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Home , Benedikt syndrome, Cerebral crus, Conus medullaris

Index

Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations; those in bold refer to tables

abducent nerve (VI) 49, 50, 210–11, 245 anisocoria 221 injury 211 anisometropia 198 abducent nucleus 50, 54, 60, 211, 212, 215, 216, 245 annulospiral terminations 88 accessory nerve (XI) 49, 246 anomia 356 accessory nucleus 39, 244 anorexia nervosa 323 accessory oculomotor (Edinger–Westphal) nucleus 54, 64, anosmia 288–9 214, 222 ansa lenticularis 267 achromatopsia 199 ansa system 266, 267 acoustic neuromas 177, 221 anterior cerebral artery 380–1 acoustic radiations 354 anterior chiasmatic angle 196 acoustic reflex 156 anterior choroidal artery 380 acoustic striae 160 anterior commissure 67–8 acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) 9 anterior communicating artery 380 actin filaments 2 anterior hypothalamotegmental tract 322 adiadochokinesis 277 anterior inferior cerebellar artery 373–4 afferent pupillary defect 202, 225 syndrome of 378 ageusia 294 anterior nuclei of the 229–30, 229, aggressive behavior 310 230, 301 agnosia 360 anterior olfactory nucleus 286 visual 354, 360 anterior parietal cortex 350 agraphesthesia 124 anterior perforated substance 77, 300 akinesthesia 124 367, 368, 370 alcohol‐related birth defects (ARBDs) 26 syndrome of 377 alexia 260 anterior spinal rami 367 without agraphia 352 anterograde degeneration 11, 12 alpha motor neurons 244–5 anterolateral cordotomy 99, 106 alternating hypoglossal hemiplegia 377 aortic arch 366, 364 Alzheimer disease 2–3, 289 358–9, 359 neurotransmitter deficiencies 6 auditory receptive 355 amacrine neurons 188–9 Broca’s 358–9 amblyopia 198, 234 COPYRIGHTEDconductive MATERIAL 352, 359 ampullary crest 172 global 359 amygdaloid complex 287, 288, 303–5 Wernicke’s 359 injury 309 apoplexy 255 nuclei 305 apraxia 360 amyloid precursor protein 3 constructional 360 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 252 motor 275, 360 anastomotic loop of the conus 368, 370, 371 sensory 352 anencephaly 28, 28 aqueduct 25, 50, 63, 393 angular artery 383 arachnoid angular gyrus 71, 352 cranial 387–8 anhidrosis 334 spinal 43, 43

Human Neuroanatomy, Second Edition. James R. Augustine. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/Augustine/HumanNeuroanatomy2e

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arachnoid villi 43 autonomic regulation 323 arbor vitae 271 autonomic related cortices 333 arcuate fibers 271 aversive field 275 area cerebrovasculosa 28 frontal 345 Argyll‐Robertson pupil 223 axon hillock 2, 3 artery of the 370 axon reaction 10, 11 artery of the 371 axonal growth inhibitory factors (AGIFs) 14 ascending gustatory path 292, 293 axonal transport 9–10 ascending reticular activating system 146 defective 9–10 associated tegmentospinal fibers 273 functions 9 association fibers 78 axons 2, 3 astrocytes 6, 7, 7 function 8 ballism 276 identification of 6 band fibers 12 asymmetry 343 72, 74–7, 260–5, 261, 261, 262 athetosis 276 afferent fibers 265 audenes 162, 167 efferent fibers 267, 267 auditory stem implants 167 injury 275–6 auditory cortex 162–4 multisynaptic descending paths 266–7, 267 association cortex 162–3, 163, 355 organization 266, 267 injury to 166–7 basilar arteries 366, 383 bilateral injury 167 branches 372–5 primary 162, 235, 354 basilar artery syndrome 378 tonotopic organization 164 basilar membrane 156–7 processing self‐produced vocalizations 164 tuning 159 stimulation 162 basilar 59, 253 ”what” and “where” processing 163–4 basket cells 270 auditory ossicles 155, 156 Bell palsy 255, 255 auditory path Bell–Magendie law 34, 40 ascending 158–64, 160 Benedikt syndrome 378 bilateral nature 164 benign postural vertigo 184 descending 164–5 beta‐amyloid protein (β-AP) 3 injury to 165–7 bilateral anterior cingulotomy 310 stimulation 161, 165 bipolar neurons 4, 4 auditory (pharyngotympanic) tube 155 bitemporal hemianopia 201 auditory 355 bitemporal superior quadrantanopia 201 auditory seizures 167 bladder, voluntary control 250 auditory system 155–8 blastocyst 19 see also auditory path formation 19 auras 102, 289, 294, 350 blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier 8, 391 auricle 155 bony labyrinth 171, 172, 220 autonomic movement loss 275 brachiocephalic trunk 366 autonomic nervous system brain 1 disorders 333–4 embryonic development 21–6, 25 fiber distribution 329–30 neuronal plasticity 6 postganglionic fibers 330 brain stem 47, 48, 49 preganglionic fibers 329 auditory brain stem implants 167 termination 330–1 blood supply 368, 372–8, 373–7 historical aspects 327–8 vascular injuries 384 parasympathetic component 328, 328, 329, 330–1 lateral 99 cranial nuclei 329 lower motor neurons 245–6 regulation of 333 125 somatic efferent neurons 331 neuronal column organization 52–4 structural aspects 328–31 somatic afferent columns 52, 55 sympathetic component 328, 328, 329, 331 somatic efferent columns 52, 54 visceral afferent neurons 331–2 spinoreticulothalamic tract 104 visceral efferent neurons 331 ventral spinothalamic tract 119–20

