Hoduck Kang 6 5 4 3 2 Alexander Gradel 1 * Corresponding author:[email protected] Biomedi Campus, ofKorea Republic Nalaikh, Mongolia Applied Sciences, ofMongolia, NationalUniversity Forest Ecology, Germany Göttingen, Forest Revie Learned Degradation should be given to the linkages between vegetation between covershould begiven andthehydrological to thelinkages regime. integrate development andforest capacity research into holisticinitiatives. Aspecialfocus sustainableforestry.support Basedonourreview, to we conclude thatitisnecessary examines howto canbemodified forest betterlocal participation and administration, and managing forests. by abodyofliterature supported thatThese studiesare further of casestudiesthatpresented or proposed promising approaches to (re-)establishing few exceptions, onlylimited success. ourreview, During however, we found anumber afforestation initiatives are to have reported increased. We found have thatthey had, with of sources noticedadecrease inforest thelastdecades, area during although andquality lackscientificgrounding.sustainable, andthatsomepractices number Anoverwhelming ourreview,needs. In we found thatcurrent forest isnotalways management inMongolia management systems thatbothsafeguard forest healthandconsidersocio-economic grouped ourreview into seven challengesrelevant to developing regionally adapted forest lessons learned, with special consideration to halting deforestation and degradation. We We aliterature conducted review ofthestatusforest and managementinMongolia degradation. to providing resources forests andecosystem functions, Mongolian protect againstland especially complicated. Forests addition role inlandmanagement.In play animportant inMongolia theimplementationofsustainablelandmanagementpractices make related to system thetransformation fromtowards asocialisticsociety amarket-driven Abstract Department ofBiological andEnvironmental University, Science, Department Dongguk Engineering Faculty, for Institute Resources and German-Mongolian Technology, ofForest Institute Mongolia Science, ofMongolia, NationalUniversity ofEnvironment andForest Department Engineering, ofEngineering and School Georg-August-Universität Faculty Göttingen, formerly: ofForest and Sciences Forestry Gradel, Germany BadOeynhausen, Consultancy International . challengesThe natural conditions, climate change and socio-economic w Of 6 M 1,2*

With anagement , Gerelbaatar Sukhbaatar Challenges And Special Deforestation In Reference 3,4 And , DanielKarthe Mongolia Lessons 5 , T o – A

133 GES 03|2019 134 GES 03|2019 DOI-10.24057/2071-9388-2019-102 Sustainability, Vol.12, No3,p. 133-166 With SpecialReference To Degradation AndDeforestation. Geography, Environment, ChallengesAndLessons Learned(2019) Forest Of –AReview Mongolia In Management (>90% canopy cover loss)or total loss of distinguished. Deforestation refers to asevere and forest degradation need to be the phenomena of deforestationMongolia, With regard to forest loss and degradation in reversed. degradation hasbeen neitherstopped nor offorestthe overall tendency lossand financed initiatives to improve thesituation, 2011). Despitenationallyandinternationally administrative oversight (Benneckendorf ofimplementationcontrolterms and are in related weaknesses to structural management models. Further challenges application ofsuitable and thepractical regionally adapted managementstandards of utilizingconclusionsfrom research for 2011). (Oyunsanaa due to alack This ispartly standards fails to considerscience-based that forest often managementinMongolia problematic isparticularly It in Mongolia. sustainable forest managementpractices it isincreasingly challenging to establish al. 2018), 2013;Government ofMongolia pressure 2004; Hansen et (Tsogtbaatar forest lossandincreasing utilization ( etal. 2013). With continuing and land degradation to desertification isexposed territory 80%ofMongolian nearly 2018).However,Government ofMongolia 2001; (Krasnoshhekov Tsogt etal. 2018; retention, erosion control, and biodiversity country, and suchaswater purification are relevant to thewell-being ofthewhole firewood, that butalsoecosystem services provide resources suchas timber and notonly Mongolia forests ofnorthern (GerelbaatarMongolia etal. 2019a). The environmental issue in is akey policy sustainable forest managementstrategies The development andimplementationof GEOGRAPHY, Citation INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION Key words : Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar Sukhbaatar, Daniel Karthe, Hoduck Kang HoduckKang AlexanderGradel, Gerelbaatar Sukhbaatar, DanielKarthe, : forest deforestation, management,Mongolia, degradation ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY important ecosystem functions and key andkey ecosystem functions important and degradation, aswell asofthe most driversofdeforestationabove-mentioned We aliterature conducted review ofthe degradation. as haltoreven reverse deforestation and and resources,ecosystem functions aswell thatcansafeguardframework healthy develop asustainableforest management needto beunderstoodaspects inorder to etal. 2018).Allofthese degradation (Juřička degradation forest canalsotrigger 2018).Onlocalscalepermafrost of Mongolia (Governmentpolitical and legal framework factors, institutional organization, and the 2013), whichencompassdemographic processes (Saladyga etal. inMongolia economic andpoliticaltransformation et al. related 2013)andfactors to socio- ofdroughts (Davi andseverity frequency include climate change, whichaffects the etal. drivers 2018).Underlying Khongor 2018; 2016; GovernmentofMongolia etal.,et al2011;Khishigjargal 2014;MET et al., 2008; 2010;Dulamsuren Ykhanbai activities, andovergrazing (Kondrashov overexploitation offorest resources, mining fire, practices, pests, unsustainable harvest forest degradation are such as disturbances 2017). Direct drivers ofdeforestation and Kang and (Khaulenbek even desertification 2018; Gerelbaatar et Mongolia al. 2019a) and to complete deforestation (Government of Continuing degradation caneventually lead intensive logging (Gerelbaatar etal. 2019a). toward broad-leaf pioneertree speciesafter 2018)orashift (Government ofMongolia may volume includeadecrease instocking by specificdisturbances. Suchdisturbances triggered andisoften ecosystem functions by aqualitative lossthataffects forest contrast,degradation ischaracterized In forest cover 2018). (Government ofMongolia 03 (12)2019 is usually expected tois usuallyexpected leadto overall climate change context theMongolian In nearthecenter ofthishotspot”.Mongolia Chinaand ofnorthern putting thedrylands Baikal, appears to liejust southeast of Lake (2003), zone center ofthe warming “the et al.Mannig 2013). According to Yu et al. in the future (Unger-Sayesteh et al. 2013; average.world This trendto continue islikely temperatures have faster thanthe risen of climate change;over thepastcentury, Central Asia isoneoftheglobalhotspots of globalwarming-induced desertification Challenge 1: Adaptation to andmitigation studies orprojects intheregion. fromsituation andoflessonslearned recent ofthecurrent overview we provide ashort transferable For to Mongolia. eachchallenge, from otherregions thatmay oftheworld be and9provideMongolia, specificinsights background relevant to thechallengesin provide a rather general global or theoretical or its immediatein Mongolia neighbors, 21 to research, orprojects development work, those, 125 sourcesOf are directly related publications were reviewed for thisstudy. political-cultural background. total, In 155 areas; (7)Consideration ofthesocialand resource utilization anddemandinforested of nature, biodiversity, andwildlife;(6)Increased underplanting; (5) Managing the conservation degradation: Afforestation, reforestation, and forest regeneration againstdeforestation and water resources management; (4) Supporting natural disturbances; forest (3)Linking and Resilience againstmore frequent andsevere of global warming-induced (2) desertification; (1)AdaptationMongolia: to andmitigation challengesforkey forest managementin offormulatingour objective thefollowing projects, andothersources relevant to government, international Mongolian scientificcommunity,international the We reviewed literature from the Mongolia. forlessons learned forest management in challengesand identifying andoutliningkey demandswiththegoalof socio-economic Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar MATERIALS AND METHODS studies, etal. Slemnev (2012)concluded on comprehensive dendrochronological precedent in thelast2060years. Based rare,(in 1990)are butnotwithout very droughtextreme (in2000) andpluvial Hessl etal. (2018)conclude thattherecent and projectionofpastfuture droughts, their reconstruction scenarios. In alarming . However, notallstudiespredictsuch tree species, specifically decline ofcertain al. (2010a)even suggested asupra–regional growth (Angerer etal. 2008).Dulamsuren et conditions may becomeunsuitablefor tree be mostdrasticintheforest steppe, where aretoperiod. Climate changeimpacts likely thegrowingdrought during frequency 1950s andcorrelated them with increasing growthal. (2018)observed declinessincethe Dulamsuren et etal. (2011)andKansaritoreh throughout taiga, mostoftheMongolian Ledeb.), whichisthedominanttree species cover. For larch theSibirian ( may leadto significant changesin forest changes intemperature andwater availability marginal habitatfor trees, even minor and isanextreme Mongolia As northern throughout thecountry. desertification that climate changemay exacerbate raisedinmanyA concern sources is al. 2014). et for thisregion (Karthe model uncertainty precipitation trends, there isaconsiderable Mongolia. Withnorthern regard to future decrease ofprecipitation of for someparts mm/year. Sato etal. afurther (2007) expects decreased inmostregions by atleast0.1 etal.to (2015), precipitation Oyuntuya has etal.70 years 2015).According (Oyuntuya strong increase thelast of2.14°Cduring previous (Davi etal. centuries 2013),andeven growing seasontemperature compared to a reconstructed increase ofabout1.5°C and Yasurani 1995)to moderate, e.g. with 1951and1990(Yatagaiof 0.4°Cbetween ratherlowbetween increase, for example methodologies theinformation differs, of different datamaterial, timeframesand thelastdecades.during However, because annual temperature significantly has risen the literature sources constitute thatmean general, and Hauck2008,IWRM2009).In droughts (Batimaetal. 2005,Dulamsuren conditionsandmore anddrier warmer Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

135 GES 03|2019 136 GES 03|2019 The species-specific demandsofspruce and need to beimplemented to shed more light. and specific long-term research protocols 2013). These conclusionsare notyet final etal. (Kharuk southern neighboring for reasons, various iseven more in evident coniferous,al. decline of dark 2018). Overall 2011;Gradelet (James Mongolia northern conifers declineindark in climate-induced have found indicationofapotentially rare for However, Mongolia. someauthors coniferousdark trees are, compared to larch, Verhoeven etal. 2018).Studies thatinclude seeGradeletal. 2017a; Sukaczev; platyphylla 2011)andbirchsee James trees (Betula especially spruce (Picea obovata , Ledeb.; Du Tour; Grandpré seeDe etal. 2011),and al. stone pines(Pinus 2017),Siberian sibirica pines (PinusScots sylvestris et L.;seeDemina etal. 2011;Khishigjargal 2011; James 2014), growth oflarch trees (Dulamsuren etal. will have mostlynegative effects onthe increase and/oradecrease inprecipitation agreement thataminortemperature other climaticchanges. There isastrong and theirresilience to droughts and the growthoftree species performance A numberofrecent studieshave evaluated forestry on treesClimate effects and climate-resilient Lessons learned help offset greenhouse gasemissions. carbon sequestration capacity ofitsforests to needsto assessandimproveMongolia the along theforest-steppe border zone. Finally, to combat effort desertification a concerted permafrost sites. Second, there needsto be which alsoincludesspecialconsiderationof adaptable to changing climate conditions, management practices needto adaptandbe First,management inMongolia. forest areastothree improve ofaction key forest From our literature review, we have identified vegetation zones inMongolia. ofthemain shapingthedistribution factors are themain water inparticular availability 40-100 years. Thus, climaticconditions and thatoccurapproximatelyperiods every coincidewithespeciallymoist Mongolia offorestthat spurts regeneration in GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY stands are yet notavailable. on the waterforest balance in Mongolian that focus ofthinning solelyontheimpact to anentire site (Bolte etal. 2010).Studies from the level of a single tree to a stand greatly, whenviewed can vary particularly et al. 2014).However, theeffects ofthinning remaining trees (Gebhardt etal. 2014,Olivar on the amount of water available to the adaptation, sinceithasapositive impact thinning couldbeameasure for climate studies, for example, have that reported Gerelbaatar etal. European 2019b).Some and planting concepts (Gradel 2017; the development ofadjusted regeneration measures and harvesting specific selective These includeanalysisand establishmentof forest management have beenproposed. silvicultural measures for climate-resilient 2017). Based on recent research, adapted tolerance to water etal. scarcity(Kusbach also aimsatunderstandingandimproving Czech forest – Mongolian cooperation 2014). Research ofthe intheframework 2014) andPinus etal. sibirica (Krutovsky etal. etal. 2013;Krutovsky (Semerikov treeof Siberian speciessuchasLarix sibirica onthegeneticvariation been conducted resilient forestry. Extensive research has can beespeciallyvaluablefor climate- provenances ofonetreecertain species regeneration. Due to natural selection, and mechanisms that promote forest ofsuitabletreesthe availability species dependsalso on forestry Climate-resilient drier. be especiallyaffected iftheclimate gets species ordevelopment stagesoftrees may other factors. These findingsindicate which root architecturetheir less-developed and drought than older trees, due to mostlikely younger trees are more susceptible to Gradel etal. (2017a)have shown that to water deficitthanlarch seedlings, and that birch seedlingsare more sensitive drought. Similarly, etal. Gao (2017)conclude has decreasedin Mongolia since 1980 due to has found oflarch thatalsothequality seeds affected by climate change.Dorjsuren (2014) borderdistribution may bemore strongly fir also indicate that stands at the southern 03 (12)2019 and results for rorida Lacksch.,Populus Salix sibirica, m spacingcompared to 3 m spacing). The anddenserplanting (1.5 intervals irrigation and heightgrowth improved withshorter rate authors found thatseedling survival andParkimprovement 2017a). (Jo The sibirica Tausch seedlingsshowed significant the heightandcrown growth ofPopulus growth were recently tested, which after costsandenhancetreereduce earthwork Planting methods that were adjusted to 2017). Kang and analyses(Khaulenbek social-economic genetics andphysiology, GISanalyses, and seedlings andsaplings),studiesoftree for irrigation (especially drip practices testing ofsoilimprovement andirrigation (poplar species),agro-forestry experiments, ofsuitableclones testing andselection province (see Fig. 1). Research includes the oftheBulgan research part inthesouthern measures are combined with field-based deforested sites. capacity-building Joint solutions for ofdegraded therecovery institutionsandexploresand Mongolian Korean cooperation platform key between Areas(CCDASA) isa andSemi-arid Arid in Center forCombating Desertification Korean-Mongolian woodlands. The establishment ormaintenance ofscattered steppe border focuses and often on the atthe forforest combatingdesertification Tree planting is frequently used as a tool Combating desertification Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Academy of Sciences). A) withseedlings. Irrigation system B)Asuccessful in anursery Fig. 1.Nurseries were established andsites afforested Stationat the Elsentasarkhai Desertification) under the InstituteGeography underthe of Desertification) Geoecology and (Mongolian Ulmus pumila L.wereUlmus alsopromising, in BulganProvince by theERCCD (Experimental Research Center to Combat (А) poplar nursery hand with other objectives forhand withotherobjectives stabilizing and degradation therefore gohandin that reduce emissionsfrom deforestation emissions from theseforests. Measures degradation continuouscarbon cantrigger that resultdisturbances in large-scale sinks.to becarbon However, major borealUndisturbed forests are considered C etal. 2017a). (Batkhuu Desert the Gobi trees, suchasSaxaulforest plantationsin bystorms establishingabeltofplanted degradation andreduce dustandsand wasestablishedinorder to halt country “green belt” projectin the southof andPark 2017b).Onalarger(Jo scale, the and found significantly increase crop yield to create windbreaks hasalsobeentested atall. Plantingirrigation trees specifically as shrubsonsandduneswithoutany some trees, rorida, cansurvive suchasSalix conditions attheplantationsite. However, species are chosento suitthegroundwater to ensure that plantation important very According to CCDASA scientists, itis plantations ongroundwater inthedesert. of discussthe impact Silviculturists benefits within a fairly short amountoftime. short benefits withinafairly They environments. therefore wind-breaking provide important difficult to adapted arethey relatively fast-growing andwell- suitablebecause elm speciesare particularly 2017).Poplar andKang and (Khaulenbek with arbon sequestrationarbon (В) Forest Salix rorida showingSalix thefastest growth M anagement In Mongolia ...

