebroughtitabout. oldergenerationinnocentofillegal There isa tendency to blame tech- drug usage. Amphetamine-type drugs nology and industrialization for all our are misused by all ages. From a psy-

414 chological and socialpointof view, degenerativeones.However, aslife these are probably the most dangerous expectancyandpopulationincrease, drugs available since they frequently there will be a higher incidence of product orprecipitate paranoidpsy- chronic and degenerative disease. chosis and hostile destructive behavior. Auxiliary machines to carry on the work of vital organs will become highly developed over the next 15years asa Restorative and Maintenative result of advances in biomedical engi- Medicine has made greatstridesin neering.It may even be feasible for restoring function tothe handicapped people topurchase kidney machines and incapacitated. It is predictable that for renal dialysis at home. inthe next15 years new prostheses willenable theseverelydisabledto Systems Specialists stay out of bed, to care for their personal needs, and to be more productive. While it is clear that tremendous strides medical The Georgia Regional Medical Pro- are being made in advancing the incidenceof science and technology, pressures for gramreportsthat the improvement of productivity in the stroke in Georgia is among the highest delivery of health care services through in the nation. Yet the victim of stroke health manage- experiences slow orpartialrecovery the improvement of is a severe shortage of ment systems have been minimal, and because there progress toward improvement has been facilities,services,and manpower to meager. Management systems, the inhis rehabilitation. The GRMP aid meansby which administrative policies Task Force on Stroke has proposed an areexecuted,includenotonlythe extensiveplanfora comprehensive combinationsofmaterial,economic, statewide programinvolvingmulti- and human resources that actualy pro- county sharing of physical therapy serv- vide goods and services but also the ices and cooperative arrangement be- mechanisms and procedures for plan- tween hospitals and nursing homes to controllingthe provide continuity of care from the ning,directing,and utilization of these resources. The pro- hospital to the home. ductivity of a management systemis willbe Although much attention the ratio of output (quality and quan- given to physical and occupational re- tity) to input (resources consumed). A acutelydisabled, habilitationfor the number of health-related developments increasing attention may be paidto are taking place which emphasize the patientswithshort-term incapacities urgent need for improvements in the from such things as surgery. Moreover, productivity of these systems. the medical,social,andvocational aspectsofrehabilitationshouldbe The consumption of economic and more closely integrated. manpower resources in the delivery of Health maintenance referstopre- health care services isat an all-time serving from decline one's physical well high and continues to increase at an ac- being, specificallyin those who have celerating rate. The predicted rise in attained an advanced age and are sub- health care costs is so dramatic that ject to chronic illness.It is generally both providers and consumers of health recognized thatallage groups have servicesareseekingexplanations of special health problems, but itis the the problems and solutions for alleviat- agedthat presentthemore serious ing the increasing economic burden. problem since this group is prone to The government and other third parties degenerative diseases. Majorefforts are beginning to seek ways to improve have been concentrated on the killing economic and social incentives for ef- and crippling diseases, but far less at- ficientutilization of resources inthe tention has been paid to the long-term delivery of health care services.

415 The technology involved in modern economic resources inthe pursuit of health care is not only expensive but health objectives. also extremely complex and requires By 1985 systems specialists of various many specially trained professional and types, such as operations researchers, sub-professional personnel. In order to psychologists, economists, systems en- provide the comprehensive health serv- gineers,industrialengineers, manage- ices which are now technically feasible ment scientists, and sociologists will and and increasingly sought by the public, must play an increasingly critical role it is essential that health care personnel in the administration and management be integrated into coordinated, effective of healthaffairsifcurrentnational health care teams. Systems specialists goals of effective,equitable,and el can be instrumental in helping design ficient delivery of health care services thesehealthcare teams and model are to be realized. Currently in Georgia health delivery systems. there is an educational program in Hos- Thelargecapitalinvestmentsre- pital and Medical Systems. As part of quired by health care institutions and this program, the Georgia Institute of the long lead times involved inthe Technology collaborates full-time with production ofhealth manpower will the Medical College of Georgia and require more extensive use of formal part-time with various hospitals in the planning throughout the health care in- Atlanta area and other parts of the dustry. Systems specialistswillbring state in research' and service activities. mathematical modeling, computer sim- It is expected that this program will be ulation, and other techniques to bear continued and expanded in the years ona number of complex problem toward 1985. areas involving many interacting variables prevalent in most planning pro- Facilities cesses. Health care facilities play a major role Systemsspecialistswillcollaborate intheorganization and deliveryof with physicians and other health spe- medical care,foritis throughtheir cialists in the design of health screen- doors that individuals gain access to ing processes and other forms of pre- thehealth system. Just as increased ventive care and treatment as well as d^mand has put a strain on services the design of procedures for individual so it has on facilities, especially since patient interviews,examinations, and the advent of Medicare and Medicaid. diagnoses. The traditionaldoctor'soffice has Reputed shortagesofhealth man- now become a suite of offices, some- power at all levels, changing modes of times shared by two or more phy- delivery of healthcareservices,in- sicians.Physiciansare beginningto creasing demands for more and better group together in either specialty or health care, and the literal explosion multi-specialtyarrangements.Neigh- of technology and knowledge inthe borhood clinics have evolved as a means health field tend to make the tasks of of bringing health services into pov- planning, funding, organizing, and op- erty areas in large cities, whereas in eratinghealtheducational,research, small communities the hospital and out- and service programs extremely com- patient clinic adequately suffice. New plex matters. It is because of thecom- concepts of organization envision levels plexity inherent in the interaction of of care (i.e., hospital to nursing home theseimportantfactorsthatlaissez- to home) and regionalism. faire management practices, inadequate The trend seems to be toward less information, and independent intuitive institutionalization and more careat judgments and actions can lead to incommunity centers and inthe home, stability and relative ineffectiveness in especially in regard to mental disorders. the consumption of scarce human and Concern over theprice of carein

416 health facilities has resulted in a recent pitalsfor elective surgery. Again, as report by the Department of Health, with manpower, the problem may not Education and Welfare whichurges he a matter of simple numbers but of that patients be kept out of hospitals organization, distribution, and utiliza- and other high-costfacilitiesifthey tion. can be treated just as well elsewhere. Agricultural planning procedures are Yet we must not deceive ourselves into now sufficiently well developed to in- thinking that the demand for inpatient sure more focus on the patient and less facilitieswill diminish. An evergrow- rapid obsolescence of facilities. Disease ing population will be the critical de- orientation of medical services led to terminant. concentration of health workers around Regionalism raises the issue of con- hospitalsandclinics.More concern centration versus dispersal of facilities. with health maintenance and manage- The Georgia State Plan for Hospitals ment could lead to dispersal of health and Related Facilities has divided the services andfacilitiestolocales re- stateinto 42 medicalserviceareas lated to people density and people gath- basedoncenters ofpopulation,of ering points. which seven are regional, 20 are dis- There are several trends in the pat- trict,and 15 are ruralareas. While tern of health care delivery which will concentrationoffacilitiesisjustified very likely continue from now through economically, dispersalisjustifiedin 1985. The extent to which these trends terms of accessibility. Understandably may be completely dominating is un- expensive,specialized equipment and clear, but they will all be affected by facilities cannot be duplicated in every changingeducational,political,and community but must be placed at reg- economic pressures. ional centers as a resource for larger There will be less solo practice and population areas. Yet routine care must more grouping of senior professionals be available at the local level. in health care so that they may share In establishing regional facilities the resources andrelieveeach otherof aim should be toward decentralization individual burdens. Some groups will and the careful selection and referral be small, some will be - large, some of those patients who need the services will concentrate in one particular spe- of a larger, regional center. The flow cialty area, others will offer semi-com- should be from small, community fa- prehensivecare,and somewillcut cilities to larger and more specialized across professional boundary lines. institutions, both for patients who need There will be greater efforts to pro- complexdiagnosticandtherapeutic vide 24 hour service toallcitizens, procedures and alsofor health pro- bothincurrent health care facilities fessionals who desire or need further such as hospitals and clinics and per- training. Continuity and coordination haps in new arrangements. ofservicesandinformation among The major thrust of health care tra- local,district,and regionalfacilities ditionally has been in terms of curing are essential. disease. A trend has begun witha In the State of Georgia there are 137 major focus on prevention ofillness non-federalhospitals,includingpsy- andmaintenanceofhealthandis _ chiatric, long-term, and tuberculosis in- likely to continue. stitutions, with 28,043 beds. Whereas Each year more of the population the national average for beds is 857 is covered by some form of prepaid per 100,000 population, in Georgia it plan for health care services. This trend is 652 per 100,000 with an occupancy will continue so that by 1985 the entire rateof 87.5percent.10 Yet in some populationwillhavesuch coverage areas, individuals are put on waiting either through taxes or through pri- itsbeforebeingadmittedtohos- vate insurance.

417 Students who have been activein growth in population. Furthermore, the various socialprotest movements are productivity of the physician increased now beginning to appear inmedical much more rapidly at an annual aver- school classes. It seems very likely, at age rate of four percent because of least for the next se years, that greater use of other health personnel, their numbers will increase. How their diagnosticmedicaltechnology,and present actions may be reflected in the special facilities such as hospitals, cou- over-all pattern of health care delivery pled with lesstimespentwiththe is not known, but their participation patient. While services have increased, should make a difference. personal contact between doctor and In the past we have tended to draw patient has decreased. With greater de- sharp boundaries between formal pro- pendence on alliedhealth personnal, fessional education and formal profes- their shortage has become of central sional practice. The inappropriateness importance in the delivery of services. of these boundaries has become appar- Some authorities contend thatthe ent and is disappearing so that by 1985 health manpower problem is not one we should see much greater continuing of numbers butofdistributionand involvementofallpracticinghealth utilization. Moreover, analysis of man- professionalswitheducationalinsti- power supply and demand should con- tutions. sider a multiplicity of variables. For Computers andrelatedautomated example, demand for health services is equipment will have a greater impact influenced by age,sex,color,geo onhealthcareservices.They will graphic location,education, andin- serve as aids to development of diag- come; by availability of physicians and nosis, function as information storage other health workers, equipment, and andretrievalsystems,andperhaps facilities; and by financing mechanisms. most importantly serve as readily avail- Clearly the physician manpower sit- able continuing education systems. uation in Georgia is more than a num- As part of their therapeutic program bers problem since rate of increase of and the over-all concern for reducing physicians has exceededrateofin- costs,anincreasing numberofin- crease in population. Still. Georgia falls patients will receive complete services below the national practicing physician on an ambulatory basis with much self- to population ratio of 1 to 792 with care involved. a ratio of approximately 1 to 1100.11 Smaller hospitals will continue to be Seventy-two percent of these physicians linked with larger ones to share scarce are located insix metropolitan areas professional personnel as well as com- which contain 50 percent of the state's plex and costly equipment. population. The Atlanta area has 46 percent of the physicians to serve only 29 percent ofthe state'spopulation. Manpower One-fifth of allthe state's physicians Currently the thirdlargest employer, are generalpractitioners, whereas 10 the health industry is expected to be- years ago the proportion was one-third. come the nation's largest employer by There is a concentration of specialists 1975.1969 estimates show that3.7 in metropolitan areas reflecting the at- millionAmericansareemployedin tractiveness of urban areas to newly the health occupations. About half of trained physicians and the trend toward these are allied health workers. specialization. The National Advisory Commission Inorder tomaintainthepresent on Health Manpower reported that the physiciantopopulationratio,about increasein number of activephysi- 3200 new physicians will be needed by cians between 1955 and 1965 was 22 1985. This accomplishment and im- percent,exceedingthe17 percent provement oftheratiowill depend

418 upon the expansion of Georgia's sys- thepossibilities for self-improvement, tem for educating physicians and the and improved socioeconomic status of attractingofphysiciansfromother majorsegmentsofthecommunity. states.BoththeMedicalCollegeof Thus. the demands upon the dentist's Georgia and Emory University School time and person are overwhelming him, of Medicine have plans for increasing limiting his ability and opportunity for their enrollments. Still, only half of the self-improvementandself-expression, state'sphysiciansaregraduatesof andfurther curtailinghisleadership Georgia medicalschools.Proportion- role in the community. atelyfewerGeorgiansareentering medical school. and more are opting Pressures from within the community for out-of-state schools. as well as within the profession will resultinamajorre-orientationof mode and method in dental practice in Dental Manpower 1985. Trends toward specialization will Dentistry in Georgia as in the nationaccelerate, and dentists will tendto has developed. matured, and prospered coalesce into group practices with the as a result of need-drive incentives op- potential of professionalinterchange. erating within the community and pro- Furthermore. the dentists will be sup- fessions. The community motive has ported and served by well-trained an- been based until recent years primar- cillaries with a widened array of skills. ily upon a demand for relief of pain He will as histitleindicates become and disability.while theprofessional a teacher and motivator as well as a orientation has been toward the status clinician sensitive to subtle changes in and economic security accruing to one oral homeostasis. gifted in these skills. Currently, community need-drives have been expanded The typical dentist in 1985 will re- to includeimprovedestheticsand main an independent practitionerof function, and American dentistry has dentistry, tending however toward vol- responded to these demands with the untary associationinto multi-discipli- development of surgical and restorative nary group practice. He will have an skills to a preeminent degree Further- expanded supervisory and managerial more, the profession has sought to de- role including a wider spectrum of an- liveritsservicestothe community cillary personnel to relieve him of non- throughthetraditionalpatient-doc- criticalchoresassociatedwithoral torrelationship.Solopractice,fre- health care. Freedom from non-critical quently without thebenefitof ade- chores will relieve the time and energy quatelytrainedancillaries.has been demands upon him to the extent that and is the predominant mode of dental he may devote his time and talents to care delivery within the state and nation.Consequently, eachdentisthas providing more competent service created for himself an isolated and inin the critical areas of dentistry, sulatedprofessionalenvironmentre- such as diagnosis, treatment, plan- sulting in a high level of independence ning, evaluation, and maintaining and a low levelof consultation and homeostasis of the oral environ- professional interchange. ment including occlusal harmony; The demand for relief of pain and taking advantage of opportunities disability and for improved esthetics for self-renewal; and function is increasing in geometric assuming a larger more meaning- proportions. This increase is being aug- ful role in promoting community mented by the success of the profession healththroughinterdisciplinary, insatisfying these demands, the im- interagency, and governmental provedcommunicativeawarenessof efforts.

419 To be sensitive to and responsive to immediately necessary. The projected these changes. higher education must need of 1282 auxiliaries can only be provide achieved and maintained by a perma expanding educational experience nantstatewidesystemofauxiliary in behavioral sciences, group dy- training programs. If the professional namics, administrative techniques, longevity of female auxiliaries is about as well as in-depth understanding four years, then upwards of an addi- of biophysical systems; tional300 personnel must be intro- effective utilization of trained an- ducedintoprofessionalemployment cillaries and a working knowledge channels each year even after build-up and understanding of community hasoccurred.Seriousconsideration action; should be given to the utilization of opportunity for self-renewal and maleauxiliaries who couldbeex- continuing education; pected to have longer term usefulness. graduate education in dental spe- In order to cope with the impending cialties; rise in demand for specialized services, programs for education and train- every dentist must also be more thor- ing of dental ancillaries. oughly prepared in such areas as peri- Inthe next15 years, dental care odontics,pedodontics, prosthodontics, will be expected by an increasing pop- and preventive orthodontics. The prin- ulation, a wider segment of the adult cipalfocus should be on producing population, and the total segment of more genuine generalists than special- the child, youth, and elderly popula- ists. At the same time, there will be a tion. Based on current popula,;an pro- rising need for dental specialists. For jections for 1985, Georgia will need a example, additional manpower will be net addition of about 300 dentists in needed toadminister and execute a order to maintain its present approxi- total program of fluoridation. The en- materatio of one activedentistto tire population of the state under the every 3600 people.12 Based on normal age of maturity must be granted the attrition through death, retirement, and fullbenefitsof fluoride through the outward migration, dentalschools at variousavenuespresentlyavailable. Emory and the Medical Collegeof This impliesastatewide community Georgia will need to produce at least effort to fluoridate all municipal water 1200 dental graduates in the next 15 supplies and where necessary to ad- years in order to achieve a net gain of ministerfluoridesto school children 300. Additional dental auxiliaries need- and encourage the use of other fluoride ed to assist these dentists by 1985 will modalities. number about 1300. Although themajor emphasis on The dental situation in Georgia re- dental care in the next 15 years will quires immediate and concerted efforts remain centered in the private dental in the efficient organization and deliv- office, a creative program must be de- ery of dental services. Through effec- veloped for the institutionalized popu- tive recruitment and training, the edu- lationof Georgia in which requisite cational resources of the two schools services are provided either in a hos- of dentistry must be continuously main- pital or from a hospital base. tained at capacity in order to furnish the minimum numberof graduates Nursing and Allied commensurate with a growing popula- Health Manpower tion. Traditionallythe nurse stood at the A massive dual effort aimed at pro- side of the physician as his main as- viding a continuous adequate supply of sociate.Withprogressinmedical auxiliary personnel and training den- science,technicalduties became ap- tistsintheir optimumutilizationis parent, and anincreasing variety of

420 nursingactivities emerged which de- entry. dropout (to raise families), and parted fromthetraditionalnursing reentry. Thus an important manpower function.Medicalrecordlibrarians. sourceisthereentry pool of older laboratory and radiology technicians, women. The development of retraining physicaltherapists,operatingroom or refresher programs for this supply technicians. andinhalationtherapists source is essential if we are to fill the in the beginning were nurses. Gradu- needs for allied health personnel. Con- allythesespecialties developedtheir currently, employing institutions must own courses of training without the develop flexible work schedules if re- nursing prerequisites. trained and refreshed personnel are to Stillthelargestsub-groupwithin be attracted back into the labor force. allied health manpower are registered As health care becomes increasingly nurses who have graduated from di- complicated, additionalbut coordin- plomaschools,juniorcolleges,or atedspecialties in nursing and allied baccalaureate programs. The other cat- health professions will emerge. To as- egories of technicians and assistants sure optimum care. health teams will representalllevels of education. Al- he distributed widely and conveniently. most four out of five health workers As a function of better management, are women who tend to fall into two service may be provided on a 24-hour- age groupseither late teens or late a-day basis to provide rapid diagnosis thirties and above. and emergency care. Training below the professional level Education for health careers should provided mainly by large hospitals has he structured sothatcapableindi- been of a short duration and often- viduals can move up the career ladder. times makeshift. Consequently there is Thus, the two-year nursing or tech- little job mobility and a high rate of nician graduate may practice for some turnover. In recent years though, ef- time and then decide to pursue a four- forts have been made to expand and yearcollegiateprogram.Institutions upgrade training opportunities through providing such education will structure vocational education,juniorcolleges, open-ended curricula, grant credits for and newly established schools of allied appropriateprofessionalexperience, health. The concept of common core and in other ways facilitate individual curriculum is beingexploredand career development. Such educational should contributetohorizontal and innovations will aid retention of skilled vertical mobility. Furthermore, the fed- persons in these health professions. eral New Careers program is stressing The numerousdifferentlevelsof on-the-job training for unemployed or health professionals must take cogniz- low-income persons in entry level jobs ance of health care realities. Individuals with flexible prerequisites and built-in trained for advanced skills should not mobility features. devoteefforttoduties that can be Leaders in education are recognizing managed effectively by those with less the limitations of ad hoc programs de- training. The economics of health care signed in response to existing demands can thus be faced, at least as far as for workers. Education thatis focused on one-level jobsrather than career de- manpower usageis practiced, so that velopment restricts the employer's ability patients will be managed atdifferent to reallocate work and inhibits the work- stagesbyindividualswithadequate er's mobility. Such preparation may be trainingbutno more trainingthan of part;cular disservice to those trained. if their training is neither transferable necessary. horizontally to other occupations nor Much ofthenostalgiaassociated linked to upgrading sequenees.13 with health care will have to be dis- Because many positions in the allied carded. Patients willreceive attention health field are filled by young females, by physicians and dentists only when the work pattern tends to be training, such highly skilled persons are required

421 to establish diagnoses, to provide com- state. The demand for health care serv- plex therapy and rehabilitation, and to ices has increased faster that) the pop- assure over-all adequate patient man- ulation and will continue. A railation agement. Most of thecare patients increase of 20 percent may well be receive in the hezIth care delivery sys- coupled with a large increase in the tem of 1985 will be provided by new demand for health services because oil professionals derived from nursing and federally sponsored programs for the allied health sciences. very old and the very young and con- Also by 1985 among the new pro- tinuing relative affluence and general fessionals, will be found persons who awareness of potential services. An in- can be viewed as assistant physicians, crease in demand on the order of 50 trainedspecifically in theclinical percentseems much more probable specialties,including familypractice. than the 20 percent due solely to pop- Among other duties, such trained per- ulation increase. sons will make home visits, becoming Although a radical break from the inthissensetheprimarycontact traditions of the past in medical and practitioner. dental education may result in the pre- parationof large numbers of these Educational Implications senior professionals, it is most unlikely At face value the rate and variety of that they can cope with anticipated de- the scientific and technological changes mands without the assistance of much in medicine seem enormous and render larger numbers of allied healthper- hopeless the task of planning for the sonnel. No part of the educational sys- future. In the15th century, Machia- tem of-;,estate can escape being velli wrote that half of men's actions involved in this area of health. At a are ruled by chance and the other half minimum, senior professional schools are governed by men themselves. In mustbeconcerned withproducing the 20th century, man has rejected the physicians and dentists, who in addi- notion of the future as history and in- tion to possessing all the technological stead attempts to guide his own destiny. scientific.andhumanitariancompe- Technological advances and a growing tence now expected of suchprofes- body of scientific knowledge have fa- sionals, also must have administrative cilitated speculation as well as rational and managerial skills that will permit planning and programming to achieve them to lead the activities of many a desirabledestiny.Inthiscontext, allied health practitioners inthede- therearediscernibletrendsinthe livery of expanded health care services. health fieldthat may help education While the practice of medicineis shape health care 15-30 years hence. rapidly changing, so must health edu- Assuming no radical changes in cur- cation change in order to adequately rent migration patterns (in and out) prepare new professionals to keep pace of senior professionals, the graduation with social as well as medical develop- of new physicians and dentists within ments. Consequently, we shall see accen- the state between the years 1970 and tuation of the following trends between 1985 should result in maintaining cur- now and 1985. rent approximate ratios of physicians curriculum reform, integration of (1 to 1100) and dentists (1 to 3600) the biological and clinical sciences to population with some hope that the with earlier patient contact dentist ratio will improve. It should be more emphasis on the behavioral noted that these ratios are not impres- sciences, better enabling a student sive when compared to the rest of the to treat the patient as a whole nation, and they obscure the even more person disturbing matter of the uneven dis- greaterresponsibilityplaced on tribution of these resources within the student in the process of learning,

422 moreelectives and independent Concurrently, the training and educa- study tional programs necessaryfor initial disappearance oftheinternship job entry and subsequent advancement with direct entrance into residence need to be developed. Tightly job foc- from medical school used. as well as more general educa- more student involvement and par- tionalexperience.will probablybe ticipationincurriculumdesign necessary at levels ranging from high and governance. school and vocational training through The proliferation of allied specialty junior and baccalaureate levels and per- fields with consequent lack of job mo- haps including some graduate work. bility is a problem that should be con- Although the effort to develop such fronted by educational authoritiesat a program would take two to three thevocational and junior and bac- years and cost several hundred thou- calaureate college levels. sand dollars. implementing costs should As stated by Greenfield in Allied Health not be great. Perhaps the greatest prob- Manpower: Trends and Prospects lem would lie in obtaining cooperation One of the most important harriers to and assistance from the various pro- optimum utilization of allied health per- fessional groups who would have some sonnel is overly rigid separation between types of workers. This is reinforced by interest in the matter. Such cooperation professional organizations of each type would be absolutely necessary to in- of worker. by separate training facili- sure appropriate accreditation of edu- ties. and by outdated laws and anachro- cational programs and, where neces- nistic customs. Among the consequences sary, revisions in professional practice of the malutilization are deadend occupations. high turnover rates. job dissat- acts. isfaction, and higher operating costs.I4 The initiative on these matters, how- Educational authorities, in conjunc- ever, rests with education. It is the re- tion with manpower leaders, have the sponsibility of education not to let it- responsibility and opportunity to begin self be cast in an outmoded or in- developing a new career structurein appropriate role by simply yielding to thealliedhealthfield.Meeting this the professions, potential employers, or challengewillrequiretherecasting other social pressures. Neither must it of the many (more than 100) jobs in remain tied to its own traditions. Edu- this area into a set of career and sub- cational institutions must take the lead career fields that facilitate horizontal in determining their relationship to the and vertical mobility for incumbents. world of health care.

Footnotes

1.Dennis, J. L., M.D., "The Shifting Social Scene and Family Medicine," (LAMA, 206:1066, Oct. 28, 1969). 2.Jac°, E. Gartley, "Twentieth Century Attitudes Toward Health and Their Effect on Medicine," (L. J. DeGroot, M.D., Medical Care, Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas, 1966), p. 3. 3.Ibid., p. 7. 4.U. S. Public Health Service Publication No. 1252, Georgia Life Tables. 1959.61, (Vol. 2, No. 11). 5.Georgia Office of Comprehensive Health Planning. 6.American Heart Association. Cardiovascular Disease in the U. S. Facts and Figures., 7.U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, (1968), p. 49. 8.U. S. Government Printing Office, Report of National Advisory Commission on Health Manpower, (Washington, D.C.: Vol. 1, Nov. 1967), pp. 3, 36. 9.Kelley, Terrence G., "Computer Use in Practice Is Mostly in Future" (Modern Medicine, Aug. 11, 1969), p. 63. 10. American Medical Association, Hospitals Guide Issue, (Aug. 1, 1969). 11. American Medical Association, Distribution of Physicians, Hospitals and Hospital Beds in the U. S., 1969, (Chicago, 1969). 12.U.S. Department of Commerce, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1969. 13.Riessman, Frank and Popper, Hernine 1., Up From Poverty, (Neu York: Harper & Row, 1968), p. 182. 14.Greenfield, Harry I., Allied Health Manpower: Trends and Prospects, (Columbia University Press, 1969), p. 182.

423 TABLE I Estimates for 1969 MEDICAL Physicians 317.000 Other independent practitioners 183,000 (including optometrists, pharmacists, podiatrists, clinical psychologists, clinical social workers) Allied Medical 500,000 1,000,000 DENTAL Dentists 100,000 Auxiliary dental 145,000 245,000 NURSING Registered Nurses 680,000 Licensed Practical Nurses 350,000 Assistants 1,000,000 2.030,000 ENVIRONMENTAL AND OTHER 425,000 (Environmental Health, Information, Library, Veterinary, etc.) TOTAL EMPLOYED IN HEALTH OCCUPATIONS.. 3,700,000 SOURCE: "Allied Medical Education Newsletter," American Medical Association, No. 20, August 1, 1969, p. 3.

Dr. Harry O'Rear is president of the Duke Hospital in Durham. He joined the MedicalCollegeofGeorgia.Hewas Medical College of Georgia faculty in 1950 awarded the degree of Doctor of Medicine and served as Professor of Pediatrics and in 1943 by the University of Pennsylvania Dean of the School of Medicine before be- and served his internship at Watts Hospital, ing named acting president in 1958 and Durham, N. C.; from 1946 to 1949, Dr. president in 1960. Dr. O'Rear is a member O'Rear took his residency in pediatrics at of Phi Beta Kappa and Alpha Omega Alpha.

424 THE paper. "Health Perspectives. by Dr. O'Rear is well organized and arranged. comprehensive. knowledgeable and should serve as an excellent source. Comments on this paper will he used tointensify areas of agreement reflectingto some extentper- sonalexperience.background.and philosophy of a practicing physician in a small town and also to focus on a relatively few areas of difference. In addition. an attempt will he made to emphasize certain problems or opportunities which will be directly affected by actions of those in the field of education. Thereisconcurrenceinrc- gard both to policy and projection for the bulk of the thesis. One should keep thisinmind sothat thefollowing spotty emphasis will be understood as such. Forces of Change Massive forces of change exist inre- cent federal law aided by rejection of the concept of charitable care. In the critique: Medicare and Medicaid programs financing of part or all of medical care Perspectives for the elderly and those on public assistance has been effected.Inevitably on Health these programs will be expanded, de- Care: mands for services and costs will rise and blame onpractitionerswillin- Georgia crease as more and more control over 1970-1985 medical care is grasped. Voluntary ac- crediting agencieswillstartmedical audits and will become more stringent in order tosurvive. Insurance com- mm, panies will a'Aempt to emulate federal programs.Privatehospitalswillin- crease tailored services for maximum benefits from federal programs. Chronic 111 care facilities will increase rapidly, but - - willremain primarily dependent on government subsidy. - Medical Manpower Many more doctors are needed, and the need will be accentuated as more - - and more doctors seek insulation from

- III the public masses by hiring Emergency Room physicians, by locating in towns wherethereare hospitals withresi-

425 dencv programs. by specializing. by Georgia are training doctors to be spe- working in teaching centers or in gov- cialists.Fragmentation and overspe- ernmental or industrial positions. Thus cialization and too manyspecialists the maldistribution of doctors will be exist already. In addition, Emory Med- aggravated with even more becoming ical School trains a high percentage of specialists and going to the urban cen- out-of-state students. There is underway .ers. Almost 20 percent of physicians a commendable increase in enrollment licensed yearly are graduates of foreig, in Th two medical schools in Geor- medical schools. Generally the quality gia. estncially at the Medical College of their school training as measured by f..f Georgia. But 90 percent of their certainstandard tests issaidto be graduates have been influenced to be- inferior to training received in Amer- come specialists by the full-time spe- ican medical schools. A large part of cialist faculty of these schools. This patientcareinGeorgia hospitals is overspecialization makesithardfor givenbyforeign doctors. Proposed many people to have a personal phy- federal legislation if passed will elim- sician, and increases the existing mai- intae this physician brain drain from difiribution of physicians and imbal- undevelopedcountriesandwithit ance in doctors and hospitals. The gen- much of this country's supply of doc- eral practitioner is considered inferior tors. aythesefaculty members, and the Existing federal law and change in medical school producing GP's is also publicexpectationsaidedbylabor looked down on. Such schools havea unions,theirorganizations,andthe difficult time obtaining Federal Research government has caused an increased Grants which are now the financial heart demand for medical services. The doc- of the medical schools. Allied health pro- tor's work week went from 60 to 63 fessions need strengthening.but the hours in the past year. and he spent crying manpower need is for more doc- less time with each patient. However. torslocated away from large urban increasedpaperwork, administrative areas and in particular, more personal duties, and the increasing cost of mal- physicians.Substitutes,assistants, or practiceinsurancewilldecreasehis subprofessional specialistsare not productivity.Althoughgroupprac- equal to the real thing and if the con- ticeis advanced as a method of inclusion reached by Dr. O'Rear is valid creasing efficiency inthis area recent that "most of the care patients receive studies show that the solo practitioner in . . . 1985 will be provided by new sees more patients, works longer hours, professionals ..." We will be worse off orders less lab and x-ray work, and thanI now believe we will be. Some chargesless thanhis counterpartin medical schools such as the Universi- group practice. Prepaid group practice ties of Tennessee, Kansas, and Oregon will probably decrease hospital use but have narrowed and deepened the scope otherwise except for those located in of general practice and some 50 per- disadvantaged areas will not attain the centof their graduates now become expectations presentlyheld by many able personal physicians. forreducingcost.However,they In Georgia we need further "expan- should offer good, quality, comprehen- sion of our existing schools witha sive readily available (but to limited strong Chair of General Practicein groups) care. In addition to the de- each. A more urgent need is a third mandforneededmedicalservices, medical school oriented toward sup. there is definite overutilization bypa- plying more family doctors.General tients on government programs, a cer- practice residencies with emphasis on tain portion of -which is and will be internalmedicineare sorely needed. impossible to control. Training another specialistto go to Ourpresentmedicalschoolsin Atlanta will not help the doctor who

426 replied when I asked him recently to Similar core curriculum should he ar- go toa meeting with me, "Hell.I rangedwheneverpossiblebetween don't have enough time now to prac- L. P. N. and associate R. N. or R. N. tice half as well as I know how. training. The policy of denying affilia- We also need expansion and strength- tion of a diploma school with a state- ening of our postgraduate programs, run school as has been done should be with encouragement of clerkships in reversed. Georgia hospitals during part of the medical student's senior year. thus in- Mental Illness creasing his chances of staying in the Five percent of thepresent medical State. school curriculum is devoted to mentalillness. Over 50 percent of illness Nurses is mental or combined mental and phy- Increase. change. and best utilization of sical illness, and 50 percent of the hos- allied health manpower are also dom- pital beds in Georgia are occupied by inant needs, but comment will be con- mentallyillpatients.Medical school fined to nurses to whom we all owe trainingwillundoubtedly change. In more than I have ever seenexpressed. the past mental illness has usually re- Therearelicensedpracticalnurses sulted in prolonged disability. New psy- (presently from vocational schools in chrotropic drugs, environmental con- large part), associate R. N.s (two year trol, treatment immediately and close college program),diplomanurses to home with as little disruption to job (R. N.s with three calendar or academic and home as possible and with early and years of hospital based schooltrain- adequate rehabilitation and follow up. ing). and degree nurses (R. N.s with a socialandpsychologicalhelpwill fouryearcollegedegree).Allare change the loca_ion and effectiveness needed. Presently 87 percent of R. N.s of treatment and greatly decrease the are graduates of the diplomaschools need for and length of state institu- which still produce the majority of reg- tional care. Foster home programs will istered nurses. All diploma schools now he instituted. have association with a college, ob- viating to some extent lack of faculty Rehabilitation skills. They do represent an indirect Rehabilitation will play a greatly ex- cost to the patient in the training hos- panded role in the care of the men- pital which is more than offset, in my tally and physicallyill.It will be re- opinion, by the increased quality of directed from being. in many instances, patient care through their presence, ac- an expensive medical vendor system tions, and influence. These schools are for transient illness (which could be being pressured at the present time by paidforby thepatientorother actions of some educators. They can sources)to a prime source of sup- survive and contribute greatly to the port forthe physically and mentally quality of medicine in Georgia if the disabled person who can be returned to University System would offer consul- a productive life by medical help, job tation,sharing of facultyskillsand training, and job procurement. voluntarystandardization sothedi- ploma school would not be considered terminal education so that continuation Attitudes to a degree in another school could be Health perspectives in Georgia are not done without much penalty andso clear in many areas and will be gpv- transferofcredits wouldbe much erned to a large degree by theatti- easier- from diploma to degree schools tudes ofthe people. These attitudes (as ispresently being planned from frequently are more progressive than associate R. N.s to degree schools). those of their leaders.

427 Adjustment of the naturally occur- cationcoursetoeveryhighschool ring fluoride inwater has passedin student must he provided. The drinking each of the 12 referenda held in this driver. responsible for the majority of state. However, fluoridation legislation fatal accidents. must be removed from has consistently been lost in the Gen- the road. The rights of a citizen to eral Assembly. Many persons still are drive in relative safety must he pro- having pain and disability from the tected by adequate law enforcement in- lack of fluoridated water. volving both the courts and police. by About eight percent of the dental bettertrafficrecords. and by taking indigent needs are now being met in action as in Sweden. where prohibitive Georgia. The new dentalschoolin finesandjailsentences areapplied Augusta withitsintegrationofas- without exception to the rich and poor sistants, hygienists, technicians, and den- for driving while drinking. talstudentswill increase the needed The injured patient's care must be supply of dentists and effectiveness of improved by trained accident person- each. However, until the dental pro- nel, fast transportation including heli- fession as a whole assumes the posi- copters and improved emergency hos- tion that everyone is entitled to at least pitalfacilities. There must besafer a part of the dental services available. automobilesandsaferroads.Some I fear the outlook will be bleak. Tech- deaths can be prevented by the adop- nical advances, such as bonding agents, tion of compulsory liability insurance will radically lessenthe time needed or passage of a law requiring a pro- to treat many conditions. rata payment for the uninsured prior to licensure. This area is one of great Other attitudes aretragic and in- potential for education. volve courts and legislative bodies as Attitudes willalso determine toa well as people. There is great need large extent the course of the epidemic for controlin the area of accidental of heart. disease which is the leading injuryand death. Too many times and steadily increasing cause of death have I heard a call for the Emergency among males in their most productive Room "stat" and have followed a trail years. People must be educated and of blood to a dying young man. Too psychologically conditioned to follow many times have I had to tell a dis- an adequate diet, to exercise, not to traught parent, "He's gone." Too many smoke. and to accept and apply forth- times have Ibeen nauseatedto the depth of my being by the unneeded coming discoveries. tragedies which are the first cause of Preventive Medicine death in Georgia from childhood to middleage.Icannot approach this Increasing the unity, quality, quantity, area of prime public health need with- comprehensiveness,anddeliveryof out emotion. healthservicesisimportant.Preven- tive medicine, especially in thepublic Over 1700 people will be killed in health environmentalfield,is of the Geargia this year intraffic accidents; greatestsignificance for us in main- 20 willbe injuredforeach person taining for all and increasing formany killed; property damage will be some the "quality of life." Control of pol- 400 milliondollars. The attitudeof lution of food, shelter, air, water, land, many people in regard to the Viet Nam and sea whether by noise, heat, chem- War isin marked contrast totheir icals,radiation,bacteria, solid waste, apathyregardingaccidentaldeaths. or congestion must beeffected. The Thisattitudeoflethargymust be family must function asa viable unit in changedand canbechanged only all strata of society. There must bea through education. The 55 dollars nec- recycling rather than a "use and dis- essary to furnish a good driver edu- pose" economy. There must be in-

428 creased guards against actions, use, or If we expect to have a husband in buildup of substances harmful to hu- the home, a healthy wife and children mans or the ecological balance of na- who are nurtured emotionally,men- ture. Short term economic gain must tally or physically;if we avoid phy- not cause long term degradationof sicalprivationandmentalanguish life.Withouttheseactions,asevi- among the poor;if we eliminate the denced by present news reports on the majorityofphysicallyandmentally rapidincrease in emphysemaand handicapped and deformed children in bronchitis, on the beginning extinction our state; if we decrease criminal abor- of the American eagle, on the heavy tions;if we lessen the present social concentrations of DDT in polar bears, turmoil; if we do not want one genera- and on the death from smog of mil- tion after another who "belongs to the lions of trees in a National Forest 60 welfare," then we must have effective miles from Los Angeles, there will be family planning. no happy perspectives forhealthin Georgia in 1985. The aggregate of en- Education vironmental insultis mounting rapidly Education should aim to create a cul- and soon will be irreversible unless the ture with a high value for fitness and total environment is considered in all healthand withrecognitionofthe endeavors. needfor individual personal medical Family planning must be advanced supervision and care.It should teach now. Educational forces have the abil- and motivate the individual while still ity to do much for the generations to young to act safely, to avoid harmful come. One survey indicatedthat 82 substances, and to understand and sup- percent of the last pregnancies in the port those programs of environmental twolowestsocialgroups wereun- and family control necessary, topre- planned and unwanted. Eighty-five per- vent his and his posterity's disability, centofa different group with un- death,or goodqualityof living.It plannedandunwantedpregnancies should structure training to allow for were anxious and willing to have con- advancementwithoutpenaltyina traceptive advice. Seventy-five percent given health field and should strengthen of the 732 women on welfare in one allexisting areas of training, whether group who enrolled in a birth control or not they are primarily under edu- program were still taking the pill two cational control. It should greatlyin- years later. Among these 550 women creasethenumber ofdoctorsand no pregnancies had occurred though nursestrainedinGeorgia.Itshould previously they had atotalof 3,444 increaseitscontinuingeducationin pregancies.In an area of my town healthfields and should offer accept- picked for inclusion in a Model Cities ance and should coordinate and con- Program, 40percentofthebirths sult with health officials at a high level were illegitimatelastyear.Certainly, regarding areas of combined action nearly all of these children would not planning, legislative,or administrative be born if the mothers knew how to (though a coordinating body for health prevent their births. is needed). It should intensify efforts in Dr.O'Reareormentedonpre- the public schools to inform students natal mortality. The greatest cause is of the exciting and varied possibilities lack of birth control. He commented of careers in the health field. on the present magnitude of malnutri- Apology must be given for the en- tion (with which I agree in most re- largement of certain narrow areas and -C :rryne-sr:rtnr mnrvu ni.hpre in thP. spectivesinGeorgia. As the people higher quality and better delivery of realize health values more and more, personal care. Preventive medicine will they will lead the health professionals. be greatly strengthened and expanded educators, and legislators into a larger tothe point of primacyitdeserves. and more comprehensive program with And education can do much to make this happen.