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visceral afferent columns 52, 55 circuitry 273 visceral efferent columns 52, 54 common discharge paths 273 brain stem syndromes 377–8 dorsal surface 51 brain tumors 9 external features 267–70, 268 brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) 13 functions 274 brightness constancy 201 gray matter 270 Broca’s aphasia 358–9 implanted electrode systems 274 Broca’s area 346 injury 277–8 Brodmann’s areas 100, 340, 340, 341 localization 278 Brown‐Séquard syndrome 43, 44 input 272 output 273 calcarine sulcus 73, 198 somatotopic organization 274, 274 callosomarginal artery 381 269–71, 271 caloric nystagmus 219–21, 221 cerebral angiography 384 cardiovascular activity regulation 152 cerebral arterial circle (of Willis) 383–4 Carnegie embryonic stages 17, 18 cerebral arteries carotid arteries 366, 367 anterior 380–1 common 378–9 middle 381–2, 379, 382 external 378–9 branches 382–3 internal 379 posterior 374–5, 383 branches 379–83 brain stem branches 375 catecholamines 56 cerebral circulation 365–6 35 embryological considerations 384 caudate nucleus 74–6, 261, 262, 262, 263 179, 337 fundus 264 columnar organization 343 cells of Martinotti 338, 338 cortical neurons 338, 338 central arteries 371 cytoarchitectonics 338–40, 339, 340, 340 central nervous system (CNS) 1 functional aspects 343 regeneration 13–14 heterotypic areas 339 central nucleus 39 homotypic areas 338 central receptive pool 148 layers 338–43, 338, 339 central scotoma 201 myeloarchitectonics 339–41, 342 central sulcus 69, 73, 180 see also auditory cortex; somatosensory cortex; central tegmental tract 61 vestibular cortex cerebellar arteries 368, 372, 373–2 cerebral crus 50, 63, 249 cerebellar 277 cerebral dominance 343 cerebellar cortex 269, 270 cerebral dysraphism 27 layers 269, 270 cerebral gyri 69 neurons in 270, 270 cerebral hemispheres 68–74, 68, 75–6, 79, 337 cerebellar fissures 268 blood supply 379–83 cerebellar folia 268 gray matter 337 cerebellar hemispheres 267 inferior surface 74, 74 cerebellar hypotonia 277 medial surface 48, 72–3, 73 cerebellar lobes 268 superolateral surface 69–72, 69–72 cerebellar lobules 268, 268 see also cerebral cortex cerebellar nuclei 270 cerebral lobes 69, 69 deep 270, 270 see also ; ; ; injury 278 cerebellar nystagmus 277, 278 cerebral peduncles 63 cerebellar peduncles 50, 58, 59, 268–9, 269 cerebral sulci 69 injury 278 cerebral white matter 68, 69, 78–9 cerebellar tonsils 268, 268 cerebrocerebellum 268 herniation 268, 391, 391 cerebrospinal fluid 43, 393–4, 394 cerebellar tremor 277 cervical flexure 21, 22, 24 cerebellar zones 267 chemoreceptors 83–4 48, 50, 267–71 choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) 64 blood supply 372–8 276

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choreoathetosis 276 proprioception, pressure, and vibration paths 127–9, 135 choroid plexuses 8, 24, 391–3 tactile discrimination paths 127–9, 130 chromatolysis 10 tactile sensation path 132–3 chronic pain 105 temperature paths 100–2 ciliary ganglion 222 thermal discrimination 112–13 ciliospinal nucleus 223 vestibular paths 179–80 cingulate gyrus 73, 304–6 visual path 199–200 herniation 389–91, 390 cortical–striatal–pallidal–thalamo–cortical circuits 266 cingulate motor areas 345 corticobulbar fibers 252–5, 253, 254 cingulate sulcus 73 aberrant 255 cingulum 304–6 bilateral distribution 253–4 circle of Willis 383–4 contralateral distribution 254 claustrum 77 cortical origin 252–3 climbing fibers 272 253 cochlea 156, 157 ipsilateral distribution 254 autonomic fibers to 165 253 cochlear duct 156 253 cochlear efferents 165 pons 253 cochlear fluids 157 corticonigral fibers 266 cochlear hair cells 158–9 corticorubral fibers 266 decoupling of 165 corticospinal fibers 247–52, 247, 250 cochlear implants 167 ascending fibers 251 cochlear labyrinth 156 cortical origin 247–8 cochlear nerve 159 internal capsule 248–9 cochlear nuclei 54, 58 lateral corticospinal tract 249–50 cochlear window 156 medulla oblongata 249 collateral sprouting 13 midbrain 249 collateral sulcus 74 pons 249 commissural fibers 78 postcentral gyrus 251 common carotid artery 378–9 ventral corticospinal tract 249 common discharge paths 153, 267, 273 corticostriate fibers 265, 266 complete binasal hemianopia 202 corticotegmental fibers 266 conductive aphasia 352, 359 cranial 389 cones 191–3 arachnoid 387–8 congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis 98 387, 388–90 congenital malformations 27–9 388 anencephaly 28, 28 cranial nerves 48 microcephaly 28–9 functional components 52, 52, 53, 55 spinal dysraphism 27–8 nuclei 53 congenital nystagmus 219 see also specific nerves consciousness 150–1 cristae 173 constructional apraxia 360 crossed hypoglossal paralysis 377 corneal reflex 137–8, 137 crossed monoplegia 249 corona radiata 78, 248 cruciate paralysis 249 corpus callosum 72–3 cuneate tubercle 49, 49 agenesis 72–3 cuneiform nucleus 145–6 corpus striatum 76, 263 cuneus 73 corpuscles of Krause 87 cupula 173 corpuscles of Ruffini 87 cutaneous mechanoreceptors 82 cortex 69 cyclic limbic path 306 cortical 350 cytoarchitectonics 338–40, 339, 340 355 cortical neurons 91 dazzle reflex 210 auditory paths 161–2 decerebrate rigidity 278 gustatory system 293–4 declarative memory 308 olfactory system 288 decorticate rigidity 278 pain paths 100–2, 105 265