137 GES 03|2019 138 GES 03|2019 Magnitude refers to thespatial extension severity, and seasonality. frequency Ammer 2007): magnitude, intensity/ (Pickett and White 1985;Puettmann and bycharacterized thefollowing criteria general, can be disturbances In frequent andsevere natural disturbances Challenge 2:Resilience againstmore at thenationallevel. unlessstrong measures are further taken Mongolia’s forests decrease willlikely pool of (2016) predict that the carbon 2018).Dulamsurenof Mongolia etal. (Governmentyears thedisturbance after can leadto increased emissionsfor carbon Dulamsuren etal. 2011).Suchdisturbances 2010; Tchebakova(Ykhanbai etal. 2011, including fires infestations and more frequent andsevere disturbances, climate to changeisexpected trigger reduce emissions. directcarbon However, (e.g.scale disturbances fire) would also large- 2018). Improved control ofcertain etal. the release (Juřička ofsoilcarbon the meltingofinsularpermafrost and intensive logging andfire cantrigger et al. reducing 2019a).By canopy cover, matter content ofthesoil(Gerelbaatar pool, for exampleby reducing theorganic consequencesforterm theforest carbon negativewood cantrigger long- clearing anddead practices Unsustainable harvest (includingreforestation).practices be improved silvicultural through certain for sequestrationmaycapacity carbon year 2018). (Government ofMongolia The removals significantly varied from year to clear trend wasdetected, asemissionsand were much lower than emissions and no removalsthe 2005-2015 period, carbon et al. 2018). For 2018; Khongor Mongolia Forest Reference Level (Government of and hasrecently submitted anational the UNREDDprogramme (UNFCCC 2019) withboreal foreststhe onlycountry under forests.densities inMongolian is Mongolia comprehensive pool studies of carbon et al. (2016)presented oneoftheearliest of forestquality resources. Dulamsuren information density, ontheextent, data inventory for country-wide are deriving important Sufficient cover. forest GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY and climates facilitate more severe fires. 2018): higher fuel loads and drier Keane 2018; 2010; Government of Mongolia andMelichercik Venalainen 2008; Onderka (Tanskanen and ofafire of the severity Climate determinants andfuel loadare key etal. 2007;Gradelet al2017b). (Makoto stages and prevent forest succession the continuing reoccurrence of pioneer morebetween intense fires canlead to than crown fires. intervals return Short and ground fires are less damaging of afire dependsonitsintensity. Surface this time ofyear. oftheoutcome Much reason why fires donotusually spread at the summer months,during which is the rainsoccurfrequently heavy Mongolia, when conditionsare relatively dry. In 2018), autumn (Government ofMongolia in andto alesserextent spring during 2018).Firesof Mongolia are mostcommon 2017a;2017b;Government lightning (MET humans; the remainder are largely due to the forest firesMongolia are in caused by Hessl etal. 2016).Approximately 95%of etal.Furyaev 1996;Kondrashov 2008; weather conditions(Goldammerand related and is often in Mongolia to dry Fire isthemostcommondisturbance Forest fires Lessons learned the latter disturbances. two contemplation inthisreview ison further 2011;Gradel2017). Oyunsanaa Therefore, 2004; outbreaksinsect (Tsogtbaatar natural disturbances, whichare fire and role compared to themosteminent mountain forests, butplay alesssignificant autumninMongolia's andearly spring snowbreak) are late common during weather events (e.g. orcertain storms Small andlarge by scaledisturbances timeintheyear (Sagwal1991). certain a during of occurrence ofadisturbance to the likelihood and seasonality intervals al. 2005).Frequency refers to recurrence form ofaneventet analysis(seeGadow alldiameterby classes, considering e.g. in degree of relative removal of basal area by the canbedescribed of disturbance (small scaleorlarge scale). The severity 03 (12)2019 succession stage(e.g., burned/recently and history into account disturbance take stand resilience, silviculturalmeasures that themanagementgoalisto increaseIf removed logging after in form of cleanings. thewoodenisoften debris Mongolia, (Graham etal. 2018).In 2004;Keane requires different managementactions the post-fire environment. Eachphase environment, thefire environment, and cycle: thepre-fire phases ofthewildfire some authors referthis context, to three In ofthefireand intensity disturbance. should respect the timely perspective (MOLF 2015). Fire management activities in the first article ForestMongolia Law of steppe fires is mentioned inthe very this reason, theprevention offorest and 2018);for(Government ofMongolia disturbances stands againstsecondary Fire theresilience weakens often oftree (seeFig.Mongolia 2). more frequent decades in inthelast two 2013; 2017b)suggestthatfire hasbecome (MET data However,spread.official recent have reduced andfire fuelcontinuity of drought andintensive grazing, which may bedueto thecoincidence century that limitedover fire thelast activity the 1500s. The samestudyconcluded since firefires intervals and shorter return 1900, there hasbeenatrend toward more have notchangedconsiderablysince that althoughoverall fire intervals return average. Hessletal. (2016)concluded withonly11.6years on is quite short, Mountains Khentii of thenorthwestern offorestfrequency fires inthepine forests (2011)found thattheaverageOyunsanaa Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Fig. forest 2.Mongolian fire statistics (1980-2016) resilience ofindividualtrees (Gradel 2017). remaining trees, whichmay increase the on the growthimpact and vigor of the been shown to have apositive short-term thinning of thelarch and birch forests has As analternative to prescribed burning, shouldbeevaluated further.practices cutting selective this reason, site-specific Aimag. slopes in Selenge Fornorthern fuel loads, as Teusan (2018)showed for the suggeststhatthisisdue toevidence higher etal.Kondrashov 2008; Teusan 2018). The forest (e.g., fire andstanddensity intensity that there between isindeedaconnection Studies at a larger scale, however, indicate atabroaderburning scaleprohibitive. application of, for example, prescribed security, the andpersonnel)alsomakes implement suchameasure (e.g., planning, 2019). The immenseinputrequired to fuel load(Forestry ofBuryatia Agency inorderplaces practiced to reduce grass isatsome prescribed burning , neighboring etal.(Kondrashov 2008).In as onemeansofreducing thefuelload hasbeentested burning inMongolia fire resistance atthestandlevel. Prescribed hypothesis cutting increases thatselective basin, and therefore the did not support and fire in the upper Eroo susceptibility find a standdensity relationship between Fischborn (2011),for example, didnot forests are controversial. Astudyby for increasing fire Mongolian resilience in measures (thinning, prescribed burning) At the stand level, different silvicultural considered. late seral stage, and climax)needto be stage,disturbed, early mid-seralstage, Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

139 GES 03|2019 GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY 03 (12) 2019

It is important to note, however, that the fire suppression actions are decisive. Early reduction in canopy cover resulting from suppression is reported to be especially tree thinning measures may impact the successful (Keane 2018). In the Mongolian permafrost; this potential consequence context, initial attacks on small fires with 03|2019 requires further study. small groups of locals is one approach. Depending on the regional fire frequency Thinning, however promotes diameter of the respective forest area, the post-fire growth and usually bark thickness environment may endure for centuries. In increases as stem diameter increases this context, secondary disturbances and (Rosell et al. 2017); thick bark helps to forest dynamics (short- and long-term 140 GES protect the cambium of trees against response of the ecosystem) are relevant. fire. Recent studies have highlighted the The Mongolian government takes a close connection between fire-affected number of forest fire preventing measures ecosystems and bark thickness, and shown during the fire season (spring: late March that fire regimes influence whether and to – mid June, autumn: September – end what extent trees invest in bark thickness October) by restricting activities including as a protection against fire (Pausas 2014; tourism, timber harvesting, and other Pellegrini et al. 2017). In Mongolia fire silvicultural measures. In the forested frequency and intensity drive processes regions, local administration pays special affecting tree species composition and attention to firefighting capacities. Finally, competition. Recent results from the restoration of forests after fire and other western Khentii Mountains indicate that large scale disturbances is of special fire intensity and frequency may control importance (Danilin and Tsogt 2012; competition between thick-barked light 2014), which is part of another chapter. coniferous trees and thin-barked birch; thus, the fire regime drives interspecific competition to some degree (Gradel et al. 2017b). Insects are an important part of healthy forest ecosystems. However, insect Beside intensive logging, fires are infestations often exacerbate previous considered