430 THE position paper prepared by Dr. O'Rearisa scholarly summary of a very complex subject. It is an excellent projection of what may be expected in the next 15 years in the health care field, andIhave no major areas of disagreement. There are a few areas which I would liketo explore and some supplemen- tarycomments shouldbemade.I would like to emphasize that thereis a larger quantity and a higher quality of medical care being delivered to the population of Georgia today than ever before. Thisisnotonly trueasa whole, but the amount of health care beingdeliveredbyeachindividual practitionerhasgreatly increasedin the past 15 years and is likely to continue to increase at an even more rapid rate in the next 15 years because of the technical advances that are being experienced. Even in rural and poverty areas the amount of health care being deliveredisfar greater now thanit has been in the past. However, ex- critique: pectations ip these groups, as well as Perspectives in the general population, have led to some dissatisfaction with medical care on Health asitexists. As a result, there will be a dedicated effort by the medical pro- Care: fessioninthenext15years to in- Georgia crease the amount of health care that can be delivered to the population and 1970-1985 toseeka better distributionof this health caretoallpeople.Emphasis willcertainlyshift away from acute care to preventive medicine and health maintenance. In order to provide this marked increase in health services which is going to be demanded in the next 15 years, not only must we increase the number of new health professionals graduated from our schools, but we must also provide comprehensive continuing education programs for all segments of the healthprofessionsothateachcan usetheirskillwith thegreatest -efficiency. Another area of increasing importance isthe rapidly increasing use of bioengineeringandcomputertech-

431 niques inmedicine which will require edly the necessity for increased num- a much greaterinterrelationshipbe- bers of alliedhealth professionals in tween the medical and the engineering all areas of medicine. He has also em- schools in the future as techniques be- phasized what Ibelieve to be the key come more and more complex. The in this matter; that is, the development availability of a team of technical ex- of a career-ladder concept so that those pertswithinthe major hospitalsof beginning at sub-professional levels can our state will become a necessity. For have both vertical and horizontal mo- thisreason,institutionslike Georgia bility. If this is to he possible, our edu- Tech must provide new and expanded cationalinstitutions must developto training programsforbothprofes- the fullest the core curriculum concept sionalsand sub-professionalsinthis aswellasthe conceptthatprofes- field. sional experience in an area should be Additional emphasis will be placed given some credit toward a higher de- in thefuture on maximum economy gree in that area. It is my opinion that and health care. To date, there have in the next15 years testing methods been very few incentives for hospitals will be developed to enable health pro- and other medical institutionsto op- fessionalsto pass from one levelof erate in the most economical manner. training to another more rapidly and During the next 15 years the maximum without the necessity of allthe aca- economy in health delivery will be in- demic courses now required.Itisin creasingly emphasized by third-party this area of career mobility thatI feel payment sources. It is my opinion that a tremendous effort should be spent increasing use of outside systems analy- by the educational institutionsin the sis will be required by the third-party next 15 years. payers with incentives for the recom- During the next 15 years emphasis mendationstobefollowedbythe in training at the medical schools will health service institution. shift from the very marked emphasis The demand by physicians and their atthe presenttime on acuteillness families for more time for their pur- more tothepreventionandhealth suitsother than professional has re- maintenance aspects of primary care. sulted in an increase in the emergency The concept of a primary physician medical "tare being deliveredat hos- who will assume the role that the gen- pitals at times other than the regular eral practitioner and internists have as- physicians' office hours. This hasal- sumed many times in the pastis one ready resulted in the increase in the which will grow. I would predict with full-time salaried physicians who staff Dr. O'Rear that the medical curricu- these emergency facilities, and I would lum will be drastically changed in the predict that this will markedly increase next 15 years, with patient experience in the next 15 years and that by 1985 coming much earlier inthetraining. themajorityof emergencyservices The internship will give way to resi- will be handled by the local hospital dencies .in primary medicine or in the and itsphysicians on duty. Because various specialties, and I would further the housecallisaninefficient and predict that these residencies will be- expensive use of a physician's time, come advanced degrees to be offered it also is decreasing and is being grad- by the medical school or university ually butsteadily replaced by home rather than beingbasedentirelyin care services; by 1985 there will be hospitals as they are at present. Nu- organized home care programs to take merous hospitalaffiliations willprob- care of most house calls which would ably be developed by each medical have been made by physicians in the school as these advanced degree pro- past. grams are developed.Ibelievethat Dr. O'Rear has emphasized repeat- therewillalso be some realisticre-

432 striction on the numbers of the ad- in some of these areas. Again, let me vanced degrees teat will be givenin congratulate Dr. O'Rear for the fine certain specialty areas since this is the job he has done in his position paper. only practical way to avoid oversupply ECOLOGY isconcernedwiththe complex lifeenvironment systems of Georgia, as of the world.Ecology is providing, therefore, a scientificbase and a way of thinking which is essential to every citizen for an understanding of the interacting effects of man's avalanching technology and culture with his environment and with himself. By providing means for placing our present values into better balance with all others,ecology has become a powerful humanizing force. Ecologicalconceptsand waysof thinking are essential inputs into public school,vocational,collegeand adult education.For example,theprofessional fields of medicine, environmental health, agriculture, engineering. architecture, landscape design, urban planning, commerce and industry are now By Robert B. Platt, Ph.D. beginning to build ecological bases and perspectives into their training, research and development, practice .and product and public relations. One of the most The Ecology of Georgia urgent educational needs in the statc today is the development of a strong publicschoolprograminecology throughout all grades, not only as preparation for vocations and avocations, but for the necessary inputs into decision making processes at the polls and in home and community affairs.At present, ecological training in Georgia public schools, with few exceptions, is at a low or only token level. Because of present tight commitments throughout the state for existing educational activities, a strong program in public school ecology should originate within the State Department of Educa- tion and its initial costs most likely provided for as a line item in the Appro- priations Bill.There is also a rapidly increasingneedfortechniciansand specialists to handle the many activities associatedwiththequalityofour environment. ofenvironmentalencounterswhich form the bask of their evolutionary development. As a consequence each kind ECOLOGYas a scientific discipline of life today, as in the past, exists in the is a body of laws, concepts, and skills natural state in continuous balance with concerned with life and environment other life and its environment.Such and their relationships with each other. balance is not achieved by chance but But science is much more than a know- by the rigorous processes of organic ledge of things.It is an attitude or a evolution. These processes arc so effec- way of looking at things and has risen tive and universal that we rarely stop to outof man'sintellectualcuriousity. wonder over the adaptation and toler- Therefore, ecology also is a perspective ances of each form toitsparticular or a mode of thinking. When fully de- environment.Especially arc we prone veloped, it becomes a significance edu- to forget that man too has evolved to cational cornerstone for other disciplines his present state through the past sev- of study and human activity.In this eral million years according to the same context I am referring to the universal- laws and processes. By means of man's ity of ecology.It embodies the unity recently acquired technological skill for and interdependence of all life with en- manipulation of the environment, he has vironment and the awareness, therefore, so systematically exploited it from fron- that man is an integral part of this vast tier to frontier that now he must take a interacting life system. No one aspect stand on what he has and learn to live of his relationship to it can be pushed with it or lose the battle for existence. or squeezed out of balance without in- Man, like all other life, cannot escape jury to the system and ultimate harm to his biological heritage. man. Thus, in its broadest context, ecol- The unique contribution which ecology has become an area of humanism ogy has had to science is the concept and technology. of the ecosystem. Ecology along with many other sciences examines life Ecology has matured as a scientific at itsorganizationallevelsof molecule, disciplineonlywithinthepast two cell,tissue, organ, organism and pop- decades, but as a way of thinking, its ulation, but ecology is the only one con- roots go deep into man's origins on this cerned primarily with the total system of planet.Both aspects are developed in life and environment. Of all these or- this paper. On one hand it is important ganizational levels of life, the ecosys- to know how ecology relates to the nat- tem is the only one capable of self per- ural environment of Georgiaits plant petuation, provided itis given a source and animal life, its rocks and minerals, of energythe sun. Any self-sustain- its mountains, rivers and coastsand ing and self-regulating natural system, on the other hand how itrelatesto Georgianstheir perspectives and their such as a pond, stream, forest or the ways of thought as well as action re- planet Earth, is an esosystem. garding their understanding and use of Ecologists have in recent years de- Georgia and its great resources. veloped the concepts and techniques which make it possible to experimentally and quantitatively examine an ecosys- Ecology as a Scientific Discipline tem as a natural unit of life in much Life on this planet consists of some half the same way that the science of medi- million plants and one and one-half cine examines a human being; yet the million animals. Their distribution and ecosystem, being independent of other abundance is controlled by natural laws life,is far more complex. A well bal- and is the result of countless numbers anced dcosystem is healthy: an imbal-

436 anced one issick. And man being a Ecosystems have a remarkable capa- part of an ecosystem must perforce bility for the repair of injury. A stream enjoy or suffer thc same fate. can cleanse itself of certain kinds and The dynamics of an ecosystem are levels of pollution. A forest willre- powered by thecontinuous flowof establish itselfif cut down and even energy from the sun through the system waste areas, if left alone, will eventually and ultimately back to space. Thc sun's turn green again. energyiscaptured by the functional The environment of alllife then is part of thc ecosystem known as the ultimately determined by the complex producers, which are the green plants. interactions of thc ecosystem. For ex- Through the process of photosynthesis, ample, the kinds, rates, amounts and this energy is used to produce carbo- intensities of materials supplied and/or hydrates, and by associatcd processes, interchanged with the organism, includ- to produce the myriad kinds of plant ing man, isregulated by the system. foods which arethe only source of While the development of any plant energy foralllifeinthe ecosystem. or animal is directed by its genetic char- By intricate chains and webs, this food acteristics, the extent and nature of that energy is passed along to the consumers, development depends on the extent to i.c. man and the animals, and then to which theenvironment providesthc the decomposers which are primarily proper conditions at the proper timc fungi and bacteria. andintheproperintensitiesand However, thc chemical elements such amounts. Man, too, like other life,is as carbons oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, shaped by his physical, nutritional and phosphorus, iron, sulphur, and potas- sociological environment.Ecology as sium, which are derived from the physi- a science attempts to understand these cal environment, are in sharply limited processes and effects. supply and must be continuously re- Human Ecology cycled through the system. Thc hun- Ecology is providing a solid and essent- dreds and thousands of kinds of life ialscientific basis on which man can which make up a particular ecosystem build a happy and healthy life.But each have their own position and func- thereisa great distance between an tion and collectively provide a char- understanding of the science as such acteristic structure.i.e.a lake, wood- and the extension of its principles, con- land, desert or swamp. The distribu- cepts and attitudes toward all aspects of tion and abundance of each kind is reg- human society.The word "ocology" ulated by the system. A measure of comes from the Greek "oikos," meaning imbalance or unhealthiness of a system habitation,a bonding of thehearth is provided by a shift in the abundance with the home, which to the Greeks was of given kinds or by a reduction of a symbol of unity between the good numbers of kinds, as is commonly deter- earth and all aspects of society. Thus mined for evaluating the quality of a by its very origin, ecology clearly and stream. unequivocably places man as an integral Another significant measure of an part of nature. ecosystem isits productivity, which is Through the past centuries man has the amount of food it produces. Young slowlybutsurelyeparatedhimself ecosystems such as agriculturalfields from his natural environment and, in produce a relatively greater amount of the recent crescendo of technological food than they use in contrast to old or triumphs, he has reached his ultimate climax systems such as forests where heights of folly in asserting his domina- that consumed is approximately equal tion over a hostile nature.Chemical to that which is produced. control of disease transmitting organ-

437 isms would solve our world health prob- Radiation from radionuclides and X- lems,whilepesticidesandindustrial rays, TV and microwave ovens and in- processesoffoodproductioncould dustrial uses of atomic energy are ser- emancipate us from the land; environ- ious threats not only to our own but mental conditioning, even of large cities, to future generations. and world wide climate modification The significant increases in disease would remove the vagaries of weather, cannot be comfortably explained on the and genetic manipulation of hereditary basis that more people live longer. Data materials could create plants and ani- from the Rockefeller Institute show that mals and indeed entire races of people life expectancy past age 45 has not to our own liking.. But these grandiose increased significantly. For infants the dreams have now faded as we face the mortalityrateforthiscountry has technological shambles of overpopula- dropped from sixth in 1950 to fifteenth tion, pollution,insufficient waste dis- in 1961 among the nations of the world. posal and urban stress. Out of this un- Mental stress, crowding and regimenta- precedented cont.' ontation with nature, tion add theirtoll.An environment, the cold realization has emerged that then, which allows a man to produce man isneither superior to, nor even a family and to be economically effec- separatedfrom,nature butthathe tive should be unacceptable if it gen- is an integral part of it.Examples fol- erates disease atallstages from pre- low of the use of human ecology to natalto old age.Disease prevention fulfill the needs of human society. through ecological measures must take Environmental Health. Economic afflu- its place along with the current pre- ence, population growth, urbanization occupation of medical science, which and technological expansion are the four is remedy and repair of those who are basic factors that are bringing new prob- already sick. lems and dimensions to the physical, Economics and the Landscape. The de- mental, emotional and social health of velopment and exploitation of urban man. The problem is not simply one and open space landscapes have been of survival of numbers. The welfare dominated by the drive for economic of man's mind and soul are at stake. profit and a disdain for nature. These Man is shaped by his total environment have brought great benefit to man, and from conception to the grave not only in large measure their deleterious effects by immediate and direct effects but also could be tolerated until we began to by indirect and long range consequences. feel the smothering effects of technologi- Our technology is causing alarming in- cal wastes and population pressures. The creases in various types of chronic and American pioneer found a vast and rich degenerative disorders. From the physi- wilderness which seemed endless and cal environment, three quarters of a inexhaustible. Our whole history has ton of toxic materials per person per been one of conquering the land, cut- year are dumped into the air we breathe; ting the forests, draining the swamps, an average of three pounds of chemical silting the rivers, thinning and chemic- food additives are ingested annually by ally impoverishing the soils and deplet- each person, this being in addition to ing the ground waters. In truth, through the ingestion of pesticide residues and all of this, we have mined the great traces of veterinary drugs which occur natural resources of this country from in meat, milk and eggs; over two mil- one new frontier to another; New Eng- lion Americans are stricken each year land to the South, the South to the Mid- from microbial contamination of food; west, the Midwest to the West and now .and one person out of four drinks water from arable lands to the arid regions not covered by the U. S. Public Health of our country. Along with this eco- Service standards.Many prescription nomic determinism, there developed a drugs produce unforeseen side effects. serious deficiency in our Western civili-

438 zation in the form of an attitude first for housing is particularly adaptable to of conquering rather than living with the ecological planning.IanI.. McHarg, environment, and with recent technol- one of America's foremost landscape ogy, the arrogance of seeming independ- planners, has set forth some basic prin- ence from nature. ciples. He begins with the assumption Now there is not a drop of water or that development of open space near an acre of land on this planet free of urban centers will occur. Uncontrolled pollution.Clumsy. inhumane express- growth of open space is inevitably de- wa,'s take us to work through smoke structive. Controlled growth must con- palls and neon signs to even more inform to regional goals. Observance of humane factories and office buildings. ecological principles not only can avert The visible evidences of the American destruction but can enhance the en- economiccreedarethehamburger vironment. Planned growth is therefore stand. the gas station, the subdivision, more profitable. The plans should he and everywhere the solid wastes, the based on in depth studies of all pertinent rivers as open sewers. thnoise, the factors which include traffic flow, eco- lack of privacy and the blunting of the nomic stability, present land use, sur- human spirit. What of the open areas? face and subsurface water supplies, to- Try to find them. Yesterday's suburbia pography, bedrock and surface geology, istoday's slum.Only thefortunate ecologicalassociations,soils,wildlife, few can escape to the mountains or the recreation, and scenic and historical fea- seashore and. as more congregate there. tures. Only a few such studies have been the same patterns of crowding and ugli- carried out in this country and none of ness emerge. this depth in Georgia. There is general agreement today that these conditions must change for Geor- The Ecology of Georgia Today gia as well as for the nation, not just The ecology of Georgia, therefore,is for survival but for the restoration of a not just a study of its forests, streams, healthy environment. The task can be and renewable natural resources;itis accomplished by theapplicationof also a consideration of Georgians and ecological principles to urban and rural their relationship to their total environ- planning. At the heart of this is a change ment.This section attempts to char- in our value system, from one which is acterize the ecology of Georgia asit dominated by economics-to one which exists now. recognizes the values of allfacets of The Ecological Gap human society. The highway is a prime On the plus side, Georgia possesses the example .ofthis.We allow highway basic physiographic features and natural engineers tb plan expressways based pri- resources of a magnificent state.Its marily on the construction and mainte- enviablediversityof landscapes and nance costs and the moving of traffic physiographic features extend from the without the equally important inputs southern Appalachian Mountains across from economists, geologists, ecologists the Piedmont Plateau to the Coastal and air and water pollutionexperts; Plain and the Atlantic.Its forests and also,environmentalmedicine,urban woodlands,itssparkling streams and housing. scenic, historic and recreational green water lakes, and its golden isles values, irreplaceable natural resources are unexcelled in this country. Georgia's and landscape design should he con- temperate climate provides for mild win- sidered. A balance sheet should be made ters and pleasant summers, with proof all costs to society, both direct and longed and delightful intervening sea- indirect, with decisions based on a total sons of spring andfall.By having systems analysis rather than a piecemeal predominantly an agricultural, commer- analysis. cial and light industry economy, along The development of large rural areas with smaller populationpressures,it

439 has escaped the ravages associated with of multiple social concern. the rewards theheavily industrialized and highly arc even greater prosperity along with populated states to the north. Thus look- a happier and healthier life. Not many ing at the state as a whole. Georgia to- thoughtful persons today would contest day does not have the tremendous uphill this philosophy. The problem is being battle, of restoration of its natural re- increasingly sharpened and identified to sources with which many other parts the pointthatthereis now general of the United States and the world agreementthatindifferencetothese are faced. problems will lead to self destruction. On the debit side, adverse industrial Georgiaisfortunateinhavinga and population pressures are rapidly in- rapidlyincreasingnumberofcivic creasing; serious threats and encroach- leaders, legislators, government officials. ments are occurring day by day on many educators,business men and citizens of our streams, forests and coastal re- who not only recognize this ecological sources: some streams and rivers have gap but who also are developing action become open sewers; and every year programs to halt its spread and in time more and more segments of Georgia to begin to closeit. There follows a are needlessly and often wantonly de- brief account of some of these activi- spoiled by poor planning or, more often, ties. This account is admittedly incom- by the selfish planning of single-minded plete,for a detaileddocumentation economic forces. would go far beyond the scope of this The reallosers are the people of assignment. Also there is an inevitable Georgia. The tragt;dies of inadequately overlap within the 20 areas designated plannedurbanizationincludeslums, bytheCommission onEducational chokingtraffic,drasticincreasesin Goals, and thisreport,itishoped, mental disorders and crime and the rape significantly interrelates with many of of irreplaceable natural resources and them. open spaces. Along with this is the im- Environmental Contamination porverishmentasF,ocatedwithrural Every part of Georgia and every Geor- communities. These are representative gian is contaminated with the products of the many disorders which are bring- of our civilization. And in retrospect ing to a majority of Georgians. a con- we can figure out why, the reasons tinually increasing loss of identity and being a combinationoftechnology dignity. And what of affluent Georgians, and economics on the one hand and those with manicured yards, three-car ignorance and apathy on theother. garage and a mountain hideaway? They But in very recent years the situation too get the full environmental effects of has rapidly changed in that science is the commuter's daily fare of frustration documenting the cause and effect re- and exhaust fumes, improper diets, the lationships, technology is providing the continuous ingestion of food additives means for control and reduction, the and pesticide residues and the boredom state and federal governments are be- of suburbia, all of which are suffered in ginning to provide pertinent legislation the name of economic prosperity and and an informed and aroused citizenry paidforwithchronicmentaland is leading the fight for an effective pur- physicaldisordersanddegenerative suit inall these areas for maintaining diseases. This gulf between the high and improving the quality of our en- quality of our ecological resources and vironment. the low quality of human ecology I am This is an arca which calls for con- callingthe ecological gap. certedaction on thepart of every The bright side is that with a change Georgian, for not a single one is exempt in our value system from man-centered from responsibility forits happening. to man-environment centered, and from just as not one is .exempt from its de- a yardstick of direct prosperity to one leterious effects. Hard questions must

440 beasked.For example,shouldthe emerges (1968 Annual Report of the farmers of Georgia use residual broad Water QualityControlBoard).Al- spectrum pesticides such as DDT, in though 4.7 million dollars in PL-600 lieu of equally effective narrow spec- construction grants were certifiedfor trum nonpersistent ones? The gainis 22 municipalities and counties, a back- measured in slight percentage savings logof 65qualifiedrequestsfor 28 to the consumer from reduced costs of milliondollarsremained unapproved insect control. The ohsetting costs are for lack of funds; a nine million dollar measured in damage and loss to wild- construction program left a 62 million life. fish kills. increased pesticide inges- dollar increase in the net backlog of 275 tion by man and a long deterioration of million dollars; a cumulative total of the land by the pesticide effects on soil 429certifiedpollutioncontrolplant microorganisms which are essential to operators is offset by an estimated 1172 maximum fertility. The same question yet to take or pass the test; although may he asked of industry, whose price adequate sewage treatment was pro- savings from lack of proper air and vided for an additional four percent of water control isoffset many times by the population, 58 percent of the state's the ultimate short and long range harm citizens are still without adequate facil- to man and his envitonment. ities: and while a cumulative total of But the consumer must also take a 200 million gallons per day of industrial large share of theresponsibility. The wastes have been brought under control. "John Doe" citizen has not yet indicated at least that many more were not being his willingness to pay the costs of pol- treated by the year's end. On the legis- lution control through higher prices and lative side, a bill requiring the examina- higher taxes. Thus the solution in large tion and certification of water and waste measure must come through a drastic water treatment plant operators failed, increase in educational processes at all and a request to the Georgia General levels,built on the momentum now Assemblyfor7.5milliondollarsin gencated. construction grants was not approved. Water Pollution.Georgiainitiateda It should be noted, however, that the statewide effort against pollution of its operational budget was increased. water by enactment in 1964 (and as Other generalizationsemerge. The amended in 1966) of the Georgia Water demands for water are rapidly increas- Quality Control Act. This provided for ing: the metropolitan area of Dalton. for the creation within the Department of example, with 30,000 people, uses 34 Public Health of a division for Georgia million gallons per day. Water quality water quality control and for a State in Georgia is closely associated with the Water Quality Control Board. Under relative concentrations of people and vigorous and able leadership, the Board industry. Away from these concentra- has made substantial progress. Yet. it is tions our streams and lakes arerel- estimatedthat,becauseofserious atively clean. Georgia fortunately does financial restrictions at the current rate not have "working" rivers like the Dela- of improvement some 17 years would ware, Ohio or Hudson. Yet. each river be required to correct existing deficien- and river basin is a unified system. Each cies.Sincesubstantialdemandsare part must be evaluated in terms of the added every year, the outlook for de- otherparts,andinresponsetoall sired water quality for Georgia would aspects of human values and needs. The be dismal indeed, unless drastic steps to Water Quality Control Boardisde- improve the situation could be antici- veloping a total ecological approach to pated. theseinteractingsystems,andthus. Whenthe.impressiveaccomplish- despite the crippling effects of lack of ments for 1968 are cast into perspective funds and substantial public apathy. is with the debits, the following picture making the basic studies and elucidating

441 the principles and criteria requisite to a mark have banned the sale of DDT. high water qualityfor Georgia. An while in this country. California. Ari- appreciable segment of industry is also zona. and Michigan have banned its taking a responsible approach as are a use. thc latter having an outright ban number of counties and municipalities, also on its manufacture and sale. Wis- throughcloseworkingrelationships consinisattemptingto do so. The with the Board. Since the Water Quality mosquito control commission of Suf- Control Board represents one of the best folkCounty, Long Island.hassus- efforts of the state to improve the quality pended the spraying of DDT and many of Georgia's environment.itsreports other municipalities have such action and activities should be understood by under consideration. all thoughtful Georgians. Georgia did withdrawthcuseof Pesticides Georgia has not enacted any Dieldrin and similar persistent hydro- legislation for the regulation of pesti- carbons following widespread damage cides. herbicides and other such chem- to wildlife in its pork barrel efforts to icals, nor to my knowledge has any eradicate the fireant over large sections been introduced into thc Legislature. of Georgia. However. on substituting a Needed at present is the enactment of degradable pesticide. Myrex. the State strict controls and in some cases bans DepartmentofAgriculturepromptly against the use of persistent broad spec- began theindiscriminate spraying of trum pesticides and herbicides inthe cities and towns. including Atlanta and state. Equally effective alternative Savannah. This was part of a multi- measures are available. These chemicals million dollar program to achieve what have deleterious effects on many more hard scientific evidence and common beneficial forms of life than there are sense shows to he impossiblethe total target organisms. Because they are not eradication of the ant. Since surround- degraded, they stay around for years ing states long ago settled for a feasible during which time they may be trans- control program ata fraction of the portedgreatdistances,and by eco- cost, it is curious that the Georgia De- system cycling, moved and accumulated partment of Agriculturestillpursues through food chains and webs from this phantom goal. organism to organism. With an agricultural economy and DDT, the principle culprit, can now with the spotlight on municipal and in- be found in every drop of water in the dustrialpollution. the equally serious ocean and in every land mass in the problems associated with the use of world. The pesticide-herbicide industry pesticides,herbicides,fungicides and defends these persistent forms on the other such chemicals have not yet been basis that they are indispensible in many broughtforciblytothecitizensof ways to food production and human Georgia. health. The grounds foractionare Chemical control of noxious pests is quite clear. First, there is now over- essential to our economy. Therefore, the whelming and irrefutablescientific problem is one of an informed and evidence of their danger; also there are reasonablyregulateduseversusan other equally effective but less danger- indiscriminateuncontrolledandun- ous controlmeasure!: 'which can be informed use. This applies to home and used, provided the public is willing to garden as well as to agriculture and pay for their increased costs. An im- public health. pressive number of state and federal Several agenciesinthestate have governments have banned the use of taken positive action on air pollution. DDT in the last year or so, and the The Georgia Department ofPublic numberwillprobably increaseata Health has had an officially designated . rapid rate. Abroad. Sweden and Den- program since 1961 but initially with-

442 out legal power or responsibility. Under this must he added traces of veterinary the Georgia Health Code of 1964, they drugs which occur in meat. milk. and were authorized to make recommenda- eggs and pesticideresidues on food tions on problems of air pollution. In crops. 1967, the Legislature passed the Air These pollutants have for the most Quality Control Law which created the partindirectand long termeffects, Air Quality Contra! Branch and a gov- Direct cause and effect relationships are erning board within the Georgia De- difficult to establish. Tobacco smoke, an partment of Public Health.(Chapter air pollutant, is onof the best docu- 88-9) Rules and regulations governing mented, but it took more than the period allowable emissions were promulgated of ageneration smoking before the by the State Board of Health in the effects became manifest. Even so, the summer of 1968. evidenceisrapidlymounting which The Air Quality Control Board has associatessuchpollution with many established an ongoing sampling net- chronic and degenerative diseases. Of work in the state and has performed particular concern is the fact that ex- many week-long surveys in large metro- perimentation in animals and observa- politan areas. They have written over a tionsinman have shown thatthe dozen orders to offending industries and physical and mental development of the governmental groups in order to control fetus and the newborn may be seriously pollution by the legal steps outlined in affected and that such effects may per- the law. sistthroughoutlife. As an example, The Fulton County Department of injection into newborn mice of particu- Health has anairpollutioncontrol late materials separated from urban air programwithrulesandregulations greatlyincreasesthefrequenciesof similartothatofthestate. Bibb varioustypesof tumorsdeveloping County hasadopteditsownregu- during their subsequent adult life. lations. also similar to the State Depart- Again, the problem comes down to ment's. and has worked in this area for what measures we are willing to take a number of years. Chatham County to obtain cleaner air and cleaner food. has local personnel working full-time The costs are measured in dollars and on air pollution control and has used poor health, in inverse proportion. county ordinances and the state's regu- So/id Wastes. Of all kinds of pollution, lations to obtain abatement on several solidwastes are probablythe most problems. obnoxious to most people. Consisting of AIR POLLUTION AND FOOD AD- garbage, junk and litter, they accumulate DITIVES.These have their primary endlessly, they require physical effort to effects on people and are a part of one's handle, they assail our nostrils, insult our everydaylife.Not havingdatafor eyes. dig deep in our pocketbooks, are Georgia. I will recall some figures for the bane of politicians and above all the United States provided by the Con- else they invade our privacy and blunt sumer Protection and Environmental our soul. Even though we may become Health Service of USHEW. These show somewhataccustomedtothedaily that the 142 million tons per year of chore of garbage disposal, our anger toxic matter released into the air over and horror is being increasingly aroused this country per year amount to 1500 at the sight of roadside dumps, auto pounds for every American. The use of graveyards and the ubiquitous beer can. food additives to impart flavor, color, Solid wastes are accumulating at the and other qualities has increased 50 rate of 1600 pounds per person per year percent in the past 10 years, and each and the annual tab for disposal exceeds of us now consumes an average of three two billion dollars. The needs for eco- pounds of these chemicals per year. To logicalplanningarenowhere more

443 evident than here. ditions. Again, the issue is will society Solid wastes include not only the out- demand and bewillingtopay for put of households and municipalities, disposal of materials. but also discards of business. industry Radiation.Radiationasanenviron- and agriculture. Although not now con- mental hazard isa growing threat to sidered as serious to man's welfare as future generations. High energy radi- are gaseous and liquid wastes, there is ation can penetrate the cells of the body. a growing concern that in time solid its most serious effects being on the wastes may become the greatest prob- chromosomes and genes. The function lem of all. The quantity and substance of genes is not only to carry hereditary of these wastes are linked with national information from one generation to the growth and technology as well as factors next but also to provide the basic con- of geography, economics and public trols for growth and development of the attitudes. individual. Thus radiation has the po- There are only two basic methods of tential of causing both hereditary de- solidwastesdisposaldumpingand fectsinour children andchildren's recycling. The formerisa primitit children and body effects on the indi- method handed down through the cen- vidual such as errors in embryonic and turies, while the latter is sophisticated fetal development and the alteration of and is just now beginning to receive cell growth which produces cancer. The widespread public attention. Since tech- significance of radiation doses, however nology has solved the problems of pro- small, is that their effects are first producing and distributing to the consumer portional to the dose and second are enormous volumesofmaterials,it accumulatedthroughoutlife,partic- should also be able to solve the problem ularly in the sex cells. of collecting, removing and disposing Exposures may come from a surpris- the waste residues. Some efforts are now ingly large number of sources. In our appearing.Theseincludenewand own homes, harmful high energy radi- sophisticated concepts of sanitary land ation comes from color television sets, fills,incinerators equipped with elec- microwave ovens and other electronic trostaticprecipitators, the composting home equipment. Medical services proof raw sewage sludge for reuse as a vide additional loads through the use fertilizer and of particular importance of X-rays and radionuclides, and still to the individual, the use of degradable other amounts come from the ingestion convenience containers in lieu of non- of radioactive materials produced by degradable materials such as glass and military and industrial uses of atomic aluminum. energy. With the impending drastic in- Technologically,therecyclingof creasesinindustrialusesof atomic solid wastes ranges from such simple energy, particularly for electric power, techniques as refillable glass bottles to there is grave concern as to what the the more complex reclaiming of ferrous effectsof the associatedincreasesin materials from discarded autos. Another radiationburdens willbe.Thereis approach is the ecosystem method of considerable debate today as to whether reusing in a cyclic pattern the elements the standards being set by the U. S. of earth, air and water which make up Atomic Energy Commission are suffici- the organic world. Without this,the ently rigorous. Though only one per- deadbodies ofplantsand animals cent of U.S. electricity is now provided would remain intact and the ground by nuclear energy, the AEC predicts would soon be covered with such litter. this may reach 50 percent by the year An example of man's use of this method 2000. This could create a tremendous is the decomposition of sewage by bac- and conceivably an intolerable challenge teria and fungi under controlled con- to our environment, through the pro-

444 duction of vast quantities of radioactive activities would he amazedattheir -wastes and heat which much be stored. magnitude and scope. It is beyond the cycled or dissipated. purpose of this paper to document :hese With a fairly low population density activities,for many pages would be and with a minimum of heavy industry. required just to list, for example. the the uses of atomic energy along with its morerecentlegislationenactedor deleterious effects in Georgia may be pending. the activities of the Executive kept to a relatively low level. There Branch, the Congressional Hearings. the will have to he economic and ecological Study Panels, the regulatory and re- tradeoffs, but at present no one can search programs of the various federal predict how thesewilldevelop. The departments and the new administrative first atomic power reactor in the state structures which have been developed is scheduled to begin operation in 1973 for the sole purpose of dealing with en- on a site near Baxley. Georgia. The vironmental problems in their broadest preparations for this are very encourag- context. These brief comments, there- ing, for the Georgia Power Company fore,areonlyforthepurposeof has initiated a five-year preoperational placing the statein some perspective ecologicalstudyincooperation with with the inputs from the federal govern- ecologists at Emory University and the ment. University of Georgia. This is a prime Conservation of Natural Areas example of the kind of preecological Orientation.Man has a paramount necd planning which industry is beginning to for natural areas for recreation, educa- adopt. tion and research. Natural areas are Butdespiteclosecontrols by the unique in that they are irreplaceable; medical profession, by appliance manu- they cannot be producedatwill by facturers and by industry, the inevitable man's ingenuity and technology as the increaseinradiation burdens of the need arises. One hundred years isre- future present a most serious threat to quired for a mature forest to develop man. especially when judged in terms from an abandoned field, and even more of the vast deleteriouseffectsithas for the reconstitution of a coastal marsh. already had on man and his biological Thus, these needs are not just for us; environment.. Being in the Atomic Age. we must provide now for our own man's challenge is not how to do away children and for generations to come. with, but. how to wisely use this great But we ofthis generation have the resource. custody, responsibility and opportunity. Cooperation with the Federal Govern- Leadership actions for conservation of MM. Environmental contamination is Georgia's environment can be accom- not contained within political bound- plished only by Georgians. Unlike the aries,but ratheritconforms to the problems of pollution, which are shared transportation systems of nature. such as in large measure by the federal govern- air sheds and river basins and of man. ment, the disposition of our own lands such as highways and railroads. With- is primarily in our own hands. out question the quality of our environ- For these reasons Georgians have in ment has become in the past few years the past three years rolled up a remark- a primary concern of the President, the ablerecordfor the conservationof Congress and of government agencies. natural areas and have taken a great In addition to its regulatory activities, it lead in such issues within the southeast. has provided programs and funds for Action has come from the Executive dealing withallaspects of pollution, and Legislative branches of the state ranging from basic research to industry government, from U.S. Congressmen, incentives and construction grants. Per- fromvariousstatecommissions and sons who do not keep up with such from business and industry, but pri-