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deep cerebellar nuclei 270, 270 notochordal process 20–1, 21 dendrites 2, 3–4 primitive node 20–1 dentate ligaments 43, 43 primitive streak 20 dentate nuclei 273 development 31–4, 32, 33, 34 diabetes insipidus 322 emotion 307–8 diaphragma sellae 389 emotional expression 323 diencephalic periventricular system 321 encapsulated nerve endings 85 diencephalon 23, 25, 48, 68, 77–8 endocrine system control 324 dilator pupillae muscles 223 endolymph 157 diplopia 211, 213 entorhinal cortex 286–7, 302–3 horizontal 211 ependymal cells 8, 391 vertical 211 ependymal fluid 24 dopamine 56, 77, 265 epiblast 20 dopaminergic retinal neurons 189 epidural space 42, 387 dorsal cochlear nucleus 159–60 epilepsy 8 dorsal column stimulation (DCS) 129 psychomotor 356 dorsal cordotomy 129 surgical treatment 309–10 dorsal longitudinal fasciculus 307, 321–2 epinephrine 56 dorsal midbrain syndrome 378 epithalamus 67, 77–8, 314 dorsal paragigantocellular nucleus 143 external acoustic meatus 155 dorsal reticular nucleus 142 external ear 155, 156 dorsal rhizotomy 98 external medullary lamina 76, 228 dorsal 271 external vertebral plexus 371 dorsal striatum 261, 262, 263–4 exteroceptors 84 dorsal thalamus 67, 78 extraocular muscles 209–10, 210 see also thalamus innervation 210–14 dorsal trigeminothalamic tract 130, 134, 238 extrapyramidal movements 260 dorsal vagal nucleus 2, 55 259–67 dorsolateral tract (of Lissauer) 98 basal ganglia 260–5, 261, 261, 262 dorsomedial nucleus 319–20 cortical stimulation 260 double representation hypothesis 248, 343–4 cortical–striatal–pallidal–thalamo–cortical double vision 211 circuits 266 Down syndrome 2 motor areas 260, 260 dura mater multisynaptic descending paths 266–7 cranial 387, 388–90 extreme capsule 77 spinal 42, 43 eye fields 345–6, 345 dyslexia 360 eyes 277 abduction of 214 dysosmia 288–9 movements see ocular movements 275–6 primary position 207, 208 dystonia musculorums deformans 276 face blindness 356 ear 155–8, 156, 171–3, 172 facial colliculus 50 eating regulation 322–3 facial nerve (VII) 50, 54, 113, 245, 330 Edinger–Westphal nucleus see accessory oculomotor fibers 50 (Edinger–Westphal) nucleus geniculate ganglion 292 emboliform nucleus 283 genu 59 embryonic disc 20, 20, 21 injury 255, 255 embryonic ectoderm 20 nerve root 49 embryonic mesoblast 20 facial nucleus 61, 212, 245–6 embryonic period 17 injury 255, 255 blastocyst formation 19, 19 falx cerebelli 389 brain development 21–6, 25 falx cerebri 388 Carnegie embryonic stages 17, 18 fasciculations 246–7 cerebral vasculature development 384 fasciculus cuneatus 120, 121, 123, 123 developmental vulnerability 26 fasciculus gracilis 49, 120, 121, 123, 123 implantation 20 fast axonal transport 9

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fastigial nuclei 273 glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) 54, 58, 113, 246, 330 injury 278 inferior ganglion 292 fertilization 19 nerve root 49 fetal alcohol syndrome 6, 26 glossopharyngeal neuralgia 114 fetal period 17 glossopharyngeal nucleus 58 fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) 14 Golgi neurons 270 filiform papillae 291 Golgi‐Mazzoni corpuscles 87 filopodia 12–13 gracile tubercle 49 flocculo‐oculomotor path 278 granule cells 270, 338, 338 flower‐like endings 88 graphesthesia 124 focal seizures 8 grasp reflex 275 food intake regulation 322–3 gray matter forebrain 67, 68 cerebellum 269–70 see also diencephalon; prosencephalon; telencephalon cerebral hemispheres 337 fornix 321 see also cerebral cortex fourth ventricle 50–2, 393 spinal cord 34, 37–9 floor of 49 growth cones 12, 13 fovea 190 gustatory cortex, primary 293–4 fovea centralis 189 gustatory system 290–5, 292 foveal sparing 203 injuries 294–5 foveola 189 gymnemic acid 295 free nerve endings 84, 85 frontal aversive field 345 habenula 77, 78 frontal forceps 73 habenulopeduncular tract 307 frontal horn 392 hair cells frontal lobe 69, 69, 343–7 cochlear 158–9 Brocca’s area 346 spiral organ 157, 158 cingulate motor areas 345 vestibular 173, 175, 175 eye fields 345–6, 345 hair follicles, nerve endings in 85, 85, 117 prefrontal cortex 346–7, 347 hallucinations, olfactory 289 premotor cortex 180, 248, 344–5 hearing 158 injury 275 aging and hearing loss 166 primary motor cortex 343–4 congenital loss of 165 supplementary motor area 345 cortical deafness 355 frontal operculum 70 noise‐induced loss 166 frontoparietal operculum 71 sound conduction 159 fundus 189 unilateral loss 166 funiculi 32, 37, 40 see also auditory path; auditory system dorsal, injuries 124 hemianopia 202 hemiballismus 277 gag reflex 152 hindbrain see rhombencephalon gamma motor neurons 244 hippocampal formation 287, 301–3, 301–5 ganglion 2 injury 309 geniculate tract 253 hippocampus 301, 302, 306, 308 genital corpuscles 87 homeostatic regulation 151–2 360 homonymous hemianopia 202 giant pyramidal neurons of Betz 248 homunculus 125 gigantocellular reticular nucleus 143 motor 248, 344, 344 alpha part 143 sensory 100–1, 126, 127–8, 348–9, 349 caudal part 147 thalamic 238 ventral part 143 hook bundle 273 glial cell line‐derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) 14 horizontal cells of Cajal 338, 338 glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) 6 Horner syndrome 223, 374, 378 gliomas 9 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 9 global aphasia 359 hydroxyapatite 174 globose nucleus 273 hyperhidrosis 334 globus pallidus 76, 262, 263, 263 hypertonicity 275