to be the main cause for the damage (e.g. from fire) and are not recent compositional shift from one uncommon in the boreal forests of tree species to another. In Mongolia and northern Asia. Droughts and general neighboring regions, this shift is often from forest degradation increase the frequency coniferous to deciduous forests (Tikhonova and severity of insect infestations because et al. 2018; Gerelbaatar et al. 2019a). Birch they weaken the resilience of the affected often dominates after disturbances due forest stands. This does not necessarily to its sprouting ability (Otoda et al. 2013). need to lead to significant forest dieback, To prevent the dominance of birch, low- however (Kharuk and Antamoshkina intensity prescribed burning in birch-light 2017). Important herbivorous insects coniferous forests may help promote in the region are currently Lymantria the dominance of light coniferous trees dispar, jacobsoni, and Dendrolimus (Gradel et al. 2017b), which may have more superans sibiricus (Dulamsuren et al. 2010b; silvicultural value. Kondrashov et al. (2008) 2011; Gradel et al. 2017a). The invasive conclude that susceptibility to forest fires bark beetle (Polygraphus proximus) has is related to ground vegetation (mainly recently been found in the fir forests of grass fuel load), as is the resulting intensity neighboring Siberia, but it has yet to of those fires. Thus, measures should focus be observed in Mongolia (Kharuk et al. on suppressing the ignition of fires. 2017). However, official data show a clear increase in the area affected by insects With regard to suppression of an and diseases in recent years. But the area unintended fire outbreak, the intensity and where control measures are implemented magnitude are main parameter. During stagnates, as shown by recent statistic the active phase, weather conditions and data (MET (2017b). See Fig. 3. is a marginal habitat for trees, and small Mongolia On the onehand, northern forestbetween cover and hydrology. there are strong andbidirectional links Consequently, Mongolia. of Northern relatively wettest mountainregions limited water even inthe availability its highcontinentality, whichresults in Mongolia’s climate by ischaracterized resources management forestChallenge 3:Linking andwater damaged anddiseasedtrees. prevention andtheregular removal of Such optionsincludemore effective fire silviculture.development ofMongolian should therefore beconsidered inthe resilience offorest standsagainstpests infestations. Options for increasing the current trend ofincreasing insect the exacerbate will further warming 1985). Ongoing and projected climate surrounding airtemperature (Waggoner can berelated to threshold valuesofthe of eggsLymantria dispar,for example, ratesal. 2014;Gradeletal. 2017a).Survival (Dulamsuren etal. et 2011;Khishigjargal thesubsequentvegetation during period in thegrowth rate oflarch andbirch cover populationsisreflected oninsect positive effect snow ofabove-average higher mid-winter temperatures orthe tree growth. The of negative impact influence populations, also(further) they snow cover durationinfluenceinsect winterBecause temperatures and Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar yellow: overall forest area anddiseases. affected Green: by insects area where control Fig. 3. Total forest area affected Mongolia (2006-2016).Lightby pestsanddiseasesin measures have beenimplemented region’s et al. 2017a).forest cover (Karthe also contain asignificant amount of the and Weingartner 2004) which (Viviroli of discharge formed inmountain areas of theregions withthehighestproportion aglobalperspective, Central AsiaIn isone in lowlands prerequisite forensuringwater availability P Lessons learned in anintegrated way. should beconsidered andimplemented that forest and water management etal. 2018). meanJuřička These linkages et al. 2001; Kopp 2017; (Krasnoshhekov water availability on ground andsurface therefore to have likely profound impacts areas. Forest lossesintheseregions are systems are located inforested mountain the headwater zones ofallmajorriver hydrology –even more sobecause role forplays animportant theregional trees. On the other hand, forest cover itself profound changesonthepresence of infiltration into soils)areto have likely runoffandwater surface evaporation, degradation, changesintherates of the regional hydrology (e.g. permafrost not onlyinprecipitation butalsoin et al. 2008;2009). Therefore, any changes the dominant land cover (Dulamsuren forest, open stands of trees or steppe as thedifferencemake closedtaiga between regional differences inwater availability reservation ofthemountaintaiga isa Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

141 GES 03|2019 GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, SUSTAINABILITY 03 (12) 2019

Mongolia is no exception to this, and the agricultural land (Karthe et al. 2015; Priess four forested mountain regions of Khentii, et al. 2011; Tsogtbaatar 2004). Khangai, Khuvsgul and Altai are the sources of the country’s most important river Even though the relevance of mountain 03|2019 and lake systems, comprising amongst forests for the regional hydrology is not others the and Lake Khuvsgul in fully understood, a field study in a burnt Northern Mongolia, the Kherlen and Onon forest area in the eastern Kharaa river basin rivers in Eastern Mongolia, and the (Fig. 4) indicated that forest losses due to river and Valley of Great Lakes in Western forest fires have several hydrologically Mongolia. For the Selenga, which is in relevant implications: 142 GES terms of discharge the most important river system in Mongolia, forest cover in • mountain taiga, which typically covers different subbasins ranges from a few northerly exposed mountain slopes percent (e.g. 5% in the subbasin of the underlain with permafrost soil, plays a ) to about two thirds (e.g. 66% in key role for regional water availability the subbasin of the Eroo river) and even (Minderlein and Menzel 2015); forest more along some of its Russian tributaries losses are thus likely to reduce freshwater (Karthe et al. 2017b). At the scale of such availability in steppe areas further subbasins, contrasts become even more downstream; evident. For the Kharaa river system, for example, Menzel et al. (2011) showed that • the loss of shading and thick, insulating the specific runoff generated in forested organic layers contribute to permafrost mountainous headwater regions is about melt (Lange et al. 2015), which in turn two to four times higher than in steppe- modifies infiltration pattern (for which dominated regions. In this specific river permafrost acts as a natural barrier); basin, about two thirds of the total runoff is generated in those 20% of the catchment • losses of forest soils which typically that are covered by mountain forests have a high organic matter content and (Menzel et al. 2011). a high water retardation capacity lead to more pronounced hydrological extremes, Whereas the headwater regions are zones of particularly in case of stormwater flow surface runoff and groundwater formation, (Kopp et al. 2017). Mongolia’s major water users are the urban and industrial centers of , Degradation of floodplain forests affects and and the agricultural water quality and aquatic ecology and mining areas, many of which are located along the mid- and downstream Besides mountain taiga and forest steppe, sections of major rivers (Karthe et al. 2014; over vast parts of Mongolia riparian Kasimov et al. 2017). Rapid urbanization, floodplains constitute the only other a boom in mining and the intensification areas dominated by woody vegetation. of agriculture (and increasing irrigation) According to Minderlein and Menzel (2015), have led to an ongoing trend of rising they contribute to regional freshwater water consumption (Malsy et al. 2016; availability at least temporarily during the Park et al. 2017; Priess et al. 2011). In the rainy season, when precipitation exceeds end, this socio-economic development the site-specific evapotranspiration. Even depends on water resources generated more importantly, woody vegetation in further upstream in the headwater regions the floodplains plays an important role for of the major river systems which act as erosion prevention and the stabilization of ‘water towers’ (Menzel et al. 2011; Karthe river banks. This is particularly important et al. 2015). However, these ‘water towers’ for the dryland rivers of Northern Mongolia are under threat due to several pressures, where river bank erosion is the dominant including climate change, frequently source of fine sediment input into the river recurring forest fires, illegal logging and system (Theuring et al. 2015). the conversion of forest into pasture and Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Whereas dense shrubland (Fig. 5a)helps to anditsrelevance forriverbanks erosion. vegetatedbetween anddegraded 70 million.Figure 5illustrates thecontrast and isnow 60and atthelevel between 2011) andGelhaus million in2009(Maasri etal. 2015),44.5 million in1999(Rao have increased drastically, reaching 33 the 1990s, livestock numbersinMongolia pressure 2011).Since andGelhaus (Maasri and theirvegetation undergrowing Ariungerel 2012),butalsoputsriverbanks and degradation (Tuvshintogtokh causeofgrassland only animportant livestockIncreasing densities are not (А) Fig. 