445 madly from an informed and aroused sentatives from various state agencies. citizenry. colleges and universities was increased The several agencies and organiza- in 1969 to include two additional pro- tions which have come into being these fessional positions and five additional three years interlock with continuing Council members. This provided for agencies and organizations as well as representation from the Planning Com- among themselves. Collectively, all of missions of thestatean,1 from the these stand as a unified body dedicated Senate and House of Representatives. to the same philosophy and goals. If the The Council was also given the right to remarkable momentum gained in these hold title to natural areas. beginning phases can be sustained and The principle concern of the Council increased, Georgians will have over the is the ecology of man in Georgia. Often years ahead an enviable record for the itsactivities are centered around the conservation and wise use of much of conservationofplantandanimal the state. habitatsforeducational,recreational A fair question to ask at this point and scientificuses. At other timesit is why just the past three years? The serves in a resource and advisory capa- reason is clear. Conservation activities city to citizens and to state officials and prior to these years, although solid and agencies. As one measure of its scope, substantial, were in the mood of the the Council in its first year of operation past several decades and were directed registered 10 tracts as Georgia Natural primarily at the environment as such. Areas. proposed 58 more and cataloged Within the past three years, the phi- a total of 1338 with the generous help losophy and objectives of conservationof other groups. The Council has spon- ists,state officials and private citizens sored a number of conferences and sym- have undergone a revolutionary change. posia which have dealt constructively They have placed man into perspective and imaginatively with the major con- as an integral part of his environment. servation issues which are before the In so doing they are developing the kind public and it has effectively supported of multi-value system which isat the legislation and other action at the State heart of this position paper. Capitol. Space will not permit more than a Within the private sector,thefirst sketch of the highlights of these three significant development was the cre- years, along with some indication of ation in January 1967, of The Georgia theirfuturesignificance.Ioffer my Conservancy, Inc.. a unique statewide apologies to those programs which are band of individuals concerned with all notincludedorarenot adequately aspects of conservation. Founded by 65 covered, but are just as important as Georgians,ithas subsequently grown the examples given. Also, since I cannot to more than 1500 members with 50 provide a roster of the hundreds and trustees and a full-time director and thousands of Georgians who are re- office staff. This has been a spontaneous sponsible for these actions,I am not growth without the benefit of promo- using individual references. tionalactivitiessuchas membership Two Conservation Forces.Two ex- drives. A non-profit organization, the amples are given of organizations estab- Georgia Conservancyisthecitizen's lished for conservation purposes. On the voice for conservation. By serving as a state level, the Legislature established coordination center for other conserva- in March 1966; The Georgia Council tion groups in the state such as the for the Preservation of Natural Areas, Georgia Sportsman's Club, the Applach- later shortened to The Georgia Natural ian Trail Club, the Georgia Botanical Areas Council. Its original makeup of Society and the Georgia Chapter of the an executive director and eight repre- Isaac Walton League, the organization

446 represents many thousands of Georg- selected as examples three- programs. ians. The purpose of the Georgia Con- each of which requires that the citizens servancy is to take action wherever and of Georgia make a clearcut choice be- whenever itis needed to preserve and tween an ecological approach or a profit insure the wise use of natural areas in centered approach to the development the state. and to preserve the quality of of large segments of their environment. our environment. Such actions may in- They provide, therefore, an opportunity volve establishing nature preserves or to test the conflicting concepts of human outdoor laboratories, conducting plan- values in the crucible of informed pub- ning studies or organizing educational lic opinion. programs in such a way as to create The firstconcerns the mining of public understanding which will result phosphate off the Georgia Coast. In the inintelligent and constructive public spring of 1968, the Georgia Conserv- action. ancy learned that the huge 600 million Its accomplishments to date far ex- dollar Kerr-McGee Corporation was ceed what would have been thought submitting a bid to the state for a 20 reasonable at the time of its organiza- year mineral rights lease, presumably tion. Its first major project was under- for phosphate, on 25,000 acres of off- taken when the Conservancy was less shore land adjacent to Skidaway Island, than a half year old. This was to secure, and furthermore, they learned that the as a living regional laboratory for edu- state might give its apptioval in a very cationandresearch, a500acre. short time. The Conservancy alerted $200,000 tract encompassing a priceless conservationistsand concernedstate natural resource. Pano la Mountain. This agencies and the battle was on. The goal has now been realized. Georgia, by Kerr-McGee Proposal at face value ap- action of the Governor, is purchasing it peared to be another economic boon to as a statewide center for teacher train- Georgia, for it offered to give the state ing, for education at the public school, $750.000 in cash plus royalties and a adult and college levels, and for uni- 150 million dollar per year industry for versity research. One of the Conserv- the Savannah area. Thus its economic ancy's goals, as exemplified by Panola impact on Georgia would be of major Mountain,istoacquire endangered proportions. Furthermore, Kerr-McGee unique areas and then to find a con- hadenlistedtheaidofpowerful tinuing use for them. financial and commercial interests in the The Georgia Conservancy played a state. If the state had followed the con- significant role in blocking the leasing ventional course of economic determin- of phosphateminingrightsoffthe ism, would it have chalked up another Georgia coast, a story to be developed great economic gam for Georgia and indetail later on. In mobilizing the its citizens? conservation interests of the state, the The immediate reaction of the State Conservancy has sponsored fourth Sat- GameandFishCommission,the urday field trips to interesting natural Georgia Water Quality Control Board areas and has conducted annual con- and of ecologically-minded people over ferences on state conservation problems. the state was that the associated costs in In July of 1969, the Georgia Conserv- othervaluesmightfaroffsetthe ancy was awarded a grant by the Calla- financialgains. Would theproposed way Foundation. Inc. of $100,000 for mining operation seriously disrupt or its program. This magnificent gift is of outright destroy much of Georgia's ir- inestimable significance, for it recogn- replaceable marshlands? What would izes in its broadest context the need for happen to the fish and shellfish industry? a man-environment oriented society. How would it affect tourism? Can the Three Conservation Programs.I have company really provide adequate pro-

447 tection against air and water pollution? Commissions. private investment cor- What would its effects be on the beaches porations,theNational Park Service and navigation channels? Would the and other recreational agencies. univer- aquafers be irreparably broken? What sity research groups, the State Game are the long range effects of disrupting and Fish Commission, the Ocean Sci- thousands of acres of ocean bottom? ence Center of the Atlantic, conserva- How will it affect recreation? What will tion groups including the Georgia Con- bethelong range consequencesto servancy,the Georgia Natural Areas nearby residential and commercial prop- Council, and the Nature Conservancy. erty? On being alerted to the situation. peopleinthehumanitiesandthe the Governor quickly called a halt to general public. thenegotiationssothattwo public As a means of providing forin- hearings could be held. The opposition depthstudies,presentationofviews was overwhelming, Kerr-McGee and and protection of interests, a number their representatives being the only ones of organizations have been formed and to testify in its favor. Further investiga- proposed. Among those in existence are tion had revealed that the Corporation the Marshland and Owners Association did notfully discloseitslong range and the Marshland Foundation, while plans and that buried in the proposal those in formative stages are a Bioeco- were options for obtaining associated nomic Master Plan which would prob- benefits at great loss to the state. ably be coordinated through the Ocean The Governor in the meantime had Science Center of the AtlantiP and the taken a significant firststep for the Institute of Community and Area De- state. He asked that a five man, non- velopment of the University of Georgia, partisan commission be designated from legislation to create a Coastal Wetlands the State University System to make a Control Board under the State Game complete study of allaspects of the and Fish Commission, proposals to de- proposed operation. The report, a model velop a National Seashore Park by the of objectivity, showed that the losses National Park Department and pro- based on other human values would posals for multiple use development by outweigh the economic gain, and sub- investment corporations. This is a prime sequently the bid was rejected. The en- exampleofcomplex, longrange tire matter was conducted over a period regionalplanningbased onmultiple of 10 months as a statewide forum, and social values. was characterized by dignity and reason. The third issue, which involves chan- The second issue, Georgia's Marsh- nelizationoftheAlcovyRiver,is lands and Golden Isles, was brought sharply drawn. Shall the sheer weight of into sharp public focus by the Kerr- government bureaucracy be allowed to McGee situation. These areas provide despoilourinlandriversandriver a unique and highly significant oppor- swamps? Conservationists are using the tunity for private and public decision Alcovy River as a test case. The river making on the wise use of a large and isa tributary of the Ocmulgee and relatively unspoiled portion of Georgia. drains into La1Jackson. The U.S. The principal islands, Wassau, Ossabaw, Soil Conservation --.!rvice, under Public Black Beard's and Cumberland, are now Law 556, has plans or wilt have plans privately owned by a few families. The to dredge, channel and drain most of people and agencies involved all want the major streams and river swamps of to take an ecological approach to the Georgia. A number already have been issue. but see it in differing perspectives. drained and Oath Tnr the Alcovy only These groups include the island and await final.approval. marshlandowners,thesurrounding An ;ntereging Lispca of this issue is municipalities,the Regional Planning that only a small part of Public Law 556

448 is under attack. Under the law; the Soil gerated. Being nor , i.:rat metropolitan Conservation Service has made many area. the magnificent sl amps of the finecontributionstothecitizensof Alcovy are also of great value for edu- Georgia through a sound program of cational use. soil and water conservation. Their ac- An impressive array of people are tivities are sponsored by officials of the solidly against such channelization. not cities and counties involved. The law only for the Alw.'y but forallthe provides for the stopping of erosion, major rivers and tvaiYipsin Georgia the reduction of flood frequency on and in other states. These include all existing crop lands. the impoundment conservation groups, State Game of waterfor municipal use and the and Fish Commission. U.S. Congress- draining of lowlandstoprovidefor men and the U.S. Bureau of the Interior. additionalagriculture. Disagreement TheSoilConservationServicehas comes only from thelatter,i.e.,the agreedaftermuchpressuretore- draining by channelization of the major examinetheissuefortheAlcovy swamps along the larger 'rivers. River. In order to protect similar areas Because man can't plow or build across the country, the language of the houses in swamps or lowlands he has present legislation needs to be changed. systematically drained these, large and Finally, the issue is "who shall make- small. in the name of economic prog- theirrevocableecologicaldecisions ress. The irreplaceable ecological values affectingirreplaceablebiologicalre- of the inland wetlands are now being sources?" Shall it continue to be engi- understood and strong efforts are de- neers and economists alone as in this veloping across the country to preserve case, or shallitbe by representation them. Coastal marshes provide a good from these andallother aspects of correlation. for until recently they too science and society? The outcome of the wereoftenconsideredwastelands. Alcovy issue is of national significance. Recent ecological studies haw shown Educational Activities that they not only provide spawning Public Schools. Ecology is poorly taught grounds for fish and shellfish, and serve inmost public school classroomsin as a stabilizing force for the quality of Georgia today. True, the quality in a coastal waters, but also they are one of few is superb, and in even more is fair, the most productive of all ecosystems. but in most itis poor or nonexistent. Now that this is understood. the marsh- There is a logical explanation for this. lands are generally regarded as. seashore First, schools are concerned primarily treasures. with covering a field of science rather The lowland or wetland forests have than emphasizing a particular segment. been shown to be nearest to a multiple Second, when the units on conservation use concept for fish and wildlife of any or ecology or other aspects of environ- environment. When tothisisadded mental science come up, the teachers their tremendous timber resources, the are not equipped to treat them imagi- lowland forests become doubly valuable natively andindepth.Inthe grade from monetary and recreational stand- schools ecology in some form comes up points. A cost analysis of the Alcovy most every year through the general project provided by the S.C.S. shows science courses, but in high school it is that the annual benefits from increased restricted to a few units in sophomore agricultural acreage would be $105,000 general biology. Third, textbook cov- peryearwhiletheinitialcostof erage varies greatly, and ecology is not channelization would be three million normally made a prerequisite for adop- dollars. Since much of the adjacent tion. Fourth, motivation and coverage acreage is already insoil banks, the aregenerallylefttotheindividual actualbenefits may be greatly exag- teacher and have not become a pro-

449 grammed partof many schoolsor integrated with the clasroom from preschool systems. school through the twelfth grade. Along Much of what is taught is focused on with this are in-service teacher training the development of ecologcal attitudes courses and a broad range of activities through units on nature study and good for citizens of all ages. This past year citizen conservation. What islacking over 200,000 people utilized the facility, on the one hand is a rigorous develop- with half of this number in organized ment of the science of ecology and on educationalactivities.Thisincluded the other a genuine involvement of the 64,411elementary and 24,188high individual with his own environment. school students. The latter includes not only the effixts Otherrecentlyestablishedscience of man on environment but, of par- centers for environmental studiesin- ticular significance,the reciprocal clude the Okefenokee Swamp Science effects of environment on man. ProjectinCharltonCounty,Ward This situation is beginning to change Creek Environmental Study Areaat as society changes and trends for the Kennesaw Mountain National Park in future are beginning to gel. Texts are CobbCounty,theAtomicEnergy improving. For example,theGreen RegionalCenterestablishedbythe version of a high school biology text Georgia Science and Technology Com- prepared by the National!3iological mission and programs forthefifth Sciences Curriculum Committee has an grades of five counties at Unicoi State ecological orientation throughout, plus Park through the North Georgia Moun- good solid ecology in several chapters. tain Authority. Some teachersarereceivingspecial Significant teacher training programs training in summer courses designed for have been established by the Fernbank this purpose. The facilitiesin a few Science Center and by theGeorgia school systems have been greatly in- NaturalResourcesCouncilonthe creased. Help is also provided by the ShorterCollegeandValdostaState coverageof environmentalissuesin College campuses. newspapers and magazines, as well as Another development of long range by an increased interest on the part of significance is the increasing number of the family and the community. Ex- "school yard outdoor laboratories" de- amples of these developments follow. veloped as anintegralpartofele- Throughout thestate they go under mentary and high school campuses. various names, including outdoor edu- Collegesand Universides. Ecology cation, conservation education or en- courses are now included as part of the vironmental education,whilespecial- biology curriculum of almost all four izedfacilitiesare knownasliving year colleges in the state. However, at laboratories,outdoorlaboratoriesor most two year colleges there is little or science centers. no training except as a small part of the Deka lb County's Fernbank Science general biology course. Center is the most comprehensive and At the university level, training and best known facility in the state. Some research programs in ecology and in the of its environmental science programs environmentalsciencesareexcellent. are being carried by television through- Significantleadershipforthestate, out this country and abroad. The Center nation and world is being provided by a consists of a magnificent 70-acre pri- number of research institutes and train- meval forest, the living laboratory, and ing programs which are centered on a two million dollarfacilityforall man's problems. Of foremostsignifi- naturalsciences,includinggeology, cance is the Institute of Ecology at the meteorology and astronomy. Its public University of Georgia, along with its school programs and courses are closely laboratoriesatSavannahRiverand

450 SapeloIsland.Additionalexamples other but more exquisite means of self which represent a broad range of eco- destruction. As David M. Gates put logical interests include the Institute of it, "Mankind has litthe fuse of the Natural Resources and the Social Sci- environmental bomb. It is not a question ence Research Institute of the Uni- of whether or not it will explode, but versity of Georgia and the multidis- only a matter of how fast."Are we ciplinary Training and Research Pro- now returning from a very long era of gram in Ecology and the Center for futile and self destructive efforts at con- Research and Social Change at Emory quering nature, to a realizationthat University. Georgia Institute of Tech- the quality of life is proportional to the nology and Georgia State University harmony we can achieve with all aspects also have several substantial programs. of our environment? A projection of Adult Education.Citizens' exposureto, our present efforts would indicate that ecological problems is increasing. pri- this is true. marily through featurestories, docu- As a perspective, I would like to de- mentaries,editorials, and the likein velop the analogy of our western civili- newspapers. magazines, radio and tele- zation as a great pendulum whose speed vision. These media are doing a respon- and direction of motion through time sible job of bringing the issues to the is determined by the forces of technol- public and shaping attitudes and action. ogy and economic determinism on the However, the equally important need one hand and the opposing forces of for serious study of these problems by human ecology on the other.Both adult groups has not yet been faced. forces are needed to keep our civilization healthy. Our problem then is to The Ecology of Georgia in 1985.. find the means of restoring an adequat- An Educational Challenge balance within the context of society What will be the ecology of Georgia in as it exists today. 1970, 1985, the year 2000? No one The forces of technology and eco- knows. All that I can do is state the nomic determinism, firedsequentially goals as now envisioned and show how by the industrial age, the atomic age they might be achieved by a projection and the space age, have pushed the of present trends and attitudes. I would pendulum at an ever increasing and re- like to approach this from two perspec- cently a dizzying speed. The opposing tives. The first ,"Why Teach Ecology?," ecological forces began to slow this mo- attempts to present the significance of tion effectively about a decade ago. and ecology to man, while the second, "A within the past five years may be be- Program for Environmental Education," ginning to bring it into a better balance. attempts to develop a constructive ap- We now have the knowledge, concepts proach to this need by the State of and attitudes, not only to reverse this Georgia. motion, but to then push the pendulum Why Teach Ecology? back to an equilibrium position which Man stands at the crossroad of success is favorable for human health and hap- or failure as a biological species. Mod- piness. The unknown factor is the ex- ern man, Homo Sapiens, appeared on tent of man's will to do this. this planetscant 20-30,000 years ago, I would like to trace the development and his predecessors only within the of these ecological forces.If they are past million.Shallhe abruptly fade to reverse the swing of the pendulum, from the face of the earth? By the they must be more powerful than the atomic bomb man gave himself a unique desire for profits.Ecological laws and giftthe capacity for self-destruction processes are as old as lifeitself, for in one great holocaust. Now his tech- they have shaped the evolution of all nological wastes have given him an- life including man, the most recent and

451 dominant of the primates. But man. not Our reaction to this knowledge has knowing this, placed himself above and been prompt and decisive. Almost ev- apart from all other life. Not until 100 ery significant ecological development years ago did he even begin to under- in this country has occurred within the stand that his evolutionary origin was past five years and in Georgia within not a mere few thousand years ago in the last three, as documented in pre- the Garden of Eden. but millions of vious parts of this paper.Each year. years ago as another form of life ap- each month and each day. new ecologi- pearing in the evolutionary parade of cal developments and relationships microbes. plants and animals. take place.Ecology has become more Man's scientific approach to ecologi- than a science and a way of thinking: calrelationshipsalso haditsorigins itis being increasingly used as a rally- some hundred years ago.The early ing point and a political force. Could efforts. called natural history. were con- it he that we are just barely entering cerned with the evolutionary relation- into our ecological revolution. aimed at ships of adaptation and geographic dis- a man-environment age of prosperity. tribution.Less than 50 years ago an- health and tranquility?Itis too early other level of complexity was reached to tell.for while ecology is growing. with the study of communities of or- it has not vet become a dominant force ganisms. stitch as occur in a pond or throughout our whole society. forest. Not until 10 to 15 years ago As emphasized above and throughout was mar's knowledge sufficiently en- this paper. there is only one ecology. hanced to permit a sophisticated study For the sake of emphasis and conven- of the entire life environment system. ience. we speak of human ecology and the ecosystem. The kinds of ecosystems plant ecology. or urban ecology and range from those dominated by man. forest ecology, or of transportation ecol- such as cities and agricultural fields. ogy and pollution ecology. But all as- to those less affected by him such as pects of life environment systems are mountains and rivers.Allof these under the same set of basic laws and make up one vast interacting ecosystem, principlesasdeveloped throughthe the planet earth. The ecosystem concept three billion year old crucible of evolu- has provided not only a powerful tool tionary process. The humanizing ele- but also a catalyst for understanding ment which sets man apart from other the effects of our avalanching technol- life is that he has the capacity to alter ogy on our environment. and manage these systems. The ulti- Armed with unassailable methods and mate measure of man's humanism is in facts, various segments of society are one sense the EXtent to which he can attemptingtohaltthisavalanche. do this ir, harnicnty with these natural Through the first half of this decade, laws. the major emphasis was on the effects The professional needs of society ex- of man on the environment. Through emplify the humanistic aspect of ecol- the mid-part, however, another highly ogy.Medicine, environmental health. significant development took place. The agriculture,engineering,architecture. question was turned around. For the landscape design, urban planning, com- first time in our history the crucial ques- merce and industry all are now begin- tion was asked, what is our environ- ning to build ecological bases and per- ment doing to us? Whereas the former spectives into their training, research permitted us to continue our age old and development, practice and product feeling of detachment, thelatterhit and public relations. us squarely in theface. Now man The people of Georgia are beginning knew that he was personally involved to ask themselves some hard questions. and his welfare was at stake. What kind of ecology do we want for

452 Georgia ini985?Put another way, itsneeds for transportation andits what kind of life and environment do capacity for safety.Interior comforts we want to perpetuate for ourselves, have been so increased that drivers are our children and their children's chil- lulledinto an often deadly sense of dren? Is our present value system ade- false security.Its few modern safety quate?If not, what kinds of changes measures have been installedat the should he made. and how can they be insistence of the federal government: accomplished?Is there a set of prin- Legislative policies merely encourage the ciples on which an adequate value sys- built-in obsolescence of vital parts by tem can he based? consistently refusing to enact laws which There now exists an overwhelming will keep defective cars and drivers off and irrefutable body of evidence which the highway.As afinalresult,the encourages man to shift over to an eco- wrecked anddiscardedcarcassesof logical or multiple social value system. automobiles litter our landscape. since Thissimplyinvolvesturningthings no serious thought has been given for around. For example. instead of mak- their disposal. We suffer allthis for ing society conform to technology, let the rewards of convenience and eco- technology be molded to society. This nomic profit.Society has urgent need places unprecedented demands on tech- for sate, nonpoisonous and low cost nology, for thenitmust satisfy the means of travel.Economic and social multiple needs rather than the more trade-offs are inevitable for a reorgani- direct and simpler ones with which it zation of our transportation system. The is now concerned.There isgeneral current swellof the people'srevolt agreement among a large segment of the against the present means may force population that inthe pressures and such issues sooner than expected. frustrations generated by the rapidly Still another example is in the grow- expanding population, the rigorous mili- ing sensitivity of commerce and industry tary demands from three wars, the to consumer demands for product design emergence of the atomic age and the which better fits theirs and hence so- space age and the unprecedented con- ciety's totalneeds.Another example sumer pressures on commerce and in- relates to economic protection against dustry, we have become the victim inadequate regional planning. The plans rather than the master of our technologi- for a proposed jct airport in the Ever- cal society. glades of Florida have just been halted A prime example is the automobile. and will probably be cancelled,This It has few equals as a glittering tech- is in spite of prior government approval nological and commercial example of and a substantial investment by business man's ingenuity until it leaves the fac interests in land acquisition and con- tories and showrooms of the afL:Atoin- struction. Why? Because a study by dustry; When it crosses their thre.,:hoi-1 the Department of theInterior has into the hands of the public it becomes shown that in addition to drastic dis- an inhumane diabolical monster. It kills turbances ofwaterflowthroughthe and maims more people than our best Everglades, the facility and its satellite instruments of modern warfare.The community would generate four mil- toll now stands in excess of 50,000 per lion tons of wastes per day. This would year and 1,750,000 injured.As the mean the end of the Everglades. The greatest cause of urban air pollution, long range costs to society of its pres- the automobile causes Americans each ent location were judged to be in excess day to inhale poisonous fumes.The of the commercial gains envisioned. The auto has been systematically stripped Jetport can be moved to another loca- and thinned of protective metal, while tion, but the Everglades are an irre- its power has been increased far beyond placeable national resource. The mood

453 of society today is such that commerce to realize that as our society has moved and industry areutilizing more and at a breathtaking speed through the more a long range multiple value system 1960's and into the new era of the next of planning. decade. education isstillinitsearly In summary. ecology introduces a 1960 mold.Widescale student unrest vital and self renewing element into our provides elequent testimony to this sit- engineering and social needs. By pro- uation.An ironicaspectisthat the viding means for placing our present present crisisis of far deeper signifi- values into a better balance with all cance to every citizen (.4- Georgia than others, it becomes a powerful humaniz- the technological crisis of the1960's. ing force.Acceptance of its essence The subsequent brilliant advances of could well be the greatest challenge man science and technology were epitomised has yet faced. by putting a man on the moon. Paren- A Program for thetically, I might add that this terrific Environmental Education accomplishment was due in a very real Responsibility of the State. A construc way to its primary emphasis on ecologi- tive educational program should l e a cal planning. The safety and welfare top priority for the State Department of the astronauts were put first.The of Education. Such a program will be technology, then, was designed to treat very difficult and costly. Even so, the man as an integral and primary part of need is so urgent that the planning phase the life environment system of the space should be initiated this year. The situa- craft. Even the most talked about by- tion is similar in some ways to the edu- products of space exploration are con- cational crisis which developed ;.niedi- cerned with their present and potential ately following the advent of the space contributions to man's environment on age, even though the present crisis lacks earth. the dramatic punch delivered by the These developments dictate that the historic flight of the Russian Sputnik. leadershipforenvironmentaleduca- The firstpenetration of outer space tion must come from the state. To de- brought to every home, business and lay until a grassroots demand developed profession the inadequacies of the edu- would be very costly. In my judgment, cational system asit then existed to the primary responsibility for environ- meet the demands of society for the mental education rests solidly with the 1960's. In contrast, events leading up state, and the time to act is now. to our present crisis have been taking The Public School Program. Education place over several years and there has is needed at all levels, public school, been no single event or even a series college, graduate, professional and adult. of events which would crystallize this Of these, public school education is the for the rank and file of Georgians. Fur- most basic. Well-grounded concepts and thermore, the problems in other parts attitudes instilled during the formative of the country have exceeded ours to years influence the individual through- the extent that many people believe out his life.It is here, of course, that theseproblems belongprimarilyto interests and motivations are developed someone else. Put another way, perhaps for vocations and avocations and for a large majority of the people in Geor- decision making atthe polls and in gia have not yet felt a sense of personal home and community affairs. At pres- involvement, either for themselves or ent, ecological training in Georgia pub- for their children. The significant gains lic schools, with some notable excep- of the past three years have been actions, is at a low or only token level. complished primarily by a few select Anything short of a radical reorgani- groups of citizens and public officialS. zation of the entire training program Educators everywhere are beginning for ecology would be too little.

454 One of the major problems is in mak- Four year curricula for programs in ing the transition from a natural history human ecology are today in the forma- orientation to an ecosystem approach. tive stages at a number of colleges in in which the student is involved not lieu of the traditional isolated courses only with life "out there- but with his dealing with man and environment. own personal interactions. and through Other colleges are developing depart- this society's interactions. with environments of environmental science. ment. Some pilot programs are now There are strong indications. at pres- being developed. By the use of maps. em. that within a few years ecology models. games. trips. photographs and willberequiredforpreprofessional the like, children in the lower grades, training in many fields. For example. at for example. construct model communi- a 'recent conference on the environment, ties based on the ecological principles arranged for the deans of the engineer- of long-range regional design.Thus, ing schools of the southeastern states, they gain an understanding of their en- there was unanimous agreement that vironment in a visual sense as well as in allengineering students shouldhave. its social and political implications. All in-depth ecological training. Thepros approaches, of which there are many, lem is how to find a place for such should be solidly grounded on the rigor- training in an already overcrowded cur- ous use of scientific methods. principles riculum. One solution is to provide this and data. Such approaches are multi- to a considerable extent inthe high disciplinary. asis ecology.Also, in school program. addition to units which deal with eco- In a still broader sense, other steps logical relationshipsper se,many others which can be readily identified as es- can utilize ecological concepts. sential to bringing our environmental I strongly urge that at the high school problems under control are research, level our sights should be set for the political reorganization and citizens ac- development of a curriculum course in tion.Ecological training in the public ecology. This course would require a schools feeds directly into all of these. full year of study, with some prepara- The development of a statewide pro- tion provided in the lower grades. Thus, gram will require a new position within the subject could take its place along the curriculum unit of the State De- withphysics, chemistry and biology. partment and appropriate supervisory Ecology could be a senior course re- and consultant positions for counties quired ofallstudents.Itshould be and municipalities. built on a solid grounding in ecological Vocational and Adull Education.Voca- laws, concepts and techniques and a tional needs at the professional level realistic interaction not only with other have been stressed.At the technical sciencesand mathematics,butwith school level, the demands for technicians nonsciencefieldssuchassociology, and specialists in all aspects of pollu- psychology rnd economics toinsure tion ecology, such as water, air, solid a broad, genuine involvement with the wastes, etc., should increase at a rapid life of man. The coursc could just as rate over the next few years. Georgia's well be called environmental science or needs for them have been documented human ecology. throughout this paper. Needs for adult Where a separate course is not feas- education should follow in the same ible, then ecology should be made a vein. required partof the biology course. Facilities.Basic ecological training re- This single course emphasis does not, quires the use of both indoor and out- of course, pre-empt the need for an door laboratories. For the indoor lab- ecological orientation in many aspects oratory the subject may be approached of the high school program. at various levels of 'sophistication. Much

455 of the laboratory equipment on hand contact hours during the past 12 months. for the general science and biology lab- College and university training for other oratories is directly suitable for ecologi- positions is increasing substantially.In cal studies.I do not envision the need many graduate departments of biology. for any appreciable expenditures for half or more of the students are inter- ecological equipment over that needed ested in various phases of ecology. The for the science curriculum except for following note from the Director of the outdoor laboratory.Each school Fernbank Science Center highlights this should have one on its own campus. situation for Georgia. These can be very simple, consisting Judging from the contacts and ap- only of the fringe areas of the playing plications that have been receivedin grounds; preferably. it should be small my office and in the Personnel Depart- tracts of field or woodland setaside ment for the De Kalb Hoard of Educa- tionduringthepastyear.itis my for this purpose. There is a growing opinion that there should he sufficient awareness throughout the state that in applicantsatthis time to adequately the establishment of new campuses, out- staffprogramsinthe environmental door laboratories must be provided. sciences in school systems throughout the state if special funding and alloca- In addition to the individual campus tions of teachers were made to these facilities, science centers should be es- school systems by the State Department tablished for counties, large school sys- of Education for this purpose. At the present time there are 62applications tems and for the state.(Examples of on file either in my office or the Board these have been given in a prior sec- of Education of qualified applicants with tion.)An awareness of this need is at least a bachelor's degree with special- rapidly growing within the state.By ization in one of the fields of environ- the generous help, for example, of in- mental science. Of these applicantsI would estimate that at least 60 percent dustry, of state and municipal agencies have a master's degree or better and and of regional planning commissions. several of these have PhD. degrees in more and more such areas are being a specialized field of science. In addi- established each year. The first priority, tion to these applications on file I would estimate that I have received at least 30 of coursc, is to obtain the land for edu- telephone calls from applicants whom cationaluse.Subsequently, programs I have discouraged. at varying degrees of sophistication may Finances. Funds are needed initially for be established. personnel anfor curriculum develop- Manpower. There are conflicting views ment. A second priority should he for on the availability of manpower, but the building and staffing of science cen- in my judgment adequate personnel may ters. The land may often be acquired be obtained. Competence is needed for from non-governmental funds, through classroom teachers, for consultants and local groups, or by a long term lease supervisors and for science center per- from industry and government agencies. sonnel. Some excellent in-service train- Because of the present tight educational ing programs have been established for budget for existing activities throughout the classroom teacher, but this capabil- the state, the funds for the initiation ity needs to be greatly increased, par- of a statewide program may have to ticularly through state operated centers originate as a line item in the appro- such as could he established at Panola nriation bill submitted to the legislature. Mountain.At present some teachers This may he a good move, for it em- go out of the state to receive such train- phasizes the need and tests the mood of ing.However, several programs now the people for its development. Existing exist within the state at the science cen- science programs and centers have been ters named in a previous section.At funded through various combinations of Fernbank Science Center, 361 teachers federal, state and private sources. Fed- were enrolled in various courses of 40 eral funds are not available at present,

456 but may he anticipated over the next Platthas receivedthe George Mercer several years. Fundsfromprivate Award from the Ecological lik)ciety of Am- erica, the Sigma Xi Research Award. and sources may substantially increase, as a Guggenheim Fellowship. He has served the needs and quality of the proeram in many capacities with scientific societies, develops. especially the National Science Founda- tion, the l'Slional Institute of Health. and Or. Robert B. Plattis professor and chair- the Atomic Energy Commission. His teach- man of the Department of 'Biology, Emory ing and research interests in ecology are Uaiversity. He also serves the University reflected in over 80 papers and two hooks. as director of the Multidisciplinary Train- Dr. Platt received his Ph.D. from the Uni- ing and Research Program in Ecology. Dr. versity of Pennsylvania.

457 THIScritiquewill be executedin two parts. The first part will be a gen- eraloverview of thepaperasseen through the eyes of the reader.The secondpartwillbe concerned with specific items which caught the fancy of the reader and upon which there will be professional judgment. The Overview The title of this paper could as easily have been "Ecology in Georgia" rather than "The Ecology of Georgia" since a major portion of the paper deals with the kinds of political, personal, industrial and educational agencies and programs which impinge upon, or in some way affect, what is happening to the ecology of Georgia or with results of ecologicalconsiderations which have been brought to the attention of these agencies or programs. It is then necessary to look atthis paper from the standpoint of the ecologist on one hand and from the standpoint of the layman politician,businessman,educator on the other. critique: Most of what can be construed as ecology, the science, has been included The Ecology in roughly thefirst 20 pages of the paper. While sonic of the definitions of Georgia given and some ofthe explanations offered are, to say the least, controversial,it is expected that the audience to whom the paper is directed will get a broad and comprehensive understanding of what one means when one suggests the ecology of Georgia. We will consider specific areas which present sonic difficulties to the practicing ecologist and. therefore, we will not suggest any specifics in this portion of the paper. Basically, the topics chosen represent what might be considered the biases of the author, and I have no quarrel with his approach. Knowing the author's interest in and considerable expertiseinthcfield of ecology, as evidenced by his publications, I consider the omission of a definitive statement with regardtothe very remarkable granite out-cropsto bc found in thc state of Georgia to bc

458 serious. Likewise, the extensive cover- enccs such as neon signsorthein- age giventopoiihcal considerations, sistence on the use of the ubiquitous considerations impinging upon the edu- beer can instead of the soft drink can. cational system, the definition of organ- I suspectthatthere are More areas izations and the considerable verbiage polluted by soft drink cans since there given to a specific program might well are more soft drink drinkers than beer have occupied less space in the paper, drinkers. giving over to more detailed and varied The overview suggests that the au- information on the ecology of Georgia. thor opened his paper with an attempt Even those paragraphs or sections to give some sound, solid, ecological which have headings that indicate that principles, but in developing the paper subjects suchasenvironmentalcon- lapsed into a discussion of the agen- tamination, water pollution, pesticides ciesandprograms whichencroach and so forth will be treated have few upon the ecology of Georgia or which lines devotedtotherelationshipof have, or might have, or should have, these items to the topic, but much more some ecological overtones or ecological space devotedtothedescriptionof input. governmental agencies and the funding ofseveralprojectsthathavebeen initiatedin.Georgia. Some interesting Specifics facts are brought out, but I had ex- 1.The suggestionintheintroduc- pected to see much more in the way tion that the paper will deal with man's of information regarding the ecological origin on theplanet and a way of description of our state. For example, thinking is not in my judgment realized. under "Pesticides" it would have been wellto have indicated more of our 2. On page 436, the opening sen- efforts to eradicate the fire ant, since tence isin error, since I am certain this is a consideration probably known that Dr. Platt intended to suggest that to more people in the state than any the life on this planet consists of some other. One such example might have half million plant species and one and been used to demonstrate the failure of one-half million animal species. This governmental agencies and theordi- oversight does not compare favorably nary citizen to consider ecological con- with page 58 of his biology text entitled seqcnces when dealing with so-called Bio-Science. pests and the sum delineation of ancil- 3. Continuing on page 436, the con- lary effects of the attempt to rid an cept ofthrough The pastrather than area of pests, as was done in Georgia. in the pastmight be doubted and the Now this kind of senseless eradication, concept of the natural state of balance donethroughignorance,cancause is at least somewhat controversial. problems in the future might have been 4.I would change the sentence be. discussed. ginning onthesixthlineto"such Whatissaidaboutthefireant balanceisachieved by the rigorous could he extended when the other areas process of organic evolution." are treated.I am not convinwed that 5. In the fourth paragraph on page the persons reading this would under- 436, the nrst sentence should read, "The standtheecologicalimportanceof uniquecontributionofecologyto such things as detergents or food addi- scienceistheecosystemconcept." tives or the reason why consideration Perhaps here would be the place for was given to tobacco smoke as an air thedefinitionof ecologyfound on pollutant unless one is concerned with page 437. the internal ecology of the smoker. 6.It may be difficultto compre- I have some problem with the sub- hend the suggestion that ecology as a jective nature of many of the infer- concept :..7)able of self perpetuation.