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hypesthesia 91 interventricular foramina 391, 392 hypocretin 320 intracranial herniations 389–91, 390, 391 hypogeusia 294 intralaminar nuclei 120, 228, 228, 231, 231–2, 231 hypoglossal nerve (XII) 56, 246 intramedullary arterial system 371 hypoglossal nucleus 54, 246 intraparietal sulcus 71 hypoglossal trigone 49, 56 iris 221 hypokinesia 276 sphincter pupillae 222 hyposmia 288–9 itch 106–7 hypothalamohypophyseal portal system 322 hypothalamus 67, 78, 313, 314 jaw‐closing reflex 136, 137 fiber connections 321–2 joint receptors 121–2 functions 322–4 juxtarestiform body 181, 272, 273 mamillary bodies 301 nuclei 315–21, 316 Klüver‐Bucy syndrome 308 regions 314, 315, 316 knee jerk reflex 41, 41 chiasmal region 314, 315–19, 317 Korsakoff syndrome 308 mamillary region 314, 317, 320–1 tuberal region 314, 317, 319–20 labyrinth zones 313–14, 315 bony 171, 172, 220 injuries 182 implantation 20 membranous 171–2, 172 indoleamines 56 labyrinthine artery 372–3 inferior cerebellar peduncle 58, 269, 271–2 lacrimal nucleus 60 injury 278 lamellar corpuscles 86, 87, 122–3 inferior colliculi 50, 63, 64 lamina terminalis 67–8 injury to 166 lateral corticospinal tract 249 nuclei 64, 161 functional aspects 251 inferior frontal gyrus 70 termination 249–50 inferior olive 48–9, 56 lateral dorsal nucleus of the thalamus 230, 230, 231 inferior parietal lobule 352 lateral geniculate body and nucleus 197–8, 202, 231, 234 inferior reticular nucleus 143 dorsal part 197 inferior salivatory nucleus 54 injury 203 inferior temporal gyrus 288 retinal fiber termination 234 inferior vestibular nucleus 178 148, 160, 161, 164, 178 inferolateral pontine syndrome 378 nuclei 161 infundibular nucleus 320 lateral medullary syndrome 372, 378 innervation ratio 243 lateral paragigantocellular nucleus 143 insula 72, 354, 357–8 lateral posterior nucleus of the thalamus 235 insular gyri 72 lateral prefrontal cortex 346 insular sulcus 72 lateral reticular nucleus 58, 142 interfascicular hypoglossal nucleus 142 epiolivary division 142 intermediate nucleus 318–20, 319 subtrigeminal division 142, 143 intermediate reticular zone 142 lateral reticulospinal tract 322 intermediolateral nucleus 331 lateral spinothalamic tract 40, 95, 96, 99 intermediomedial nucleus 331 influences of endogenous substances 102 internal capsule 248 modality‐topic organization 99 corticobulbar fibers 253 position in the brain stem 99 corticospinal fibers 248–9 pruriception and 106–7 internal carotid artery 379 somatotopic organization 99 branches 379–83 transection 106 internal ear 156–8, 156, 171–3, 172 lateral stria 285–7 internal medullary lamina 76, 227, 231 lateral sulcus 69 internal vertebral plexus 371 lateral superior olive 161 244 lateral tectotegmentospinal tract 223, 224, 332 interoceptors 84 lateral tuberal nuclei 320 interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus 318–19 lateral ventricles 69, 391–2 interthalamic adhesion 227, 233, 234, 392 lateral vestibular nucleus 178

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lateral 181–2 median pontine syndrome 377 lateralization 343 medulla oblongata 47–9, 56–9, 57 lens accommodation 222 corticobulbar fibers 253 lenticular fasciculus 267 corticospinal fibers 249 lenticulostriate arteries 382 dorsal surface 49–50 lentiform nucleus 76, 263 reticular nuclei 142–3, 145, 146, 147 leptomeninges 33 ventral surface 47–9 light reflex 221–2, 222 medullary tractotomy 114 limbic system medulloblastoma 278 anatomy 300–6, 301 melatonin 77, 192 cyclic paths 306 membranous ampullae 172 descending paths 307 membranous labyrinth 171–2, 172 disorders 308–9 memory 308, 356 anterograde transneuronal degeneration 306–7, 307 menace reflex 210 functional aspects 307–9 meningocele 27, 28 historical aspects 299–300 Merkel cell carcinoma 86 injuries 309 mesencephalic flexure 21, 22, 23 psychosurgical procedures 309–10 mesencephalic reticular field 146 seizures and 309 mesencephalon 21, 22 synaptic organization 306–7 see also midbrain lingual gyrus 73 metatarsalgia of Morton 13 lipofuscin 2 metencephalon 25, 25 locked‐in syndrome 255 microcephaly 28–9 locus coeruleus 63 microglia 6, 7, 8 longitudinal cerebral fissure 69 function 8–9 loss of body scheme 352 identification of 7 lower motor neurons see motor neurons microtubules 2 lumbosacral nucleus 39, 244 midbrain 50, 63–5, 62 caudal 64 macula 189, 189, 195 corticobulbar fibers 253 mamillary bodies 301, 320–1 corticospinal fibers 249 mamillotegmental path 307 dorsal surface 50 mamillothalamic tract 322 internal organization 63 mandibular reflex 136 reticular nuclei 145–6, 150 Marcus Gunn pupillary sign 225 ventral surface 50 massa intermedia 392 see also mesencephalon masseter reflex 136 middle 377 mechanoreceptors 82 middle cerebellar peduncle 50, 59, 269, 272 medial forebrain bundle 321 injury 278 medial frontal gyrus 73 middle cerebral artery 381–2, 379, 382 medial geniculate body and nucleus 126–7, 161, 231, 234–5 branches 382–3 injury to 166 middle ear 155–6, 156 magnocellular part 179 middle frontal gyrus 70 medial lemniscus 56, 124–5, 125, 126, 237 middle superior olive 161 position in the brain stem 125 midline myelotomy 129 medial longitudinal fasciculus 63, 64, 216 Millard–Gubler syndrome 377 injury 218 miniature ocular movements 208 medial nuclei of the thalamus 231, 233, 287 miosis 221 medial prefrontal cortex 346 miotic pupil 221 medial preoptic nucleus 318 mirror neuron network 353 medial reticular nucleus 142 mirror representation 353 medial stria 285 modality‐topic organization 123 medial vestibular nucleus 178, 181 lateral spinothalamic tract 99 medial vestibulospinal tract 181 monosynaptic reflex 88–89, 89 median medullary syndrome 377 Monte Cristo syndrome 255 median midbrain syndrome 377 morula 19 median nuclei of the thalamus 233–4 mossy fibers 272