5.A) Natural floodplain Kharaa.to the vegetation around atributary Fig. 4.Locations offorest firesRiverKharaa inthe Basin, 2000-2012 Photo: André Künzelmann, UFZ.B)Cattle in theKharaa river the hyporheic interstitial, the ecologically ecologically the hyporheic interstitial, the be shown that the fine sediments clog from erosion. riverbank Moreover, itcould sediment loadspredominantly originate it couldbedemonstrated thatelevated fine techniques, fingerprinting isotope-based river system. Basedongeochemicaland ofhighlivestockimpacts densitiesonthe of Ulaanbaatar, for the isexemplary river,The basin of the Kharaa just north river system (Fig. 5b). lead to significant sediment-input into the densities andvegetation-free riverbanks prevent erosion, riverbank highlivestock (В) Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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highly relevant interface zone between rather poorly in the region, leading to surface and groundwater zones. considerable uncertainties about future Amongst other problems, this leads to trends (Malsy et al. 2013; Mannig et al. a reduced aquatic macroinvertebrate 2013; Bring et al. 2015). In Mongolia, 03|2019 biodiversity, which coincides with an temperatures have increased by more increased proportion of fine-sediment than 2K since the 1940s, leading to colonizers (Hartwig and Borchardt 2014). increasing evaporation rates (Karthe et From a management perspective, the al. 2015) and the thawing of permafrost stabilization of river banks (which is soils (Sharkhuu et al. 2007; Törnqvist et al. best achieved by the preservation and 2014). Even though some models predict 144 GES restoration of floodplain shrubland) is a slight increase in future precipitation, therefore a high priority (Hartwig et al. it is important to note that changes in 2016). rainfall pattern have been observed that are likely to be ecologically relevant. Climate has significant impacts on All over Mongolia, a transition from regional forest cover and hydrology stratiform (moderate but long-lasting) to convective (short but very intensive) For the regional hydrology, climate rainfall has been observed. Because change has both direct and indirect short and intensive rain showers tend to impacts. In the recent past, several streams create more surface runoff, they result in in North Mongolia have desiccated a reduced soil infiltration and therefore and runoff even in major rivers has plant water availability (Vandandorj et al. decreased (Angerer et al. 2008; Batimaa 2017). et al. 2008; Karthe et al. 2015). Since the observed and predicted temperature Challenge 4: Supporting forest rise is particularly marked for the winter regeneration against deforestation months, sublimation which already and degradation: Afforestation, equals about 80 % of the total snowfall reforestation, and underplanting may increase even further (Wimmer et al. 2009). Even though snowmelt Today, remote sensing and large-scale only contributes a small percentage of inventories support the monitoring of the annual water supply, reductions in deforestation on regional (Teusan 2018), snow water storage affect not only river national (MET 2016), or even global levels hydrographs (weaker spring floods) but (Hansen et al. 2013). Depending on the also plant water availability at the start source and methodology, the annual of the growing season (Hülsmann et reduction in Mongolian forest area in al. 2015; Menzel et al. 2011). Similarly, the first decade of the new millennium reductions in glaciation of Mongolia’s was reported to range between 0.21% high mountain zones are likely to and 0.7% (FAO 2011; Dorjsuren 2014). negatively impact future water availability The most important and recent baseline during the summer months. Even though data on boreal forest cover southern systematic studies of Mongolia’s glaciers saxaul forest area are provided by the are relatively rare, studies from the Altai national forest inventory (MET 2016). A (Kamp and Pan 2014) and the Tavan basic question for reforestation initiatives Bogd massif (Syromyatina et al. 2015) was to what extend the Mountain forest have shown a considerable shrinkage steppe is of natural origin or a product of glacier areas and volumes. Moreover, of nomadic pastoralism as touched by it has already been argued that climate Hilbig (2000). Studies showed that the change is also likely to have indirect mixture of open grassland and forests, effects on the regional hydrology by the Mountain forest steppe, with a range leading to changes in forest cover. of fluctuation over time, is predominantly of natural origin (Zhukov et al. 1978; Regarding precipitation, global Dulamsuren et al. 2005). climate models are known to perform substantially alter theirmorphological and pumila) growing areas inarid are ableto elm treesindigenous Siberian (Ulmus province. Park et al. (2016)found that as shown (2019)inBulgan by Ganchudur facilitate therestorationactivities ofland, and soiltreatments inreforestation adaptation. Appropriate speciesselection of andtheir planting materials and quality etal. 2010),site conditions,Batkhuu region, factors, suchasseedprovenance (seealso dependsonanumberof Species selection (Mühlenberg etal. 2006). livestock grazing, andwater shortages rates are dueto fire,that low survival study onreforestation found inMongolia 2017b). A et al. 2006;MET World Bank (Mühlenberg success around thecountry rehabilitation hashadrelatively limited since the 1970s,been practiced forest (see Fig. 6).Althoughreforestation has constantly over thelastfour decades since reforestation have efforts increased et al. 2008). This isespeciallynoteworthy (Kondrashov 25% for thewholecountry degraded forest land was estimated to be of a studyfinanced by GTZ,theproportion Hansen et al. 2014). In 2013; Khishigjargal 2004; 1990s (Tsogtbaatar 2010; Ykhanbai are sincethe decreasing, particularly composition, density, and stand health (see Fig. 6),forest ofspecies interms quality Despite increasing reforestation efforts Afforestation initiatives Lessons learned Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Fig. 6.Reforestation andafforestationMongolia between in 1980and2016(data source: (2017b) MET in the steppe-desert border region. in thesteppe-desert change andimproper landmanagement causedbydust andsandstorms climate sandmovement, and desertification, Belt” Programme with the goal of reducing initiated the National Mongolia “Green 2005,theGovernment of 2017b). In etal. 1971tobetween 2011(Batkhuu restored andsuccessfullyreforested hectares ofdegraded forests have been On anationallevel, over 19thousand 1960-2000. Tujyin Narswere during depleted sharply (Gerelbaatar etal. 2019b). The forests of in the Tujyin NarsSpecialProtected Area are pine plantations activities the Scots A successfulexampleofreforestation old seedlings(Gerelbaatar etal. 2019b). planted asmonocultures from two-year value.industrial species are Both usually readily available, andthemature trees have robust, seedlings areare also particularly recent decades. However, thesespecies and overexploitation placein hastaken where mostoftheforest timberharvesting provinces,Selenge, Bulgan,andKhentii in Mongolia. This is especially the case in used for boreal conifer forest rehabilitation larch (Larix sibirica Ledeb.) are commonly pine(PinusScots sylvestris L.)andSiberian increased.and water-use efficiency aridity, whileleafmassperunitarea unit area decreased withincreasing site Tree height, leaf size, and stomatal area per stress andincrease water conservation. physiological to avoid characteristics heat Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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Species were especially selected with Challenge 5: Managing the conservation respect to tolerance to drought, cold, and of nature, biodiversity, and wildlife salt (Batkhuu et al. 2017b). The most important criteria for 03|2019 Timing of reforestation conservation planning are diversity, naturalness, area size and rarity The effect of timing of reforestation (Spellerberg 1992). Compared to other success has recently been scrutinized biomes in the world boreal forests exhibit by Gerelbaatar et al. (2019b), who found rather low biodiversity per area unit, that the survival rate of seedlings in Scots but have a relatively high proportion of 146 GES pine plantations is a linear function of natural, untouched forest areas (Potapov the number of dry days (days with air et al. 2008). In northern Mongolia the humidity below 30%) during the common boreal forest biome transitions into the planting period in May. The same authors open steppe biome (Balandin et al. 2000). elaborated threshold values of air This creates a mosaic of different habitats. humidity for the dieback of planted Scots Therefore, several literature sources pine seedlings in the Selenge Aimag. value the biodiversity and naturalness of Survival rate and relative growth are also Northern Mongolian forests, especially of the main control parameters regarding the Mountain forest steppe (Dulamsuren et reforestation for combating desertification al. 2005; Mühlenberg 2012; Mühlenberg et in the frame of the above-mentioned al. 2012). The studies of Grubov (2001) and CCDASA initiative (Khaulenbek and Kang Dulamsuren (2004) provide an overview 2017). Gerelbaatar et