459 7. Paragraph 5 of page 436 has a jux- read, "Now thereisnota drop of taposition of words in the sixth sen- `ground water' or 'natural water' rather tence which should read, "which make than just 'water' ." He can be fairly itpossibleto examine an ecosystem, certainthatthereiswateronthis experimentallyandquantitativelyas planet that is free of pollution, except 41 inthe sensethat any impurity isa 8. On page 437 the definition t-C pro- pollutant. ductivitywouldappeartobetoo 14. Page 439, paragraph 2There is limited.Ithinkit would not be well sonic question as to the paucity of open for the persons who are reading this areasinGeorgia. One has onlyto to get even the slightest impression that drive through the state to see thatit productivity is the amount of food pro- isprimarily open and sparsely pop- duced. or that this is the only measure ulated. Most of Georgia's poor live in of productivity. Productivity has other these areasin the mountains and in ramifications which are not limited to thecoastalplains.The contrast be- food alone though the amount of food tween slums and suburbia is not a state- may be one aspect of productivity ex- wide phenomenon. Many ruralareas amined by the ecologist. are little more than open-air slums. It 9.I think that we would find some is here a matter of terminology with disagreement oratleast some ques- one subjective value judgment.Bas- tion with regard to the role of ecology ically the section gets at the kind of in providing the basis for the building treatment this paper should cover. of a happy and healthy life.Irather 15. Page 440, paragraph 2Though thinkthat knowledge of ecology can I understand whatisbeingsaid, I providescientificbasisuponwhich think that the paper would not suffer man can build a happy and healthy greatly if this paragraph were deleted, life. for we have so far to go before our 10. Page 437 The definitionof state becomes as urbanized as would ecology seems out of place thisfar be suggested by thisparagraph. This along in the paper. It should perhaps may be h good description of Atlanta, he transposed to the earlier pages of but it is not a statewide malady at this the paper. point. We are not over urbanized 11.Perhapsinthesecondpara- there is plenty of space remaining. In graph on page 437 the statement could fact it sort of appears that the plus side he made stronger by simply indicating isnegated by thatstatement andI that through the past centuries, only do not think that the negative side and man among the living things of this debit side are as great yet.Iwould earth has sought toseparate himself include the paragraph ifI were going from his natural environment. The re- to say thisis what can happen. That mainder of the paragraph would he urbanization is a statewide problem is strengthened by such a notation. doubtful at this point. 12. The second paragraph on page 16. On page 440The appeal to the 438 may be misleading. It can be .under- civic - mindedness of our state has not stood, but it seems that there should terribly weakened the paper. The first be sonic clarifying; statement to sug- sentence underEnvironmental Contam- gest that life expectancy is now based inationserves as a shocker, yet I think upon another class of diseases, since that the author should be fair to the many former killer-diseases have been state in suggesting that again, as was eradicated. on the plus side, the pluses still main- 13. The economic andlandscape tain themselves. Therefore, to use that section is very well done except for the sort of statement seems to be begging broad statement in the last paragraph. the point somewhat. The firstsentence apparently should 17. Page 442"Pesticides" is for the

460 most partadequate.Iwould suggest Laura Tallian and also the sessions on that in addition to the reasons given in "Environmental Quality" atthe 1968 this section for sane use of pesticides meeting of the AAAS. . that the author should have emphasized 18. Page 443In the section onAir the very important fact that very little Pollution and Food Additives,the case is known about the effects of many of couldhavebeenstrengthened had these chemicals. Only a modicum of there been sonic reference to additives research has been done on the long which get into the ecosystem via such range effects of pesticides and practi- things as detergents and water soluble cally none on the long range effects of paints.As indicatedbefore,Ihave herbicides. One of the reasons for this sonic doubts about tobacco smoke as lack of research in this very important an air pollutant,. except that itis con- area has been thatpersonsinhigh sidered harmful to internal ecology of places, such as the toxicology section the smoker. Certainly the effects of to- of CDC, have made statements which bacco smoking can he a major cause denied any evidence of pesticides caus- of air pollution in a room but I dare ing any disease except `poisioning.' An say thatitisnot as high on the list excess of evidence to the contrary is of air pollutants as carbon monoxide to be found in the literature. Notable or industrial smoke. are the little bookPesticide Jungleby THE difficulty in writing a position paper on this subject is because of daily innovations in the field of communications. Thousands of industrialists. scientists, technologists, researchers, and educators are engaged in activities at hundreds of different types of development centers. We are engulfed ina mood which makes us restless with things and gadgets as we know them today. These thousands of specialists are designing for tomorrow. Innovations, inventions, modifications, and combinations have become the expected thing rather than the occasional happening. The ingenuity of American industry in ascertaining the needs of society is overwhelming. Theinventivenessof

By William H. Hale, Jr., Ed.D. Communications Systems and Mass Media in Georgia American industry in producing goods and services and then creating a need for them through marketing is unparal- leled in man's history. The diversity of American industry provides a competitive basis for improvement and expansion of goods and services. American industry stays on the upbeatin the thick of change, on the peripheryin order to provide this society with communications systems designed to challenge the imagination of the users and at the same time to provide a basis for further developments. Mass communications systemsare the natural outgrowth of man's desire p to speak and be heard and to know. Mass communications has a long but spotted history. From the earliest attempts of man to find a way to persuade other men to act by shouting louder and hitting harder, a man's voice was the chief source of communications. Man learned to talk long before he learned to use other symbols. With the advent of language man created a way of pre- definedand this is simple when we re- serving what he had said, and as he fertoadictionary or encyilopcdia. looked at these symbols of language he There we find such phrases as exchange became proud and invented more ways of ideas, conveyance of information. of putting his verbal expressions into correspondence. and to impact ideas. symbolism. Early art forms arc thought Any of these arc valid and useful: how- to have been more communication than ever, for the purposes of this paper a leisure time activity for primitive man. definition which is more of a concept is Somewhere along the line man invented needed. Conmuinieatbm is the delivery an alphabet to help him organize this of information from one source to an- symbolism, and in a way this was primi- other with the express intent of chang- tivemass communication. However. ing the behavior of the ultimate re- real mass communication began whcn ceiver. More often than not, the reader Gutenberg began tinkering around with will see the word communication cou- an old wine press, some wooden blocks. pled with another wordsystems. Com- dye, and parchment. He invented the munication systems refer to the delivery printing press and the world of infor- systems for information carriage. This mation changed. may he something as crude and traditional as a daisy newspaper or as sophis- Movable type begat cheap production ticated and novel as a communication of paper. Cheap paper begat men with satellite hovering in permanent orbit ideas. Men with ideas begat newspapers. over the Atlantic Ocean. Even though Newspapersbegat massdistribution. there is much talk and research about Mass distribution begat more informa- two-way systemsofcommunication, tion. More information begat a system this paper will deal primarily with oneof collecting information. The system way delivery of information by using begatdifferentviewpoints.Different electronic media. viewpointsbegateditorialpositions. Editorialpositionsbegatjournalistic The second word which needs a defi- power. Journalistic power begat a de- nitionis media. Again, the dictionary sire to communicate with the masses or encyclopedia gives simple phrases andthemassesbegatmasses. The such as means of disseminating infor- masses begat an education, and educa- mation,all means of communication, tion begat individuals who did not like and an intermediate instrument for mes- journalistic power. So, they begat new sages of information. However, for thc newspapers. Newspapers begat maga- purposes of this paper, a more specific zines. Magazines begat printed pictures. concept is used. Media will refer to the Printed pictures begat moving pictures. traditional devices of communication Moving pictures begat moving pictures such as newspapers, magazines, radio, with sound. Sound moving pictures be- television, books, motion pictures, pho- gat television, and television is pregnant nographs. and any combination of these withthepotentialto produce many which are capable of being designed to varieties of media aimed at the masses. carry information. More often than not, the word media will be coupled with the This brief tongue-in-cheek history of word mass. Mass media will be used to mass communications should point out indicate the use of media for thc express that we have not reached the epitome purposeof communicating tolarge in mass communication. In fact, some numbers of people whose identity is un- day television might be referred to as known but not unimportant. For this the equivalent of the first printing press. paper, thc output will be more empha- There are two basic definitions which sized than the reception: however, much are essential for the reader of this paper. emphasis will be placed on the need First, the word communication must be for greater accuracy in reaching larger

464 audiences andascertainingtheirde- understand that Georgia is a part of a mand/needs. larger system and, in fact, a subsystem in nearly every means of communica- Georgia and Mass tion used in this country. Communication Today Newspapers in Georgia In Georgia there arc locally published Ever since theGeorgia Gazette wasfirst newspapers,locallypublishedmaga- published in Savannah in 1763, the citi- zines and trade journals, locally owned zensof Georgia have been well supplied and operated radio stations and televi- with newspapers with which to keep up sion stations, motion picture companies, with the state and the world. For more and book publishers. than two hundred years newspapers AtlantaA Major Factor have been published in growing varie- The great concentration of people in ties. Many newspaper publishers have the Atlanta urban area creates a de- got:e out of business because they just mand for mass communicated informa- could not makeitfinancially. Many tion. The" presence of such a.city as At- have folded because they could not lanta inthis state makes communica- compete with the big city newspapers tion systems in Georgia different from being delivered in the small town. Some those in the surrounding states. Atlanta papers died when the publisher or some is a regional huba center of produc- gallant editor passed on. The University tion and a catalyst for the whole state. of Georgia's School of Journalism un- Atlanta has the greatest concentration der the capable leadership of many out- of communicationspecialistsinthe standing melt has helped to supply this South and Georgia is the beneficiary' of state with a highly skilled array of news- this talent pool. Many federal agencies paper men and women in small and have regional offices in Georgia. Big in- large cities. dustrial companies have sought Atlanta It is estimated that 80 percent of the as a base for regional operation. The adults in Georgia rzad a daily newspa- Atlanta Airport has made Atlanta an in- per.In1966, Georgia had 32 daily ternational city with foreign embassies newspapers and 13 of these had Sunday and consuls increasing each year. All of editions. These newspapers had a cir- this adds to the complexity of Georgia's culation of approximately one million growth in the communication field. daily (morning and evening editions), and nearly 900,000 Sunday. Other than Georgia Is Not an Island these daily newspapers there arc about There is aegree of folly involved in a 200 newspapers published in the state. discussion communications systems Weekly papers account for the vast main Georgiaecause these systems know jority of these. There are some semi- no boundaries. The Savannah and Chat- weeklypapersstillpublished,but tahoochee Riversarenot considered monthlyandbi-monthlypapersno boundaries by the mass media. Georgia longer exist. Nearly every county seat exports and imports great amounts of in Georgia has some type of locally information through mass media. The published newspaper. relative ease with which information is The Atlanta Journal, The Atlanta received or sent in this nation permits Constitution and. The Savannah Mo-r- no spot or state to be an island. Isolation ing News lead in circulation in the state. from information by mass media is vir- There are other strong dailies, but their tually impossible except by the cleverest circulation is limited in distribution on of recluses. Therefore, in considering a statewide basis. However, the Atlanta Georgia's mass media and communica- newspapersarewithoutdoubt. the tions systems, we must in many cases strongest journalistic voice in the state

465 and have the widest circulation of any phone call-in services to their readers. papers. The Atlanta Times, a daily, had The readers call the newspaper to state a short, unsuccessful life a few years a problem and the staff of the paper hack. It folded for lack of advertising helps solve the problem. The problems and circulation. and their solutions are printed for the The major newspapers in Georgia are benefit of all readers. Examples of this subscribers to the national wire services, type of innovation are Action One in which makes them similarin many the Athens Banner Herald and Action ways. Yet they are distinctively different Line in the Atlanta Constitution. This in most ways. One mark of distinction type of "editorializing" is a newer, more is their editorial policies. Some papers effective form than flirt old method in have very forceful editorial policies, and which an editor or 'editorial staff combed today itis the rule rather than the ex- the city or state for some issue on which ception for newspapers to try to force to take a position. their opinions on thereaders. These Georgians receive many newspapers opinions and positions are not as effec- from other areas of the country. Most tive today in Georgia as in the past. post officesin the state handle many This is true because the public, espe- newspapers each week from the major cially the young, more highly educated cities around the nation. Air travel has reader, is more enlightened, more ii.de- made it possible to read The New York pendent, and more suspicious of the Times or The San Francisco-Chronicle political and economic forces behind on the same day they are published. editorial positions. Georgians as a gen- This influx of newspapers grows each eral rule do not use the newspaper in year as the population of Georgia in- the same way their fathers and grand- creases with migrants from all over the fathers did. Since becoming more and nation. Foreign newspapers are avail- more urbanized, they do not have the able on newsstands in Georgia's major long spans of reading time they once cities. had. Television and other things take up Georgia households are basically filled significant lumps of time each day with newspapers. State, local, and world which was once used for leisurely diet- news is blended into attractive packages ing on newsprint. and printed each day. Georgia is rich Since 1963, more people have re- with good newspapers. They will change ceived most of their information about greatlyinthe next15 yearsmuch what is going on in the world from tele- more than they have inthe past15 visionratherthan from newspapers. years. These changes. will be discussed Before that year newspapers were the in a later section. major source. This fact and other interesting items are reported in A Ten-year Magazines and Trade Journals View 01 Public Attitudes Toward Tele- There are more magazines, trade jour- vision and Other Mass Media published nals, house organs, government publica- by the Television Information Office of tions printed in Georgia on a given day New York in March of 1969. than the average adult could read in a Georgia's newspapers, as a rule, are year reading eight hours a day. There as good as any in the nation. Efforts are are also book publishing houses in sev- obviously being made by publishers to eral Georgia cities. make the papers more attractive and Magazines are not as widelydis- readable. Attempts are being made to tributed as newspapers, but it is reason- prove that the newspaper can render a able to assume that most Georgians great many reader services. Changes in haveaccesstomagazinesintheir format, printing style, and layout are homes. The newsstands inGeorgia's clearly evident. Some are creating tele- major cities once sold only a dozen dif-

466 ferent magazines and these were the Radio was the first truly mass media. standard types of national weekly or Many people remember the days of the monthly publications such Time Sat- 1930s, when Americans in great masses urday Evening Post, etc'!ay,there sat absorbed in the problems ofOne are hundreds on the stark:. choice is a Man's Family,patted their feet toKay problem. There is a magazine to meet Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge. the special needs of nearly every man. and split their sides laughingat Benny. This is a far cry from the days when the Allen, HopeandAmos 'n Andy.Atti- family looked forward to Friday and a tudes, opinions and behavicr of citizens five-cents copy ofGritor visiting some were molded by Drew Pearson, H. V. relation and looking through back is- Kaltenborn, and Orson Welles' scary sues ofNational Geographic. Sunday night. Magazine publishers are not as prone The first radio station in the South to editorializing as are newspaper men. was establishedinGeorgia. In1922 However, the mere fact that magazines WSB began transmitting and became are more preservable and durable than known as "the Voice of the South." It newspapers makes them more powerful was the first station in the nation to as persuasive tools in the hands of the broadcast regularly at night. This sta- editors and writers. tion was owned byThe AtlantaJournal, Newspapers and magazines inundate thereby combining two very powerful Georgians with available information. mass communication media under one This network of printing establishes a journalistic voice.This voice has first floor type of foundation for all through the years been a very forceful other mass communications systems in factor in changing the values and be- the state.Itisthis print-media base liefs of Georgians. which sets a tone for communications Today in Georgia there are approxi- systems at the middle level, which is the mately 200 radio stations and more un- wire-media, and these two 'establish a der construction. These range in power base for the air-media. Therefore, in from those just strong enough to get out Georgia there is a three-level construct of thecity limitstothose powerful in mass communication. This construct enough to receive listener mail from is made up ofprint-media, wire-media, across the nation. Georgia is saturated andair-media. with radio signals. There are FM, AM, and FM Stereo stations. Some stay on Radio the air just during the daylight hours-. It has been less than 75 years since a some stay onallday and allnight. young Italian named Marconi came to Radio programming in Georgia consists this country to demonstrate the wireless primarily of local programs overrun communication system. Dots and dashes with disc jockey programs having spe- were sent through the air relaying mes- cialized appeal to all types of groups sages from one spot to another, exciting and individuals. There are some stations many people in the same way that heart which specialize in talk shows. Others transplants affect people today. In the program primarily classical music. In same way that Americans today do not all cases they do provide some public understand the long -range significance service programs. Nearly allstations of organ transplants, they did not un- have news and local information as a derstand the real significance of early regular part of the proposed diet. radio. A young scientist named DeFor- Many of Georgia's towns and cities est put the voice of Enrico Caruso on have multiple stations. They compete the air in 1910, yet it was 10 years befor the advertising dollar for support, fore the first broadcast station came on selling time competitively to airwaves the air. That was in 1920. users. Some are affiliated with national

467 networks which supplyfunds. Geor- and educational. Educational radio has gians are extremely fortunate to have had a very ir,teresting history inthis such a large number of local radio sta- country. Educational radio is not a hy- tions, as this-affords great potential for product of commercial radio. From the mass information distribution. beginning of the history of broadcast- It is significant that even though radio ing. legislators and educators have rec- is no longer considered by people as the ognized the great potential of educa- major source of information and news. tional broadcasting.In1919 thefirst the number of radio stations in Georgia educational radio station went on the air increased about 70 percent from 1955 at the University of Wisconsin. In less to 1965. At a time when television grew than six years there were 171 educa- atunbelievablerates,radiostations tional stations operating. This was ap- werenotfailingbutgrowing. This proximately one-third of all operating shows remarkable ability to adjust on stations. From1925until1937the the part of radio programmers and sta- number of stations decreased markedly. tion owners. More radio sets are sold This rapid decline is explained in retr.o- now than ever before in Georgia. It is a spect in several ways. Some say that rare home that does not have at least commercial stations began to provide two radio receivers. more of these services; olhcrs say edu- Radio sets ranging in price from sev- cational radio just did not accomplish eral hundred dollars to less than four anything; still others claim that the De- dollars are sold in Georgia stores. Boy pression closed. most of these facilities. Scouts and 'elementary school scientists In1938, FM broadcasting was au- make their own sets as projects. Radio thorized.Educationalradioreceived sets are in cars. buses, doctors' offices, FM assignments and at that point edu- workshops, school lockers, living rooms, cational radio began to grow again. This kitchens, dens. bedrooms, back porches. second spurt of growth moved even patios. bathrooms, upstairs, downstairs. more rapidly than the first one. Today in the walls and just about everywhere there are wellover 300 educational teenagers aniass themselves. Portables radio stations operating and they are are heard at ball bames, picnics, swim- growing monthly. ming pools. on the streets, and many Even though Georgia has beena other places where people want to stay leader in educational television (this is in contact with their music and news. discussed in the next section), educa- Georgians know that eVery hour on tionalradio has never matured. The the hour they can tune to a radio station only educational radio station operating in their area and receive a quick, up-toin Georgia is licensed to the Board of the-minute account of world happen- Education of the City of Atlanta. It is ings. This is just a part of everyday liv- WABE (FM). By contrast, both Ten- ing. They also know that on the half- nessee and South Carolina have four hour they can receive local weather and stations and they are considering a state- news. The avid radio listener is so well wide radio network. Louisiana has one informed about news that when he does station, and Kentucky has five stations. pick up the newspapers he searches for There are no educational radio stations the features rather than the news of the in Alabama, North Carolina, Missis- day. Radio is a basic tool in the commu- sippi, and Florida. Educational radio, nications systems of Georgia and shows as a general rule, has not been adopted evidence of growing. by the southern states. (California has There are two types of radio stations 29 educational radio stations: Massachu- as far as the CongresS and the FCC are setts has 14: Texas has 12.) With the concernedcommercial and non-com- advent of the Corporation for Public mercial, better known as commercial Broadcasting educational radio is get-

468 tins its much needed funding. As of the The major distinction between public summer of 1969, there was one other television and commercial television is educational radio license request pend- in the type of programming and the ob- ing before the FCC. This request was jective. Public television considers itself made by Augusta College. an agent of change in society. Commer- In summary, the radio media picture cial television considers itself an agent inGeorgiaisone completely domi- of stability. These arc general designa- nated by commercial radio, with edu- tions and are not exclusive objectives. cationalradio beingpractically non- Television has grown phenomenally existent. There is much discussion cur- in the United States since it began in the rently under way concerning educa- 1920s with sonic basic inventions. In tional radio and statewide educational 1930 the National Broadcasting Com- radio network. pany hegan operating an experimental broadcasting station in New York City. Television However, television did not catch on It is an understatement to say that tele- until after the Second World War. In vision has greatly expanded our means fact, in 1940 the numher of television of communication. It has, in fact, revo- setsinAmericanhomescouldhe lutionized communications and has set counted on the fingers of one hand. By the stage for an almost incomprehen- 1947, 14,000 families had television. In sihle future in communications. Radio 1948 there were 172.000 families own- gave man the electronic ears to tune in ing sets. and as late as 1949. there were happenings in far away places around still fewer than a million families with the world. Television has added elec- television sets. In the next 10 years tele- tronic eyes so that man can see and hear vision was king. and by 1960 nine out events that take place not only on earth, of tenfamilies owned televisionsets. but as far away as the moon and the Recent findings by the American Re- planets. search Bureau indicate that 95 percent Television can really be cohsidered of the households in America have TV. the mass medium.Itisan intricate This is a total of 57 million homes with comhination of all the other media. It is TV. There is every indication that 100 a powerful tool in the economy of the percent saturation will occur within the United States. Millions and millions of next few years; that is,it will be 100 dollars are spent advertising, manufac- percent except for those few who still turing, and programming television. It see it as a one-eyed monster, designed is a powerful tool in entertainment. It is to undermine our basic principles. flick- a powerful tool in education. The things ering in the homes of Americans. There thatare learned from televisionare will always be these few holdouts. Even immeasurable. so, conversation about television in the Throughout the United States there coffee shop and the office keeps even are five commercial television stations holdouts heavily involved in this newest for each educational station. There are and most dynamic of all media. approximately 200 education television stations operating in the United States. Television in Georgia These stations provide two distinct types Television first came to Georgia in 1948 of televisioninstructional and public. with the establishment of WSB-TV in Instructional television is designed and Atlanta. This was also the first station to telecast for schools and colleges pri- operate in the South. The next 20 years marily during the daytime hours. Public (1948-1968) saw very dramatic things televisionis designed and telecast for happenwithtelevisioninGeorgia. the general public primarily in the eve- Many more stations have come into be- ning and night hours and on weekends. ing and have, in general, been quite suc-

469 cessful. For various reasons, there have more about life in the world each day. been a few stations to go off the air. In More than 10 years ago the Georgia 1Q55, there were 13 commercial stations Department of Education began one of operating in Georgia. In 1965. this num- the noblest and most courageous moves ber had decreased to 10. Today there toward educationaltelevisionof any are 15 commercial stations operating in state in the union. Today the Georgia Georgia, several cities having more than Departmentof Education owns and one. There are also 10 non-commercial operates eight television stations. They stations operating in Georgia. This total have also asked the Federal Communi- of 25 television stations makes Georgia cationsCommissionforconstruction one of the most saturated of southern permits for two other stations. The At- states. lanta City School Board also has a tele- The threelargenational networks vision station. Combining the Georgia serve the state very well. Each one has Department of Education's stations with at least two affiliated stations in Geor- the one operated by the Georgia Center gia. CBS, NBC, and ABC supply vast for Continuing Education at the Uni- amounts of programming through the versity of Georgia in Athens. the state commercial stations. In fact, most of the is almost 100 percent covered by edu- programming on commercial stations is cational television signals. In fact, there not locally produced. The non-commer- are just a few classrooms in the state cialstations in Georgia are affiliated which cannot receive the instructional with National Educational Television television programs from the Depart- and receive a few programs each week ment of Education. from that source. Most of the program- Higher education and public educa- ming on non-commercial televisionis tion in Georgia have been working in either locally produced or produced by agreement in educational television for other non-commercial stationsinthe nearly a decade. This agreement is the nation. envy of many states because of its very Driving through rural Georgia even simple format and highly functional sys- on the few unpaved roads still existing, tem. In essence the agreement is that the it is not uncommon to see a 40- or 50- University's station. Channel 8, which foot television antenna mounted on a covers practically all of northern Geor- shack which seems hardly strong enough gia. will program the after school hours to support it. It is also just as common each day and on weekends. In turn, the to hear of new homes being built with Department of Education will program television wired in every room and with all its stations, plus the University's sta- built-in sets in the walls. Georgians are tion, during the school day each day converting to color television at a rate except weekends. This agreement places equal to the rest of the nation. Approxi- the responsibility for instructional tele- mately 30 percent of Georgia's homes vision on the Georgia Department of now have color sets. Also, the multiple Education and theresponsibilityfor set homes are just as plentiful in this public television on the University of state as in most others. The latest figures Georgia. This clear distinction and divi- show that Georgia has 1,290,000 house- sion of objectives provides for singular holds, and 1,208.000 of these have tele- dedication and devotion to one area of vision. Thisis 94 percent television programming by each party. Instruc- saturation in Georgia homes. These sets tional television is aimed primarily at are used an increasing number of hours classrooms. Pubic televisionis aimed per year. Family members of all ages primarily at households. participate in televiewingfrom the in- TelevisioninGeorgiaisgrowing. fant who just watches the lights move to More stations are planned. More smaller grandpapa who is learning more and cities are searching for ways to develop

470 localtelevisionstations.Pricesfor With 25 television stations affiliated equipment to go into television and no with four major networks and dozens of longer prohibitive for smaller cities, but cable television systems functioning in the local advertising is not adequate to Georgia, it can he said without doubt sustain the operations. thatforthe 95 percent of Georgia households with television sets,televi- Television coverageof Georgiais sion is the most effective mass media in adequate with 25 stations beaming sig- the state. Any single hit of information nals from towers throughout the state. can he distributed more quickly to more However, thereare many homes in peoplebytelevisionthanbyany Georgia which receive only one channel medium. of television while others in Atlanta can receive seven on nearly any set. The Summary of Mass Media in Georgia most revolutionary change to take place Georgia has an abundance of communi- in television in the past few years was cation systems foF mass media. There notcolornorall-channelreceivers, arethree dynamic levelsof systems (VHF and UHF), but .the advent of functioning, and even though they are CATV (Community Antenna Televi- distinct they are blended together to sion). Many households no longer have provide the people of the state with as a communications mast on top of the manydifferentcommunication ap- roof. They have taken it down because proaches as are found anywhere. At the now, for a small monthly charge, their base level are print medianewspapers, set or sets are wired to a large antenna magazines, books, and periodicals. At inthe community. This wire coming the next level are the wire mediatele- into the home brings distortion-free sig- phone and telegraph. The other level is nals from 6 to 12 stations. the air mediaradio and television. In Georgia there are probably 75 CATV franchises, with approximately Communication Systems, 50 operating. These operating CATVs Mass Media, and serve tens of thousands of households and subscribersare growing by the EducationToday thousands each year. What it means is A man can comprehend about five times that more and more Georgians have faster than he can talk. The average more andbettertelevisionintheir man listening to another man lecture is homes. These cable television systems capable of absorbing much more. Some- to more than just re-transmit signals. one has said recently that the average Many of them have a channel available American reads about 250 words per for community news and announce- minute, but this is not a 250 words per ments. Some provide 24-hour weather minute world. and music on a channel. There are no Our country has built an amazing de- restrictions on origination of programs, livery system for knowledge and infor- and this is the next big step for cable mation. Georgia is plenteously supplied television. Much controversy exists be- with this delivery system. Refinements, tween television stations and cable tele- modifications, and new discoveries in vision systems.. Itis reasonable to asthis system await man's probing. sume that Congress will in the next few Formal education has grown to the years make decisions in favor of cable point that it is now involving approxi- television extensions. This will happen mately one-third of American citizens because the viewer is going to demand asstudents and teachers each year. the best possibletelevisionreception (Remember Paul Woodring's book en- with the greatest possible selection of titled,Fourth of a Nation.)Many programs. changes have taken place and more are

471 to come. Schools have, contrary to the state assisting teachers and administra- critics. experit-nced great improvements tors in utilization of television in the in the past decades. More adjustments classroom. The major problems con- have been made in schools and colleges fronting ETV in Georgia are than in any other large facet of Ameri- the difficulty of scheduling the pro- can life. This has been the case simply grams at times when students and teach- because schools are the meeting places ers. are ready for the telecast, and- of themasses. Enrollments have in- teacher reluctance to use television creased so much in many schools and becauseitis new and itsvalidityis colleges that there are as many faculty uncertain. members now as there were students severaldecades ago. Sheer numbers The use of mass media in the schools have created changes. but the biggest of Georgia is present but cannot be con- changes are not numbersit is in what sidered a strong force in educational is expected of education. methodology. But mass media's impact on education cannot he measured solely Education is the chief occupation of in this manner. youth in this society and is fast becom- Thegreatestadjustmentthatthe ing the avocation of adults. This society schools have had to make in relation- has an unrelenting faith in education. It ship to mass media and communication has become the yardstick by which peo- systems results from mass media's be- ple are measured. It has become the key ing an accepted part of the student's which unlocks opportunities. It has be- non-classroom life. Young people today come the mark of distinction for many experience a bombardment of informa- people. tion. There is hardly a moment during Even though mass media such as the day when they are not havinginfor- newspapers, radio, and television have mation and knowledge blared at them been accepted generally by American from many sources. Much of the enter- society, they have been all but rejected tainment of young people today is more by educators. It is the rarest classroom educational than ever before in our his- inthis country which uses the daily tory. Newspapers, radio, and television newspaper in a meaningful way. Radio probe social issues in an entertaining in the classroom is used only as a spe- manner. Itis difficult for a student to cial occasion device. Television, even spend an hour before a color television though it has been placed in the class- set touring the Taj Mahal and be inter- room, is not being dynamically used. ested the next day in a black and white Georgia has one of the best instructional picture of the Taj Mahal in his geogra- television systems for its schools. Ap- phy book. Itis becoming increasingly proximately 100 percent of the school difficult for students to select courses buildings in this state can receive inwhich willbenefit them. Because of structionaltelevision.Programs are mass media the student is presented a beamed over a microwave intercon- vast array of alternatives, thereby mak- nected network five days a week, 34 ing the few alternatives presented by the weeks a year from 8:30 in the morning school a bit bland. Students today still until 4:00 in the afternoon. These pro- possess as much curiosity as they ever grams range from science for second did, but as a general rule their out-of- graders to literature courses for high school contact with mass media makes school students. The Georgia Depart- traditional processes of learning seem ment of Education, which owns and drab and unattractive. Students are to- operatesthisnetwork, has produced day intellectually superior because they severalinstructionalseries which are are receiving information at a rate much among the best produced in this coun- faster than past generations. Therefore, try. A strong utilization staff combs the students are developing prowess in areas

472 of knowledge avocationally. It is not un- Overproduction of usual to find a fourth grader who can American Industry discuss the complexities of computers or to have in a seventh grade class six stu- American industry has sensed that edu- dents who know more about science cation in this society furnishes a major than their teacher. The mass media pro- economic market. Schools will continue vide more students with vicarious travel to be sold gadgets and devices which experiences which take them all the way were not designed originally for educa- from Plymouth Rock tothe Sea of tion. Infact. American industry will Tranquility. Most of thisis done on continue to market its overproduction televisionin non-classroom hours. At to the educational field. Sonic of these the same time it is not unusual to have gadgets and systems are usable, but in three students in the sixth grade who most cases it takes hard selling and a traveled to Europe in the last year or tremendous stretching of the imagina- so. Students today come from smaller tion to apply them to instruction. One families and learn to cope with inner of the prime examples of this is in the personal struggles far earlier than past field of computers. These were not built generations. They learn from the mass for education and probably never will media things advanced far beyond the be widely used in education, at least not family life lectures in high school. In in the next 50 years. Computer Assisted additiontotheseinfluences of mass Instruction is probably one of the most media. the student is far more comfort far-fetched of all "educational innova- oriented and is encouraged to express tions.- This is not to say that computers his independence more forcefully. cannot be of service in education. But The basic problem today with mass the basic concepts of Computer As- media and education is that the schools sistedInstructionareerroneous and have been so busy adjusting to increases lacking in honest perspective about hu- in enrollment and meeting the basic man learning. The educational commu- comfort needs of studentsthat they nity will have to face and solve in the have had little time to devote to con- near future the matter of classrooms sidering the effects of mass media on being filled with the overproduction of students.Someattemptshavebeen American industry. made. They have been successful and One of the major problems to be will serve as models for future develop- faced in the near future is generated by ment. The years ahead can be bright, specialization in learning fields. Some- but it will take a great deal of direction one has said that knowledge today is on the part of educators. multiplied each year. If this is the case. new systems will have to be developed Problems and Conflicts in the to organize this knowledge into new curriculum structures. It is possible that Immediate Future new designations will be given to mew Before we discuss the year 19fi:3, it is learningareas,designationsthatare appropriate to take a look at Lome of more indicative of the breadth of the _the problems of the immediate '44iture area of investigation. This pr9blem of concernfr:g mass media, comnitmica- increasedspecializationandgreater dons systems, and education. Some of depth and breadth in subject areas will the problems to be discussed in the fol- create a demand that the schools de- lowing pages are already in existence, cide all over again what the basic sub- but willinallprobability increase in jects are. It is quite possible that the importance until such time as solutions seven liberal arts and their manStmodi- are found or new and bigger problems fications will no longer suffice as cur- supplant them. riculum designations.

473 The Knowledge Explosion value being modified almost dailyis Even though the average man in 1969 the value of unity in this society. As a feels that not much more can be discov- general rule we are becoming more and ered, and he wants to believe that nearly more tolerant of diversity. This can be everything that is worthwhile is already attributed in a large part to mass media. known, there is going to be no depres- As a society we are becoming far more sion in thefield of knowledge. How permissive, especially in the area of hu- schools will be able to cope with the man sexuality. Television is now pro- knowledge explosion has not yet been gramming materials and scenes that just decided. Few people have taken it upon a few short years ago would have themselves to try to answer the question caused great public upheaval. Today, of whether or not all of this knowledge there is scarcely a voice of protege. The is additional or whether much of it is re- schools of the immediate future will placement knowledge for things now have to cope with this problem of gen- obsolete. As the knowledge explosion erations who do not know about the begins to reach its zenth, schools will traditional values. have to decide whether or not there are One of the baffling findings of recent large areas of knowledge that are ob- years is the fact that children at very solete. early ages can cope with various sophis- The field of education is being radi- ticated segments of knowledge. Mass cally tampered with in the laboratories media has played a large part in bring- and classrooms of research and developing this to focus. Schools must in the ment centers throughout this country. future decide whether or not they will Some of the findings have not been provide for early childhood education printed and many of the findings that en masse or continue to let young chil- have been printed have not been read dren be thevictims ofnon-directed carefully. Could it be that R &D cen- learning presented by mass media. ters will find the keys which will help us It is true today that mass media do develop students capable of compre- affect public opinion. Itistrt today hending whatever situation the knowl- also that most of the people behind edge explosion creates: mass media wish to be -.:ctive about Nearly every. Georgian who sitsin the information they distribute. None- front of his television set has to admit theless, they do help form opinions. One that this must be the invention to stop of the problems of the near future will all inventions, but he also knows that be coping with the opinions created by this kind of thinking is fallacious. There mass media. The vast majority of mass will be new inventions in the coming media people today consider themselves yearssome that will startle us as much as agents of stability in this society, but as television. It is essential that educa- itisof growing concern that many tors plan the adjustment to new inven- would like to be agents of change. The tions rather than having the inventions sfools may face great problems in this and their counterparts imposed on edu- respect. cation. There is a great deal of talk about the impersonalization of man and the de- Modification of humanizing (-,` man by mass media. it is true that there:: are Georgians who it in Traditional Values front of their television sets viewing "tie Because of the influence of mass media pathos of the Vietnam War without on the individual, traditional values are much feeling at all. It is true that televi- changing. Plans will have to be made to sion stations received great amounts of cope with even more radical modifica- mail complaining that the Apollo moon tionof traditionalvalues. One such shot was interfering with their regular

474 fare of soap operas and old movies. This and more readable. but in 1985 fewer lessening of sensitivitytothe world people will read fcwer news items than about us could have grave effects in the today. They will be more selective and coming years. This is a problem that will expect many more in-depth fea- schools will have to cope with. tures. Newspapers, however. will.not The problems and conflicts in the experience much change by 1985. foregoing paragraphs must be dealt with Magazineswill experiencesome by the schools of Georgia. The public changes, butthey willnot he basic school idea has been that the curriculum changes.Specialmagazineswillbe would reflect what the society is. The printed in many more fields. Magazines decision makers in the next decades in designed for different age groups will the field of public education have an he more and more popular. More re- enormous task. gional and state magazines will he published with extremely wide distribution. Magazine publishr:rs will render more Mass Media and reader services by providing audio and Communication Systems film services in a variety of ways. Tech- In 1985 nology will improve the process of col- lectingandprocessingmaterialsfor By th,- time 1985 arrives it will be in publication. The influence of magazines vogue to be designing ideas and papers as a part of the mass media will not infor sometime in the twenty-first century. Man will be predicting the world-wide crease measurably. hook-up of alln,..tions into one mass Radio laser network supplemented by satel- Radio stations will multiply and diver- lites owned and operated by interna- sify greatly by 1985. Georgia will prob- tionalcooperativesforinformation, ably have 500 or more broadcast sta- production, and entertainment. Radio, tions. Many of these wi! he in very television, newspapers, and magazines small communities. Programming will will still he around in 1985 in varying be strongly local, but connected with degrees of change. regional and state networks. Radio stations will be doing vast amounts of lo- Newspapers clnd Magazines cal advertising and public service pro- The changes newspaperswillbe grams. The broadcast studios will he slight. Some changesinformat and distributed all over the communityin printing procedures will take place, but stores, in schools, in city hall, and in the role of the newspapers will remain homes. Closed circuit radio islikely intact. They will still supply the bulk of through the use of community cable daily printed material for quick and television. Radio will be the instant and easy distribution. Newspapers will cost constant town meeting. a great deal more because advertising By 1985, there should be a complete dollars will be spent more and more in educational radio network in the State the non-print media. Some newspapers of Georgia. It will be made up of 10 or willbe experimenting withfacsimile more FM stations. These stations will distribution by telephone print-out de- probably he owned and operated by col- vices, but practically this will not yet be leges and universities and will be used functionalandeconomicallysound. for instructional radio as well as public Some newspapers will be distributing radio. Combined with a television net- audio copy for use inthe cartridge work, radio can launch a continuing player, which will have replaced practi- education program for the benefit of all cally all phonographs. Much more color Georgians. This state network will be will be used in newsprint than now. anessentialcommunication toolfor Newspapers willbe better assembled schools. As taperecording becomes