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motion sickness 182, 183 distinction from neurons 6 in space 183 function 8–9 motor activity 243 identification of 6–8 motor apraxia 275, 360 see also astrocytes; microglia; oligodendrocytes motor cortex, primary 248, 343–4 neuromas 13 motor homunculus 248, 344, 344 acoustic 177, 221 motor neurons 4 neuromelanin 2, 63–4, 77, 265 activation 245 21 lower motor neurons 243–7 neuromodulators 5–6 brain stem 245–6 neuromuscular spindles 87–88, 88, 121–2 injury 246–7, 252 neuromuscular unit 243 spinal cord 244–5 neuronal cytoskeleton 2 upper motor neurons 248 neuronal plasticity 6 injury 251–2, 252 neurons 1–4, 2 motor system 244 axon hillock 2, 3 injury 275–8 axons 2, 3 motor unit 243 cell body (soma) 2–3 movement derangement 276 classification 4, 4 multiform neurons 338 cortical 91 multiple representation hypothesis 101, 128, 350 degeneration 10–11, 12 multiple sclerosis (MS) 3 anterograde degeneration 11, 12 multipolar neurons 4, 4, 5 retrograde degeneration 11 muscle tone 274 dendrites 2, 3–4 musculoskeletal mechanoreceptors 82 primary 89–91 mydriasis 221 regeneration 11–14, 12 myelencephalon 25 secondary 91 myelin 3 spinal cord 39–40 remyelination 14 thalamic 91 myeloarchitectonics 339–41, 342 neuropil 6 myelocele 28 neuropil threads 2–3 myelomeningocele 27, 28 neuropores myeloschisis 28 caudal 22 myoclonus 276 closure 24 rostral 22 narcolepsy 320 neurotendinous spindles 87, 87, 121–2 near reflex 222–3 neurotransmitters 1, 5–6 nerve growth factor (NGF) 13 alterations 6 neural canal 24 neurotrophic factors 13 neural crest cells 23–4, 33 neurotrophin-3 13 neural crest syndrome 24 neurulation neural folds 21 primary 22 neural groove 21 secondary 24 neural plate 21 nigrostriate fibers 265 neural transplantation 14 nociceptors 83, 96–7 neural tube 32 visceral 102 divisions 26 nodes of Ranvier 3 formation 21–2, 22, 23 nonencapsulated tactile disks 85–6 neurilemmal cells 3 nonspecific of diffuse thalamocortical activating system 232 neuritic plaques 2–3 norepinephrine 56 neuroblasts 32 notochordal process 20–1 neurofibrillary degenerations 2–3 nuclei of the perizonal fields 76, 78, 265 neurofibrillary tangles 2–3 nucleus 2 neurofibrils 2 nucleus accumbens 264 neurofilaments 2 nucleus ambiguus 58, 246 neuroglial cells 3, 6–9, 7 nucleus of Onuf 39 aging and 9 nucleus proprius 118 brain tumors 9 numeral‐tracing test 124

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nystagmus 184, 353 olivocochlear bundle 164 caloric 219–21, 221 onion‐skin pattern of Déjerine 108, 109 cerebellar 278 ophthalmic artery 379–80 congenital 219 ophthalmoplegia 218 horizontal 218 opponent surround 194 optomotor 353 optic chiasm 196, 196, 197 physiological 353 injuries 201–2, 201 vertical 218 optic disc 189, 190 vestibular 218 optic nerve (II) 194–6, 196 axonal transport defect 10 occipital forceps 73 injuries 201 occipital horn 392 intracanalicular part 195 occipital lobe 71, 354 intracranial part 195 occipitotemporal gyri 74 intraoptic part 195 ocular fixation 207 intraorbital part 194–5 ocular intorsion 212 retinoptic organization 195–6 ocular movements 207–9 optic neuropathy 201 compensatory movements 216–17 optic radiations 198 conjugate movements 207 injuries 202–3 anatomical basis 215–16, 215 termination 198 following movements 353 optic tract 197 miniature movements 208 injuries 202 ocular bobbing 219 optomotor nystagmus 353 ocular convergence 222–3 orbital prefrontal cortex 346 role 219 orbitofrontal cortex 288 saccades 208–9 osmoreceptors 84 smooth pursuit movements 209 oval window 156 vestibular connections involved 216–18, 217 vestibular movements 209 pain see also extraocular muscles aura 102, 350 oculomotor nerve (III) 50, 52, 211, 213, 245, 330 chronic 105 injury 213–14 congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis 98 oculomotor nuclei 50, 56, 64, 213, 216, 245 referred 102, 106 olfaction 283 somatic 102 olfactory attention tests 288 suffering accompanying 105 olfactory bulb 74, 284, 285, 285, 286 surgical treatment 310 olfactory cilia 284 visceral 102, 106 olfactory cortex, primary 288 pain management olfactory epithelium 284, 284 spinal cord stimulation 129–30 olfactory fila 284–5 thalamic treatment targets 100 olfactory groove meningiomas 289 pain paths 112 olfactory knob 284 modulation 102 olfactory nerve (I) 54, 284–5 superficial pain 95–102, 101, 108–11, 109 olfactory pigment 284 visceral pain 102–7 olfactory receptor neurons 284 pallidohypothalamic tract 322 olfactory striae 285, 285, 286 pallidum 263 olfactory system 283–90, 300 pallium 69 efferent connections 288 papilledema 201 injuries 288–90 papillomacular bundle 195 olfactory tract 74, 285, 286 paracentral lobule 73 olfactory trigone 74, 285 paradoxical reaction 225 olfactory tubercle 285, 286, 288 parageusia 294 oligodendrocytes 3, 6–8, 7 parahippocampal gyrus 74, 301–2, 301–5 function 8 paralytic mydriasis 214 identification of 6–7 paramacular fibers 195 oligodendroglial microtubular masses 7 paramedian midbrain syndrome 378 olivocerebellar tract 272 parapeduncular nucleus 146