al. (2018a; 2019b) of botany, species and plant communities recommended the development of in the taiga zone and mountain forest climate-resilient reforestation guidelines, steppe. First forest ecological descriptions and to test planting during autumn, and botanical studies of the Khangai and depending on site conditions possible Khentii regions were subject of several joint to consider also other tree species where Soviet-Mongolian biological expeditions possible. This includes also underplanting (e.g. Savin et al. 1983; Savin et al. 1988) and in degraded stands, which so far is not German - Mongolian cooperation (Hilbig happening. The spectrum of available tree and Mirkin 1983). species planting methods and conditions needs to be enlarged (Gerelbaatar et al. Lesson learned 2019b). High biodiversity in the Mountain forest Examples of natural reforestation after steppe stopping grazing Research at the German-Mongolian Although the overall trend in Mongolia research station Khonin Nuga showed is one of deforestation, there are some that biodiversity is especially high in the local examples of natural reforestation or Mountain forest steppe. Since the mid 90ies potentially even forest expansion. There researchers conducted comprehensive are places, where livestock grazing is the interdisciplinary field work in international only factor that keeps grasslands open. teams (Mühlenberg 2012), which lead Small-scale natural forest expansion has in some cases even to the validation of been reported following the reduction of new species for Mongolia or even new livestock pressure in valleys in the eastern to science (see for example Bayartogtokh Khentii Mountains (Hartwig 2007) and in (2000). It also provided comprehensive the Altansumber region, west of Darkhan basic descriptions and classification of (Gradel 2017). botanical description and of western Khentii Mountains (Dulamsuren 2004). The naturally fragmented Mountain forest steppe landscape (Dulamsuren et al 2005) is likely to also contain higher biodiversity. law on forests (MOLF 2015), forests are integration. According to the Mongolian approaches exist: segregation and objectives, basic two conservation With regard to realization offorest offorestApproaches conservation 2004). source for wildlife inautumn(Dulamsuren energythis tree speciesare animportant 2011; Mühlenberg etal. 2012). The nutsof for wildlife (Dulamsuren 2004;Oyunsanaa species withhighecological importance 2004). range (Dulamsuren Mountain Khentii andthe namely aroundKhuvsgul Lake main forest Mongolia, regions inNorthern is naturallyrare andlimited to thetwo Mühlenberg et al. 2012). Abiessibirica 2004; GradelandMühlenberg 2011; conifer ofdark foreststypes (Dulamsuren et al. 2003;Mühlenberg etal. 2004)and forestsare ofriparian especiallytypes (Bei valuable for differentreasons conservation Forest thatare mentioned as types often due to fire (Potapov impact etal. 2017). however, constantlydecreasing, especially forestcalled intact landscapes, whichis ofuntouched, so a considerableportion have Mountains still especially the Khentii 2008; 2017)indicated thatinMongolia (Potapovmapping andmonitoring etal. forest intact based worldwide landscape of fragmentation the remote sensing alteration, remoteness andthelevel relatedBased oncriteria to human Mongolia. can stillbefound inNorthern accessibility ‘untouched, natural’ forests Due to and itslow populationdensity are inMongolia. connected alsooften et al. 2016).Naturalnessandarea size relation ongloballevelproductivity (Liang recent conclusionsaboutadiversity- 2012), whichisincompliancewith of basalarea andvolume (Mühlenberg forests are alsomore productive interms 2011; Mühlenberg etal. 2012). These forest stands (Gradel and Mühlenberg taiga dark light taigaandundisturbed focusing onforest structureindisturbed forestsdisturbed asindicated by studies comparedbiodiversity to frequently forestsUndisturbed contain alsohigher Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Pinus sibirica ismentionedasa (Lindenmayer and Noss2005). Natural negative from an ecological viewpoint useful for other purposes, are considered such assalvage cutting, which may be management practices, al. 2012). Certain 2011;Mühlenberg andSchmidt et Meyer et al. 2004;Gradel andMühlenberg 2011; levelsetal. (Bei diversity 2003;Mühlenberg old-growth and even attributes typical consequently leadto highervalues of development undisturbed with longterm way, thathigherlater successionstages plays a role inthat history disturbance dead wood andthesuccession stage. The Stone Pine), theforest amountof type, trees sized of large species(especially (DBH> 50cm),certain number sufficient dimensionsofdeadwood, and certain depend ontheamountofoverall volume forest structure to aconsiderableextend oflife interms that diversity forms and scientific andbiological studiesindicated 2012; Gradel2017). The review of forest to somedegreepractices (Mühlenberg of ecological valuesinto management theintegrationsuggested considering Clear cuts are forbidden, but some authors form ofprotection oflarger naturalareas. remoteness canbeconsidered asbest large areas. pristine Mongolia very In production forests) allows to protect naturallandscapesand for conserving segregation (e.g. protected areas strictly forest area. The current approach of (often also recreation)functions inone Europe awidersetof andincorporates approach developed andappliedin term “multifunctional forestry” isanother coveredunit, often undertheumbrella and utilization)inonemanagement of different objectives (e.g. conservation forest 2016). area (MET The integration account for approximately 31%ofthe other forest areas alongrivers, for example) the localuseoffirewood andNTFPs, and areas, where limited for useispermitted cultural monumentsandlocalprotected and national parks, natural reserves forests protected areas, (suchasstrictly Protected America). Union, butalsoNorth (e.g.density of the former countries Soviet large forest areas andlow population forests, for with whichistypical countries divided into protection andproduction Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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regeneration was found to grow sufficiently species due to their rapid growth, wood in many closed forests (MET 2016) and in quality, and broad distribution in rather some regions, for example around Bugant, accessible areas. even after intensive logging activities and 03|2019 fires (Gradel 2017). However, successful Lessons Learned reforestation activities in Mongolia are active measure against degradation Management practices, including NTFP and desertification (Ganchudur 2019). collection In such cases native tree species and if possible local provenances should be Despite the increasing amount of 148 GES given priority. Gerelbaatar et al. (2018b) research concerning forest management compared ground vegetation in Scots in Mongolia, the literature review shows pine plantations of different age classes that current practices are largely deemed with natural stands and found that young inadequate. Oyunsanaa (2011), for plantations were most diverse in terms of example, doubts that Mongolian forests species diversity, but lacked certain typical have ever been subject to science- forest species. Recently in a preliminary based sustainable forest management. study Jamyansuren et al. (2018) identified Inadequate forest management is seed regions for the important tree frequently mentioned as a driver of forest species: 19 regions for Siberian larch, 12 degradation (UNREDD 2017; Government regions for Scots pine, 9 for Siberian pine, of Mongolia 2018; Khongor et al. 2018). 6 for Siberian fir and 9 for Siberian spruce. Although silvicultural guidelines are The same authors recommend that hardly implemented (Gerelbaatar et seeds from higher elevated mountainous al. 2019a), cutting often takes place regions should only be used in a range of nowadays as some kind of selective about 200-400 m of the original altitude. logging. Soum and Aimag authorities typically determine the amount of Challenge 6: Increased resource dead wood to be extracted during a utilization and demand in forested cleaning. The Ministry of Environment areas and Tourism finally sets an annual quota, which is implemented at the regional Various sources report a recent increase level (Sepp and Schüler 2016). In dark in forest resource utilization, especially taiga forests logging is largely prohibited. with respect to wood (Tsogtbaatar 2004; Dark coniferous grow also in higher and Hartwig 2007; UNREDD 2013), but NTFPs remote locations, which are more difficult are also shown to be under increased to reach (Gradel et al. 2018). pressure (Sepp and Schüler 2016). The extent, intensity, and frequency Commercial forests are managed by of logging-induced degradation is private logging companies or with greatest in the most accessible areas, considerable limitations also by forest especially in the vicinity of populated user groups (FUG), which represent a and developed regions. These areas are kind of community forestry. Logging largely dominated by light coniferous of living trees is carried out only by trees and now, increasingly, deciduous private companies holding special tree species (Gerelbaatar et al. 2019a). At logging licenses (Gradel and Petrow a regional level, the