475 even more foolproof and simple. teach- vision stations. As the price and com- ers will he able to provide a world of plexity of equipment conics into reach audio information for students. A Na- of the local economy. smaller stations tional Educational Radio Network will will beein to he established. ('able tele- he dynamically functioning as a com- vision will be available to nearlyall munications tool. The NERN will assist households and schools. These cables in the development of strong regional will be supplying 40 or more channels. radio networks. Itis reasonable to ex- Satellitetelevisionpipeddirectlyto pect that schools will have as many homes will he possible in the latter part tapesintheir librariesas they have of this century, but by 1985 the politi- books, and these will he available for cal-social issues will not have been re- check-out purposes. Most of these tapes solved. By 1985 the distribution sys- can be supplied by national and state tems for television will be composed of radio networks. stronger national networks, both com- Radio will change by becoming a mercial and public, as well as more re- ubiquitous communication device used gional and specialized networks by practically everyone. Radio receivers sports networks). Community antenna will be so remarkably improved that a systems will carry network programs,. small pocket model will provide hun- originate their own programs. and pro- dreds of clear signals. In 1985 predic- vide booster service for distant televi- tions will be made about individual ra- sion signals. dio transmitters in each home which Pay television will he distributed by would virtually make every home a cable to those homes which have paid radio,unionfortheneighborhood. the fee for unscrambling the sight and Radio is going to grow and will he a sound. But the area of distribution most powerful force in mass communications likely to change 11w leviewing habits in 1985. of people in Georgia by 1985 will he a TV tape library. Technology is already Its levi siv) providing the television industry with an Television in !)85 will be quite different electronic video recorder playback de- than we know it today. The changes will vice. This equipment will be built into be in program origination concepts, dis- home receivers in the future. A family tribution systems. receiver sets in home will be able to go to the library, tape and school. Some people have predicted shop, department store, or super market that broadcast television from local sta- and rent at a nominal sum a fuil-length tions will disappear and give way to a color film or,a symphony concert in a complete local cable system. This is not small cartridge. This cartridge will be likely to happen in the forceable fu- placed in the home receiver much like a' ture, because Congress and regulatory stereo tape is today and the program agencies will protect the great invest- will appear on the television screen. It ment now existing in broadcast televi- can be played at the leisure of the fam- sion. The wired city and national grid ily one time or several times, with or of inter-connected cables will still he a without interruptions. This system has long way off in 1985. exciting potential for classroom use. To- National networks will continue to day we are seeing the first audiotapc distribute by using long lines which are clubs (The Tape of the Month Club) rented from telephone companies. The emerge. By 1985The TV Tape of the program signal will 'come to regional MontItClubwill be well established. network affiliates and then be fed to lo- hi 1985 television in this country will cal stations. There will be many more have two strong elementscommercial local stations than now exist. Georgia's television and public television. Both of smaller towns may have their own tele- these will experience great changes in

476 the future. but the principles supporting Mass Media in 1985 and them will be sustaining. The basic difference in the two systems will he in the Their Impact on Education typeof communicationserviceren- As has been already stated in this paper. dered. Both will he equally sophisticated mass media soil! deeply influence the in distribution systems and in viewer ap- education of Georgians. Students will peal. Commercial television will become he changed by non-school hours spent even more an entertainment medium with mass rot%lia. which will force the appealing to the relaxed, comfortable, school to adjust to a different type of refreshing. and stabilizing, influences in student: also. schools and classrooms man. Public telivision will become even will have wide assortments of available more an information medium appealing information delivered in the most'it- to the daily needs of schools and home tractive. accessible packages. in supplying news and public affairs fea- By 1985. nearly one-half of Georgia's tures along with instruC programs. population will he involved in formal education each day. Education will ac- Educational television in Georgia in ccant for the greatest expenditure of 1985 will he viewed in households more public funds. Education will he affluent. than itis today. Schools will also use Teachers in 1985 will he the hest edu- television more than today. The present cated. most intelligent corps ever assem- microwave interconnected system will bled. There is evidence today that the he used more and more as a public tele- demand for unusual people in education vision system and less for instructional is attraLting a higher caliber young per- television. It is probable that due to the son to the ranks of the profession. complexity of scheduling instructional Educators will more and more con- programs the system will he used dur- sider in their curriculum judgments the ing the night hours as a distribution system for pre-taping programs to he fitted non-school learning of students. By inte- into the teacher's schedule. Most of the grating the impact of media on students school systems of Georgia by 1985 will with the curriculum in schools. more efficient teaching will he possible. The na- have their own systems of reeo;ding off the air and playing hack to suit their ture of schools will he changed. Con- cepts of standards, grade levels, and own schedules. Experimentalinstruc- subject areas will tional television should develop highly vanish. The school will become indiNidualized for the stu- Creative approaches tothetelevision dent. Parents will be actively involved now going to schools. Itis possible to by designing with the school the best ap- design a statewide telecast program for exceptional children. Once the system proach to sustained learning. The non- is accepted by teachers and parents. its terminal nature of learning will become uses will he limited only by lack of more than just a subject for discussion imagination. among adult educatorsit will be practiced. The classroom of 1985 should have one wall which could he called The In- Summary formation. Wall. This wall, in essence, The changes likelyto ocur in mass will he a rear view screen which will re- media and communication systems in ceiveprojectionsfromtiearrayof Georgia by 1985 are very exciting. How equipment outside the oom. The they are used will depend a great deal entire wall will be a sount1)roof, glass on whether or not they meet the honest, rear view screen with equipnent behind felt needs of people. In the future Geor- it. The information wall will provide gians will be less passive about what the teacher and student with any type they watch. of projection whichis now available

.17 without the obstruction of having the nology and communication system into equipment inthe room and without a practical operaticn. If this is not done having to rearrange the classroom. The the advances made are going to he re- information wall will provide the teach- jected and education will return to the er an opportunity to create, through old recitation approachwhich will he that wall, any environment and atmos- catastrophic. phere she thinks meaningful for the Dr. William H. Hale. Jr. is associate di- class. The information wall will be big rector. Georgia Center for Continuing Edu- enough to permit several types of pro- cation. He serves as station manager of jection to take place simultaneously. On WGTV. Channel8.theUniversityof Georgia'seducationaltelevisionstation. one section there might be a motion and he is responsible for other functions picture for a group of students with of the communications division. Dr. Hale headsets for audio. Another might have is a member of the Board of Directors. a slide presentation with live discussion, Southern Educational Communications As- and another section might be projecting sociation. and a member of the Board Com- mittee of National ETV Program Service. programmed information for only one He is listed in "Who's Who in American student. The information wall can assist Education" and is a frequent lecturer on the teacher in individualizing instruc- college campuses across the nation. Dr. tion for those students needing special Hale is a member of numerous professional and honorary organizations. Aside from his attention. Any portion of the wall could work with the Georgia Center and ETV. he used at eye level as a small screen for Dr. Hale serves as an instructor for the individualized and remedial instruction. Internal Revenue Service Training Officers Workshop and as an instructor in sex edu- This is only one idea of how the cation for youth groups. He is a consultant- schools will cope with the problem of lecturer for the Public Heals;: Service. a exploding knowledge. Some way must consultant for pubi;-.- school systems, and be devised to assist the individual class- a training specialist with private businesses. room teacher to assimilate the tech- Dr. Hale received his Ed.D. degree from Florida State University.

478 WORKING withinthe time limitations of a pressing deadl;ne, DrHale overall has done an adequate and profes- %ional job with his subject. However. there are several viewpoints in the paper with which I disagree, or on which I will elaborate. Also. I feel that the author did not touch on several probabilities in the communications field of 1985 which I will include in my critique. Early in his paper Dr. Hale gives statistics on Georgia's daily and weekly newspapers. Here is up-to-date inform. a- Ii01) about them. based on the Georgia Press Association's 1970 Directory. Daily newspapers have a total circulation of 968,934; weeklies 530,019, giving a combined total of 1.498,953. The GPA has 215 member newspapers which 30 are dailies, five semi-weeklies, and 180 weeklies. Dr. Hale refcr. to The Atlanta Times. lie says the newspaper folded for lack of critique: advertising and circulation. I would also add because of a lack of reserve capital Communi- to keep the paper going untilit wuld operate in the black. I think one of the cations oigge-st factors inits non-support was Systems and that advertisers did not want to pay for duplicate circulation caused by persons Mass Media subscribing both to The Times and to its wealthier and established afternoon rival, in Georgia The Atlanta Journal. I think the author oversimplified his interpretation of results of the survey by the Television Information Office. I am not surprised that this agency would find that more people receive their information about the world from television than from newspapers. However, I have read the results of such surveys made by radio and newspaper organizations which indicated that people got their news mainly from radios or newspapers, respectively. Also, some surveys have shown that people think newspapers give them the most accurate and the most complete news. I agree with the author that probably more people look at television newscasts

479 than listen to radio news or read news- sion is interested in data on the computer papers. but that does not mean they get and education.I recommend the book most oftheirinformationabchrt the edited byPeterH. Rossi and Bruce J. world from television. Television and Biddle,TheNewMedia and Education: 1,104-) do not report news in detail as do Their Impact on Society.Aldine Pub- newspapers and magazines. Actually. the lishing Company, 1966. (Also in paper- media supplement each other, so a better back. Anchor Books Edition. 1967). statement would he that the public lo, ks The author did not deal with the in- to all the news media for their informa- creasing use of computers and automation about the world. tion in the publishing field.I will treat Iagree with the author's statements that subject in some detail, because I thatoverall.Georgia newspapers are think its implication, for the future of good. However,I do notthink that the communications media are most im- Georgia has any truly outstanding news- portant. papers judged from a national viewpoint. For some years printing for some pub- The Atlanta Constitution used to be lications has been done from computer- rated consistently among the "Ten Best" justified tape. A modern Linotype can in the country largely, in my opinion. produce 900 or so lines of type an hour, on the reputation of its late editor, Ralph but a computer can hyphenate and justi- McGill.The Constitutionmight still be fy type-setting tape at 12,000 lines an rated so. but newsmen elsewhere in the hour. country havetold me thatin their opi- We speak at about 120 words a min- nionThe Constitution isnot what it used ute, but modern equipment can transmit to be. Also. it should be nolA that many 4,000 wordsaminute. New optical people within Georgia itself refer toThe character recognition devices can read Atlanta ConstitutionandThe Atlanta 28,000 words a minute. Journalas"themlyin'newspapers." More than100 newspapers inthe While this reference in my opinion, is United States now have computers for no: justified, many Georgians undoubted- direct production applications. The ma- ly believe it. However, the influence of jor wire services are using computers these two newspapers in the State con- and high-speed transmission methods tinues to be great, as Dr. Hale pointed every day to move massive news reports. out. It is now possible by using computers I do not understand the author's state- to edit and produce newspapers and ment that "Educational radio is not a by- other publications entirely by mechanical product of commercialradio." How means. But we willcontinue to need could it be otherwise, since the first radio bright, knowledgeable, skilled people be- stations were and still most of them hind the computers to provide the raw are commercial? news and informational material. Such I disagree with the author's statement editing by computer, coupled with inthat computers "probably never will be creasing automation in printing produc- widely used in education, at least not in tion, will lower production costs in rela- the next SO years." Also, this statement tion to total costs and could mean more seems to contradict a succeeding state- money to spend on the editorial product ment that "The educational community itself. will have to face and solve in the near Information storage and retrieval using future the matter of classrooms being the computer is just in its infancy and filled with the overproduction of Ameri- will become more refined and sophisti- can industry ?'I would think that the cated in the coming years. Georgia Tech computer and its allied products would now has a graduate programinthe be included among the "overproduction" School of Information Science dealing of industry alluded to. If the Commis- with this new technology. The ability to

480 produce, store and then 5eleet from vast will not have electronic tubes for a heart. quantities of news materials and back- wiring to replace his veins and arteries. ground information stored in computers nor a punched paper tape to replace his should help produce better newspapers brain. In other words, journalists will not and magazines and better newscasts on be robots. Indeed. the specifications for radio antelevision. tomorrow's reporters and editors will be News reporters work. ;ng away from for even more intelligent, more imagina- their offices can now use a portable tive, more perceptive, and more adaptable transmitter to send a coded text at 600 men and women. And lots more of 'dlem. words a minute over regular long-dis- The implications for educationand tance telephone lines. Maps, diagrams, particularly education in journalism and photos, and pages of text can be sent by communications areobvious.Such facsimile transmission, education must be expanded both at the A reporter by 1985, perhaps sooner, University of Georgia and at Georgia may be able to type his story on a special State University. It also must be extended paper form so his copy can be read into to other institutions of higher education a computer's memory banks by an opti- in the state, both in the University Sys- cal-readerdevice. The computer will tem of Georgia and in the private insti- store tb:s material and produce a print- tutions. out for editing, with a copy to the re- But computers and all the rest of the porter. The edited and corrected copy new technology in communications are then will be read agai by the optical not the answers to better communication reader and the editor'sflanges will be in Georgia. The problem of communica- made automatically befor the final news tion anditsanswer liejustas story is printed. much as ever, and perhaps more than Also, a reporter will be able to type ever, within the minds of people. The his story; the impulses he creates will be central problem is the communication of recorded on magnetic tape (including understanding. corrections or content changes as he goes We live in an age when there is no along, will go into the computer's store- problem in creating information. That house and print out copies for both the problem will become even simpler in the reporter and the editor. years ahead. We are drowned in a sea Before long, probably before 1985, of words and facts every day. Our prob- the reporter will simply "talk" his story lem today is, and in the future will be, into the computer which will convert his to learn how to commulicate and create voicesignalsinto electronicimpulses an understanding of the meaning of all thlt will punch tape or otherwise convert this information and how to react to it. the story into printed news. That is the job of the communications There is also the possibility of pro- >ttedia using the new tools of 'ech- gramming a computer to write simple nology. storiesitself from bets read into the The functions of writers and editors computer. This indeed already has been will remain the same, but the tools used done. to perform those functions will be much Computers can be used in the process changed. of editing and makeup of newspapers News copy will be fed into a computer- and magazines. They also can help in the like system when it arrives in the office selection, play and display of news. whether it comes in by wire, is typed in Such improvements in newspapers and by a reporter, or is called up from the magazines and in the whole publish- morgue (refetence library). ing business will mean more jobs and The copy then will be manipulated better jobs for journalists. electronically,displal.edontelevision But tomorrow's reporter and editor screens that will be a part of every edi-

481 tor's desk. and flummied into a page Perhaps by 1985. sorer_ spapers and form by shifting avid correcting the in- magazines will not even be published on formation on the screen with light -pen- presses. They would still be produced by cis and light-erasers. reporters. editoranalysts, investigators. Editorial research for backgrounding and editorial writers. We may be able to and giving depth to the stories will be sit in our living rooms. press a remote easier and faster. The morgue will be control button, and at our pleasure and electronic, rapid, and selective. Commer- convenience flip the pages of a newspa- cial firms also will sell news and back- per as it appears on the wall. ground information services by wire. Dr. Hale did net treat the ever-grow- Publications will be closer to the reading tendency toward monopoly owr..- ers in both time and space. Many will ship of the co:.nmunicatierz media in print simultaneously from different loca- Georgia and throughout the nationa tions. The time from the editor's desk to tenden.-y likely to be even more pro- printed page will be reduced to a few nounced by 1985. Bigness is not and minutes. Edition-to-edition changes will will not he confined to the communica- be easier and less costly than today. tions industry. of course. W.ehave big- There will be no more typesetting in ness and will have it in business, govern- most newspapers and magazines. The ment, entertainment and education. page image given final approval on the Operations in all these fields will be even editing display screen will be transmitted bigger by 1985. The pertinent implica- -directly to the printing plate at the push tionsinthe communications industry :a a button. will be an ever-narrowing diversity of Electronic local and regional informa- opinion and editorial viewpoints because tion and news services will be sold by of monopoly situations. publishers over the data transmission Along with the increasing bigness of facilities of the telephone systems. newspaper operations, thesesituations Al' the new material that comes into have arisenin connection with news the newspaper or magazine editorial of- coverage and disseminatioa and will fice will go into an electronic information probably become even more pronounced system connecting editorial desks, wire by 1985. services, the morgue, an electronic auto- Local news, for more than 100 mation news library, and the composinit years the main commodity of the daily room. newspaper, seems to be diminishing in Typewriters and optical scanners that value. can read printed text will be the princi- In place of much local news, we pal means of input. The system will now have specialized news. Indeeu, each store ws material just as an electronic profession, each trade, each industrial computer today stores information intro- skill now requiresits weekly or even duced into it. daily supply of expert information which Editorial direction of the computer the general newspaper cannot begin to system will be exercised through elec- touch. It seems another specialized jour- tronic editing consoles which will provide nal is born every week. display screens like TV sets for editing To cover the "general" news, one and display purposes. already can publish a centrally edited The dissemination and reception of national newspaper from regional distri- newspapers and magazines also might bution plants, as has been done for years be much changed, but again not likely in England, Japan, Russia, and other on a large scale. The Radio Corporation countries. of America back in1967 announced The new technological techniques plansfordelivering printnewspapers of providing new means of producing over television channels in the future. and delivering printed information seem

482 to cascriminate in favor of the big cen- 4.Newspaper networks. Groups of tralized operation and against the locally individually owned newspapers might edited newspaper. join to set up an information network or These new techniques appear likely the like to provide the individual news- to require huge blocks of capital invest- paper's non-local content. The network ment far larger than individual newspa- would plan the coverage, pick the storks. per ownership can amass. Capital ar . determine the play and display, handle management skills increasingly will cL)- the research and writing. work up the centrate on mass markets in the interest pictures and other illustrations, lay out of efficiency and unit-cost reduction. the pages, and "set" the "type" by the Therefore, there are the four possible latest electronic means. Local content types of newspver organizations for the would be added to round out the local future,plus possible combinations ef newspaper. such types. The use of microfilm in publishing is 1. No change. Metropolitan newspa- a nossibility, but not a probability, by pers would continue to contend with sub- 19s5. Why bother with the printed page urban newspapers.Non-metropolitan at all, one might ask? Instead of large newspapers will be as strong as their mar- sheetsof paper for newspapers and kets. A few regional newspapers will magazines, why not read the publication prosper.In general, strong publishing byusingaprojector,or perhaps a properties will get stronger, and weak "reading microscope"? The cost of pub- properties will fail. These strong groups lishingcould be reduced tremendously, will continue expanding but at present huge amounts of storage space would be show no tendency to evolve into national- saved, and the cost of distribution would ly significant news networks based on be cut down immensely. their present rate and pattern of growth. In appearance, content and attitude, the 2.Evolution of the newspaper indus- newspaper's personality in 1985 proba- try crz two levelsone strictly local and bly will be different. A whole new con- one strictly non-local. Big nationwide cept of typography and makeup will newspapers, perhaps delivered electroni- emphasize graphic excitement and ex- cally, would cover the national news and ploit type's ability to communicate feel- advertising. The economics involved in ing as well as fact. There will probably such mass publications might even permit be a new philosophy toward content, a return to the good old days of com- with day-to-day routine coverage down- peting newspapers (but. on a national graded in favor of high-impact roundup scale)in the same town. Meanwhile, stories,trendstories,and personality local news and advertising would be de- pieces. The accent will be on planned livered in entirely separate publications rather than reactive coverage. as often as the mArket merited, not None ofthispreceding discussion, necessarily every day. however, is intended to support a possi- 3.National nr,vspapers with localized bility that the print media as we now editions. The Wail Street Journal, for ex- know them will be obsolete by 1985. ample, already publishes such editions. Nor do new methods necessarily mean Technology makes the process simple. better newspapers and magazines al- Each local bureau of the newspaper though such methods should be very could wire its news and ad copy to the helpful.Ibelievetherestillwillbe headquarters computer. The entire news- printed publications, even though they paper would then be made up in head- may exist side by side with some publica- quarters, set in type or whatever process tions retrieved by readers through elec- of production is used, and retransamitted tronic systems already alluded to. back to the duens of regional plants for In fact, l believe the adoption of the printing and distribution. new technology will be gradual and not

483 likely to be in widespread operation by might he obsolescent by the time they are 1985_ The reasons are largely economic. installed_Witnesstheslownesswith Publishers have vast economic stakes which publishers have gone to the offset intheir present plants_ They are not printing process, automatic typesetting about to strap their equipment right from p- rfocated tapes_ and the adoption away in favor of expensive innovations of the computer itself in preparing news still in the process of evolution and which coPY-

References Bennett, Charles L.. "Automation and the Jourmalist." (Quill, Nov. 19651: pp. 18 Diebold. John.TheEditor andAutomation." //hid.. pp. 7.0-12. Holds . W. Sprague. "The Fortnight Before 2o05 A.D..(Quill.Dec. 1965). pp. 22-24. L... The Sky Is NOT railing: A Calm View of the New Technology,(Quill. (XT.1966 pp. 20-23. Seltzer. Louis B.. "The Knowledge ExplosionWhat It Means to Journalism." (Quill. Aug. 1967). pp. 16-18. Sexton. William. "BignessBad for Newspapers or Merely Inevitable?"(Quill. Oct.1967). pp. 22-25. ReitTel, Dr. Leonard. "Micro Magazines and Books." (Quill. Dec. 19671. p. 11. Sexton. William C.. "StyleThe Newspapers in the 1970s: A Revolution,(Quill.July 1968). pp. 7-19.

484 THE position paper by William M. Hale. Jr. undertakes a complex and formidable task and in my tTinion, is par - tially successful. After reading Mr. Hales study of mass media in Georgia past, present and future I feel that he has reached some acceptable conclusions. but not always by means of precise research or in carefully-chosen language. In fact, the entire manuscript has an uneven quality. Po:- tioos appear to have been hastily put together, and other parts reflect better planning and preparation. The growing influence of mass media, especially radio and television, is recognized and given respectfultreatment. Doubtlessly. ours will be even more of an electronic world in 1985 than it is today, and our homes, schools. and educational methods will all reflect this state of affairs. In handling this basic portion of his study, the author does a creditable lob.

6o, However, the background information critique: about both printed and electronic media could have been better prepared by con- Communi- sulting more thoroughly the facts avail- cations able in numerous books, the files of the National Association of Broadcasters. Systems and the Georgia Press Association. and the Mass Media Georgia Association of Broadcasters. Throughout this paper, frequent usage in Georgia is made of nebulous terms and questionable statements that defy proof. Examples: I."Some papers have very forceful edlorial policies, and today it is the rule rather than the exception for newspapers to try to force their opinion on the readers." How is this force applied? 2.'Georgia's newspapers, as a rule, are as good as any in the nation." By whose rule? Is there really a newspaper in Georgia that is comparable to the New York Times? 3. Action Line in the Atlanta Consti- tution is described as a type of "Aitorial- izing." Isn't it more nearly a specialized and personalized informational service? 4."Georgia's households are basically filled with newspapers." Name one?

485 What does this statement really mean? author blames lack of advertising. Actu- 5."Georgia is tic': with good news- ally. the number of TV channels avail- papers." Even newspaper editors of the able throughout the itedStates ;!, state would argue with this declaration. limited technic*. Under Fesent broad- 6. "The newstands in Georgia's ma- casting standards. we can never expect jor cities once sad only a dozen differ- to have television stations in numbers ent magazines .." If the word, "dozen" comparable to our radio statims be- was intended to mean, "few," it's stB1 cause the channel allocatiects do not part of a debatable sentence. exist. 7."However,the merefactthat 13. We can only label the following magazines are more preservable and line a non sequitur: "The average man durable than newspapers makes them listening to another man lecture is capa- more powerful as persuasive tools in the ble of absorbing much more." hands of the editors and writers." 14.I also question the author's con- The author makes this assertion with- tention that television-viewing lessens the out offering the slightest bit of evidence individual's sensitivity to the world about to support it. Personally. I have found him. There is massive evidence that the that a magazine per se is only more opposite occurs. Millions of people are powerful and persuasive than a news- aware and aroused, as never before, paper in swatting flies. about the people anproblems of the F."Newspapers and magazines inun- world.Indeed, one of therecurrent date Georgians with available informa- crita ismsof television has been the tion." Another carelessly-worded state- claim thatit too easily stirs emotions ment that cries for an editor's pencil and -triggers" many of the momentous Actually, thousands of Georgians read events it reports. In addition, mounting no newspapers or magazines, and our evidence pinPiaints television as a dynam- state is far from "inundated" with read- ic;force in reshaping our ideas about ing material. government. morals, entertainment, eco- 9. On page 467. the author states nomics, and human relations. This cer- that the first broadcast :'tation in Amer- tainly indicates TV's ability to increase. ica came on the air in 1920. On pare rather than decrease, the individual's sen- 468, we are told that an "education sitivity, the loudness of his voice, and time radio station were on the air at the power of his opinions. University of Wisconsin in 1919. Which The author's Bible-type progression of was first? communications media in evolution al- 10."Public television considers itself ludes to the social changes that accom- an agent of change in society. Commer- panied these developments. He fails to cial television considers itself an agent treat fully enough how media in the fu- of stability." The author has a right to ture wilt no much more than reflect our such opinions, but it is eatremely doubt- world but will enormously influence the ful that any knowledgeable person in the type of world we inhabit. Marshall Mc- television industry, commercial or public. Luhan notes that "Societies have always would deny that the medium is an agent been shaped more by the nature of the of change in society. mediaby which men communicate than 11. When the author claims that it is iy, the content of the communication." common to hear of tiew homes in Geor- Many experts are convinced that our gia being built with television wired in azbools will be changed drastically by every room and with built-in sets in the 1915. not simply in order to accommo- walls, we suspect that he ignores what date new communications media but be- the word "common" means. cause our electronic world of instant 12.In explaining the scarcity of tele- awareness will have dictated that schools visionstationsinsmallercities,the must change in order to have any mean-

486 ing or to be useful to tomorrow's student. a difficult assignment for any reporter to I do not feel that Mr. Hale has fully ap- transport himself mentally to the future predated how electric circuitry has al- and to prophesy what types of com- ready altered enormously our concepts munications systems and mass media we of "time," "space", and "education." Our will have in 1985. schools and teachers have only to learn In attempting to make such a forecast what the student already realizes the fir the state of Georgia, Mr. Hale has classroom is as big as the universe and combined restraint and vision in a man- wired for sight and sound. ner that is generally convincing. Itis entirely possible that within the He appears on safe ground when he next 15 years the walls of many schools predicts many new communication s gad- will have disappeared as more and more gets and devices. The inventive deluge students depend not on traditional class- continues to flood us with unique con- room instructionbut on a variety of cepts in electronics, mechanization, and human experiences and mechanical men- automation, but the author fails to show tors to carry on the educational process. how these changes indevices will in- The most vital factor shaping the fu- evitably affect the types of media we will ture of mass media and education will have in this state in 1985. not be our inventive capacity but man's Newspapers he thinks will be ability to create a context within which generally unchanged. He has the same he can utilizeeffectively what he has opinion about magazines. Yet Richard made. Present day unrest on the. campus L. Tobin, respected author and associate suggests that the academic environment publisher ofthe Saturday Review,is only in 1985 must be pertinent to the needs one of many authorities who believes and interests of a new breed of scholar. vast changes are in prospect for print It is difficult to imagine a student who media. Writing in the May 10,1969,. has been reared in a universe of electron- issue of the SaturdayReview,he de- ic informational media settling comfort- scribeselectrostaticprinterssilently ably and agreeably intoatraditional churning out abstracts of news on a classroom- teacher arrangement. variety of subjects selected from a com- Once again, I quote McLuhan, "The' puter news bank. Cathode ray tube units, classroom is now in a vital struggle for he says, will connect the reporter to a survival with the immensely persuasive computer operated morgue. This isal- 'outside' world created by new informa- ready fact, not supposition. Members of tion media. Education must shift front the American Newspaper Publishers As- instruction, from imposing of stencils, to sociation have watched demonstrations discovery to probing and exploration of processes that will doubtlessly send and to the recognition of the language of the letterpress into limbo. "And thecon- forms." ventional newspaper by 1985 may The civil war already underway among well have been absorbed into an elec- numerous students of the United States tronic complex, reported, edited, printed, and elsewhere in the world is not suffi- and distributed by means as fanciful as ciently reflectedin Mr. Hale's paper. anything in Buck Rogers." Nor, in my opinion, has the author fully The author's skepticism about compu- appreciated the enormous chariges that ters may reflecta widespread feeling will inevitably occur as a result of these among educators, but I seriously question conflicts by 1985changes closely in- the justification for such a far-sweeping volved with and related to our commu- claim as this: "These (computers) were nications systems and mass media. Geor- notbuiltfor education and probably gia is no exception in this revolutionary never will be widely used in education, movement. at least not in the next 50 years" In all fairness, we recognize that it is How can anyone make such a blindly-

487 dogmaticprediction?GeneralDavid tions center. Sarnoff has already expressed the belief The student of the future may well do that by 1980 computers will respond to his research work by feeding his ques- handwriting, to images, and to spoken tions to a computer console. In short commands.Considertheeducational order he will receive a printout of the possibilities in such computer versatility. bibliographic data he requires. Then the Similarly, should any knowledgeable student can choose the references he educator make this statement "Even wants to pursue and have them available though the average man in 1969 feels in short order for viewing on .a UMF that not much more can be discovered magnifier. and he wants to believe that nearly Despite its shortcomings, this position everything thatisworthwhileisal- paper is most effective when it deals with ready known . . ." To the contrary, education and the mass media. Here the even the average man realizes that ours is author is obviously in familiar territory. an age of constant discoveries. Virtually He knows theeducator's world, and anything ispossible, and the ordinary while he admires the marvelous commu- man-in-the-street knows it. nication devices available to the teacher, A study of this type could very well he is determined that the television set have used more information about nu- must never replace the classroom teacher. merous new inventions already available Nevertheless, he recognizes that our but not yet widely used that are modern media, especially television, are destined to play a major role as com- influencing the thinking and the values munication devices and educational tools of youngsters and grownups alike, and by 1985. One such development is ultra- he suggests that Lchools will have to microfiche (UMF). Its possibilities are learn to cope with future generations of beyondcalculation. UMF isableto "video" children. miniaturize a printed page to the extent However, the author strikes a contra- that 2000 pages can be reproduced on a dictorynote when hesuggeststhat transparency no larger than a post card. schools will have to decide "whether or The world's largest and finest collec- not they will provide for early childhood tions may now become widely shared. education en masse or continue to let And individual homes or school rooms young children be the victims of non- can storeentirelibrariesinasmall directedlearningpresentedby mass drawer. media." Does he seriously believe that This will mean that new school and schools can have the cirivilege of making community libraries can be built at a such a choice? Isn't it obvious that our fraction of the cost of present design. children will continue to be educated by Space saved by removing the need for their electronic environment, regardless book shelves can be used for video and of what teachers may wish to say or do recording rooms. Lecture halls and re- about it? We all live in a mass-media search rooms, fully equipped with pro- world, anditisinevitable that these jection units and electronic aids,will communication devices will be among make the library of 1985 a ccmmunica- our foremost "teachers" of the future.

488 OVERthe next 15 years we will see a continuing advance in the interest and demand forrecreationopportunities, both indoor and outdoor. In an affluent and mobile society, one in which there are drastic changes taking place, recreation has assumed a position of major importance in the way of life and in the economy. With this newly found prominence for recreation conies parallel problems for the state, cities, and counties, educational institutions and private agencies. As people have more free time theyvisittherecreationareastoa greater extent, a fact which places additional strain on our already heavily used areas and facilities at all levels. Major concerns for the State of Geor- By John H. Davis, M.A. gia, local government, and private agencies are the acquisition of park acreage, facility development and orderly planning which willpreclude duplication Leisure and Recreation in Georgia and adequa\elyforecast the areas of most severe need. Of equal concern are the funding of programs to insure quality results and the ever present problem of locating competent leadership. Education holds a prominent place in the entire scheme. Itisthe responsi- bilityof educationtoestablishthe proper educational setting that will adequately prepare people for abundant leisure and to help students to better understand and appreciate the environment. Equally important is their obliga- tiontoprepare welltrainedprofes- sionals who can inject the leadership prowess demanded by the broad field of recreation. Public schools particularly can contribute sizably by joint planning and cooperative efforts with public recreation agencies and by extending and strengthening programs that develop a wide variety of recreation skills, espe-

489 ciallythose which can be practiced derived from it.3 throughout life. When one then views recreation in In assessing the recreation conditions, such terms, itis obvious that the tradi- present and future, of Georgia it seems tional thinking of many people which onlylogicaltoanalyze momentarily limits recreation to the playground, the what is meant by the terms "leisure" little league diamond, or to the environs and "recreation." of the teen club is absurd. likewise, it Recreation and leisure are not synony- is equally impractical to restrict the idea mous. Itis true that recreation takes of recreationto only those activities place during leisure, but allle; ure is which are highly organized, and scores not occupied with recreation or play, of Georgians see recreation in just this particularly inthe case of "enforced" light. Still others would limit recreation leisure. That is, leisure we do not truly to only those activities sponsored by seeksuch as that which is forced upon local units of government. us by retirement or an extended illness. Since this type of traditional thinking To say -the least, lo.isure is difficult to has become so prevalent during the past define and almost any definition can be several years, the pure outdoorsman or debated. It has different meanings for conservationistor parkadministrator different groups of people and varies seemingly has to tioalify his activity in with individuals. Some view it simply recreation so as not to identify itas as the time they have free from work. simply "recreation" for fear it will be Others view it as in instrument for so- misunderstood. Some place their ac- cial control, a status symbol, an organic tivity under the heading of adult or necessity, a state of calm, quiet con- outdoor education, and many youth- templative dignity, or a spiritual, aes- serving agencies operate under the ban- thetic, cultural condition. A few insist ner of character building. that there just isn't any leisure, or that All of this only dilutes, for the gen- only negligible amounts of it are present eral public, the true significance of rec- in contemporary society.' reation. The result of this kind of mis- For the purposes of this report, it will understanding can inflict serious blows suffice to say that leisure is a block of to recreation development in Georgia unoccupied time when we are free to do and elsewhere. It is of great importance what we choose. It is the time beyond that the general public and particularly that in winch we must do those things those in positions of leadership clearly biologically essential, to stay alive (that understand the role of education in the is, eat, sleep, eliminate, medicate, and lives of individuals and in the life of the so on) and the things we must do to pay community. for what we want done if we do not do If, for example, those who devote a itourselves. Leisure timeistime in good portion of their time as members which our feelings of compulsion should of the General Assembly and those men be minimal. It is discretionary time, the and women who serve in elective posi- time to be used according to our own tions in local government view recrea- judgment or choice.2 tion as a rather passive and non-essen- "Recreation" is interpreted in many tialingredient of state and/or local ways. Reading, listening to or playing community life, recreation will suffer. music,mountainclimbing,painting, But what is of more urgent concern gardening, collecting stamps, dancing, the people of Georgia will suffer. The swimming, camping, bird watching, and point to keep uppermost in mind is that doing a scientific project just for fun the development of recreation oppor- are all forms of recreation. Recreation tunities and parks throughout Georgia is activity engaged in during leisure and now and in the future will reflect the primarily motivated by the satisfaction views of the policy makers, those who

490 control the dollar. home. By investing in desirable types of This is why itis of paramount im- recreation pursuits communities and the portance that steps be taken to interstate will not be forced to expand as pret, on a broad scale, the role of recre- much for penal, medical, and hospital ation and its far reaching values to our supplies. citics, counties, and our state. Again. recreation's full potential cannot be realized in Georgia until the gen- What Are Its Values? eral public is made aware of what it is, Recreation's values to man are immeas- what it does, and what its role is in the urable. It makes life more meaningful life of the individual and in society as a and abundant, healthier, and happier. whole. This is without question, for through Factors Affecting most recreation experiences comes an increase of circulation and respiration, Recreation Demand or a feeling of identity, or a satisfaction Georgia's problems are far more com- which contributes to one's self confi- plicated than merely planning activities dence. These are recreation's own refor people. Thisisrelatively simple wards. It also has safety values. when compared to the fundamental is- The educational values are outstand- sues relating to the future of Cieorgia's ing in helping one better understand and recreation potential. appreciate the world in which he lives. Yet itis far more urgent and basic It strengthens character and citizenship for Georgians now to begin looking of the individual by equating privileges criticallyat what is happening to its withresponsibilities,encouragingre- natural resources. the one thing that will spect for the tastes and interests of the affect man and his moods in future individualand resolving freedom of years more than any Other. It might he choice with standards for democratic appropriate at this juncture to pose the living.4 Recreation is a successful pro- question what arc local, state, and the moter of health in helping to prevent federal governments doing to insure a physical and mental illness, and it helps compatible environment in future years? patients to more speedily recover from This is not to say that recreation de- illness or disability and expedites re- mands are the responsibility of govern- habilitation.Itsubstantiallysupports ment alone. They are of equal concern the morals and culture of the people. to the private sector. The two, govern- Socially acceptable recreation is practi- men: at all levels and private enterprise, cally without a peer in strengthening must have a common objective in im- and preserving the best in children and proving our environment and maintain- youth and stabilizing family and coming its quality. munity living. It contributes sizably to The situation asit now prevails in the alleviation of social ills; a point em- Georgia and in most parts of the United phasized in the findings of the Report of States presents a unique irony. Very lit- the National Advisory Commission on tle,comparatively speaking,isbeing Civil Disorders. done to acquire critically needed land The economic resources which recre- for recreation purposes and to clean the ation offers to cities, counties, and to waste from the rivers and streams. And the state are certainly worth considera- while little action is being directed to- tion.It not only renders communities wards the elimination of encroachment more attractive to home owners and by highways, etc., on existing recreation business investors, but it also creates land, problems of vast proportions con- jobs, goods, and services in man's largest tinue to move upon the populus like a period of consumptionhis leisure. It plague. A brief examination of some of helps to keep the vacation dollar at these problems follows.