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parastriate area 354 rostral 61, 62–63 paraventricular nucleus 315–18, 319 ventral surface 50 paresthesias 13 pontine fibers 59 parietal lobe 71, 71, 347–53, 347 pontine isthmus 63 inferior parietal lobule 352 pontine nuclei 59 parietal vestibular cortex 352–3 pontine reticular nucleus 145 primary somatosensory cortex (SI) 348–50 caudal part 143, 147 injury 350 oral part 145 secondary somatosensory cortex (SII) 350 pontine 59–61 injury 350 pontocerebellar fibers 59 superior parietal lobule 350–2 pontocerebellar tract 272 injury 352 positional vertigo 184 parietal operculum 162 post‐convulsive depression 252 parietal vestibular cortex 179, 179–80, 352–3 postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe 71, 127, 135 parieto‐occipital sulcus 71, 73 corticospinal fibers 251 Parinaud syndrome 378 postcentral sulcus 71 Parkinson disease 63 posterior cerebral artery 374–5, 383 parvicellular reticular nucleus 143 brain stem branches 375 alpha part 143 posterior communicating artery 380 pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus 145 posterior hypothalamic area 321 compact part 145 posterior hypothalamotegmental tract 322 diffuse part 145 posterior inferior cerebellar artery 368, 372 63, 104 syndrome of 372, 378 stimulation 105 posterior nuclear complex of the thalamus 235 perifornical nucleus 320 posterior parietal cortex 352 perilymph 157 posterior perforated substance 50 peripheral nervous system (PNS) 1 posterior spinal arteries 368, 369 regeneration 11–13 posterior spinal rami 367 periventricular gray 63 postural instability 277 stimulation 105 precentral operculum 105 phantom limb 352 precentral sulcus 69–70 pharyngeal efferent 52 precuneus 73 pharyngeal reflex 152 prefrontal cortex 346–7, 347 pheromones 289–90 premotor cortex 180, 248, 344–5 phosphenes 162 injury 275 photopic vision 192 preoptic area 67–8 photoreceptors 84, 187, 191–3 preoptic pulmonary edema 322 phototransduction 192 prepiriform cortex 286 phrenic nucleus 39, 244 pressure path physiological nystagmus 353 from the body 120–30, 120 pia mater from the head 133–5, 134 cranial 388 see also tactile sensation path spinal 43, 43 presubiculum 287 pial arterial plexus 371 pretectal nuclear complex 222 Piltz–Westphal syndrome 222 pretecto‐oculomotor fibers 222 pineal gland 77 primary endoderm 20, 20 piriform cortex 286 primary fibers 88 pleomorph neurons 338 primary neurons 89–91 poliomyelitis 247 auditory paths 159 polymorph neurons 338 central processes 90–1 pons 50, 59–63, 60 gustatory path 292–3 caudal 59, 60–1 olfactory system 284–5 corticobulbar fibers 253 pain paths 97–8, 104, 108 corticospinal fibers 249 peripheral processes 90 dorsal surface 50 proprioception, pressure, and vibration paths middle 60, 61–2 123–4, 133–4 reticular nuclei 145–6, 147, 148, 149 tactile discrimination paths 123–4, 130

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primary neurons (cont’d) temperature 83, 96–7 tactile sensation paths 118, 131–2 vestibular 173 temperature paths 97–8, 108 visual 187, 191–3 thermal discrimination 111 65 vestibular paths 175–7 referred pain 102 visual path 193–4 visceral pain as 106 primary neurulation 22 reflex circuits 88–89 primary vestibulocerebellar fibers 181 remote memory 356 primitive node 20–1 remyelination 14 primitive streak 20 reproduction 324 projection fibers 78 respiration 151–2 proprioception path restless behavior 310 from the body 120–30, 120 reticular formation (RF) 54, 56, 141–53, 142, 143 from the head 133–5, 134 ascending reticular system 146–9 see also tactile sensation path descending reticular system 149 proprioceptors 84, 121–2 functional aspects 149–53 propriospinal fibers 98 consciousness 150–1 proprius bundles 104 homeostatic regulation 151–2 prosencephalon 21, 25, 67 motor function 153 see also forebrain visceral reflexes 152–3 356, 360 nuclear groups 143 pruriception 106–7 ocular movements and 219 pseudounipolar neurons 4, 4 paramedian pontine 216 psychomotor seizures 356 structural aspects 141–7 ptosis 213 medulla oblongata 142–3, 145, 146, 147 pulvinar nuclei 232, 233, 235 midbrain 145–6, 151 pupil 221 pons 143, 145, 148, 149, 150 constriction 222 reticular nucleus 232, 233, 235–6 dilatation 214, 223 reticulocerebellar tract 271 Marcus Gunn pupillary sign 225 reticulotegmental nucleus of the pons 145 miotic 221 retina 187–91, 188 pupillary pain reflex 223–4 amacrine neurons 188–9 pupillary unrest 221 areas 190 Purkinje cells 270 detachment 201 putamen 76, 261, 262–3, 262, 263 developmental aspects 190 fundus 262 dopaminergic neurons 189 pyramidal neurons 338, 338, 339 horizontal neurons 188 pyramidal system 247–56 injuries 201 corticobulbar component 252–5, 253, 254 neural layer 187–8 corticospinal component 247–52, 247, 250 pigmented layer 187 injury 251–2 radial gliocytes 189 pyramidal tract 56, 247 special regions 189–90 pyramids 47–8, 249 retinal bipolar neurons 193, 222 decussation 249, 251 retinal ganglionic neurons 194, 222 receptive fields of 194 radial gliocytes 189 retrograde degeneration 11 rapidly adapting (RA) units 122 retrograde reaction 10–11 Raymond syndrome 377 rhinal sulcus 74 rebound phenomenon 278 rhinencephalon 77 receptors 81, 89 rhodopsin 192 auditory 158–9 rhombencephalon 21, 22, 25 classification by distribution and function 84 rigidity 275 classification by modality 81–4 decerebrate 278 gustatory 290 decorticate 278 olfactory 283–4 rods 191–3 pain 83, 96 rotational vertigo 184 structural classification 84–8 rubrospinal fibers 273