pressure on forest 2014). FUGs mostly conduct cleanings, products is greatest in the more densely collect fuelwood from dead trees and populated regions north of Ulaanbaatar, collect NTFPs (MET 2016). These are the especially in Selenge Aimag (Teusan most common forest products for local 2018). Local overuse is one of the reasons inhabitants of the forested regions; they why a particularly large number of forest are also collected by non-FUG members stands grow from birch-rich succession with the respective permissions. NTFP forests in this region. Scots pine and larch collection is especially practiced at the (Dugarzhav 1996) are the most preferred accessible edge of the forests (e.g. dog- 2010). pressure onforests isprojected (Ykhanbai increase intheutilization 2016). Afurther forest stands are over-aged actually (MET andalotof overdistributed thecountry However, the utilization is unregular 345,000and2millionm³.of between number includesanunlicensedlogging rangeof1 to 4millionm³.fluctuating This and Petrow (2014)estimated anannual ofadditionalsources,evaluation Gradel 2004; UNREDD2017).Basedonthe been largely uncontrolled (Tsogtbaatar the endoflastcentury, logging has m³ (FAO 2011).However, especiallysince 2010, thisnumberwasabout974,000 round For andsawn timberinMongolia. production offirewood andindustrial provided estimates oftheannuallegal tounlicensed due (illegal) logging. Since2000,theFAO has to obtain difficult widelyandareLogging datavary L bark. hit with huge hammers that destroy the damaging thestone pinetrees. Trees are ofpinenutsisseriously of collection 2014. However, theprevailing method increased by 2006and 600%between for price shelledpinenuts market world (2016),thea studybyandSchüler Sepp NTFP.the mostimportant According to Stone pine nutsare considered to be pine nuts, different andherbs. berries taigaareas,dark especiallyfor stone roses) or for in the remote longer trips Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar ogging –scale andpractices Fig. statistic timber through onlegallyharvested 7.Official forest cleaningbetween 2011 and 2014 (MET 2014) 2011 and2014 (MET protection againstillegallogging by of localforest users asaprerequisite for by FAO, GIZ),whichconsiderparticipation forest usergroups (e.g. asrecommended initiatives forestry and of participatory similartosomewhat thebasicassumptions logging inthearea around Bugant. This is withlocalpeopleto control illegal working successin atleastshort-term reported to prevent illegallogging. Teusan (2018) sourcesSome discusspotential measures 2018).Mongolia isnottaxedcollection (Government of and locals. For thisreason, fuelwood ofcleaningsby forestpart usergroups andonethatismostly activity secondary forest degradation. Rather, itisseenasa is not usually perceived as a driver of fuelwood. However, fuelwood collection whereas about81.2%is timber harvest, only ofcommercial(18.8%) iscomprised sources, official volume oftheharvest about afifth to According 2011 and2014. timber through forest cleanings between official statisticsonlegallyharvested Mongolian for 7 Fig. See 2014). (MET limbs the removal ofdeadtrees andfallen and sanitationcuttingsconsistsof 2018). Forest cleaningrefers to salvage Mongolia (Government of final harvests 4.6% results from thinning, and9.1%from of the and sanitationcutting. Anadditional 86.3% volume comesfrom cleaningharvest about sources, official from forest cleanings. According to timbercomes oftheharvested Most Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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externals (Gradel 2017). In other studies, measures related to fostering markets for about Siberian larch, Siberian Pine and certain products (e.g. charcoal from birch Scots Pine it has been shown that genetic thinning residuals and cleanings) may timber tracking with molecular markers create incentives for financing silvicultural 03|2019 is possible at regional scale and therefore practices that help promote continuous has been suggested as tool for clarifying cover forestry (Gradel 2017). To some illegal logging (Putintseva et al. 2018; degree, this may also shift current utilization Blanc-Jolivet et al. 2018). away from cutting conifer trees and larger diameters toward harvesting more Already in the second half of the 20th deciduous trees and trees with smaller 150 GES century, research trials for the evaluation diameters. This would help shift utilization of logging impact concluded that in to secondary growth succession forests, Mongolia the impact of selective logging thereby protecting the remaining old is ecologically more positive than clear- growth forests. The voluntary certification cutting (Savin et al. 1988). The short- of forest management and NTFPs may also term effects of thinning from below on promote a more sustainable utilization. individual tree growth was recently studied These processes are, however, only in in larch and birch stands near the steppe the initial stages in Mongolia; as yet, little border (Gradel et al. 2017c). The authors regional knowledge is available. found that the growth response of the remaining trees was significantly positive Other relevant forest utilization practices and directly related to the reduction of surrounding competitor trees. Interestingly, On a regional scale, the grazing of cattle even medium-aged trees also responded can be an important utilization factor (MET immediately with significant growth 2016). Grazing affects the contact zone increases. These results indicate that in between forest and steppe, but mainly terms of growth reaction and regeneration, plays a role in open forests (UNREDD low to medium intensity selective logging 2017) with sufficient grass cover. Grazing is regimes may be sustainable. The long-term reported to play a minor role in more closed effects of different logging intensities on forests (MET 2016). In the mountain forest soil capacity and regeneration in Mongolian steppe, dense grass layers are common Scots pine stands in were and may hinder forest regeneration also recently examined (Gerelbaatar et (Gradel 2017). Therefore, under certain al. 2019a). The final conclusion was that circumstances grazing could potentially low intensity (around 25% removal) and, even have a slightly positive impact, if to a lesser extent, even medium intensity timed properly and managed for the right (around 50% removal) selective logging intensity. On the other hand, grazing in triggered regeneration of the main conifer the forest area has most often an adverse species. The same authors showed that effect on the success of forest reproduction especially high intensity selective logging and forest establishment when cattle eat (around 75% removal) and clear cuts (100% or trample seedlings. While the effects removal) lead to significant decreases in of forest fires and logging are relatively regeneration (especially of the conifer clear, the introduction of livestock into species) and degradation of physical soil forest fringe areas is less well understood properties. However, physical and chemical in Mongolia. Nevertheless, there are many soil properties indicated that soil capacity examples that show, that increasing was best maintained without any logging livestock densities has an adverse effect at all. on the survival of young tree saplings and can totally stop successful forest Several authors (Benneckendorf 2011; regeneration (Khishigjargal 2013). There Schmidt-Corsitto 2014) call for the research are also examples of natural reforestation and design of improved instruments to after grazing was stopped (see challenge 4 promote sustainable forestry, e.g. regionally of this review). adapted silvicultural guidelines. Similarly, presented inFig. 8. forest ecosystem andthesocial system is of theinterdependencies the between Aschematicpresentationin Mongolia. andmanagementdecisions services influence theprovision ofecosystem 2018). Mongolia These drivers increasingly forest management(Government of drivesunsustainable rural poverty At thesametime,construction. increasing forests andagrowing demandfor wood for intheincreasingly accessible more activity and economicgrowth, allofwhich lead to include populationgrowth, urbanization, affecting forest management. Factors asanadditionalchallenge cultural context therefore considerthesocialandpolitical- 2018). (Government ofMongolia We to beindirectdriversofdeforestation and demographic are factors considered utilization pressures. Socio-economic adapting to climate changeandincreasing to increasingly lifestyles, urban aswell as traditional nomadicherding practices challenges oftransforming from currently faces the simultaneous Mongolia backgroundand political-cultural Challenge 7:Consideration ofthesocial logging. to thearea sizes affected by grazing or absolute relatively terms little, compared but thearea intheforested region isin issignificantThe where impact practiced, Finally, miningalsoaffects forest area. Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar Fig. 8. The interdependencies between managedforest ecosystems andthesocial system. systems Both are exposed to climate changeand otherdrivers ofchange (based onageneral figure from Locatelli etal. 2008) over forestry and the timber industry over andthetimberindustry forestry 2016).Sovereign and 1957(MET rights forest took 1956 placebetween inventory 2008). (Tsogtbaatar The firstnational in 1931,thefirst forest law waspassed of Economic Affairs, and in the Ministry division was 1924, thefirst formed forestry inthe1920s. ofMongolia In Republic People'sthe establishmentofSocialist onlytook sector placeafter of theforestry forest useregulations, institutionalization socialist period. Althoughthere were early institutions, however, the waslaidduring The background ofpresent-day forest 2007). 2005; Hartwig places for (Taube huntingandgathering 13 inthenationalepicfromas reported the forests were perceived asplacesofshelter, culturalidentity. Mongolian thiscontext, In pastoralism represents theorigin ofthe nomadic based, subsistence-oriented onecanargueMongolia, thatsteppe- regions (Filep andBichsel2018).For and neighboring ofMongolia identity have played adecisive role inthecultural forest steppe. steppe Both andforest form of nomadism in the steppe and economy waslivestock inthe farming time, thecore elementoftheMongolian isneeded. context historical For along faces, sector challenges theforestry some andthe social-politicalfactors between To better understand the relationship in Mongolia O verview offorest historicalverview background th , aswell century, as theSecret History Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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were consolidated during socialist times This ongoing transformation process of the in one ministry. Land and forest were law reflects, to a certain degree, perceived state-owned and the Mongolian timber needs, for example putting emphasis on industry was dominated by state-owned the protection function of forests. Over the 03|2019 enterprises and joint ventures with last two decades, forest policy has shown COMECON members (Council for Mutual the potential for development, such as Economic Assistance), in particular the when a reformed edition of the Forest USSR, but also Poland and Romania (Gradel Act was issued in 2007. Subsequently, and Petrow 2014). The peak of timber use a forestry agency was established that was achieved in the 1980s with a total of was later integrated into the Ministry of 152 GES sixty sawmills. According to Tsogtbaatar Environment as a forestry department. (2008), the total annual volume of timber This integration was suggested to give reached about 2.2 million m³. At that the forestry sector a new framework, to time, timber accounted for 4 to 14% of stop the progressive degradation of the national GDP (Bastian 2000), and several forest, and to bring order to the timber thousand people were employed in business. At regional and local levels, the wood combines (Ammann 2002). forestry has been re-established to some According to Ykhanbai (2010), the relative degree. However, the transfer of policy share of the forest industry in the GNP objectives, formulated for example in the was still about 4.1% in 1990, compared law on forests, into concrete objectives with only 0.26% in 2010. With the supply with related implementation guidelines and funding constraints and difficulties (e.g., guidelines for ecologically adapted faced by COMECON members, the silviculture) has not been sufficiently political changes in 1990 brought about realized yet. There is a gap between drastic changes in the Mongolian forestry policy frameworks, law reformation, and sector. Regional forestry units were actual implementation and monitoring. initially dissolved or integrated into more Benneckendorf (2011) emphasizes that general environmental authorities (Gradel there is still a need for policy adjustments and Petrow 2014), and a considerable and capacity buildup within the number of sawmill workers lost their jobs. administrative system. Especially at the Official annual logging fell significantly local level (soum forest unit), capacities for (Tsogtbaatar 2008) and unlicensed, illegal controlling proper implementation are still logging increased. lacking.

Lessons learned Some recent initiatives emphasize participatory forestry, especially with Bridging gaps between different regard to the establishment and training stakeholders, levels and hierarchies of forest user groups (Evans 2008). The introduction of rights and obligations Today, as in socialist times, woodland in the context of participatory forest remains exclusively in public ownership, management by forest user groups has while its utilization has been reformed been a particular reform approach used through various models. According in Mongolia. Since the new Forestry Act of to Saladyga et al. (2013), the greatest 2007, forest user groups (FUG/Nukhurlul), evidence for an anthropogenic fire regime which are mostly associations of local was found following the transition to a free nomads, can acquire usage rights within market economy during the early 1990s, the scope of approved management when land-use intensification near the plans. Usage is most often related to capital city of Ulaanbaatar took place. This firewood and NTFPs (Sepp and Schüler indicates the importance of considering 2016). Internationally funded projects increasingly socio-political aspects in have been tailored to facilitate further the transformation process of land-use reforms and capacity development of management. The Mongolian forest policy FUGs. The performance of user groups sector has been under constant reform. during a recent FAO project was largely faces numerous related and unrelated forestBecause management inMongolia level. the country uneven forest at managementintensity andbalance unemployment and poverty could also reduce rural and electricity) (e.g., timberenterprises private roads the establishment of infrastructure for leading universities in Ulaanbaatar, According from to national experts by the state (Gradel and Petrow 2014). companies underconcessionsacquired out by private continues to be carried wood ofindustrial harvesting official the However,creating incomeopportunities. by improving oreven and poverty water), andreducing ruralunemployment ecosystems (e.g., withregard to soiland ofthe enhancing theprotection functions onaregionalimpact scale, protecting and uneven management balancing thevery several objectives. These caninclude approaches, usually has participation different user group and community 2017). The involvement oflocals, e.g. with CCDASA andKang initiative (Khaulenbek also relevant withintheKorean-Mongolian areinitiatives for combatingdesertification development forcapacity agroforestry and effective. participation Community groups widely and is not always varies ofthese themanagementimpact practice, entities manageabout681,378ha.In whereasha inMongolia, forest 83private a total of1179FUGsmanage3,119,635 recent datapresented by UNREDD(2017), theirforestsecuring areas. According to aroleareas as plays just as important groups, areas to secure staking pasture the local population. For many forest user of the common interests of the state and onthebasis mechanism shouldfunction from illegalusers. fire andexternal This with dutiesto protect theforest areas, e.g. 2007). Local are usagerights combined personal ownership (e.g., seeLynam etal. group capacities, group identity, and on instrumentsthathelpto develop (Gradel 2017). This assessmentwasbased ofallgroup members the participation assessed through methods that involved Alexander Gradel, Gerelbaatar etal. Sukhbaatar CONCLUSIONS for theirvaluable comments. anonymousauthors thanktwo reviewers therevision. during for their support The University) Danilova (Manas and Aigerim Abdullaeva preparation andUgilkhon theinitialphaseofmanuscript during of (University Waikato) for theircomments andAnne University) Wecking (Dongguk We KyunPark thankDong national administrations. withlocalcommunities,work regional and backgrounds ofthetarget regions, and into account the specific socio-economic development and legislation need to take scales. At thesametime, capacity acrossworks disciplinesandatlandscape research, andrehabilitation isneededthat integrated development, forest capacity the hydrological regime. To achieve this, on especially withrespectto theimpact challenges to forest management, approaches thatconsiderthedifferent emphasize synergetic cross-sectoral recommend thatfuture initiatives arelogging practices used. We therefore only bemaintainedwhenlow-intensity example, butthisprotective can function for preventing thelossofpermafrost, for desertification. Forest cover isessential the hydrological balance and preventing forests play acrucialrole inmaintaining forest At the same time, distribution. limiting factor isthemostcritical availability where Mongolia water like in acountry supply, especially water sufficient requires offorests orre-establishment The survival a region are inmanifold connected ways. degradation. The forests andhydrology of of advancingclimate change andland urgent issueintheface is aparticularly vegetation cover andthewater balance the relationship Mongolia, between In utilized andguideactions. to setpriorities rather, synergies need to be identified and solved by focusing on a single topic; These complexproblems cannotbe based approaches are urgently needed. challenges, integrated andscientifically- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Forest M anagement In Mongolia ...

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