491 Population increase clined by approximately one-third since The projectionsoftheInstituteof 1880. from 61.9 hours in that year to Community and Area Development at 40.7 hours in 1963? the University of Georgia. in preparing The National Outdoor Recreation the Socio-Economic Characteristics of Resources Review Commission Study Population to 1980 as a part of the projected a decrease in the annual hours Georgia Outdoor Comprehensive Rec- of work for each Atlanta area employee reation Plan, indicate that by 1970 the on an annual basis of 109 hours for the state's population will he 4.7 million period from 1960 to 1970.8 About two- and that by 1980 there will be 6.0 mil- thirds of this decrease was said to he lioninhabitants.5 This seems realistic because of the reduction in the average when likenedto the Atlanta Region work week, and the other one-third was Metropolitan Planning Commission re- accounted for by increased vacations port onRegionalNaturePreserves and paid holidays. Recent federal legis- which predicts the Metro Atlanta region lation which will be effective in 1972 will reach more than 2.0 million by will place more holidays adjacent to 1985. As poy.P.lation increases, there is weekends, producing even more lone an increase in the shortage of recrea- weekends. tion opportunities as well as an increase A study by the Atlanta Metropolitan in those sociological reasons that make PlanningCommissionindicatesthat people want recreation. workers in the five-county metro area Additional Money will reduce their work week to approximately 37 to 38 hours by the year 1980. People in this state are now earning A summary of the findings with refer- more and will likely continue to do so. ence to leisure time in Georgia through In 1960 the median family income in 1980 follows: first, there will be a very Georgia was $4,208 compared with the small reduction in the average work national average of $5,660. However, week; secondly, workinghourswill Georgia's family income increased by probably. be redistributed, and this will 121.1 percent during the period from probably mean an increase in the num- 1949 to 1959 whereas for the United ber of paid holidays and paid vacations, States as a whole the increase was only a factor which will result in an addition- 83.5 percent. Similarly 35.6 percent of al two to three weeks of leisure for the all families in Georgia earned less than average Georgia worker. To say the $3,000 in 1960 compared with the na- least, such developments will multiply tional average of 21.4 percent.6 Itis sharply the demand for additional rec- generally conceded that salaries will in- reation areas and facilities. crease even more as people acquire more education. The point of relevancy Mobility is that people will have more money in Coupled with the fact that we will have the next few years, and in all likelihood more Georgians who willalso have they will spend more for leisure activi- more money and additional discretion- ties. ary time in the next few years, is the Increasing Leisure fact that they will be even more mobile than they now are. Their inability to As people have more and more free travel will be due only to a lack of timeattheirdisposaltheneed for enough highways and to urban conges- wholesome recreation opportunity will tion. This mobility will contribute to an become more acute than ever before. insatiabledesireto reachrecreation Although there has been a sharp de- areas even more often. crease in the average work week, the reduction has been less marked in recent Better Education years. The average work week has de- It has been observed that the level and

492 quality of one's educational background subject substantiate the claim that water has a definite parallel with his recreation activities are most popular. In urban or appetite.As we. become betterin- rural areas. water is a magnet. Wher- formed. our desires for more quality in ever they live. people show a strong our recreationoutletsareincreased. urge for water-oriented recreation.9 The giving rise to the need for better planned ORRRC Report cites what Americans areas and more imaginative program- do most during their leisure and also ming. .%';attheir preferences are now and These are not intended to represent what they most likely will he in the fu- an exhaustive list of the factors influenc- tuft. Extremely high on their list are ing recreation demand. One could also activitieswhichoccuron,in,and delve into the aspects of industrializa- around the water. For example, fishing, tion and technology in terms of what the swimming, and boating have a high "assembly line method" of work does to ranking in what people actally did and man's desire to ,create and into some of what they wanted to do in the future. the conflictsarising from the urban This holds particular sign;ficance for dilemma. but it is felt that the point has Georgia since this state-ranks as one of been covered satisfactorily for the pur- the foremost in water sportsinthe poses of the report. United States. The Southeastern Re- gional Office of the Bureau of Outdoor What People Do with Recreation recently reported a total of Their Free Time 227.5 million visitors to the U. S. Corps In making a general assessment of what of Engineers reservoirs in1968. The Georgians do during their free time the report goes on to state that Georgia has findings of the Outdoor Recreation Re- four Corps of Engineers water im- sources Review Commission Report of poundments which rank in the top ten 1962 and subsequent materials are most visited during that year. They are Lake applicable. Since no such assessments Sidney Lanier which holds the distinc- have been made specifically for Geor- tion of being number one with a total of gia, the ORRRC data provides a sub- 9,324,800 visits; Lake Allatoona which stantial portion of the basis for the as- ranks third; Clark Hill, sixth; and Lake sumptions that will be made. Hartwel/, ninth. This will give some Beforethisthoughtis pursuedat reasonable explanation as to why At- greater length, however, letit be un- lanta is generally regarded as the "In- derstood that this analysis does not con- land Boating Capital of the World," an cernitselfwith organizedactivities honor it is likely to hold for some years alone but includes all of those things to come. voluntarily engaged in at a person's own In a discussion of this subject George discretion. Bagby, director of the State Game and Steadily increasing participation in all Fish Commission, emphasized repeated- phases of recreation for the past 25 ly that "Americans have truly gone out years has amazed observers, as well as of doors" and substantiated the claim alerted local, state, and federal agencies that most of this exposure is water ori- to its implications for the future. The ented. To illustratethis, Mr. Bagby ORRRC Study revealed that participa- pointed to the recent increase in the tion in all outdoor recreation pursuits number of fishing and boating licenses would increase four times between 1960 issued by his department. and 2000. Subsequent studies give cre- A total of 65,000 boats were licensed dence to this prediction since the in- in1966 as compared to 100,000 in crease from 1960 to 1965 was 51 per- 1968. Since the Commission licenses cent. only those craft with 10 horsepower Practically all studies relating to this motors and above itis safe to assume

493 thatthetotalnumber on Georgia's seasonalprograms.themajorityof boatsfarexceeded100.000 during which are in the category of games and 1968. To further extend this point. it is sports. Private agencies, the number of interesting to take note of the fact that which has practically doubledsince no sailing boats are now required to 1960.operateprograms whichare registerandincreasingnumbersof largely sports and games oriented. small sailing boats can be frequently A point of principal import to con- observed on our lakes. sider is that practically all of these agen- Fishing licenses issued in 1968 in the cies offer extensive indoor games and state reached 507,166. and sevrately sports during the fall and winter. They 82,715 combined hunting and fishing include volleyball, shuffleboard. basket- licenses were purchased. This was a ball, tennis. badminton, handball, kick- total of 58,881 fishing licenses issued ball,rollerskating, and tumbling to to Georgia citizens. a fact which makes name a few. Therefore, the contention it easy to understand that fishing ranks is that the number one activity grouping eighth in the United States in popularity in this state is games and sports. Fur- among the activities composing outdoor thermore. there is nothing to indicate recreation pursuits. that this trend will not continue for Swimming is becoming so increasing- years to come. ly popular with people of all ages that Findings have indicated that walking it will be one of the highest ranking out- for pleasure has the highest ranking and door recreation activities by 1980. The has increased in popularity faster than ORRRC Study projected a 72 percent any other major outdoor recreation ac- increase in swimming by 1980. This tivity.Itincreased 82 percent from projection will probably hold true in 1960 to1965,replacing driving for Georgia because the Parks Department pleasureasthe topmost activity and enjoyed a 50 percent increase in swim- will reportedly increase another 49 per- mers between 1962 and 1967. Similarly, cent by 1980.10 Walking for pleasure reports from local government indicate was actually third in .popularity in 1960 a like increase in swimming during the and is predicted to remain there through same period. 1980. With the increasing number of water Although driving for pleasure held impoundments being proposed by vari- the firstposition as the most popular ous agencies itis certain that this ac- activity in 1960, it is expected to fall to tivitywillincreaseconsiderably by fourth by 1980 and remain there for an 1985. Although there is no way to ac- indefinite period.11 curately estimate what the percentage The most popular activities partici- rise will be, it seems reasonable to as- pated in by those using Georgia State sume that it might increase as much as Parks are tent and trailer camping and 50 percent during the next fifteen years. swimming. Cottages for overnight visits Sports and games, both indoor and are in more demand now than they were outdoor andincludingallof those a year ago. Over a five year period, played throughout the year, make up from 1963 to 1967, visits for camping, thelargestactivity of most of our cottages, and swimming increased at a county,cityandprivaterecreation rate of 135 percent. However, these are agencies in Georgia. Seventy local rec- the types of opportunities most pre- reation departments operating on a full dominant in our state parks. While we time basis are heavily involved in this cannot question the obvious growing segmentof programming. A recent demand for Ott activities just mentioned study by the Georgia Recreation Com- in our state parks, it is appropriate to mission revealed that approximately 80 say that more variety of activitiesis other communities operate part-time or needed in them. One of the most ap-

494 parent omissions are nature interpretive The number of talented persons has centers. In other states these are known increased abundantly, and recreation to attract thousands and contribute siz- agencies are now promoting programs ably to an understanding and apprecia- in music, drama. ballet, drawing, paint- tion of nature and environment. ing. sculpture. etc. In the future they According to Henry Struble, deputy will be forced to provide the impetus director of the Parks Department, older for growing interest in this area. This citizens travel like "nomads" from one will demand the use of proficient per- park to another throughout the year, a sonnel from our public schools and col- trend he feels will definitely be on the leges who might be retained for instruc- increase during the next 15 years as tional purposes. people retire earlier, acquire more dis- Mass communications media, particu- posable income, and feel a more urgent larly television, have narrowed the gap need to escape from the furious pace of between the arts and the common man. the urban centers. Heretofore the arts were restricted to It is significant to note the variety of those who could afford them. People are offerings of the public and private recre- now highly interested in drama. dance, ation agencies. Although, as mentioned instrument& ensembles. choral groups, elsewhere, heavily endowed with games painting. children's theater, and the like. and sports, they are always exerting ef- With this mounting public interest, it is forts to vary their programs and to proof importance that community relation- vide comprehensive services, attempting ships between- recreation agencies and to be ever sensitive to the needs and in- organizations concerned with the arts be terests of all people. A brief analysis of developed. Closer wc-cking relationships theopportunitiesthat they generally among the Georgia Art Commission, provide will give us better insights into the Art Department at the University what Georgians do ona day-to-day of Georgia and the Georgia Recreation basis in their own community. Commission are now areality. The The well-rounded, comprehensive pro- good rapport of these agencies should grams in our communities provide op- prove fruitful in developing further ac- portunities in most of eight major clas- celeration of activity in the arts. sifications of programs. Perhaps not an Public schools have an important job exhaustive list, but alphabetically, they in this regard also. A close examination are: arts and crafts, dancing, dramatics, of curricula is needed to determine if literary activities, music, nature and out- the academic approach to teaching these ing, social events, and sports and games. interests are, in fact, restricting their use There is a growing awareness among to an educational setting. It seems an ab- the local public recreation agencies of solute necessity that education must ap- the cultural needs of people. An in- ply skills and knowledge in music, art, creasing number of them are seeking to woodworking, etc., for the enjoyment determine what the needs and interests of later life. of people are in the broad area of the In summary, during the remainder of arts. Almost all public departments and this century people will continue to en- private agencies offer a myriad of crafts joy water sports. The strain this impact programs, the objects of which have will have upon our camping, swimming, some functional value such as a piece boating, fishing, and water skiing sites of ceramics being used as an ash tray will result in a national crises. Likewise. or leather work being used as house the stress placed on local playgrounds, slippers. This is not art, but it should be parks, and recreation centers for a wide noted that materials used in many of range of activity, which will include an the craft processes can result in great excessive number of adults, will become art in the hands of an inspired creator.I2 an acccepted major problem of federal,

495 state, and local government. Increased Mountain, and Callaway Gardens indi- emphasis from governmental sources cates that people are seeking quality and private enterprise will direct more recreation pursuits of this caliber. funds to attempt to meet the needs. Private Groups The Many Facets of in some of the rural communities of Recreation in Georgia Georgia self-perpetuating groups have An array of agencies is currently in- organized corporations for the purpose volved in the promotion of recreation of providing recreation for their mem- services in Georgia. These are not lim- bership. Many have acquired low inter- ited to governmental agencies but in- est loans through the Farmers Home clude a diversity of those supported by Administration to acquire and develop private funds. a recreation complex. They usually include such facilities as a swimming pool. Business and Industry club house, and nine-hole 1;olf course. The desire of management for its em- Some have developed dude ranches, and ployees to have better working condi- others offer good fishing opportunity. tions has resulted in recreation services An increasing number of these projects being offered by industry.-Only a limited has appeared on the Georgia scene in number of industries in the state now the last five years, and federal officials provide such services on an extended forecast more for the future on the as- basis as ,hey did years ago, offering ath- sumption that people are seeking such letic leantes and playground programs outlets, and funds for these type projects on an extended basis. While this prac- are available. tice was generally accepted some 2G 30 years ago, the approach of management Voluntary Agencies today is that this type service should be The youth-serving agencies of the state rendered by the appropriate unit of local play an extremely important part in government. But numerous industries community recreation. Although the ex- do provide activity on the job and own pressed purpose of most of these agen- their own club house and water frontage cies is not recreation per se, the majority for picnics, outings of other types, or of their offerings are recreation activi- weekend retreats. ties. Regardless of what the avowed purposes of the agencies are, it is still recre- Commercial Recreation ation that attracts their membership and A sizable portion of the recreation needs participation. and interests of people issatisfied by commercial interests. This group em- Religious Organizations braces such attractions as theaters, bowl- Today the church's attitude toward rec- ing alleys, restaurants and night clubs, reation is far different from what it was billiard halls, roller skating rinks, vaca- years ago. The attitude is no longer one tionresorts,and amusement parks. of hostility but of concern and active Good examples of the last two men- interest. Countless numbers of churches tioned are Callaway Gardens and Six of all denominations participate to some Flags Over Georgia, respectively. degree in recreation activities. Numer- In 1968 Six Flags Over Georgia at- ous churches have their own recreation tractedapproximately 1,600,000 visi- buildingandemployprofessionally tors and the projection for 1969 ex- trained leaders for the express purpose ceeds 1,800,000. Mr. Spurgeon Ri:h- of directing activities for all age groups. ardson of their public relations depart- One prominent reason for the church's ment reports that they anticipatein- involvement in recreation is that local creasing crowds. It is felt that volume government has not been able to ade- attendanceatareaslikethis,Stone quately satisfy all the needs that exist.

496 However. one must not be misled into Tne State thinking that the lack of public facilities A multiplicity of agencies are concerned is the only reason. Among the other rea- with recreation in Georgia's state gov- sons are to provide a place for church ernment stricture. An analysis of these groups to enjoy fellowship together and will not he included at length. It is felt provide an effective vehicle in the out- that a very succinct description of them reach program. will connote adequately enough their functions and responsibilities. The over- Schools riding point to keep in mind is that rec- The role of the public school varies reation is complex, and it is not possible from one community to another: its in- to centralize all of recreation into any volvementislargely dependent upon one agency. There are many state agen- the attitude or appreciation of the local cies principally involved in recreation. Board of Education. Generally speaking, public schools in the state make Georgia Recreation Commissionpro- some facilities available for recreation vides advisory services upon request on but under thedirectionof another recreation related matters, serving as a agency. It is probably safe to say that focal point for information and distribu- public schools do not now consider rec- tion. Major services it:clude studies for reation as their responsibility. This sub- local government and statewide surveys, ject will be examined in depth later. publications, personnel assistance, face- Local Government to-face consultation, coordination of the establishment of recreation systems, and Until very recent years municipal gov- training. ernment provided most of the organized communityrecreationforGeorgia's Georgia Department of State Parks communities. Since 1960 aprpoxiniately preserves and protects natural areas and 36 full time departments have been es- develops their recreation potential when tablished, 53 percent of the total of 70 deemed appropriate. now in existence. Most of the 70 de- Game and FishCommission regulates partments have employed professionally boating and fishing on state waterways. trained directors and other staff to lead the effort. Georgia Historical Commissionis re- County government, however, has be- sponsible for the preservation and res- gun to recognize its responsibility in this toration of historical sites. area andisaddressingitselftothe State Highway Departmentprovides proposition of providing services. Some roadway parks and picnic sites for trav- county governments vipplement mu- elers. nicipalgovernment by appropriating funds to cities that offer recreation pro- Tourist Division of the Department grams and by contracting with them for of Industry and Tradeoperates Wel- specific services. Others have established come Centers for purposes of informa- full-time, year-round programs of their tion, direction, and relaxation for mo- own. With encouragement from the torists 'entering the state. National Association of County Offici- North Georgia Mountains Commis- als and with increasing demands placed sionacquires and develops recreation upon them, county governments will facilities in the North Georgia moun- probably increase the number of county tains for the express purpose of research parks and recreation' services in the next 15 years. As a matter of fact, county and experimentation. involvement is the only means by which Instituteof Community and Area literally thousands of Georgians will be Development at the University of exposed to recreation experiences. Georgiaoffers a diversified expertise

497 embracing many disciplines. including Preserves, and Corps of Engineers proj- parks and recreation. provides planning ects also play a vital role in Georgia's and coordinative assistance. The Insti- overall recreation resources. Some of tute was responsible for the develop- these include Lake Sidney Lanier. Lake ment of many facets of the State Out- Allatoona, Chickamauga Battlefield. door Recreation Plan. Kennesaw Mountain. Chattahoochee The State Planning Bureauprepares NationalForest. Ocmulgee National comprehensivelong-range recommen- Park, and Fort Pulaski. Another impor- dations for the orderly growth of the tant aspect of federal involvement is state,includingrecommendations on those recreation services provided for long-rangefunctionalplansinsuch the armed services. areas of state concern as transportation, water resources, economic development. Crisis in the Cities and outdoor recreation. It is this agency When we look closely at the recreation that holds the direct responsibility for and leisure problems in Georgia's larg- the development of the State Outdoor est metropolitan areas, it is not difficult Comprehensive Recreation Plan. to understand the implications of the report of the National Advisory Com- StateHealthDeportmentprovides mission on Civil Disorders. It lists the recreation therapy for the treatment of lack of recreation opportunities as a patients at all state hospitals. major source of discontent among the Recreation Authorities:Jekyll Island, inhabitants of the urban ghettos. In an Acworth Lake Authority, Stone Moun- inventory of these problems, the Com- tain Memorial Association, and lake mission found that adequate recreation Sidney Lanier Development Author- opportunities ranked fifthinlevel of importance among the people them- ityall have similar authority, usually selvesof more importance.infact, to acquire and develop special recrcz.-- than the ineffectiveness of local political tion areas and facilities. mechanisms or the inequitable adminis- Georgia Art Commissionadvises the tration of justice.I3 state on art and aesthetic matters, the The fact that an endless number of design and visual appearance of state other demands are placed upon the rec- buildings and grounds, and the appear- reation departments of these cities, de- ance of highways and parks as they con- mands from the middle and upper in- tribute to the "visual image of Georgia." come groups as well, renders the chal- The intent of the agency is the promo- lenge to meet the needs a virtual impos- tion of the arts to large segments of the sibility as things now stand. Addition- Georgia populace. It works very closely ally, private groups and agencies make with state agencies and local agencies constant demands upon recreation and in promulgating thisinterest through park officials. the medium of recreation. Jack C. Delius, General Manager of State Commission on Agingis autho- Atlanta Parks, states: rized to plan and promote recreational The migrations of those from the eco- facilities for the aging. nomically deprived rural areas present gigantic problems. They come to the Department of Family and Children city expecting an exciting and full life, Servicesoffers qualified recreation pro- and when this does not come to pass fessionals to lead individual, dual and they find themselves in even worse straits thanbefore. Our departmentisex- group activity of character building na- pected to "pick up the pieces" and make ture at state correctional institutions. lifea rewarding experience. On the other hand, there is an influx of people Federal from other large urban centers where National Park areas, National Forest they have been exposed to sophisticated

498 recreation services. They bring pressure for recreation but currently has no or- to bear for quality services such as ice ganized effort for performing recreation skating rinks and large community centers. Incidentally, some of them are not services. No record as to how much even aware that They live outside the Fulton County spends on the operation city limits. At anrate. we are caor,ht of limited services is readily available, in the middle, and I see no end in the but the estimate would be low in pro- foreseeable future to the mounting prob- Unfortunately, lems of this kind and the increasing portiontotheneeds. parallel demands for recreation services. Gwinnett County and Clayton County offer no organized recreation service. Identical pressures are exerted upon Only very mild attention to land acqui- the recreation departments in the other sition for recreation is observed in most larger population centers of the state of the counties in the Metro Atlanta which are, in a sense, in zn even more region. strained position since money appropri- Turning to the state's other metro- ated for recreation is less than in At- politan regions, let us look at their ex- lanta. We must remember when we penditures for this essential service. Au- think ofthedisadvantaged and the gusta appropriates $2.56 per capita and ghettos thatthis problemisnot re- Richmond County, embracing about the stricted to the larger cities like Atlanta, same population as the city, spends only Macon, and Savannah; our smaller com- $0.71 per capita. Columbus' per capita munitiesalsohave similarproblems expenditure stands at $2.32, Macon's at confronting them. They are not as plen- $1.88, and Savannah's at$2.68. All tifulbut, proportionately, are just as told, the five largest metropolitan cities severe and must be faced. in the state average an annual expendi- Perhaps it might be revealing if we ture of $3.70 per capita. When we com- analyze the expenditures for recreation pare this to the state average of $3.85, and park services in the larger metro- which is quite low, it reveals something politan cities. The City of Atlanta ex- of the recreation crisis we face in the pends $9.11 per capita for recreation urban areas. and parks. However, $1.63 of this is de- In a recently conducted survey by the votedto specialfacilities and capital Georgia Recreation Commission of pub- improvements; $2.89 is committed to lic recreation systems in the state, prac- recreation services; while the rest, $4.59, tically every department indicated that is spent on park maintenance. In almost increased park acreage represented their allother city departments in Georgia most vital need. The National Recrea- the larger portion of the budget is spent tion and Park Yearbook of 1966, pub- for recreation services.14 lished by the National Recreation and It is more revealing to view Atlanta Park Association, reveals some interest- from a metropolitan region standpoint. ing data about the lack of recreation There are several other prominent po- land in Georgia's cities and counties. liticalsub-divisionsin Metro Atlanta At that time the five larger cities meas- providing recreation services. Those re- ured up like this sponsible for the largest portion of the Acreage Needed population are Fulton County, Cobb City Owned Acreage County, and De Kalb County. Atlanta . . 2,500 9,072 De Kalb, with almost 400,000 resi- Augusta . 355 1,350 dents, expends only $1.99 per capita. Columbus 154 2,430 Cobb County, although developing fa- Macon . 425 2,700 cilities and acquiring property at an ac- Savannah 585 2,700 celerated pace, spends a meager $0.58 per capita on its overall operational pro- It is not at all encouraging to read a gram. Fulton County has recently pur- recent report in the newspaper that $3 chased several tracts of land specified million in Department of Housing and

499 UrbanDevelopmentunusedfunds, ernment must match federal funds dol- availableto counties on a matching lar for dollar, basis for recreation, was turned back at This legislation, however, isinade- a time when all Georgia communities quate due toits permissive nature. If are desperately short of recreation op- cities and counties ever receive financial portunity. This only tends to emphasize assistance from the State, it will result the fact that, local government either from clear, concise, and purposeful leg- does, not have the matching funds or islation. Without thisassistance from they are unwilling to commit them for the State many of our people in Geor- this purpose. At any rate, it ,3eems that gia's cities and counties will go lacking local business interests, if properly inin recreation opportunity. formed and involved, could assist local Local government must look for ev- governmentinacquiringthismuch ery possible means of acquiring prop- needed land. This type of thing has been erty.Giftsprovide one opportunity. done to some extent already in the state. The land for the two largest parks in Under any conditions land is scarce Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania,containing and as each day pases the costs become 955 acres, was donated to the city. Ac- more prohibitive. This is one of the big quisition of park and recreation land by problems facing all, of Georgia's cities transfer of title has taken on increased and counties. significance. Other devices used to ac- If local government expects to pur- quire land include acquisition by tax chase needed property for recreation liens; condemnation; joint development and keep pace with increasing demands, of land with schools and with public it must find new sources of revenue. and private housing agencies; develop- But there islittle doubt that if people ment in connection with parkways, ex- are to enjoy the recreationfacilities pressways, and civic centers; and utiliza- which they seem to want and demand, tion of abandoned land fills. A para- they mist be willing to pay additional mount means of financing recreation taxes. Even this will not be sufficient. As acquisition and development is through statedearlier, funds must be sought revenue producing bonds. Bonds have from local citizens and business groups. proven quite successful in several cities The State of Georgia offers very little and counties in other states but have relief for cities and counties in the ac- never been used 'for recreation by local quisition and development of recreation. governing bodies in Georgia. Several states provide assistance for this. A public official better informed in The funds are derived from different terms of recreation would be to our ad- sources. Florida taxes all sporting goods. vantage. Far too many do not recognize Other states have placed a special tax recreation as a principal component of on cigarettes. Others simply appropriate local government. Its priority, although from the general fund a lump sum rising, is relatively low. A local govern- which is dispensed to local government ing body receives a grant for the devel- for recreation development. opment of a small park and feels that During the last session of the General their recreation needs, present and fu- Assembly a law was passed which au- ture, are satisfied. Some do not see the thorizes the Governor to ask the Gen- necessity for supervision. Local officials eral Assembly to appropriate money for represent a variety of disciplines. Many aid to local government. It holds that it arebusiness and professionalpeople would make 25 percent of the cost of a and graduates of our colleges and uni- project under the Land and Water Con- versities, where there should be more servation Fund Act available to cities emphasis on the responsibility of local and counties, thus reducing the local government in all its aspects, including share by one half, Currently local gov- recreation and park services.

500 Recreation interest is highest in and placed on this kind of activity as com- around the centers of greatest popula- pared to others. tion. Some cities do not have the re- Before going further, however, let us sources to generate a sound program take a closer look at the term "lifetime alone. The citizens in the areas adjacent sports." The term has two connotations: to the city limits, in many cases, are de- athletic games which, may be enjoyed sirous of a program and are willing to throughout life and healthful physical be taxed for it. Chances are good that a activities which can lead to a richer, referendum for a given city and a por- more enoyable and longer life. How- tion of the surrounding area would be ever, let us go one step further in de- well received by a majority of the peo- scribing it in greater detail. ple.Experience has proven thatthe "A true lifetime sport," as stated by farther from the center of population Charles B. Wilkinson, past president of one gets, the less people are inclined to the Lifetime Sports Foundation, "should support referenda for recreation. Yet, meet the following criteria. It is a game the Constitution does not authorize a whichcanbeplayedandenjoyed recreation district as described. The tax- throughout life. Both men and women ing power for recreation and parks, as can participate. No team organization is authorized by the Constitution,isre- required. Facilities for play are readily stricted to city and county lines. There available." Some of the lifetime sports is a need to modify the Constitution, are table tennis, golf, swimming, skiing, page 73paragraph three, to extend rollerskating,iceskating, horseback authority for recreation services in spe- riding, hiking, fishing, fencing, boating, cial districts that would cut through and bicycling, canoeing, archery, bowling, beyond county lines. tennis, and badminton. The GeorgiaRecreationEnabling There is a tremendous need today for Law, a permissive bill, does extend au- sports that require physical activity and thority for multi-county recreation ser- bring enjoyment and satisfaction to the vices. However, this practice has not oc- individual. Automation and "spectator- curred in Georgia. It would seem a mat- itis" contribute largely to this condition. ter of practicality that county officials Automation continues to reduce the would make this arrangement effective, amount of physical activity required in particularlyinthepoorercounties daily living. This gives impetus to the where quality service is not possible by problem of "spectatoritis" since, here one jurisdiction. Consolidation probab- againa minimum effortisrequired. ly holds the ultimate answer in this re- This trend carries serious implications gard because of existing feelings of sus- for the health of our citizenry and the picion and competitiveness among many preservation of our country. President communitiesinclose proximity one John F. Kennedy said, "All of us must with another. There is a need for this consider our own responsibility for the arrangement and the belief is that some physical vigor of our children and of the developments of this nature will emerge young men and women of our commu- between now and 1985. nity. We do not want our children to become a generation of spectators. Rather, Lifetime Sports Activities we want each of them to become par- The conditions surrounding the prob- ticipants in vigorous life." lem of lifetime sports in the state pre- Let it be clearly understood that there sent some cause for genuine concern. are more Georgia young people who The fact is that we do face a leisure play the role of the observer inthe oriented society inthis stateparticu- grandstand than who perform as com- larly for the citizen of the immediate petitors on the field. There seems to be future.Yet,verylittleemphasisis anincreasingawarenessofmental

501 apathy towardphysicalfitness.This Does not education have a utilitarian should be a challenge for both educa- effect? This is generally agreed. One of tion and recreation. the cardinal purposes of educationis The way to a vigorous and healthy for leisure. Theoretically education for life is through sports and other types of leisure should be included in the formal recreation. While itis difficult, impos- curricula of our schools in this state. sible for some, to diet and do daily calis- But, since such a limited number of thenics, sports are challenging and fun young adults have received adequate and contain a built-in incentive. In brief, lifetime sports instruction in the school, the individual and dual sports are easier the recreation agencies have the respon- toparticipatein,providedthat one sibility to provide this instruction. Some knows how and possesses some degree Georgia communities have recognized of skill. People like to do what they can this fact. Most have not. But one very do well. important factor is that no more than Here is the heart of the problem. The 70 communities in Georgia have full- two agencies which are in a position to time recreation departments. Therefore, contribute more in this respect, the pub- there are many Georgians who are not lic school and the recreation agency, in exposed to the opportunities which can effect, leave a great deal to be desired. beprovided byapublicrecreation With the main emphasis on varsity agency. sports in Georgia schools, it is no won- Recreation and park departments at- der that so few young people develop tempt to fill this gap, but it is generally basiccarry-overskills.Thevarsity agreed that the majority of needs go un- sports, normally including baseball, bas- met. The local recreation department is ketball, track, and football, reach only faced with increasing public demands, a small number of students; and often- and yet their operating funds and facili- times a boy participates in two, three, or ties are limited. Only a few departments all four sports. The average student who have adequate professional staffs, and does not take part in varsity athletics some smaller communities employ only must look tothe physical education one professional to head the program class for his development. Unfortunate- while little emphasis is placed on other ly, many of these classes are no more positions. All of this results in an at- than a "recess" type period where the tempt to service the largest number of same team sports are conducted, with citizens with a minimum of effort. The hardly any emphasis on carry-over ac- result, unfortunately, is a program gen- tivity. Several reasons contribute to this erally directed at larger groups and in- condition.Inadequatefacilitiesand cluding, for the most past, varsity type equipment and unskilled staff are prob- sportsforthe more proficientper- lems.Numerousphysicaleducation former. teachers also serve as varsity coaches, Againitmust be emphasized that and their knowledge and skills are very there is an urgent need for schools and limited in terms of the intricacies of the recreation departments to work very carry-over sports and activities. To illus- closely together, to utilize staff to the trate this point, there are over 700 ac- best advantage and to include the talent tivities outlined inthe "Encyclopedia of lay citizens who would volunteer, of Sports" but only a few are taught in upon request, to teach individual and our public schools. Only the most afflu- dual sports in both the recreation pro- ent school systems provide physical edu- gram and in the public schools. The cation training for elementary school community also must .inventory and children, at the critical age when young analyze its facilities and make the most people are most receptive to learning effective use of existing buildings, courts, and their attitudes most receptive. TrAayfields, and other areas.

502 Attention is called to the Governor's these in a minor, supportive role. Council on Physical Fitness which has In most instances in Georgia the re- been reactivated. Although this organi- sponse of school authorities toward re- zationis widely representative of out- creation has left much to he desired. standing leadership of physical educa- And since school boards have many tion and recreationexpertiseinthe problems in meeting the primary func- state,its effectiveness is somewhat im- tions which are dictated by the state, it paired by a noticeable lack of funds and would be unrealistic to assume that the no professional staff. These deficiencies provision of extensive recreation expe- should be corrected. There are at least riences could be more than a secondary two alternatives. Establish this group on function. a permanent basis, perhaps calling it the The practices in school based re:_rea- Georgia Physical Fitness Commission tioninGeorgia. and throughout and providing it with adequate funding country, reflect the charge that school and a full time staff, and place the re- recreation is second rate. It is generally sponsibility for this effort under an ex- agreed that where these programs exist isting agency such as the Georgia Rec- they never serve the community but re- reation Commission or the Department strict their efforts to the school popula- of Education, employing needed staff, tion. Since education is the first line' of and utilizing the council as a citizen ad- defense in educational institutions, the visory group. A most effective arrange- recreation program is poorly financed. ment would be that of maintaining the They are also often found to be poorly council for advice, with the Department staffed. of Education providing the professional Insufficient staffing reflects two spe- staff to give impetus to the work. It is cific aspects. Seldom are those who are felt that a staff of at least two people responsible for school recreation activi- initially would be needed on a full-time ties trained in the field of recreation. basis in order to develop a worthwhile Most often their training is in physical program. A viable agency of this type education and in some instances they could contribute immeasurably to the possess no degree at all. The latter point promotion of lifetime sports and "total reflects even more drastically the low fitness" in our schools and communities. priority placed on recreation by some schooladministrators. Thestaff em- Educational Institutions ployed for recreation is frequently uti- And Recreation lized for coaching varsity athletic teams If we assume that we are headed for a on a full time basis which leaves little leisure oriented life it seems only prac- time for recreation planning and organi- tical arid reasonable that we adequately zation. Thisisa weak approach for prepare for it. Otherwise, we might find recreation. ourselves as ill equipped to cope with an It is true that some public schools in abundance of free time as our fore- Georgia work closely with the recrea- fathers were in adjusting to the machine tion and park department. The ma- age. Much preparation can be accom- jority of this harmonious relationship is plished in our school systems. characterized by joint use of facilities, usually resulting in the local recreation The Public Schools department'susingtheschoolgym- In some states the public schools are the nasium or an athletic field. Some school focal point for public recreation. Al- systems in the state are unalterably op- though the State Recreation Enabling posed to school facilities' being used for Law permits Georgia's schools to pro- any purpose other than education per se. vide organized recreation, only a very In some instances the school is depen- small minority are involved and most of dent upon the recreation department for

503 outdoor athletic facilities. .4.Is there a provision for full cooper- While some working relationships are ation and planning in the develop- being practiced,it would he less than ment of recreation servics? realistic to say that it is a well founded ,While recreation professionals do not principle of operation in most of our generally regard public schools as the cities and counties, Often, reference is proper authority for promulating rec- made tothe continuingincreaseof reation,itis appropriate to ask if the school-community recreation programs school has a part to play at all in this but Richard Kraus,in a study con- respect. The answer to this question is a ducted in 1962-63, noted that the re- definite and positive "yes." As a matter verse was true. The following percentof fact. this disunity between schools ages refer to school sponsorship as set and governmental supported recreation forth by Dr. Kraus' study.15 agencies presents what is usually re- 1926 25 8 percent garded as an undeniable waste of public 1931 19 I percent funds. 1937 17 4 percent During a time when the tax dollar is 1960 9 9 percent being anxiously sought by every local 1966 4 5 percent agency and when inflationary costs re- It is not the belief of most recreation duce its value, it seems unrealistic and professionals in thestate.that public unfair to those whose money operates schools in Georgia will ever be suffici- services not to do everything possible to ently prepared to provide comprehen- increase its net value. It might be true sive recreation service',. The needs of that pui,lic schools need and do receive people are much too complex to expect the bulk of the tax dollar. But it is not any agency to adequately meet them as economically sound to have expensive asecondaryfunction.Recreationis school buildings open less than 30 per- sophisticated today. It is broad in scope. cent of the time. It includes not only yciung people but As communities continueto grow adults and specifically senior citizens. and the tax dollar diminishes in value it Recreation has extensive physical and is expected that more emphasis will be mental overtones. It is a vehicle for so- placed upon the school as the center of cial adjustment. It embraces a variety of community life. It might very well have activities too extensive to list, and the a community health clinic, a public li- leisure related markets represent an eco- brary, a theater, and other recreation nomic factor of mass proportions. facilities. If this emerges as the case in Hal Flinn, senior recreation and park Georgia, some changes in attitude must director, San Francisco Recreation and take place. It is expected that, although Park Department, has developed a set slowly, attitudes will change. of questions which must be answered.16 There willbe a fewfar thinking I.Does the chosen authority assure schoolboards,localelectedofficials, recreationtheprestige,resources, and recreation-park boards who will set and support it deserves as a major the pace as some have done in Florida, and indispensable function of gov- Maryland, and other states. These will ernment? focus their attention upon the school- community parkconceptoffacility 2.Does the proposed authority have a planning and design so as to have school broadphilosophy,understanding, plants designed with separate units for appreciation, and cognizance of rec- community recreation. The design will reation in its widest concept? minimize the interference with the edu- 3.Is there a guarantee that funds for cational programs duringtheschool recreation will be protected and not day. Those areas which lend themselves diverted to other purposes? more readily to recreation such as audi-

504 toriums, gymnasiums, cafeterias. shops, Much more emphasis should he placed apd music rooms will he so strategically on the provision of education for all located that entrance can be achieved students in a variety of outdoor activi- without entering the academic areas. ties in which they can engage through- Coordinated effort will not stop at out life. Examples are swimming. boat- thispoint.Further working relation- ing. sailing, fishing, and camping, ships between the school and the com- The role of physical education will he munitywillresultinsophisticated 'modified within the next few years, and school-community park complexes. its curriculum will embrace many ac- In some cases the school board will tivities not considered earlier a part of lease a part of the school acreage to the its responsibility. recreation department or board who Physical education should do more will develop, with the school board's ap- than help students to safely and skill- proval, a wide range of recreation fa- fully participate in such activities. To- cilities including play apparatus, swim- gether with other aspects of outdoor ming pool, community center,play- education, it should teach them the im- fields, or whatever might be deemed ap- portance of adherence to a code of per- propriate. The recreation department sonal behavior that includes scrupulous will have the maintenance function of care with fire, methods of disposing of theentirearea excluding the school litter,avoidance of vandalism ofall building itself. The school board also kinds, compliance with rules and regu- gains in that they have access, during lations for the use of both public and school hours, to the recreation facilities private property, concern for the safety which are not available under existing and comfort of others, and respect for conditions. the environment in which we live. This arrangement will also work in This implies that there is a need for reverse. On occasion the recreation de- some kinds of environmental education. partment will lease a corner lot of a However, it is felt that appropriate 'cur- park site to the school board for the riculum revision in elementary school constrction of a school. This not only might be more productive in teaching enables the schools to be placed in stra- young people not only that outdoor rec- tegic locations in terms of accessibility reation activity provides enjoyment but butprecludesthedevelopment and that it enhances the mental, aesthetic, maintenance of recreation areas by the and spiritual growth of the person. The board of education. curriculum should also provide interpre- Therefore it is essential that schools tation about the place of recreation in and recreation departments develop a one's life and dispel the belief that play healthy, cooperative relationship. If this is a way to waste time. To accomplish is done it should result in the achieve- this some schools offer extensive school ment of maximum benefits to all at a camping programs. This is something reduce'l cost. we can expect when the1.2month' There are also other aspects of the school year is established statewide, al- public school's place in recreation and though it should already be in effect. leisure. Although this general thought was exploredto some extent under Recruitment of Leadership "Lifetime Sports," itis timely to men- A problem Of long standing is one of tion it now. The emphasis in our sec- recruitment. Not too frequently does ondary schools has been largely and still the recreation field get good students by is on organized, competitive sports such design. A large number of them in as track, baseball, etc. The number of Georgia change over from other disci- persons who can take an active part in plines after they have graduated. There these as age increases is quite limited. is an expressed need for an intensive e-