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saccades 208–9 somatic afferent columns saccular 383 brain stem 52, 54 saccular macula 173 spinal cord 39–40 saccule 172–3 somatic efferent columns sacral parasympathetic nucleus 331 brain stem 52, 54 scala tympani 156 spinal cord 39–40 scala vestibuli 156 somatic pain 102 schizophrenia 310 see also pain paths Schwann cells 3 somatosensory cortex scotopic vision 192 organization 349 secondary ascending visceral tract 104 primary (SI) 100, 127, 130, 132–3, 248, 348–50 secondary neurons 91 injury 350 auditory paths 159–60 secondary (SII) 128, 132–3, 350 gustatory system 293 injury 350 olfactory system 285 ”what” and “where” processing 128–9, 128 pain paths 98–9, 104, 110–11 somatotopic organization 99 proprioception, pressure, and vibration paths sound conduction 159 124–5, 134 spastic paralysis 252 tactile discrimination paths 124–5, 130 spina bifida 27–8, 27 tactile sensation paths 118–20, 132 spinal arteries 367, 368 temperature paths 98–9, 110–11 spinal cord thermal discrimination 111–12 anatomy 34–7, 35–8 vestibular paths 177–9 blood supply 368–72, 369 visual pathway 193 extramedullary vessels 368–71 secondary neurulation 24 intramedullary vessels 371 seizures cauda equina 35 auditory 167 cervical enlargement 34, 37 focal 8 cervical region 34 Jacksonian 102, 350 coccygeal region 34 limbic system and 309 conus medullaris 35, 36 psychomotor 356 dorsal horn 32–3, 37–8, 37 selective dorsal rhizotomy 98 embryology 31–4, 32–4 semantic memory 308 dorsal gray column formation 32, 33 semicircular canals 156, 220 layers of the developing cord 31, 32 sensory apraxia 352 neural crest cells 32, 33 sensory ataxia 124 ventral gray column formation 32, 33 sensory decussation 124 35 sensory extinction 352 gray matter 34, 37–9 sensory homunculus 100–1, 126, 127–8, spinal laminae 38 348–9, 349 growth 36 sensory Jacksonian seizures 102, 350 injury 43–4 sensory neurons 4 syringomyelia 44, 44 sensory paths 89 transverse hemisection 43, 44 classification 89 intermediate zone 38–9 modulation 91 lateral horn 37, 37, 38–9, 330, 330 organization 89–91, 90 lower motor neurons 244–5 septal area 300 lumbar region 34 septum pellucidum 73 lumbosacral enlargement 34, 37 serosal mechanoreceptors 82 sacral region 34 serotonin 56 somatic afferent columns 39–40 sleep 323–4 somatic efferent columns 39–40 smell 283 spinal segments 34–5, 35 loss of 288–9 vertebral relationship 37 smoking, maternal 26 stimulation for pain relief 129–30 solitary nucleus 54, 58, 61, 293 thoracic region 34 interstitial 293 ventral horn 32, 33, 37, 37, 39 solitary tract 58 divisions 39

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spinal cord (cont’d) superior cerebellar peduncle 269, 272 visceral afferent columns 39–40 decussation 62, 64 visceral efferent columns 39–40 injury 278 white matter 32, 34, 37, 40–1 50, 62, 64 fasciculi 40–1 superior frontal gyrus 70 funiculi 32, 37, 40 superior medullary velum 63 spinal dysraphism 27–8 superior olivary nucleus 61, 161 spinal ganglia 2 superior parietal lobule 350, 352 formation 33, 36 injury 352 spinal medullary arteries 368–9 superior salivatory nucleus 54, 60 spinal meninges 42–3, 43 superior vestibular nucleus 177–8 arachnoid 43, 43 superolateral pontine syndrome 378 dura mater 42, 43 supplementary motor area 345 pia mater 43, 43 suprachiasmatic nucleus 315 spinal nerves 33 suprageniculate nucleus 127 spinal radicular arteries 368 supramarginal gyrus 71, 352 spinal reflexes 40–1, 41, 42 supraoptic nucleus 315–18 spinal veins 371, 372 swinging flashlight test 225 spinocerebellum 268 synapse 1, 5–6, 5 spinocortical fibers 251 components of 5 spinoreticulothalamic tract (SRT) 40, 102, 103, 104, 332, 333 neuronal plasticity 6 position in the brain stem 104 synaptic stripping 8 somatotopic organization 104 syringobulbia 123 spinotectal tract 223–4 syringomyelia 44, 44 spiral ganglia 158, 159 spiral membrane 156 tactile corpuscles 86, 86, 122, 130 spiral organ 157, 158 tactile discrimination path hair cells 157, 158 from the body 120–30 stapedius 156 from the head 130, 131 statoconia 173–5, 174 tactile disks 85–6, 117 stellate cells 270, 338, 338 tactile sensation path stereocilia 157 from the body 117–20 decoupling of 165 from the head 131–3, 132 stereotactic trigeminal nucleotomy 114 tarsal muscle 213–14 strabismus taste 290 external 214 flavor 294–5 unilateral internal 211 loss of 289 stria terminalis 262, 287, 321 qualities of 290–1 striate cortex 199, 354 taste buds 290, 290 striatum 263 structure 291–2 366 taste pore 291–2 subarachnoid space 43 tectocerebellar tract 272 subcallosal area 77, 300 tectorial membrane 158 subclavian arteries 366 tegmental syndrome of the midbrain 378 subdural space 42 tegmentospinal path 307 substance P 102 tela choroidea 8, 52 50, 63, 77, 265, 265 telencephalon 23, 25, 25, 67–77 56 telencephalon medium 67–8, 68 subthalamic nucleus 76–7, 78, 265 see also cerebral hemispheres deep brain stimulation 276–7 temperature paths 112 injury 276–7 modulation 102 subthalamostriate fibers 265 superficial temperature 95–102 subthalamus 67, 76, 78, 265 thermal discrimination 111–13, 111 superior alternating hemiplegia 377 thermal extremes from the head 108–11, 109 superior cerebellar artery 374 temperature regulation 323 syndrome of 378 temporal gyrus 71–2, 75, 288, 354, 354, 355