505 cruitmcntcampaigntoattracthigh sonnel demands are far greater than the school and beginning college students. present supply of graduates from our High school is really not early enough colleges and universities. for today's young people to begin think- Although thereislittle information ing about a career goal. If interest and available on the actual demand for rec- cnthusiasm are developed early in a stu- reation and park personnel in the state. dent's school years, the possibility of his it is held by most knowledgeable people entering the field is increased. in the field that there is a definite lack While realizing that recruitment is a of such trained people. In the very near prime ftmction and responsibility of the future the findings of a Manpower Study professional field itself, one can still see forRecreation,Parks,Conservation, that public schools can contribute fruit- and Youth Serving Agencies will be fully to this cause. First, professional made available by the Georgia Recrea- recreation personnel should be encour- tion Commission. aged to become involved in high school The Georgia Recreation Commission and college career days and present a designates one staff member to aid in discussion of the benefits and challenges personnelplacement.Numerous re- of the recreation and parks field as a quests for personnel placement assis- .career.Secondly,distrctconferences tance are received each month, and the should be developed to involve key rec- Commission has encountered much dif- reation practitioners and educators with ficulty in locating qualified leaders for high school and college guidance. vacant positions. It is not unutsual to see A Recommendation persons from other states appointed to some of the more responsible :positions. Probably the most meaningful step for As a matter of fact, several ijobs have overallrecreation development where been filled with men from Mississippi. education is concerned would be for the Only two schools in Georgia offer a Georgia Department of Education to major course of study in recreation. appoint a Special Task Force for the They are the University of Georgia and purpose of developing an articulated Georgia Southern College. The public curriculum in the arts of leisure, en- recreation departments in the state have compassing music, art, physical educa- personnel staffing needs that can easily tion, recreation, and all those areas that utilize all of the graduates of these four _contributeto thetotal dimension of year curriculums. leisure. In addition to city and county needs, -Higher Education state governmental agencies such as the We cannot discuss the role of higher State Planning Bureau,theGeorgia education in recreation without consid- Recreation Commission, the State Parks ering the manpower dilemrha we face Department, and the State Game and and the rapidly changing role of recrea- Fish Commissionareconstantlyex- tion. Recreation at the community level panding their personnel and compound- haE been thrust into a new role by dual ing the problem. Area Planning and De- pressures. On the one hand pressure velopment Commissions are beginning comes from the poor and the activists to employ Resource Planners with ma- who are demanding more and better jor emphasis of work on the recreational recreation facilities, services, and pro- developmentaspect.Certainly each grams. On the otherhand,pressure is ex- Commission should have a Recreation erted by the local authorities who at- Resource Planner on its stalt.17 In ad- tempt to use recreation as a communi- dition, federal agencies in Georgia have cations link with Atte disadvantaged, in- now begun to use recreation leadership volving them in .tpotion of the ongo- in many phases of their work_ ing program. By tint, same token, per- The National Recreation and Park

506 Association conducted a manpower sur- thephysical.Theother,recreation. vey in 1967. It revealed that the gulf theoreticallytrainsleaderstodirect between manpower and supply demand leisure pursuits in a variety of settings. in the years ahead cannot be overcome These leaders are not only to he taught bycurrentandanticipatedtraining the philosophy and principles of recrea- methods or increases in the number of tion and leisure, but the techniques of higher education curricula. organization, administration, and man- The study showed that 183 institu- agement. tions now provide park and recreation It will he important that those insti- curricula and that 160 others expect to tutions interested in launching a recrea- initiate curricula by 1980, Since Geor- tion curriculum investigate thoroughly gia, as it was indicated earlier, has only its resourcesboth physical and human two such schools, let us hope that sev- before placing the curriculum under eral of the additional 160 will be located any one of the existing departments. in this state. This will have to be done Hopefully many of the new curricula if we are to adequately meet the needs established in the future will he organ- in Georgia as they will Manifest them- ized in a separate department or divi- selves in the ensuing years. sion, well staffed with instructors whose Educational institutions have a clear backgroundsareinrecreationand cut responsibility to help alleviate this whose experiences represent a broad critical shortage. Hopefully, their efforts overview of recreation interests such as in the future will result in various im- therapy, community, planning, resource provements in Georgia's recreation pro- management, etc. In this way students gram, will not only be exposed to sound recreation philosophy but will have the op- Additional four year curricula for portunity to specialize in specific areas. recreation and parksThereis an obvious need for more institutions that of- An increase in the number of schools fer recreation degrees. Although well offering graduate work in the recre- qualified recreation instructors become ationand park fieldsGeorgiaSouth- increasingly difficult to locate, the needs ern College, the first to initiate a pro- in Georgia make it incumbent upon our fessional degree in recreation and ad- colleges to provide qualified leadership ministration in the state, does not offer to meet the demands. any graduate work in recreation. This The variety and depth of the person- should be corrected. nel demands will not be met by our dependence upon aphysicaleducation Severaljunior college programs for centered recreation curriculum. This is the preparation of persons to work not to say that the recreation curricula at the program level Itisagreed now located in a Division for Health, that many of the jobs in this field now Physical Education and Recreation are held by college graduates can be effec- notproviding worthwhileleadership. tively done by someone with a two-year But it is important that we clearly un- degree or equivalent. derstand the limitations we place upon the recreation curriculum whenitis An increased number of financial heavily oriented with games and sports assistance programs to encourage or athletics. It seems only natural to as- graduate work in the field and to sume that thisisthe kind of strong attract and assist undergraduates orientation our leadershipwillhave. This need is paramount if we are to at- Sports are a part of recreation, but only tractandmaintainqualitystudents. a part. Many students with potential and de- We are really discussing two different sire to continue their education are hin- disciplines. One provides training for dered by inadequate funds to meet tui-

507 tion fees and other financial obligations. agencies in the Metro Atlanta region. It Those schools offering recreation de- goes without saying that the demand for grees should make available a listing of graduate work in this field is extremely all available scholarship resources, fel- high in the Metro Atlanta area where lowships, internships, and grants which absolutely no opportunities for the ex- students might use to obtain assistance tension of education in this field now for education. exist. The establishment of a School of Opportunities for close working rela- Leisure Sciences at the University of tionships between Georgia State and the Georgia -Thepurpose of the organi- School of Leisure Sciences in Athens zation would be to conduct bask and would be immeasurable. One extremely applied research in the broad field of important subject which might be ex- recreation, parks, and conservation. The plored jointly would be the social inter- staff would also be responsible for the action of recreation with the disadvan- professional preparation curriculum. taged. There is a decided need to amass a large pool of research to provide recre- John Henry Davis received his Master's ation and parks with a broad body of Degree from Teachers College of Colum- bia University in June 1957. In July of that knowledge and insight which could as- year he became superintendent of recrea- sist considerably in program planning tion for Dalton. While in this position he services and in bringing about needed received the "Distinguished Service Award" changes in the field. It might be this de- from the Dalton Jaycees. In 1962 he served as president of the Georgia Recreation partment's function to extract pertinent Societyandreceivedthe"Professional findings from existing research efforts Award" from this organization in1963. and disseminate them to people in the During this year he began serving as execu- field to assure the best practices possible. tive director of the newly formed Georgia Recreation Commission, his current posi- The establishment of a recreation tion. In 1965 he was vice chairman of the Southeastern Advisory Committee of the curriculum, both graduate and un- National Recreation and Park Association dergradate, at Georgia State Col- and is listed in the 1965 issue of "Who's lege in which major focus would be Who in American Education." Mr. Davis is upon the social aspects of recrea- currently serving as president of the Ameri- can Park and Recreation Society. He is ation in the inner city--GeorgiaState alsochairmanoftheStateBoardof Universityisstrategically located for Regents' advisory committee established this role, and students would have a for the purpose of studying the feasibility unique opportunity for practical field of initiating a two year recreation curricu- work with several public and private lum at Abraham Baldwin College. Footnotes 1.Brightbill, Charles,The Challenge of Leisure,p. 3. 2.Ibid. P. 4. 3. Meyer and Brightbill,Recreation Administration,p. 1. 4.Ibid.,p. 6. 5.Danielsen, Albert L. and Floyd, Charles F., "Socio-Economic Characteristics of Population to 1980," Georgia Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan,(Outdoor Research Study No. 2, p. 3. 6.Ibid.,pp. 38-39. 7.Ibid.,p. 121. 8.Ibid. 9.Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission,Outdoor Recreation for America,(Jan. 1962), pa. 173-182. 10. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation,Outdoor Recreation Trends,(1967). 11.Ibid. 12. North Carolina Recreation Commission,Recreation and the Arts,(June 1964), pp. 7-10. 13.Citizens Advisory Committee on Recreation and Natural Beauzy,(1968), pp. 25-26. 14.Georgia Recreation Commission and the Georgia Municipal Association,Public Recreation in Georgia, 15. Kraus, Richard, "Which Way School Recreation?"(Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recre- ation,(Vol. 26), pp. 25-26, 67-69. 16.Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation,"School Administration of Municipal .Recrea- tion," (Vol. 34), pp. 7, 43-44. 17.Champlin and Murphy, "Outdoor Recreation Research and Education,"Georgia Statewide Comprehen- sive Outdoor Recreation Plan,(1967), P. 92.

508 THE author of this critique on "Lei- sure and RecreationinGeorgia,"a position paper developed by John H. Davis, executive director, Georgia Rec- reation Commission, concurs with all of the conclusions drawn by author Davis with the possible exception of one item that will be expounded upon later inthis report. The author of "Leisure and Recrea- tionin Georgia" correctly points out that one of the biggest problems at the present time is the lack of comprehen- sion,byindividualcitizens,ofthe terms "leisure" and "recreation";the values and benefits of recreation to the individual in the physical, mental, psychological and social realms; the goals of an organized,publicly sponsored recreation program; and the recreation illiteracy thatisprevalent throughout the state and nation. The author then explores the rami- ficationsofthe relationshipbetween education and recreation and the goals that should be sought by the educa- tionalinstitution inrespect toitsre- critique: sponsibility in recreation. Leisure and Education as an institution has long embracedthecardinalprincipleof Recreation .. educationfor the wise and worthy use of leisure time"; however, the inin Georgia stitution has fallen far short of achieving this goal. Undoubtedly, one of the major goals that the education and rec- creation disciplines should strive for is the development of recreation literacy within our society. If the quality of our societal living is to be maintained at its present level and hopefully to improve in the years ahead, then we must have recreationally literatepeople. The term recreation literacy as used here means that "the I' individual resident has attained a certain desirable minimum level of recreation knowledge and recreation skills, so that he can make a selective use of his leisure time and participate in activities that are re-creative and bene- ficialtohisphysical,mental,emo-, tional, and spiritual health." Improvement in the educational cur-

509 riculum to achieve a specific goal only method of helping to alleviate the prob- happens by the initiation of a concerted km and isa logical approach under effort. In order to achieve recreation present circumstances where state and literacy the Georgia Board of Education federal aid programs have become so must take the leadwiththeirlocal prevalent. counterparts in placing a top priority The author of this critique, however, on this goal. would like to point out that wherever Author Davis has recommended the citizens of any given community turn appointment of a "Special Task Force to state and federal aid programs, they for the purpose of developing an ar- are in a very real sense abrogating self- ticulated curriculum in the arts of lei- responsibility. With adequate financial sure . .." and this perhaps may be the resources, a community should be able finest accomplishment to be achieved to meet its own needs and provide the bytheCommission onEducational service desired by its residents. Goals. There isa general attitude, on the The position paper also places great part of citizens throughout the state, stress on the need for an enlightened of "leave itto the state to do." Few professional leadership in the field of people seemtorealizethatinstead recreationand iscorrect fromthe of being cheaper or free, this approach standpoint of assessment of the prob- actually costs the taxpayer more be. lem. Recommendations for the estab- cause of the need for overhead admin- lishment of additional recreation cur- istrative costs. An example of thisis ricula are well taken and should be the desire by the local citizens to have pursued. a state park in each county of the state. The suggestion of a "School of Lei- Instead of 159 county state parks, per- sure Sciences" represents a new and haps what is needed are 159 county unique approach to the study of leisure parks. and recreation.Itshould be pointed The one topicalsubject that does out,however, thatperhaps whatis not seem to be treatedinsufficient needed is greater flexibility and more depth in the position paper is the sub- imaginative design in altering the or- jectof the Conservation Movement. ganizationalstructurewithinexisting Although it seems to have come late colleges and universities. to the state ofGeorgia,the Conserva- There are approximately 15 depart- tion Movement isin full swing. ments, schools or other administrative During the past six years, and par- units within the University of Geor- ticularly the last two years, organized gia that have a direct relationship to support for the preservation and proper recreation educationthe professional utilization of our natural resources has curriculum. grown remarkedly. Membership in con- Within the context of the limited servation groups has swelled, and with space of the positionpaper, author an enlightened leadership, progress is Davis has done an excellent job and being made in shaping the future of a comprehensive job of analyzing agen- the great state of Georgia. cies with responsibility for recreation These conservationgroups,whether services and of defining the problems they are called recreation group, con- in recreation that face educational lead- servation group, ecologistsor nature ers and public officials in the state of lovers, are beginning to wield a strong Georgia. potentialforpoliticalinfluence. The Inthepositionpaperthe author Georgia Recreation and Park Society, makes a case for the provision of a The Georgia Conservancy, and The State Grant-In-Aid Program tohelp Georgia Outdoor Writers Association local communities in meeting recrea- are typical of the groups who are going tionalneeds. This alternativeisone to have a strong influence on the de-

510 velopment ofstatepolicy from this periment Station by the State Legisla- time forth. ture isto develop a program of out- Due to this factor it becomes even door recreationresearch and experi- more important to place greater stress mentation which will provide a great on environmental education as a part stimulus to the conservation movement of the school program from kinder- throughout the state. garten through adult education. The Inconclusion,thepositionpaper state has created the Unieoi Project on "Leisure and Recreation in Geor- The North Georgia Mountains Out- gia" provides a concise statement for doorRecreationExperimentStation deliberations by the Commissionon which should serve as afocalpoint Educational Goals and embodies sev- and resource for a program of environ- eralconcepts which shouldbe em- mental education, braced and adopted as guidelines for The charge given to the Unicoi Ex- program direction.

511 THE author of Leisure and Recrea- tion in Georgia experienced difficulty, as so many have in the past and will continuetohave,indefining leisure and recreation. We are in agreement with his definition but would like to make a point or two further toward defining the term. True leisure offers an individual freedom of choicetoexaminehis values and to innovate, create, research, explore, and discover better ways of achieving a richer and fuller life for himself without exploiting hiS fellow man. It cannot be said, therefore, that the individual who has free time, but who is merely looking for something to kill time, has true leisure; neither does the person worn out from the pursuit of leisure or worn out from work. We think that true leisure implies a positive,uplifting of human values. Withregardtothedefinitionof recreation, we would like to make the point that, in addition to the author's critique: statements, some people get their recreation from their chosen professions Leisure and or vocations. This is true of outdoor recreation leaders and individuals en- Recreation gaged in many phases of the perform- in Georgia ingarts. These individualsarefree and their work may be a means of recreation as well as a means of livelihood. We agree that thereis widespread confusion about what recreation is its purposes and its valuebut we re- garditas abasicnecessity for all By Hugh B human beings. We know of no so- Musters ciety,primitive or civilized,that has Forme. Dir,tar, not or does not engage in some form Georgia Center of recreation. Unfortunately, we have deniedrecreationpursuitstomany for Continui.la people to some on the basis of age Educntion and and to some on the basis of sex or Pauline Masters, social status. Also, we have developed Consultant .n a series of legal restrictions that deny the public the use of many forms of Outdoor recreation. Interpretation or definition Recreation is important as a beginning point, but Helen, Get;,.,,, we think. of greater concern is recognition of recreation as a vital part of

512 human life and the necessity forits forces and should be heavily involved continuance throughout life. in the behavioral sciences. We believe The key to recognition,we believe, that the training program should be is education starting froma very early interdisciplinary in nature. ageand continuingthroughoutlife. By 1985 we think the pattern of The education process will requirethe using part-time help in a leadership ca- support of the home, the community- pacity in recreation in Georgia and the centered school, the church, the volun- nation will no longer be the practice. teeragencies, and the financialsup- Professionalpersonnelwillbe em- port of the governmental agencies. ployedon atwelvemonths'basis. It is the obligation of the community- Their salaries will need to be competi- centeredschoolandtherecreation tive with other professionals of equal forces to be concerned with thede- training and experience in order to at- velopment of some of the recreational tractrecreationleadershiptalentto resources of the area. It has been ob- meet the needs of the people of Geor- served that those who contribute their gia. own efforts to the program or facilities, The ever increasing role of govern- even in a minor way, have a greater ment agenciesfederal, state, county, respect for the facilities. Involvement and localin the fieldof recreation appears to be a greater deterrent to makes continuing education imperative pollution, littering, and vandalism than foragency members. For example, signs saying, "This is your park; keep many elected officials have terminated it clean." We agree with the authorin their education and have the notion his assessment of the role of the public that education is for the young. Some school and the recreation agency. We of them managed to"get through" are committed to the notion that these school without learning tostudy, to two agencies must find ways of work- analyze, and to use data to make judging with each other for the best inter- ments based on evidence. In the future, est of the public and still maintain the opportunities for elected officials to be independence of each. deliberate and systematic in the study Higher education will have a major of recreation needs and problems will responsibility for research, experimen- be of utmost importance. tation,demonstration,service, and It has long been an accepted prac- preparation for leadership inrecrea- ticeto requiremanyprofessional tion. people totake in-servicetraining or In our desireto further the cause refresher courses. We recommend that of recreation and to extend and im- similar opportunities be made available prove its services for people, we some- to government officials engaging in pol- times forget that recreationoccurs in icy making.Thiseducationalexpe- areas that are susceptible to pollution, rience ortheseop/ortunitiesshould littering, vandalism, and, at the worst, precede the period of service and con- crime. These recreation areas are viable tinue throughout their service because projects for basic research and experi- public policy involves the general pub- mental efforts that need the most care- licand oftentimes requiresa policy ful study and the best researchers we maker to deal with emotional problems car', provide. Results from research and that are highly complex. This educa- experimentation by specialists in 'higher tional opportunity would tend to make education will become resources upon sure that policy makers would take a which to draw for solution of specific new and,hopefully,a more under- problems. standing look at the problems of the We believe that the preparation for public seeking recreation in the last leadership in recreation should be with- part of the 20th Century. We cat:. no drawnfromthephysicaleducation longertrustpolicymakerstorely

513 solely on their past experience oron should furnish a naturalist to help the whatlittlethey may read from the public to make better use of the fa- press from time totime. We believe cilities. We believe these nature center thatsystematic, continuing study ex- programs would enable public school periences are necessary forgovernment students and the general public to gain agency members. insights from and appreciation of their A problem which deservesspecial relationship to the total ecology. attention now before it becomes more The author indicates some concern difficultis coordination of theefforts for the aging and their needs for rec- of many agenciespublic,private, and reationprograms. We believe,also, commercialtoward quality programs that specific programs should be de- and facilities for recreation. veloped for the aging. Itis an estab- With a sincere and earnest desire on lishedfactthat many older people the part of many agencies toprovide have a desire to return to places in programs in this field,there are still rural America that they know. There- major gapsof servicethat go un- fore, camping and trailer life offers a noticed, and there is muchconfusion rich experience for these people. Yet. and duplication. Each of theagencies when they reach our state parks, there iscompetingwithothersat many is relatively little for them to do. For points for financial support and forthe instance, swimming and boating, which attention of the recreationists. Thelist are so popular with younger people, of agencies, including the government, are not very importantactivitiesfor the associations, the societies, and com- the aging. Also, many trails are made mercial ventures, runs into the thou- for young people and are designed by sands. The present practicesof the engineers or park superintendents who agencies naturally result in duplication are concerned about the terrain ofthe and confusion. These practices have arearatherthanthe programthat provided, as in our state, programs of would be practical for older people. "do it yourself" for amateurs who are Funds couldbe obtained,in many not capable of opening a "do it your- cases, for experimental programs from self" kit. federal sources to assist the aging in We are in general agreement with finding a richer and more exciting kind the statistics cited and the philosophy of recreational pursuit in the use of set forth in the author's paper. We do our public areas. feel,however, not astrong enough The federalgovernment'sinterest, plea was made for a greater variety of as demonstrated by various acts to sup- programs or for innovative programs port programs on aging, and the fact inrecreation,forallages and both thatthere are more than 20 million sexes on a year-round basis. He men- Americans over 65 years of age offer tions the omission of nature interpre- strong support to the contention that tivecenters, but we believegreater specific programs in recreation for the emphasis shouldbeplaced onthe aging are needed. growth of nature centers in our state Still another program at the opposite and in the nation. Many states have end of the age scale would be develop- gonefar beyond what Georgia has ment of "Tot Lots" in neighborhoods. doneaboutnaturecenters,outdoor Assistancefromstateandfederal education, and recreation. Before 1985 groups such as Head Start might be students itis our responsibility to achieve aver- obtained,andhighschool age development of programofferings could be utilized for these programs. in these areas. The programs would provide an ex- Incooperationwithuther institu- perience in citizenship similar toin- tions, our Department of State Parks ternships in education, medicine, and shoulddevelopnaturecentersand many otherprofessions which have

514 been found to be rewarding. Such an factors affecting the demand for recrea- experience of developing "Tot Lots" tion in Georgia as well as in the na- by older youth under guidance could tion. He has furnished adefensible develop preparation for parenthood and analysis ofrecreationactivitiespur- citizenship and give young people a sued in the state. He has provided a stake in this country through theirown fulltreatmentoftheagenciesthat efforts. presently attempt to supply the recrea- With the help of Title III, Elemen- tion demands of the people of the taryand Secondary Education Act, state.He also makes a strong state- schools can and will extend their posi- ment on the necessity for additional tions in the areas of outdoor education. land or space for increased develop- recreation, and conservation by 1985. ments to meet demands. We believe school camping programs to be one of the best means of fusing We are in accord with the author's these three interests into an innovative, strong statements on the necessity for satisfying program for children. more land. We believe, however, that a The schoolcampingprogramin comprehensiverecreation program Georgiaisexceptionally weak. The should be written for any recreation present programisused primarily to project prior to the decision as to the help teachers to sugarcoat a curriculum location of thesite. The amount of that most children find difficult toac- land necessary for a development and cept. This condition is a discredit to its location cannot be determined proir the camping movement. We arefa- to a detailed, written program in terms miliar with good school campingpro- of the needs of the people of Georgia. grams developed withtheassistance We, too, believe that orderly planning of TitleIII funds that are realizing isnecessarytoprecludeduplication some of the potential of such programs and to forecast the areas of most severe to the community. They have been de- need. veloped on the basis of realisticcon- The author made reference to Geor- cepts of conservation and betteruse gia laws affecting multi-county recrea- of natural resources. Undercompetent tion and their inadequacy. He suggests leadership andinvolvingparticipants stronger laws for better planning and as co-performers in the act of preser- more cooperation.Before thesede- vation of facilities and the site,we of- sired conditions become a reality, we fer another way to solve problemswe believe thatthe people of the state have utterly failed to solve in the past. must recognize that recreationisa Some oftheseproblems littering, vital part of human life and that it vandalism, pollution----we know all too must continue throughout life. We be- well. lieve,also,that they must become The authorhasstatedwellthe aware of the fact that recreation is big values of recreation to man and the business.

515 THERE is abundant evidence thatour educational system up to thepresent time has overwhelmingly deniedto most people any vital use of theirsenses. Herbert Read in one of his lectureson "The Social Aspects of Art inan Indus- trial Age" (and included inhis book The Grass Roots of Art) pinpointsthis lack when he says "Our particulartrou- ble, in this 'air-conditioned nightmare' which we call a civilization, is thatwe have lost the very notion ofcultivating thesenses,untilbutter-fingered and tongue-tied, half-blind and deafto all nervous vibrations, we stumble through life unaware of its most appealingas- pects, lost to its in tensest joys andcom- munications." Wholeheartedly I believe in this need By George Beattie to develop the senses whichare the springboards of all the Arts,and in the need to include the proper channelsfor this development in the earliest schooling onward. This would helpto insure the The Arts in Georgia natural growth of creativity in children, who are all inherently creative, and to provide greater fulfillment in their lives and in the life of the community. The Arts are primary teachers of communications among human beings. I hasten to point out that I write this paper as an artist (painter) and not as aneducator,althoughIhavespent twenty years in the classroom attempting to teach art, and in so doing learned many hard lessons and gained much D - valuable information. As to theprocesses of imagination and creativity in individuals, I will rely heavily on the experiences I have had personally in the visual arts since early childhood as justification for the opinions I may set forth here. It seems to me that we arenow living in a time of non-verbal communications, and the question that first arises inmy mind is whether in any sphere of activity,

IR 517 and more especially in the sphere of easy to weed out of our classrooms. education, we can afford to neglect those texts. and libraries whatever facts, truths, systemsofnon-verbalsignsknown and ideas they happen to find unpleasant more familiarly as the plasticarts or inconvenient. And we are not even as which constitute modes of communica- truthful with children as we could safely tion as essential as the modes of com- be, as the parents, politicians, and pres- munication embodied in vocal (spoken) sure groups would let us he. Even in the language. most non-controversial areas our teach- We are, after all, living in the tele- ing,the hooks, and the textbooks we vision generation. From birth to high give children present a dishonest and dis- school graduation. today's young people torted picture of the world." spend an average of 15,000 hours before It is often being said that there is a television sets, and they spend just over current pretense in schools that all is fine 12,000 hours (1,000 hours each year) and gentlethat disagreements can be in school. It is obvious to me that the solved rationally, that evil and violence hours spent in school do not begin to are pathological exceptions to our normal compete with the dominant array of lives. Surely we know by now that this prejudice, dishonesty, war, violence, and pretense convinces no one not even wasting of the human spirit that is pro- teachers. There is a life in the streets of vided by newspapers, magazines, movies, ou,- urban centers and in suburbia and and television. It has been observed that in our rural areas that displays our com- thereisan alarming increaseinthe plex fantasies of hate and anger, as well number of students who are simply not as a good and simple life. Our schools interested in our English coursesthat fail because they fail to recognize con- is to say, reading and writing and the flict and therefore cannot help anyone way we teach them. The rejection of this to deal with it. Art is and will be ir- means of communication is not intellec- relevant in the schools so long as this tual as far as the students are concerned, pretenseis maintained that Dick and but more simply, they receive much Jane are more relevant than Bat Man better informaion from non-verbal TV and Viet Nam. and filmsalmost instantinformation Harold Taylor, former President of which is relevant to the day and time in Sarah Lawrence College and President which they liveand itisbuilt in be- of American Ballet Theatre Foundation, cause itis what they have grown up offers: "For too long a time we have with. defined education as taking subjects. A Considering the ominous dropout rate mixture 'of Puritanism and over-organi- in our educational institutions and our zation has made us think of education apparent inability to cope with the stu- as hard work in a school or someother dent as an individual human being, I institutionwork which contrasts with feel we must answer in the negative the play, which is to be carried on outside question now being asked by many ed- school, and having nothing to do with ucators, "Are we serving even 50 per education, the Arts being frivolous, lei- cent of our Students with any adequacy?" sure time, non-income producing,be- Educator John Holt in his penetrating longing with play and entertainment, book How Children Fail says "School and are therefore not to be taught in tends to be a dishonest as well as a the schools except as an extracurricular, nervous place. We adults are not often or frill." honestwithchildren,least of allin Taylor continues with the fact that school. We tell them, not what we think, education is itself an art, full of delight, but what we feel they ought to think; whose purposeisto produce general or what other people feel or tell us they joy and a sensitivity to everything that ought to think. Pressure groups find it is happening.Everythingeducates

518 springtime, hard luck, love, hate, mathe- niques. So he became man the thinker matics, poverty, religion, women,mar- and man the dreameralmostas soot' riage, and so on. And the formal part as he became man the maker. ofeducation thepartdoneinside We know that to be human hasal- schools and collegesis merelya sec- ways meant to be concerned to some tion of particular studies that, for the extent with a complex of activities that most part, could be carried on just as involve both those directed towardssur- easily and more effectively outside of vival and physical comfort and those the institutions. The question of what that furnish an occupation for mind and goes on inside and how it goes on is an spirit. The impulse to representor in- arbitrary decision made by those who vent through the medium of words or decide what education is. linesisas natural and spontaneous as Today as we look at the many evi- any other impulse toward the fulfillment dences of man's achievements and ad- of inherent capacities. It manifests it- ventures on this planet and the myriad self early in the childhood of the individ- ways in which they are told, it is surely ual and early in the childhood of the noticeable that too often theyare con- race. To inhibit it, or frustrate it,is to veyed in terms of his technological ad- risk anxiety and discontentand that in vances. That is, they are told in terms my view is predominantly the condition of his assumption of powerover his of our educational system today. physical environment, and all too often It cannot be denied that our system it is assumed that any other achievements of education so far has given thewrong are mere consequences of his success in meaning to work and play by keeping this great technological entelmi....e. The them separate activities. We seem always story is also told in terms sorr4;times of to follow the idea that first we work and his beliefs, ideals, convictions, and stand- then we play. So often we push the idea ards of values. Sometimes, though much of work just for the sake of work with less often, it is also told in terms of his no meaningful target for which the work creative imagination as revealed in his is being done. Play is most often taken art. The point I wish to make is that the to be a meaningless activity, mere me- story of man's art has been manifest in chanical entertainment: with the result the earliest evidence we have of man's that itis forgotten by tomorrow. Ire- existence from the time he first found member a little girl in our neighborhood sticks and stones and fashioned his first who always used tosay, "I help my crude tools and weapons from them. We mother allI canand then I go and see that he had hardly invented these play." instruments before he began to ornament In another area, how often is play in them. We can also see that he made any sport really rewarding without the skillful and beautiful drawings on the hard work of learning the skillneces- walls of his cave. These pictureswe sary toplay effectively? People in the know were not just something nice to recreation field recognize that the play look at, but were used asa kind of intheir area of endeavor isnot just magic against those powers ofnature sport. It is play that has a meaningful that he could not measure or control. reward in individual character growth And so, in spite of how little we know as well as physical development. even today about those strange begin- We should reverse the order of work nings of man, itis easy enough for us then play. We can gear playto be re- to see that he was concerned with some- warding and to create curiositythen thing more than naked utility. Therefore, make use of that. The individual interests he invented not only art but also ritual and curiosities that develop in playcan and religionas the necessary accom- be guided into marvelously educative paniments of his various practical tech- experiences, and then work can become

519 a natural part of accomplishment. Work perceive the valuable benefits which they is not drugery when the targetisre- prove. warding. The discipline to do the work Having thus far commented from the willeasily be self-imposed when the viewpoint of the Arts on the many as- teacher can encourage and guide the stu- pects that I feel need correcting in ed- dent through meaningful play. ucationmainly concerning the irrele- Plato long ago observed, "You must vancy of our present system of schooling, train your children to their studies in a the misconception of the Arts as so- playful manner and without any air of called frills, the mistaken connotations constraint with the further object of given to work and play, and the er- discerning more readily the natural bent roneous "command" performances re- of their respective characters." Further quired of children as they are unceas- along this line, Herbert Read closes his ingly told what to doI wish to suggest book entitled Education through Art with reforms that are needed in education in "Every man is a special kind of artist, order for the Arts to be useful. Having and in his originating activity, his play contended that there is abundant evidence or work (and in a natural society, we thatoureducationalsystemlargely have held, there should be no distinction denies to most people any vital use of between the psychology of work and of their senses,I maintain that thereis play), he is doing more than express also essential evidence that the Arts by himself: he is manifesting the form which their very nature address themselves di- our common life should take,inits rectly to the individual human senses. unfolding." And because they do this, they become I contend that our biggest trouble is a natural and necessary tool in the learn- that most of our schools and colleges ing process. seldom allow the student a personal and As John Holt points out in his afore- individual involvement. Surely we ought mentioned book How ChildrenFail, to be prepared by now to admit that our "Since we can't know what knowledge education today too largely consists of will be most needed in the future, itis tidy little packages of supervised learn- senseless to try to teach itin advance. ing out of textbooks, of lectures, and Instead, we should try to turn out people outlines, and other obstructions that get who love learning so much and learn so in the way of genuine throught and in- wellthatthey will be abletolearn sight. Answers are too frequently given whatever needs to be learned." It seems before the student has a chance even to to me that if we cannot commit our- ask questions. Is it not true that adminis- selves to the proposition of trying to trative convenience seems to deny the help people find a genuine love of learn- genuine pursuit of knowledge, the instill- ing, then there can be little hope that ing of a love for learning by way of the adding the Arts as a full part of the cur- creativeimagination?AlbertEinstein riculum can be of great virtue. It is a noted, "Imagination is more important basic renewal in the relevancy of all edu- than knowledge, for knowledge is limited cation that we need most of all. whereas imagination embraces the entire Itis dangerous to generalize about world, stimulating progress, giving birth something as large and complex as our to evolution." system of schooling in this country, but Of course, itis only just to mention as far as my experience has led me, I 4'that there are educational programs in a have seen little manifestation of any gen- few schools and colleges that are or- uine and broad educational reform. This, ganized for personal involvement and therefore, leads me to suggest that per- for confrontation with the issues and haps one reason for our inability to cope ideas, but they are an infinitesimal mi- with the non-verbal communication sys- nority and we have barely begun to tem that our young people are growing

520 up with is that we have not utilized the is the duty of the teacher to eradicate most valuable tool for instruction in non- them unless they conform to a certain verbal communicationthe Arts. ideal of character determined byt''(' Again fromEducation through Art, traditions of the society of which 1,,e Herbert Read puts forth the noted thesis individual has involuntarily become a explicitly formulated by Plato many member."My contention is that the lat- centuries ago, and I believe he translates ter one is the posture largely taken by Plato's broad view of the function of ed- our system of education. ucation into terms that are directly appli- If we can make any immediate pro- cable to our present needs and condi- gress, which I believe we must with re- tions. The thesis is that art should be gard to the preservation and encourage- the basis of education, as evidenced in ment of deeper aesthetic values in the the Plato quote previously given. Itis communities of Georgia then perspective perhaps true that no one outside of Read, is called for. We must be aware that the and before him Schiller, has ever taken great majority of Georgia's students are Plato's cherished notion seriously, except deprived of the opportunity of express- to acknowledge its beauty, its logic, and ing themselves creatively in any of the itscompleteness.Readbelievesthat Arts,including music,ballet,drama, Plato's reasonable thesis has been mis- creative writing, and musical composi- understoodfirstly, because for centur- tion. We must find a way as quicklyas ies there has been no understanding of possible to stop relegating the Arts to a what he meant by art, and secondly, be- role of minor subjects in our schools. cause there has been an almost contem- Writing must not be discouraged by poraneous uncertainty about the purpose insistance on the construction of model of education. Of the nature of art, Read compositions. Drawing must cease to tries to persuade his readers that there mean giving children crayons and paper can be no two opinions, for the defini- to keep them busy. We must rid our- tion he offers is objective. It implies no selves of the present superficial way in views, no transcendental elements what- which most of our schools in Georgia soever. It brings art within the world of look upon the Arts as fillers and sub- natural phenomena, and makes it in cer- stitutes for learning. tain essentials subject to the measure- We must find a way to accept the ments upon which scientific laws are plentiful evidence we now have that the based. child is inherently creative and only be- However,atthe same time Read lieves he cannot do certain things be- points out that it is unlikely that he will cause adults teach him that he cannot carry any general agreement on the pur- or that at best, he will only be an ama- poses that he ascribes to education, for teur. We must be willing to admit that here he says,"There are at least two we have only our educational system to irreconcilable possibilities: one, that man blame for the fact that most peoplecease should be educated to become what he to draw or paint or compose when they is, the other, that he should be educated become adults, or that even the bright- to become what he is not. The first view est college students are terrified by a assumes that each individualis born blank piece of paper. We must come to with certain potentialities which have the realization that genuine art is not for a positive value for that individual, and the tired man who wants to be amused, that it is his proper destiny to develop or for the frightened child who learns to those potentialities within the framework say that he appreciates what bores his of a society liberal enough to allow for parents. We must be prepared to admit an infinite variation of types. The second that the abounding amount to mediocre view assumes that whatever idiosyncras- musical materials for our week-end band ies the individual may possess at birth it extravaganzas seldom leads to any kind

521 of mature musical interest or participa- pursued obsessively for their own sake. tion after high school. Highschoolcheatinghasincreased All this leads me to my next point alarmingly and has reached into college the joy of learning creatively. In spite and beyond. With over 50 percent of of the limitations he placed on its Appli- our college students becoming dropouts, cation, Plato's theory of education asit has been estimated othat over 300.000 sumes a principle of freedom. We recall college students are transferring every that Plato's advice is to avoid compul- yearliterally an army of academic sion and to let children's lessons take the nomads constantly on the move. If we form of play. and that this will also help can accept these statistics as signs of to see what they are naturally fitted for. deepdiscontentandrebellion,then But this is precisely what we do not do. where can we begin to take action on Either inkindergarten or earlier,but the reforms in education that will be certainly at the beginning of the first necessary to ultimately overcome such grade, we usually say. "Now we must dislocations? put away childish things. We play only Before any genuine reform in our ed- at recess time. Now we must do the job ucational system can take place. I be- of reading, writing, and arithmetic." But lieve we must first reassess our defini- apparently we are not doing very well tions and attitudes towards culture. We with these lessons. know that culture is a dangerous word Valuable and careful surveys being these days, for it is too often misapplied, done today rarely find students inten- misrepresented, and misused. We all sely engaged in the pursuit of learning. have our own definition of culture, and Indeed, surveys are finding instead a I'm sure I don't know the best definition. large and rapidly growing number of However. Ioffer some statements on students for whom the joy has gone out thedefinitionofculture by Harold of learning. They find that high school Taylor which I think are excellent, and for those students is no longer a place which are from his paper on The Spirit to open the mind and heartto experi- of Humanism, given at a symposium on ence for the first time the wonders of "Humanities and the Schools" atthe science, the excitements of art,litera- University of Kentucky in December ture and music. High school has become 1965. He begins his paper with a quote a grim preparation for collegesome- from Ortega y Gasset: "Our ideasthat thing to be endured. is,culture. The present crisis is less a And for the college student, college crisis of culture than of the position we has become a stepping stone to graduate have given to culture. We have setit schooland in all too many instances, before and above life, when it ought to graduate school a stepping stone to a be behind and below life because it is non-teaching career liberally laced with a reaction to life. We must now stop research grants and travel.Iwonder putting the cart before the horse." Taylor sometimes if it is not true that many of goes on to suggest that we have not these students who seek research grants stopped putting the cart before the horse. travel not only in France or in Italy We have simply put into the cart, and but invain, I wonder if the relative we have calledit science and the hu- scarcity of faculties and money for all manities. qualified students who want to go to "A culture," Taylor says, "consists of collegecoupled with the enormous in- a body of ideas and values at work with- crease in the number of status-oriented in a society, a body of ideas which. are students who seek admission to the pres- assumed to be true and' according to tigecollegeshavenotdistortedthe which the citizens live. To keep the ideas, values of the entire educational process. that is the culture, alive and growing, Certainly we must admit that grades are itisnecessary that the ideas be re-

522 thought. reshaped. re-experienced and then, will have to be to find ways in placed in a new perspective from year which the work of writers,painters, to year and generation to generation by sculptors,architects,composers,and each new entrant into the world. It is choreographers can be opened up to the function of education to create the those who have not thought about or conditions out of which there can be a been interested in what the artists have constant renewal of insight and a re- been thinking or doing. formulation of ideas and experiences in This will mean, of course, that our the personal lives of the young." educational institutions from the elemen- Taylor points out. for example, that tary school to the graduate school must the nature of justice has itsperennial become the organizers of experience. We niceties and modes; these can be found will need teachers to be sensitive enough in the classical texts. But justice for the and informed enough to put their stu- Negro. to choose an idea at random, has dents into situations in which the ideas its immediate meaning in the lives and andimages ofallartistssculptors, attitudes of contemporary Negroes and painters,playwrights, designers, archi- whites within the context of contempor- tects, historians, philosophers, and dan- ary society. It is an activity, a series of cerscan have a chance to enter fully feelings, ideas, and acts which take place the consciousness of the students. This, in a personal and social context. He also then, means that the student must be- chooses another example. The nature come involved in the doing of the Arts and form of the beautiful, he continues, aswell as in a confrontation with the can be read about and seen in the clas- real issues involving genuine intellectual sical texts and models, but the true na- and moral options. Then the student will ture of art can only be found through come to understand that he alone must immediate experiences.feelings,ideas, make the decisions on the quality of his and acts which take placein acultural own response to an art object. It is he context. Taylor gives these two obvious who must judge the worth of an idea examples before saying thatOrtega's within a framework which is his own, remark is true, arid that the American and which he must learn how to con- system of education has given a position struct for himself. to culture which divorces it from the liv- If we can accept the evidence we now ing experience of the young. have that an increased quality of intel- Schiller has observed that "one of the lectual perce?tion is possible through the most important tasks of culture is to students' involvement in one or more submit man to the influence of form.. of the arts and that it is a natural and to make this life aesthetic. . . because essential part of the process of achiev- only from the aesthetic, and not from ing one's humanity, if we can accept the the physical state, can morality develop." growing evidence that an involvement in There is a need in education for looser the Arts can open up whole new land- categories, and less precision of refer- scapes of interest, then we can ask new ence. There is a need for ways of put- questions,and mostimportantly,an ting together the results of personal in- awareness of all that there is to know sight,and of spontaneous perception about the world we live in can evolve. into forms through which we can enter If we can accept the evidences that I straight into the common experience of believe are now visible in the Arts, then man. We have to deal with matters of we have a beginning and action becomes the heart, of the senses, of the deepen- a possibility. ing of consciousness itself. The artists I believe, however, that we must make and writers and composers will find the certain definite commitments if our ac- forms and categories with which to do tion is to prove of any real value. The this. The responsibilities of our schools, first and most important one, I think, is

523 that we must make the Arts a full- system of education has taught our stu- fledged part of our curricula. We must dents to fear the failing grade more than commit ourselves to a greater trust in to fear the lack of a creative imagina- young people even from the earliest age, tion. In the last analysis that creative for surely we must know by now that we imagination may be our only hope to cannot at any given time tell precisely change the quality of the human condi- what particular knowledge a child needs tion that exists in the world today. the most. Only the child can do this, At the risk of drawing too heavily and we must do the best we can to give upon one author, I again quote Harold him some idea of what is available and Taylornot because he has the only where he can look for it. The choosing comments to make on culturebut be- is something that he must do for him- cause for me he states so precisely the self. We must commit ourselves to an problems concerning the quality of our unJerstanding that the school or the education today. He observes,"If we classroom is not always the best place are to have the quality of life in the for learning to take place, as we know communities of America to match the perfectly well the average classroom to- full possibilities, we are going to have to day is a place where children are told redefine what we mean by education. what to do by adults. If we are to have the audiences, the art- At least we already have a small be- ists, the performers, and the critics to ginning, for there are now more and create the environment in which life can more scholars and educators who know be enriched by the presence of great art, that the creative Arts are not only a we will 4ave to consider no education source of joy and fulfillment, but they complete in school, or in college, that are a primary mode of education itself does not engage the student directly as a a primary means of developing intel- participant in one or more of the Arts." lectual power. We even hear an increas- The Arts are a natural form of educa- ing amount of talk of the creative Arts tion, and there are many possibilities in this respect, and that is encouraging, that the artist can explore in the class- but the action is too limited and too room. Children can create their own slow. musicalinstrumentsand systemsof The most treasured memories that I sound; they can use junk to create new have of the ten years in which I taught objects, and they can make poems out creative drawing in the School of Archi- of "found" bits of writing. Artists can tecture at Georgia Tech are of the stu- explore graffiti with children by leaving dents who discovered their own individ- blank paper around and letting the chil- ual learning ability for the first time dren write where they choose on it ---and through playful creative experiments in compare, especially in ghetto arms, what drawing. Such experiences were too rare they write with what they find written and I found that my most difficult task on walls of their neighborhood. Then was in attempting to convince students that first sheet of graffiti can be photo- from the freshman year in college to the graphed,enlarged,andthechildren graduate school of the need to experi- asked to start all over again and write ment, of the need to risk making a bad on the blown-up photograph. What bet- drawing in order to discover from the ter way to lead into a study of collective experiment. I found that most students art, the development of custom and tra- were unwilling to risk that failure for dition in cave paintings? fear of a had grade, even though they Children can also be encouraged to had been informed thattheir grades make up mythologies that apply to their would be based on the genuine effort own lives and their own community or they made O Use their imagination and neighborhood. These mythologies can experiment freely. But apparently our then be acted out as theatre, and movies

524 or video tapes can be made of them. The ante. Television has gripped us all to children can invent sets and costumes, some extent and seeks to hold our atten- and also learn the art of filming. Art in tion to the valuable role it could play in this sense helps children obtaina height- the learning process. Our schools have ened sense of their environment anda certainly been aware of the administra- creative power over it. Most important, tive process but with little attention to they will be able to communicatemore the human process. 1...adily with each other, their parents Professor John I. Good lad, Dean of and teachers because the content of their learning will be humanized. Art the Graduate School of Education at can lead 11CL 4., puts it more precisely in regard beyond the present into the future, and to TV: "On one hand. a powerful me- back to the pastbut it starts with who dium has caught the attentionindeed. the child is now and where he is, whether the area be urban, suburban, the very livesof our children. But it or rural. lacks significant substance to nurture In conclusion, the discontent andre- a bellion that is visible around civilization and appears to care not, us today is despite its protestations. whether it obvious enough, but what troublesme up- most is why this discontent is not more lifts or debases. On the other hand, the widespread than it only institution charged specifically with is,in view of our the performance of educational func- miscellaneous, irrelevant, obsolete, and tit ns fails to grip a significant portion authoritarian schooling. Ican only con- of its clientele. clude that perhaps too Unfulfilled educational many politicians, promise lies between." schools, and parents have done sucha good job coercing the young into the And now with the electronic teacher routine command performance ofmemo- of great powerthe computerwithus rizing and spitting up thata real fear in this human-based environment, Pro- of some future retributionor of dis- fessor Goodlad asks these fundamental pleasing the parent or the teachercon- questions: To what extent is each in- strains them from speaking out. dividual being provided with opportuni- Reform in the educational role ofour ties to develop his unique potentialities? schools has begnn, but it isnot yet visi- To what extent is each individual de- ble enough. We must electrifyour pre- veloping a dezp sense of personal worth sent attempts with renewed energy and the kind of self-hood that is prerequi- wisdom of perception by findinga broad- site to self-transcendence? To whatex- er base for communicating man's crea- tent are our young people coming into tive imagination and his great ideas. We critical possession of their culture? And must help him to focus these talentson to what extent are our people developing the environment in which he lives. a mankind identityan identitythat Therefore, as Harold Taylor suggests, transcends all men in all times and in "The Arts, all of them, shouldbe regular all places? Where we will be in educa- components of the schools and the col- tion by 1985 depends on how theseques- leges, not in order thatwe may claim tions are answered. our students to be educated, but in order We need an education of self-under- that our people may achievetheir own standing. The Arts address themselves hutnanity, that societymay be infused to the senses of each individual, thus be- with an aesthetic content." coming an essential instrument for great- Before we can guess wherewe will er perception in the learning process. Our be in 1985 in education Isuggest that best hope for the transcendence of self we ask ourselves where we arenow. into the human community lies in the Needless to say, we are ata crucial time experience of the individual knowing in the history of our educational system, who he is in order to know what hecan and the common man hangs in thebal- become,

525 Arts educationalists in Georgia. and in the Commission on Education Goals ap- the rest of the nation as well, have had point a committee for the Arts in Edu- with very few exceptions little effect on cation to consist of the most able people our system of schooling up to now.I available to represent all of the Arts. would lace to suggest several reasons for Their responsibility and purpose would this failure. In the first place, Arts edu- be to determine what some of our most cationalists have not been able to con- important goals for the Arts in educa- vince the schools that the Arts are a tion should be, starting first with elemen- means of communication as essential as tary and secondary schools. They should reading and writing and that the Arts then recommend ways and means of im- may even need to take their place at plementing such recommendations, di- certain early periods of the learning rectly to the State Supervisor of Educa- process before the value of reading and tion.I suggest the following categories writing can be properly understood. Sec- for such a committee ondly, there has been a failure to demon- Architect strate to the schools that the Arts are one Urbanist of the few educational experiences that Environmentalist are not passive because the Arts depend Film Maker on the relevance of livingexperience. Painter or Sculptor Thirdly, Arts educationalists have ap- Poet parently not led the schools to an un- Playwright, Actor, or Director derstanding that the Arts are also direct Composer action programs and that, far from cir- Choreographer or Dancer cumventing the educational process, they Singer, Conductor, or Instrumentalist add valuable and essential information Arts Educator to it. Designer Engineer (to deal with rela- Therefore, the system of schooling in tionships between the Arts and Technol- this nation is failing to truly educate the ogy). majority of its students. And it must be I take the liberty of also suggesting said that even when the schools have several goals that might be considered. turned to the Arts they have with few The Artsall of themmust be- exceptions done so by merely adding come an integral part of theevery-day them as courses to be taught in the same living experience in education. old miscellaneous way as scraps of in- The confining walls of the class- formation rather than turning to them room must be expanded to include the as a vital communication capableof whole environment and the world of changing the whole promise of educa- things to be learned from it. tion in this country to a realistic and The natural creative play of chil- imaginative understanding of the en- dren must be part of the learning incen- vironment in which we live. tive pattern so that the student will have Georgia has long had the resources for a real part in the planning of the cur- creative education programs, but we riculum. have largely ignored them. This State Students should share in the teach- isfortunate in having many tn.lented, ing of the class in order to break the wise, experienced people who can make traditional practice of one fountain of anextraordinary contributiontothe information at the front of the classroom quality of education for all our citizens, with the students only being ears to hear and in so doing give Georgia a role of what is told to them. national leadershipif we can have the The imposing of value judgments courage and good ;arise to seek their ad- by the teacher must be deferred at cer- vice and counsel now. tain times long enough to encourage in Therefore, I respectfully suggest that each student a genuine confidence in his

526 (the student's) own individual creative George Beattie is the executive director imagination in order for the studentto of the Georgia Commission on the Arts. be confronted directly with the choice of Mr. Beattie received his art training at the Cleveland Institute of Art and servedas values, in which the teacher canbecome chairman of the Department of Creative an important guide. Drawing at the School of Architecture. Studentsall of themshould ulti- Georgia Institute of Technology, from 1948 mately make a vital contribution to the until 1967. In 1955 he received the National Institute of Arts and Letters Grant and in planning of our schooling ifwe really 1956 was recipient of a Fulbright Grant want honest r...forrn in education. for a Year's painting in Italy. His works The Arts must become thecommon have been included in two Smithsonian denominatorthe common communica- Institute. Washington. D.C.. exhibitions. "Italy Rediscovered" and "Fulbright Paint- torin the learning process in orderto ers." !le is included in the collections of heighten an awareness of the aesthetic the Whitney Museum of American Art, the sensibilities with the result that education Childe Hassam Purchase, the Atlanta Art will be genuine. Association, and many important private collections. He has had several one-man "The surface of the earth is soft and shows throughout the South and two in impressable by the feet ofmen, and so New York. He is represented by Hirsch! with the paths which the mind travels. and Adler Galleries. New York. Mr. Beanie How worn and dusty must be the high- served as vice chairman of the North Ameri- ways of the world, how deep the ruts of can Asiembly of State and Provincial Art tradition and conformity."Thoreau Agencies during 1968-69.

References Goodlad, John 1., "The Schools vs. Education,"(Saturday Review,April 19. 1969), pp, 51-82. Holt, John.How Children Fail,(New York: Pantheon Books. 1945). Read, Herbert.Education Through Art.(New York: Pantheon Hooks. 1945). Read, Herbert,The Grass Roots of Art, (NewYork: George Wittenborn, Inc.. 1955). Taylor, Harold,The SpiritofHumanism. Morn of Kentucky, 1965). Symposium on the Humanities and the Schools, University

527 THIS critic is in full agreement with George Beattie's presentation of "The Case for the Arts in Education" and I regret sharing Mr. Beattie's concern for the future of the arts within a highly activist, materialistic, and scientific society. William James once said:"Think how many absolutelynew scientific conceptions have arisenin our generation and then cast an eye upon the brevity of Science's career.It began with Galileo not three hundred years ago.Is it credible that such a growth room of knowledge, such a growth overnight as this can represent more than the minutest glimpse of what the universe will really prove to be when adequately understood? No! Our science is a drop, our ignorance a sea." Thereisstillconfusion concerning the function of a college. Is a college still able to give a student a liberal education, to ultimately "liberate" his mind, or isit mainly a vocational school for job training? Are universities not mainlyto impart knowledge tostudents, while the arts have very little concern critique: for academic knowledge? The artist's The Arts consciousness of the unknown is often his main resource for creativity. Dar- in Georgia win sensed this when he wrote before his death:"If I had to live my life again, I would have made a rule to read some poetry and listento some music at least once every week; for perhaps the parts of my brain now atrophied would thus have been kept active through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness, and may possibly be injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling the emotional part of our nature." There are certain basic tensions in most of our educational institutions between the active artist versus art educator; the individual versus the institution;researchversusteaching-social action. As I was associated with the Performing Arts in Europe, the col- lapse of Atlanta's Alliance Arts Cen- ter(theater,operaandballet)did

528 not surprise me. An arts center build- Americans, minority groups included. ing alone without the necessary opera- While some of our jazz composers are tional funds is not enuogh. In Europe, studying the techniques of native Afri- institutional theaters have always been cans, others are turning to electronics heavily subsidized by the government. fornewsoundstoproduce"third Considering the currentpoliticalcli- stream music." mate in the United States of America, Most public schools of Georgia have I see very little chance for government only one or two music teachers avail- support for theater in the near future. able to take care of the entire Music However, thesuccess of the Tyrone Department. That anyone should be Guthrie Theatre in Minneapolis indi- expected to teach all string, wind, brass, cates that there is a chance for pro- and percussion instruments effectively, fessional theater in partnership with a to organize and lead bands and or- university. This is confirmed by sim- chestras and to teach fourth graders ilar successes of "Artists in Residence music literacy with the aid of Tonet- Projects" at various universities across tesissimply unrealistic.It must be the country. borne in mind that in the case of the Since I have been in Atlanta, I would beginner, the first lessons are the de- like to add some further observations. cisive ones. Mastery of a musical instrument is a formidable task; it can Music be taught effectively only by a person Itseems increasinglyclearthatthe fully versed in all intricacies and who, musical. sceneinthiscountrywill above all,isin love with his instru- change profoundly in the decades from ment. The teacher's enthusiasm is the now to the year 1985. The new liter- most important factor inawakening acyismusical,rather thanverbal. and holding thechild'sinterest and One of Marshal McLuhan's principal stimulating his willingness to put forth theses that Western man is,to para- the sustained effort required of him. phrase Joyce, "getting an ear for an Learning is first of all imitating; there- eyes" as he passes out of the age of fore, the teacher must be a master of print, would help to reduce the class the instrument he teaches. The employ- and racial barriers in our schools and ment of specialists is mandatory. concert halls. Our music departments Before learning to read music and have to ,recognize that the invisible cul- before studying an instrument, a child's ture of the poor has a,rugged vitality musicality must be developed. He must of its own. have had the discipline inelemental Music has unique nonverbal values music-making which develops his rhyth- that can enhance the life of man or mic andtonalsense.This canbe societyinways unavailable through achieved through active and pleasur- literature. Itis our duty to seek true able music makingif need be, with- musical communication with the great out the aid of musical instruments. masses of our population. The result- It is recommended that all children ing enrichment of our music will give fromkindergartenthroughsecond it a new vitality at all levels, and pro- grade be taught elemental music mak- videa united voicethat can speak, ing based on the approaches developed without sham, of our democratic ideals. by Carl Orff and Zolton Kadaly. These There are,of course, distinctionsto approaches are designed to harness and be made between the indigenous music cultivate the innate elementary musical of blacks in America (spirituals, blues, impulses in every child. gospels), of American Indians, or of It is recommended that all children immigrants from Latin America, and in the third grades be introduced to the inescapable commercial music with musicalnotationandsight-singing. whichthemassmedia blankets all These disciplines,in increasingdiffi-

529 culty, should be continued through the inretirement who areseeking new upper grades. challenges. It is recommended that instrumental instruction be offeredinthefourth Artists in Residence grade and given in small groups (pref- Most educators agreethatthestu- erably not exceeding five students) and dents in our schools lack motivation taught by specialists on each instru- in their search for relevance and in ment. volvement. I am convinced that artists At a certain stage the one-to-one re- inresidence could bringthis needed lationship between pupil and teacher is charisma to our youth. of greatsignificanceinthe develop- The artist-teacher, becauseofhis ment of a student's capabilities. A per- magicalandmyth-makingqualities, sonal relationship resulting in empathy as well as his craft discipline and dedi- is an important factor in education in cation. is almost inevitably a charisma- the arts. ticfigureto adolescents. and justas the clinician inevitably directs himself The Need for Community Music Schools to pathology, the artist directs himself to health. The NationalGuildof Community Music Schools was organized in 1937 I venture to say that the City of At- to co-ordinate the work of community lanta isthe only cityin the United music schools across the country. These States having a permanent symphony schools are uniquely American; they orchestrawithoutanyindependent evolved during the late 19th century in music schools. I am sure that the man- response to social-cultural needs of a agement of the orchestrais having a population seeking a national identity. hard time attracting first class musicians As independent organizations or as set- without being able to offer those mu- tlement departments, community music sicians additional incomes by teaching schools have made an important con- at community music schools. tribution to the development of Amer- Rural Georgia ica'smusical lifethey haveplaced American history began insmall set- the study of music within the reach tlements and crucial American values of all. stem from there. Can we rediscover Community music schools emphasize and strengthen our small communities? high standards similar to those of con- Children in rural poverty areas of the servatories or other vocational music United States have hardly any oppor- schools and have given basic instruc- tunity to be exposed to live perform- tion to a number of noted solo artists ancesmuch less, to adequate instruc- and symphony orchestra members. The tion in the Performing Arts. Entertain- community musicschooloffersnot ment is lavished upon them by televi- only individual instrumental and vocal sion and radio, stifling rather than en- instruction, but also makes available couraging their active participation and valuable group experience which in- creative impulses. cludes theory and musicianship,bal- An attempt must be made to develop let, modern dance, orchestra, chamber by means of an early education in the ensemble, chorus, music therapy, and Performing Arts a better quality of life courses designed specifically for adults. for our rural population and to make It has a professional faculty dedicated use of these arts for the purpose of not only to concepts ofartistic and upgrading the general learning process educational excellence, but also to an of disadvantaged rural children. This understandingof humanvalues.It will require new techniques. serves specific musical needs of stu- Isuggest a MOBILE ACADEMY dents of all ages, from three to those OF THE PERFORMING ARTS FOR

530 RURAL CHILDREN in Georgia. The rect experiences such as performing a structure of the projectthatis,its play, a dance or an opera. Such partici- educationalapproaches andteaching pation could help the student psycho- materials best suited for thespecific logically, since the Performing Arts are needs of disadvantaged rural children excellent ways of moving toward the should not bepre-determinedbut discovery of identity. Performance has should be developed on the basis of the giventothefortunate onesarare children's response to the program. "peak experience," which we all long Answers to these questions should for. be sought. The colleges in Georgia might as- 1. To what extent can public school sume a major role in the growth and classroom teachers become effec- development of the arts, particularly in tiveintheuse of of modern the new American Arts of the South of teaching techniques in elementary the mid-twentiesth century. Since there music-making afterreceiving spe- is no effective training program at the cializedinstructionandbeing university level south of New York, guided and supervised by expert the importance of such a school to the specialist teachers? educational progress of the regionis 2. What techniques and approaches clear. applied by resident artists, One of the most distinctive aspects brought to rural areas, will result of this plan is an internship program in optimum involvement of the which would engageallstudentsin community, and what kindof programs of acting, directing, design, community activities can readily technicalstudies,dance,opera, and be engendered by a Mobile Aca- theatreadministration.Accordingto demy for the Performing Arts? this plan students majoring in the per- Projecting into1985, I visualize a forming arts would be given an oppor- great opportunity of art councilsin tunity to matriculate for internship pro- many small towns in Georgia. Its main grams which would take them to other target would be to identify individuals art centers of professional activity. interested in the arts, to develop an appreciation for the aesthetics in the en- Professional Job Market vironment, in addition to the arrange- Art programs today in the great cities, ment of Folk Festivals featuring music in smaller communities, and in educa- and dance of Georgia (including the tional institutions represent a substan- early English ballet and slave songs, as tialsegment of the professional job well as church music of blacks and market. If we consider the major in- whites). dustries which support the activity of the arts in America today, the scope of The Performing Arts this field may be understood: Radio, At Colleges and Universities television, motion pictures, recording, Institutions of higher learning are be- theater, dance, opera, museums, instru- coming increasingly important to the mental music, public and private arts well-being of the arts, not as a part of administration, and arts education. Tra- academic life in an isolated sense, but ditionally, the thrust of the curriculum as part of the grand design of artistic in the smaller colleges has been toward enrichment for the creator, performer, preparationfortheso-calleduseful and observer; in short,the disciplines occupations,tothe exclusionofart of practice, perception, andpatronage. development. Too much of academic pursuit of The arts have the power to affect the arts is concerned with talking or perception; to determine the nature of writing about art; it ignores art in di- the individual's linguistic frame, to

531 shape his values, and ultimately to de- the corridors of schools. People may termine the way in which he interpret& be touching sculptures on street cor- his relationship tothe world. In an ners and watching plays in the parks. important sense, the quality of arts ex- The audience may become the players. perience offered in any community is The emphasis will be on active partici- an index of the kind oflife which pation, on creation rather than on con- characterizes that segment of the total sumption. Paul Williams says, "Today social, intellectual, and political struc- iscompletely different." So willthe ture. arts be different as long as people are There is now another reason for the "different," as long as there is "another acceleration of national interest in the day." arts. The arts have, in Western history, rivalled the sciences as agents of con- A Proposal for the Establishment structive social change. What is perhaps Of a Performing Arts Center of greater significance is that they as- And an Artist in Residence Project sistboth theindividual andsociety At Atlanta University Center in the development of new intellectual, social, psychological tools for coping By Benno D. Frank with such changes; and provide oppor- This proposal is to recognize the great tunities for the individual and society contribution made by the Afro-Ameri- toexplore new solutionsto human can artists in the field of music. problems whidh arelesscostly than Purposes are to stimulate the social arecomparable explorationsinlife life of the students, to intensify their itself. involvement, toattracttalentedstu- dents to enroll at the Center, to raise Some Personal Observations the level of excellence of students in Last year, the University of Georgia the Performing Arts at the Center. started a new postgraduate program in Emphasis is given to the studies of drama. The Music Department too has 1. Negro Spirituals, similarplans.This year the Atlanta 2. The Gospel Songs, Board of Education established an Ar- 3. Traditional Negro Church Music, tist in Residence Program. Professional 4. The Blues, artists are employed in Model Cities 5. Jazz. Schools in Atlanta. Economic Oppor- Planned are tunity Atlanta, Inc. has established Art 1. Master Classes on traditional Ne- Workshopsinvarious neighborhood gro church music (spirituals and service centers. Atlanta University Cen- gospels).. ter Corporation is considering the estab- 2. A Seminar on Jazz lishment of a Performing Arts Center. 3. A Seminar on Dance (Prominent dancers of a variety of schools should be invited to give demon- Conclusion strations at the Center.); The new art in1985 may be much 4. A Seminar onTheater which more in and of the community. Paint- would bring together Negro ar- ings may appear on sidewalks and in tists with different points of view.

532 AFTER reading Mr. Beattie's "Case for the Arts in Education," I find myself too restricted by his implied, un- stated definition of "the Arts," and more importantunconvinced by his case for them in education. I am, moreover, in disagreement with the author's views in regard to the place, purposes of, and claims for the arts. Further- more, I am concerned lest the universal sensitivity to beauty in a public sense which he neglectsto emphasize will also be ignored by Georgia educators and citizens. On the other hand, I am in complete agreement with three of the author's observations: that much education today is irrelevant; that man has always been concerned with something more than naked utility; and that the educational system should be charged with developing the senses as wellas the intellectual powers of its students. I fear, though, that the author's approach to educating the student will not create either more relevance nor critique: moreaestheticallysensitiveGeorgia citizens in 1985. Indeed, if art educa- The Arts torssucceed inconvincing educators that "the Arts are a means of com- in Georgia munication as essential as reading and writing," we may not even havean informed citizenry. Let me state here that I have been vitally concerned with beauty and ugli- nessnatural and man-madeas well 1. as education for over 40 years, and that my whole-hearted commitment has always beentobeauty,order,and form. I have taught, practiced, preached, and administered activities which have upheld the cause of beauty and order all my life, and I sincerely believe in their importance.Nevertheless, I do not see my work, my profession, ormy particular crusade against all forms of waste, destruction, and unlovelinessas a panacea for all the problems of education,personalfulfillment,orthe quality of life in general. For this reason, I feel that theauthor's claims for the personal, public, and educational benefits of "the Arts"

533 (capitalized but never adequately de- As for the personal benefits of defined) are somewhat out of proportion veloping the senses via the arts, I must to their real role in the mosaic of life question whether evenextensiveart and education. I cannot agree that art educationcanautomaticallyleadto "should be the basis of education," nor self-understanding, imagination, moral- wouldIexpecttofindagreement ity. insight, involvement, motivation, sat- among teachersof reading,writing, isfaction, increased intellectual power, philosophy, psychology, literature, the or many of the other benefits which sciences, or any other field. the author cites. AlthoughI wishit Nor do I believe that thearts are a were so, I cannot honestly say that my "naturalandnecessarytoolinthe studentsor any other group of stu- learningprocess," eveniftheyare dentsintheartsaresignificantly both natural and necessary in the living more richly endowed in these respects process as I define them.If TV is, in- than graduates in other subject areas. deed, overshadowing the efforts of our On the other hand, I would not dis- schools,the reason may lieinour miss, as did the author, the healing, inability to harness what we already inspiring,and recreationaleffects of know about learning and teaching with art. Far from agreeing that "genuine words. More art in the schools is not art is not for the tired man who wants necessarily the answer to poor teaching to be amused," I am pleased and proud of reading and writing. Nor isit the when he finds art in any form to be a answer to the lack of verbaland in- means of refreshinghistiredspirit. tellectualsubstancein TV program- At the School of Environmental Design, ming. we take great pains to train young To my mind more art in curricula men and women in the art and craft is no cure-all for dishonest, irrelevant, of providing, planning, and maintain- or boring teaching. Nor do I see the ing the natural and man-made beau- connection between art education and ties of the world so that they will bring theeducationalsystem's inabilityto tranquility. and inspiration to the tired teach studentstothink, become in- man as well as the active one. volved, be creative, or develop as in- I must take issue, too, with the au- dividual human beings. I do not know thor's argument that we are all born what the answers to these educational with creative powers and, ipso facto, problems are, but I am convinced that are therefore all interested in "theArts" they are beyond the province of art. with a capital A. My guess is that many Of course, adding more art to cur- of us are born creative with words or ricula is a pleasing thought to me and imagination rather than artistic talents. others associated with the arts. How- Inanycase, these donotsurvive ever, two important points must be through school or adulthood because considered. people choose to pursue other fields 1) More of the same kinds of art of interest. I would say, instead, that courses would not,in my opinion, we all possess a preference for the beau- further the cause of art or the cause tiful and the orderly, for well-formed of education; and and well-balanced things. Even those 2)My colleaguesinmathematics, children or adults who have no artistic English, history, physical education, so- creativity whatever have at least some cial sciences, and countless other fields capacity to appreciate the artistic, well- are making the same kinds of justified designed things around them, however demands on already over-crowded cur- unconscious this feeling may be. ricula. To summarize, I share the author's In short, I see little space and less concern for the state of education,the justification for expanding many of the importance of developing the student's types of art offerings we already have. senses,and the naturalstriving for

534 more than naked utility. But I cannot of environmental beauty and the haz- agree entirelywiththeimplications ards of ugliness to the future planners, which he draws from these basic ideas. engineers, conservationists,politicians, Developing the senses throughart and voting citizens of our state. education is,to my mind, worthwhile Indeed, the job of art education as only if itis geared to the majority of I see itis to make even the fine artists studentsthe average, untalented citi- of 1985 aware that their sculpture or zens of 1985rather than a select few painting belongs in a larger context of creative students who will be the artists beauty. We must teach them to use at and art patrons of 1985. As a practical least some of their talents for the en- matter, we cannot assume that every- hancement of public squares and parks one can be a painter or sculptor as in addition to private homes and art an adult, and itis not the fault of the galleries. It seems to me that even Art schools that he is not, as the author with a capital A cannot in our day be implies.But weallcan be critics, restricted to the enjoyment of a single guardians, and supporters of beauty in artist and his select few patrons. the world around us. The fact that Landscape architecture as a profes- many adults are not could be blamed sion learned this concept of publicre- on our schools and art educators. If sponsibility many years ago when its we must place blame at all, we could practitioners were still largely engaged also blame our art educators for the in further beautifying already beautiful shortagesofprofessionalpeoplein privateestates. They have learned, I the environmental design professions. am proud to say, to respond to the Someone has failed to make students public call for help where help is most aware of the role of these professions desperately needed inthe environ- in protecting and enhancing the world ment which surrounds usall,and we live in, and has failed to interest which often threatens to engulf us in students in this form of public art. chaos and ugliness. It is my hope that I think we can safely say that the all practitioners of the arts as well as individual who fails to cultivate a last- students in every field of interest will ing interestin "the Arts" in school respond to this call for help by 1985. will find personal satisfaction in other They must be educated to value and to ways: in his workshop, his stamp col- demand an environment which brings lection, or hisfishing trips. We can order, peace, beauty, form, proportion, also assume that our civilization (and balance,and human scaletotheir even our artists)will survive if our homes, cities, and countryside. They museums and galleries have no more must also be made aware of the fact patrons in 1985 than they have today. that professions exist whose job itis But I cannot be so optimistic of the to help with this task. The only way future if we fail to cultivate in children I see to accomplish this is to have a alove,respect, and interestinthe citizenry educated at all levels of the health and beauty of their environ- educational systemtobe discontent ment. I hesitate to think about what with ugliness, erosion, pollution, and will be left of our already vanishing other offenses to the eye, thespirit, and exploited natural beauty, our al- and the health of mankind. "Discon- ready decaying,dehumanizingcities, tent,"as Oscar Wildesaid,"isthe or our already polluted and neglected firststep in the progress a man or atmosphere. I wonder, too, where the nation." citizens of 1985, with their increased In short, the kind of art education leisure and increased tensions, will go I have in mind for all students would to seek the recreation and spiritual re- produce Georgia citizens of 1985 who freshment they will surely need if we are well acquainted with the principles do not now begin to teach the virtues and purposes of the environmental arts.

535 Thesecitizenscouldthenexerta tool in the learning process," or that constructiveinfluence by joiningthe they should be more plentifully rep- ranks of environmental artists, by using resentedin an already crowded cur- their talents in other fields to help with riculum. the tasks of conservation and beauti- "Art isI,scienceis we," Claude fication, or by supporting the effort as Bernard said. If thisis so.it cannot interested,votingcitizens.Everyone remain so much longer. The public has a place in the environmental arts implications of insensitivity to the arts as a responsible consumer, apartici- are too grim to allow arteducation to pant, or a vigilant supporter. be geared to the personal enrichment Aside from helping to ameliorate one ofatalented fewand the absent- of society's most enervating ills,this minded note-taking of the uninterested type of art education would, I believe, many. "We shape our buildings; there- be one answer to the problem of ir- after they shape us," Winston Churchill relevance inart education.It seems said. This is certainly true if we read to me we can teach the principlesof "buildings" in the broader sense of en- form, color, texture, and good design vironment. But too often we do not far more effectivelyif we can show shape our environment at all. We let it their relevance to theblight of the grow without sense or symmetry, or cities and the rape of the countryside. we letit die without taking the mea- Assuming the irrelevance the author suresneeded topreserveitsbeauty cites so oftenisalso a fault of art and resources. education, I suggest we concentrate our Our environmentalcrisisis,Iac- attention, not on more, but on better, knowledge, only one of. many. But it more meaningful art courses. For ex- isnevertheless acrisis which affects ample, how much more interesting and body, spirit, and pocketbook. The arts, educational a course in art history is too, are only one of many fields of when it is a part of an interdisciplinary human endeavor, and I do not think courseor program which gives the they will or should ever be a major student a background of the history, part of the curriculum. But I do think literature, and culture of the times. Al- they should be a meaningful part of though some of the so-called civiliza- every level of education so that society tion courses at the undergraduate level and its individual citizens can be helped which take this approach have been to transcend mere naked utility. How criticizedfortheirsuperficiality,it to bring such broad, meaningful art seems to me that the idea behind them educationaboutis anothermatter is inherently sound. and a difficult one. The author's sug- Atthegraduatelevel,interdisci- gested task force falls short of being plinary programs in American Studies, effective in two ways, I think: for instance, also give the arts their (1)It includes practitioners in fields proper place as part of the fabric of unrelated to art; and life in a culture. What a different view (2)It underestimates the size of the a student must get from this vantage job to be done. point than he does when he is sub- I would prefer to replace the poet, jectedto a memory exercise in the themusician,thedancer,and the Old Masters! playwright withart educators atall But regardless of how it is achieved, levelsfromelementarytograduate relevance should be the biggest con- school. The job of reshaping art edu- cern of our art educators today. Time cation must be aided by those who are spent integrating art education with life familiar with the problems and poten- today or in times gone by will be more tials of teaching art. Secondly, I would effective than time spent arguing that suggest a large-scale, full-time effort to the arts are a "natural and necessary revamp the content and approach of

536 art education so that it will be mean- proach would also benefit the student ingful to Georgia and its citizensin as Harold Taylor defines him (italics 1985. This kind of change cannot, I mine) andashe apparently defines believe, be accomplished by busy men himself: "A student is a person who in after-hours meetings.It would re- islearningtofulfillhis powers and quire the full-time attention of a group to find ways of using them in the ser- of salaried practitioners, educators, and vice of mankind." environmentalists(including planners, And lastly, but by no means least engineers, architects, and landscape ar- important,societystandstobenefit. chitects) for several summers or a year We will be training students who un- or two atatime.It would require derstand the practical applications of financia: support. And it would require beauty and form in their surroundings, a commitment by all concerned to a and can act upon this understanding broader interpretation of the teaching in some way as adults. And we can of art as a part of the fabric of society. also begin to train some of the new The kinds of art courses which emerge leaders who were called for inthis from such a titanic effort should suc- excerpt from an editorial in a leading ceed in taking art out of the museums Georgia newspaper. and guiding itinto the streets, moun- Once upon a time the world was run tains, and rivers. It should take it off by theocrats, and then we turnedit its pedestal and out of its frame and over to the lawyers and the bankers. Things are insomething ofa mess channel it to the mining machines, ce- aesthetically and sociologically as a re- ment mixers, and city planning offices. sult. If this can be accomplished, and I We need new leaders, and we think we think it can, it will be obvious to every- see them beginning to emerge. They one that art is no longer a "frill" in the are the planners and architects (land- curriculum. There will be less need to scape and otherwise), and related groups which are concerned about environment convince educators or students of its and relieving the stresses produced by value as a tool for ensuring the sur- our new helter-skelter way of urban liv- vivalof the human race. This ap- ing.

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