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temporal horn 390 trace amine‐associated receptors (TAARs) 289 temporal lobe 71, 354–6 transience 308 midtemporal areas 356 trapezoid body 160 primary auditory cortex 354 nuclei 161 temporal sulci 71, 75 tremors 276 temporal vestibular cortex 180, 355–6 cerebellar 277 temporo‐parietal junction 180 trigeminal ganglion 108 tensor tympani 156 thermocoagulation 113 tentorial notch 387 trigeminal mesencephalic tract 62, 64 tentorium cerebelli 387 trigeminal motor nucleus 245 teratoma 20 trigeminal motor root 135 tertiary neurons, auditory paths 161 trigeminal nerve (V) 61, 113, 245 tethered cord 27 nerve root 49 thalamic fasciculus 267, 267 trigeminal neuralgia 113–14 thalamic hand 238 causes 113 thalamic homunculus 238 treatment 113–14 thalamic neurons 91, 288 trigeminal nuclear complex 54, 107–8, 107, 135 auditory paths 161 trigeminal mesencephalic nucleus 62–4, 133 gustatory system 293 trigeminal motor nucleus 61, 135, 136 pain paths 100, 105, 111 trigeminal pontine nucleus 61, 134 proprioception, pressure, and vibration paths 126–7, 134–5 trigeminal spinal nucleus 107, 108–10 tactile discrimination paths 126–7, 130 trigeminal reflexes 136–8 tactile sensation paths 120, 132 trigeminal sensory root 108 temperature paths 100, 111 alcohol injection 113 thermal discrimination 112 partial section 113 vestibular paths 179 trigeminal spinal tract 58 visual path 197 somatotopic organization 108 thalamoparietal fibers 127 trigeminal tubercle 49, 58 thalamostriate fibers 265 trochlear fibers 64 thalamus 67, 78, 227–8, 228, 314 trochlear nerve (IV) 25, 50, 52, 211, 245 as a neurosurgical target 239–40 decussation 211, 213 injuries 238 injury 211–12 mapping 238–9 25, 52, 54, 64, 211, 216, 245 nuclear groups 228–38, 229 tuberomamillary nuclei 320 anterior nuclei 229–30, 229, 230, 301 two‐point discrimination 86 intralaminar nuclei 230, 231–2, 231 tympanic cavity 155–6 lateral dorsal nucleus 230, 230, 231 tympanic membrane 155 lateral posterior nucleus 235 medial nuclei 230, 231, 233, 287 uncinate nucleus 319 median nuclei 233–4 uncus 74 metathalamic body and nuclei 234–5 herniation 388, 388 posterior nuclear complex 235 unipolar neurons 4 pulvinar nuclei 232, 233, 235 upper motor neurons 248 reticular nucleus 232, 233, 235–6 injury 251–2, 252 ventral nuclei 236–8 urticle 172–3 pain treatment targets 100 urticular macula 173 stimulation 100, 179, 239 thermal discrimination path 111–13, 111 vagal trigone 49, 56 thermoreceptors 83, 96–7 vagus nerve (X) 54, 58, 113, 246, 330–1 389, 390–1 inferior ganglion 292 tics 276 nerve root 49 tinnitus 166 vascular injuries 384 Todd paralysis 252 vena terminalis 262 torsion spasm 276 ventral anterior nucleus 236 touch path see tactile discrimination path; tactile ventral cochlear nucleus 159–60 sensation path ventral corticospinal tract 249

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ventral lateral nucleus 236 efferent component 182 caudal part 179 examination 219–21 ventral medial nucleus 236 vestibular vertigo 183–4 basal 293 vestibular window 156 ventral posterior nucleus 236–8 vestibule 156 ventral posterior inferior nucleus 238 vestibulo‐ocular reflex 209 dorsal part 179 vestibulocerebellar fibers 272 ventral posterior lateral nucleus 100, 120, 126, 237 vestibulocerebellum 268 oral part 179 vestibulocochlear column 54 ventral posterior medial nucleus 110, 111, 112, vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) 52, 58 126, 130, 237–8 nerve root 49 ventral reticular nucleus 142 vestibulocochlear nucleus 58–59 ventral spinocerebellar tract 272 vestibulothalamic path 178–9, 237 ventral spinothalamic tract 117, 118, 119, 119 vibration path position in the brain stem 119–20 from the body 120–30, 120 ventral striatum 261, 262, 263–4 from the head 133–5, 134 ventral trigeminothalamic tract 108, 110–12, 110, 130, 131, see also tactile sensation path 133, 237 violent behavior 310 389–91 visceral afferent columns ventromedial nucleus 319 brain stem 52, 54 vermis 50, 51, 267, 268 spinal cord 39–40 vertebral arteries 366, 372 visceral efferent columns branches 367–8 brain stem 52, 54 vertebral artery syndrome 378 spinal cord 39–40 35 visceral mechanoreceptors 82 growth 36 visceral pain 102 spinal segment relationships 37 as referred pain 106 vertebral–basilar arterial system 366–8, 367 see also pain paths vertebral–basilar artery syndrome 378 visual agnosia 354, 360 vertigo 183–4 visual axis 190, 190 pathological 183–4 visual cortex physiological 183 association area 356 visual 183 developmental aspects 200 vestibular area 177 extrastriate areas (V2) 199, 200 vestibular cortex injuries 203 parietal 179–80 primary (VI) 198, 199, 198, 354 temporal 180 layers pf 199 vestibular epithelium 173, 174 retinotopic organization 199 efferent fibers to 176 secondary 354 vestibular ganglion 175 ”what” and “where” processing 200 vestibular hair cells 173, 175 visual fields 190–1, 191 age‐related changes 173 binocular 191 functional polarization 175 defects 201, 201 positional polarization 175 examination of 191, 192 vestibular membrane 156 quadrants 191 vestibular nerve 177 uniocular 191 vestibular neuritis 184 visual path 191–200 vestibular nuclear complex 58, 177–8 magno and parvo paths 200 afferent projections to 182–3 visual pigments 192 injury 218 visual reflexes 221–5 vestibular nystagmus 218 light reflex 221–2, 222 vestibular paths 180–2 near reflex 222–3 ascending 173–80, 176 pupillary dilatation 223 ocular movements and 216–18 pupillary pain reflex 223–4 projections to the spinal cord 181–2, 181 visual system vestibular system injuries 200–3 anatomy 171–3 retina 187–91

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visual vertigo 183 white matter vomiting 152–3 cerebellum 269, 270–1, 271 cerebral 68, 69, 78–9 wakefulness 323–4 spinal cord 32, 34, 37, 40–1 Wallenberg syndrome 372, 378 funiculi 32, 37, 40 water balance 322 Weber syndrome 377 Zika virus 29 Wernicke’s aphasia 359 zona incerta 76, 78, 265 Wernicke’s area 355, 355 zygote 19

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